Crash Course in AP Test Prep

Chapters 47, 48,50, 51 and 52

Chapter 47

• Musculoskeletal systems– Types of Musculoskeletal systems– Creation of Bone– Joints– Muscle Contraction

Types of Musculoskeletal systems

• Hydrostatic Skeletons- use water pressure inside body wall to move– Earthworms, Jellyfish and squid

• Exoskeletons- Rigid outer covering, must be removed for growth to occur– Arthropods

• Endoskeleton- inside– Echinoderms and vertebrates

Bone

• Osteoblasts- form bone

• Osterocytes - a mature osteoblast

• Osteoclast- remove bone

• What is bone made of?• Collagen and hydroxyapatite• Why is the collagen important?

Joints

• Immovable- sutures that connect bones ie. In skull

• Movable– Slightly- between vertebrae– Freely-hinge and ball socket joints- usually

found in bodies appendages.

Muscle Contraction

• Myofibrils and myofilaments• A bands- only myofibrils• I bands- only myofilaments• H bands-over lapping thick and thin• Z line to z line distance between one

sacromere

Most basic cause of muscle contraction

• Myofibrils move because of hydrolysis of ATP• When relaxed bonds ATP• ATP hydrolyzed to form ADP and P- causes

activation• Bonds to Myosin binding site on Actin

fillament• ADP and P is released ATP binds and returns

Myosin head to relaxed state.

It’s not that simple

• Troponin and Tropomyosin

• Calciums Role

Chapter 48

• The Digestive System– Types of digestive systems– Mouth and Teeth– Esophagus and Stomach– Small intestine

• Liver and gall bladder and pancreas

– Large Intestine– Variations of the vertebrate digestive systems– Important Enzymes

Types of Digestive Systems

• Unicellular organisms lack digestive systems- why?

• Invertebrates such as cnidarians have digestive bags or tubes- no specialization

• One way digestive tracts- allow for specialization- started with nematodes and became more and more specialized from that point on.

Mouth and Teeth

• Allow for the breakdown of food.

• Some animals lack teeth so they have gizzards with rocks to break food -birds and earthworms.

• Types of teeth are based on diet

• Saliva is an enzyme that starts digestion of starch

Esophagus and Stomach

• Esophagus transports food o the stomach by peristalsis

• Stomach- holding station involved in the acidic breakdown of food– Containes gastric juices – Protein digestion begins (pepsin)– No significant digestion of fats and carbs

occur here

Small Intestine

• Most digestion occurs here• First part of the small intestine is the duodenum

then comes the jejunum and ileum.• Duodenum receives chyme form the stomach,

bicarbonate from the pancreas and bile from the liver and gallbladder

• Very high surface area villi and microvilli- why important?

• Blood carries products of digestion from the intestice to the liver via the hepatic portal vein- except for digested fats

Large intestine

• Very little digestion and only a small amount of water reabsorption occurs here

• Feces are stored here until deffication occurs.

• Other animals have cloaca that store digestive remnants as well as reproductive products

Variations in vertebrate Digestive systmes

• Ruminants- 4 chambered stomach and regurgitate and rechew food.

• Herbivores- have much larger cecum - may also eat their own poop

Important enzymes

• Salivary glands have amylase- breaks down starch and glycogen

• Stomach has pepsin- breaks down proteins• Pancreas has lipase for fats, Trypsin for

proteins Dnase for DNA and Rnase for RNA• Small Intestine has others that I am not going

to ask you about!

Other interestinc Stuff

• Leptin and Insulin Control of Appetite

• Essential Nutrients

Chapter 50 temperature, Osmotic Regulation, and the

Urinary System• 1. Regulating Body Temperature• 2. Endotherms vs Ectotherms• 3. Types of Osmoregulatore Organs across

the phyla• 4.Evolution of the Vertebrate kidney• 5.Nitrogenous Wastes• 6. The Mammalian Kidney• 7. Hormones and Osmoregulatory Functions

Mechanisms of Heat Transfer

• 1. Radiation- the transfer or heat by electromagnetic radiation- from hotter to colder. Does NOT require direct contact!

• 2. Conduction- Direct transfer of heat between two objects in contact

• 3. Convection- Transfer of heat by movement of gas or liquid

• 4. Evaporation- The amount of energy needed to change from a liquid to a gas phase– What do we know about the heat of vap of water and

why is this important?

Endotherms vs Ectotherms

• Endotherms regulate their body temperature internally

• Ectotherms use their environments to regulate their body temperatures

Ectotherms

• Have Lower metabolism. Need less calories. Why?

• Regulate body temperature via environment.

• Whales use countercurrent heat exchange- where their arterial blood warms the blood in the veins towards the outside of the body.

Endotherms

• Have much higher metabolism, and need a lot of calories- why?

• Body size and metebolic rate- mouse vs elephant

• In mammals our body temp is regulated by the hypothalamus- be able to describe mechanism

Endotherms

• Have much higher metabolism, and need a lot of calories- why?

• Body size and metebolic rate- mouse vs elephant

• In mammals our body temp is regulated by the hypothalamus- be able to describe mechanism

Osmoregulation across the phyla

• Flatworms- tubules called protonephridia- open only out

• Anelids- nephridia- open both in and out• Arthropoda- malpighian tubules which are

extensions of the digestive tract. Lets very little water our only waste products and feces.

• Vertebrates- kidney filters and reabsorbs important nutrients

Evolution of the vertebrate kidney

• Freshwater fish- must retain electrolytes and keep water out– Do NOT drink water and excreet a large

volume of dilute urine– Reabsorb ions across nephron tubules– Actively transport ions across their gills

Marine Bony Fish

• Water tends to want to leave their bodies because they are hypotonic to their environment– Drink large amounts of seawater

Cartilaginous Fish

• They do not drink seawater to become isotonic– They reabsorm urea from the nephron

tubules to maintain a very high blood urea level. This makes their solute level equal to that of their environment so water no longer wants to move in!

Amphibians and Freshwater Reptiles

• Produce bery dilut urine and compensate for their loss of Na+ by actively transporting Na+ across their skin from the sorrounding water.

Marine Reptiles

• They tend to lose water and take in salts– Like marine fish they drink seawater and

excrete isotonic urine– Many reptiles eliminate excess salt via salt

glands located near the nose or eye

Mammals and Birds

• Only vertebrates able to produce urine with a higher osmotic concentration then their body fluid– This enables them to retain water.– Degree of concentration depends on the length of

the loop of Henle (we will talk about this in about 3 minutes)

– Some marine birds cope with excess salt by secreting it from salt glands above the eyes.

Types of Nitrogenous Wastes

Functions of the Mammalian Kidney

• 1. Filtration

• 2. Reabsorption

• 3.Secretion

• 4. Excretion

Parts of the human renal system

The Nephron in a Kidney

Reabsorption of salt and water in the kidney

Loop of Henle• 1. Ascending limb is impermeable to water. Thick

ascending portion actively transports Na+ and Cl- passibley follows. In the thin ascending loop Na+ and Cl- move out by simple diffusion

• 2. The descending limb is permeable to water by not NaCl. Because of the gradient created by the ascending limb a concentration gradient is made causing water to flow out by diffusion

• 3. The longer the loop of henle the more interaction between the ascending and descending loop the more water and NaCl are able to be reabsorbed.

• 4.Vasa recta reabsorbs NaCl

So what makes its way out?

• Most NaCl and water is reabsorbed. As well as HCO3 and K+.

• H+ and some water is lost in urine . Therefore urine has a slightly acidic pH

Hormones Controlling Osmoregulatory functions.

• ADH- Stimulates reabsorption of water by the kidneys.

• Aldosterone- stimulates distal convoluted tubules and collecting ducts to reabsorb Na+– When blood flow is reduced renin is released,

which is then turned into angiotensin1 and then angiotensin 2. This then signals the release of aldosterone

• Atrial Natriuretic hormone- promotes the excretion of salt and water

Chapter 51 The immune system

• The three main lines of defense

• Antigens

• T Cells

• Antibodies in Medical Treatment and Diagnosis

• Pathogens

Three main lines of Defense

• First line of defense- Integumentary system

• The second Line of Defense- Nonspecific Immunity. Act to destroy al foreign invaders

• The third Line of Defense- Specific Immunity. Specifically identifies and removes cells identified as foreign.

Antigens

• Stimulate specific Immune Response• Foreign Invaders has antigens on their cell

surface (epitopes)• Antibodies recognize specific antigens and

attach to them to remove or destroy the invader.

• Out immune system acts more quickly on antigens that it has been exposed to previously

B Cells

• Respond to antigens by secreting antibodies or immunoglobins

T cells

• Do NOT secrete antibodies by instead directly attack ells that carry the specific antigen.

• Use MHC identification to identify the specific type of cell infected, when see what antigen is connected.

• Primary cause of transplant rejection

Why can’t we get blood transfusions from anyone?

• Antibodies and Antigens

• Ask me about Rh factor!

Cancer Treatment and Monoclonal Antibodies

• Can create antibodies that recognize specific antigens on cancer cells.

• T-cells can then be used to selectively destroy cancer cells.

HIV

• Kills T cells anc causes immunosuppression.

Chapter 52 The Reproductive System

• 1. Types of reproduction• 2.Internal vs External Fertilization• 3.Male Reproductive Organs• 4. Male Reproductive Hormones• 5. Female Reproductive Organs• 6. Hormonal Control of Female Reproductive

system• 7. Contraception

Types of Reproduction

• Asexual– Parthenogensis– Budding

• Sexual– Boy/girl– Hermaphroditism– Protogyny and Protodandry

Internal Fertilization

• Can lead to three strategies for development of offspring– Oviparity- After eggs are fertilized internally they

are deposited outside of the body to develop- birds some lizzards etc.

– Ovoviviparity- Fertilized eggs are maintained inside of the mothers body but still obtain all of their nutrients from the egg yolk. Many reptiles and some bony fish

– Viviparity- The young develop in the mother and get nutrients directly from the mothers blood

External Fertilization

• Males release sperm into water containing eggs

Testis

Hormonal Regulation of the Male Reproductive System

• FSH- Stimulates spermatogensis via Sertoli Cells

• LH- Stimulates secertion of testosterone by leydig cells

• Testosterone- Stimulates development and maintenance of maler secondary sexual characteristics, accessory sex organs, and spermatogensis

Female Reproductive System

Development of the ovarian follicle

• FSH and LH levels peak at ovulation

• Estradiol and progesterone maintain and regulate the endometrium during the secretory phase. A decline in the levels of these two hormones triggers menstration.

Female Reproductive Hormones

• FSH- stimulates growth of ovarian follicles and secretion of estradiol

• LH- stimulates ovulation conversion of ovaraan follicles into corpus luteum, and secretion of estradiol and progesterone by corpus luteum

• Estradiol- stimulates development and maintenance of female secondary sexual characteristics; prompts monthly preparation of uterus for pregnancy

• Progesterone- completes preparation of uterus for pregnance; helps maintain femal secondary sexual characteristics

• Oxytocin- stimulates contraction of uterus and milk ejection• Prolactin- stimulates milk production

Negative and Positive Feedback of Female

Hormones

Contraception

• Abstinence

• Condom/cervical caps/ diaphrams

• Foams creams jellies ets

• Implants

• Intectable contraceptive

• Oral

Questions On test

• 1. Describe the evolution of the skeletal system across the phyla.

• 2. Define Osteoblasts Osteoclasts and Osteocytes.

• 3. Describe in depth the method of muscle contraction.

• 4. Draw and label the parts of a sacromere.

Questions on the test cont’d

• 5. Describe the development of the digestive system across the phyla.

• 6. Trace the track of food through the human digestive system. Describe the actions of digestion found in each part of the digestive system.

• 7. Describe variations in the vertebrate digestive system.

• 8. Name and describe Enzymes that aid in digestion.

Questions on test 2.• 1.Name and describe the four mechanisms of heat

transfer.• 2. Differentiate between ectothems and

endotherms.• 3.Describe osmoregulatory organs across the

phyla.• 4. Describe the evolution of the vertebrate kidney.

Rouch on freshwater fish, marine fish, cartilaginous fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals.

• 5.Name the types of nitrogenous wastes and identify the animals that they come from.

Questions on test 2 cont’d

• 6. Draw and label the nepron. Showing where water and NaCl are moving.

• 7.Identify the roles of ADH, aldosterone, and atrial natriuretic hormone.

Test 3 Questions

• 1. Name and describe the lines of defense in the human Immune system.

• 2.Describe the action of Antigens.• 3. Differentiate between antibodies and T-

cells.• 4. Why can’t anyone accept blood from just

anyone else?• 5.How might we be able to use monoclonal

antibodies in cancer treatment?

Test 3 questions continued.

• 6.Why is HIV deadly?• 7.Describe some animal reproductive

strategies.• 8.Define Oviparity, ovoviviparity and

viviparity.• 9.Describe the hormonal interactions

between the testes and anterior pituitary.• 10 . Describe the hormonal regulation of the

human mentrual cycle.