Creative teacher empowerment in the asian context (2)

Creative Teacher Development / Empowerment in the Asian

Context

Paul Doyon (BA, MAT, MA)Mae Fah Luang University

Thai TESOL 2009Bangkok, ThailandAugust 9th, 2009

Synopsis of PresentationWhat is Empowerment?What is Development?Engagement and EmpowermentResponses to Control: Compliance and DefianceControl. Initiative. Shyness.Learned HelplessnessSelf-Efficacy TheoryReciprocityResistanceIntrinsic MotivationPsychoacademic NeedsThe Need for AutonomyGroupthinkSelf Efficacy & GroupthinkLevels of ConscientizationChange AgencyDemocracy in EducationPower To and Power With Versus Power OverThe Teacher as ProfessionalAction ResearchThe Experiential Learning CycleOptimal Teacher Development

What is Empowerment?

em·pow·er

- to invest with power, especially legal power or official authority.

- to equip or supply with an ability; enable

The Free Dictionary by Farlex


to empower is……to equip or supply with an ability; …to enable



Social Empowerment is a process by

which people reclaim their power, the

power to shape their own lives and to

influence the course of events around

them. They use their power against

oppression and exclusion, and for

participation, peace and human rights.

Julia Kraft, “Power-with, not “Power-over.” Peace News. June-August 2000. p. 35


Empowerment processes work on three levels, thepersonal (power within), the collective/group(power-with), the social (power in-relation-to-certainends, and power-against-certain-social forces).These levels are not separate. Personal power oftencomes from a sense of connectedness, ormembership of a group with like-minded people.


What is Development?

to develop is……to improve by expanding or

enlarging or refining;

…to pass by degrees to a different stage (especially a more advanced or mature stage);



to develop is - …to pass by degrees to a different

stage (especially a more advanced or mature stage);



Teacher development … usually refers to professional learning by teachers already engaged in professional practice, usually through reflective discussion sessions based on current classroom experience.

Penny Ur 1997 “Teacher Training and Teacher Development: A Useful Dichotomy?” The Language Teacher.

Development = Empowerment

TRAINING DEVELOPMENTImposed from "above“ Initiated by "self“Pre-determined course structure Structure determined through processNot based on personal experience Based on personal experienceExternally determined syllabus Syllabus determined by participants External evaluation Self-evaluationInput from "experts“ Input from participantsUnthinking acceptance of information Personal construction of

knowledge Cognitive, cerebral Cognitive and affective, "whole

person“ Isolated CollaborativeStresses professional skills Stresses personal developmentDisempowers individual teacher Empowers individual teacherEmpowers individual teacher


Engagement & Empowerment

If we look at very young children engagedengaged in the learning process, one thing most salient is the fact that it is a very empoweringempowering process for them. Every time they learn something new, it empowers them to do something more.We see the act of learning in itself as an empowering process as long as the student is engaged in the as the student is engaged in the learning processlearning process as an act of his or her own volitionown volition.However, when a child starts school, very often, something negative happens to this natural learning process -- what might be called a process of process of disempowermentdisempowerment.

Doyon (2002). “Enhancing Value Perception in the Japanese

EFL Classroom.” Asian EFL Journal.

The Response to Control: Defiance or Compliance?

To the extent that a behavior is not autonomousautonomous, it is controlledcontrolled, and there are two types of controlled behavior.

The first type is compliancecompliance, and it is compliance that authoritarian solutions hope to accomplish. Compliance means doing what you are told to do because you are told to do it….

The other response to control is defiancedefiance, which means you do the opposite of what you are expected to do just because you are expected to do it. Compliance and defiance exist in an unstable partnership representing the complementary responses to controlcontrol. Deci, 1995, Why We Do What We Do: Understanding Self-Motivation. NY, NY: Penguin Books.

Control. Initiative. Shyness.

Zimbardo (1981) defines shyness in depth as

a mental attitude that predisposes people to be extremely concerned about the social evaluation [italics added] of them by others. As such, it creates a keen sensitivity to cues of being rejected. There is a readiness to avoid people and situations that hold any potential for criticism of the shy person's appearance or conduct. It involves keeping a low profile by holding back from initiating [italics added] actions that might call attention to one's self. (p. 9)

Zimbardo, P. The Shy Child. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Control. Initiative. Shyness.

In A Way and Ways (1980), Earl Stevick strikinglyemploys the same terms of evaluation and initiative in describing the alienation felt by students in many EFL classrooms:

But the teacher's own urge to become "an object of primacy in a world of meaningful action" can lead her to carry any of these five legitimate functions to undesirable excess. Cognitive primacy may become an assertion of infallibility; the responsibility for structuring time may lead to a demand of omnipotence, and also to excessive defining of goals. Together, they are the principle ingredients of the evaluative manner that is so effective in stifling the initiative of students. [italics added] (p. 21)

Learned Helplessness

Learned Helplessness is “an apathetic attitude stemming from the conviction that one's actions do not have the power to affect one's situation” (Gale Encyclopedia of Psychology, 2001 p. 1). Dr. Martin Seligman, of the University of Pennsylvania, originally found that rats, upon repeated exposure to unavoidable electric shocks, became “unable to act in subsequent situations where avoidance or escape was possible” (p. 1). In extending these findings to the human population, Seligman found that one’s lack of control over his or her environment also undermines one’s “motivation to initiate [italics added] responses” (p. 1). Thus, students’ beliefs in their own powerlessness, not only undermine their ability to act in a learning situation, but also color how they perceive that learning situation.

Doyon (2002). “Enhancing Value Perception in the Japanese

EFL Classroom.” Asian EFL Journal.

Self-Efficacy Theory

A theory of situation-specific self-confidence that proposes that self-efficacy is fundamental to initiating certain behaviour necessary for competent performance. According to the theory, self-efficacy is enhanced by four factors: successful performances, vicarious experiences, verbal persuasion, and emotional arousal. Successful performance, which can be achieved by participatory modeling, is regarded as the most important factor.http://www.answers.com/topic/bandura-s-self-efficacy-theory

Reciprocity

“There is an emphasis on reciprocationreciprocation, that is, the importance of the learner reciprocatingreciprocating the intentions of the mediator or teacher. This means that the learner is ready and willing to carry out the task presented, and that there is an agreement as to what should be done” (Williams and Burden. 1997. Psychology for Language Teachers. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.)

Resistance!

From Talk A Lot, by David Martin

Intrinsic Motivation

Raffini (1996), an educational psychologist at the University of Wisconsin, defines intrinsic intrinsic motivationmotivation as:

“…choosing to do an activity for no compelling reason, beyond the satisfaction derived from the activity itself -- it’s what motivates us to do something when we don’t havedon’t have to do anything.”

150 Ways to Increase Motivation in the Classroom. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.

Psychoacademic Needs

Raffini (1996) goes on to state that intrinsic motivation is fueled by five psychoacademic needs:

The Need for Autonomy (e.g. Choices)The Need for Competence (e.g. Vygotsky’s ZPD)The Need for Belonging and Relatedness (e.g. Cooperative Learning)The Need for Self-Esteem / Dignity(e.g. Unconditional Positive Regard / Respect)The Need for Involvement and Enjoyment

150 Ways to Increase Motivation in the Classroom. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.

The Need for AutonomyIndividuals seek a quality of human functioning that has at its core the desire to determine their own behavior; they have an innate need to feel autonomous and to have control over their lives. This need for self-determination is satisfied when individuals are free to behave of their own volition – to behave in activities because they want to, not because they have to. At its core is the freedom to choose and have choices, rather than being forced or coerced to behave according to the desires of another. (Raffini, 1996, pp. 3-4)

GroupThink…is a type of thought exhibited by group members who try tominimize conflict and reach consensus without critically testing, analyzing, and evaluating ideas. Individual creativity, uniqueness, and independent thinking are lost in the pursuit of group cohesiveness, as are the advantages of reasonable balance inchoice and thought that might normally be obtained by making decisions as a group.[1] During groupthink, members of the group avoid promoting viewpoints outside the comfort zone of consensus thinking. A variety of motives for this may exist such as a desireto avoid being seen as foolish, or a desire to avoid embarrassing or angering other members of the group. Groupthink may cause groups to make hasty, irrational decisions, where individual doubts are set aside, for fear of upsetting the group’s balance.

Wikipedia: Groupthink. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Groupthink

Causes of GroupThink…Highly cohesive groups are much more likely to engage in groupthink, because their cohesiveness often correlates with unspoken understanding and the ability to work together with minimal explanations…

James Surowieckii warns against loss of the "cognitive diversity" that comes from having team members whose educational and occupational backgrounds differ. The closer group members are in outlook, the less likely they are to raise questions that might break their cohesion.

Group cohesion as the most important antecedent – but not absolutely necessary – to groupthink, and is promoted by the following:

Structural faults in the organization: insulation of the group, lack of tradition of impartial leadership, lack of norms requiring methodological procedures, homogeneity of members' social background and ideology. Provocative situational context: high stress from external threats, recent failures, excessive difficulties on the decision-making task, moral dilemmas.

Social psychologist Clark McCauley’s three conditions under which groupthink occurs:

Directive leadership. Homogeneity of members' social background and ideology. Isolation of the group from outside sources of information and analysis.

Wikipedia: Groupthink.http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Groupthink

Self Efficacy & GroupThinkSimilarly, low self efficacy amplifies Janis’s prior consideration of this factor. The one major shift is that the ubiquity model assumes that when combined, social identification, salient norms and low self efficacy are both necessary and sufficient to evoke “groupthink reactions.” Such reactions include Janis’s array of defective decision processes as well as suppressed dissent, selective focus on shared viewpoints, polarization of attitude and action and heightened confidence in such polarized views. Note that such elevated confidence will often evoke the feelings of in-group moral superiority and invulnerability alluded to by Janis.

Wikipedia: Groupthink.http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Groupthink

Levels of Conscientization(1) Intransitive Consciousness - the individual accepts reality, disbelieves personal change, shows passivity, has a limited sphere of apprehension;

(2) Transitive Naive - ingenuous: the person offers simple interpretation of social problems, presents weak arguments, is open to stimuli, is awakened to cause/effect relationships, is anguished about social situation; and

(3) Transitive Critical - the individual sees link between problems and reality, argues for social and political responsibility, is confident about reasoning through dialogue, has new attitudes toward the world, becomes involved in transformative action. Stromquist (1997: 225) Literacy for Citizenship

Change AgencyThe skills to be achieved were intended to help an individual function in the role of “change agent”. A change agent was thought to be instrumental in facilitating communication and useful feedback among participants. He was also to be a paragon who was aware of the need for change, could diagnose the problems involved, and could plan for change, implement the plans, and evaluate the results. To become an effective change agent, an understanding of the dynamics of groups was believed necessary.

Reid (1981: 153) Character Building to Social Treatment. The history of the use of groups in social work, Westpoint, Conn.: Greenwood Press. http://www.infed.org/thinkers/et-lewin.htm

Democracy in Education: Kurt Lewin and John Dewey

Democracy and groupsGordon W. Allport, in his introduction to Resolving Social Conflicts (Lewin 1948: xi) argues that there is striking kinship between the work of Kurt Lewin and that of John Dewey.Both agree that democracy must be learned anew in each generation, and that it is a far more difficult form of social structure to attain and to maintain than is autocracy. Both see the intimate dependence of democracy upon social science. Without knowledge of, and obedience to, the laws of human nature in group settings, democracy cannot succeed. And without freedom for research and theory as provided only in a democratic environment, social science will surely fail. Dewey, we might say, is the outstanding philosophical exponent of democracy, Lewin is its outstanding psychological exponent. More clearly than anyone else has he shown us in concrete, operational terms what it means to be a democratic leader, and to create democratic group structure.

http://www.infed.org/thinkers/et-lewin.htm

Democracy in Education: Leadership Styles

They looked to three classic group leadership models - democratic, autocratic and laissez-faire – and concluded that there was more originality, group-mindedness and friendliness in democratic groups. In contrast, there was more aggression, hostility, scapegoating and discontent in laissez-faire and autocratic groups (Reid 1981: 115)

http://www.infed.org/thinkers/et-lewin.htm

Democracy in Education: Effect on Children

There have been few experiences for me as impressive as seeing the expression in children’s faces change during the first day of autocracy. The friendly, open, and co-operative group, full of life, became within a short half-hour a rather apathetic looking gathering withoutwithout initiativeinitiative. The change from autocracy to democracy seemed to take somewhat more time than from democracy to autocracy. Autocracy is imposed upon the individual. Democracy he has to learn. (Lewin 1948: 82) http://www.infed.org/thinkers/et-lewin.htm

“Power with” & Power to” versus “Power Over”

This power is not “power-over”, or domination, but the power to be and to do, “power-with” others that can be used to changeoppressive or disempowering circumstances. This power standsagainst political repression, repression by institutions and also against the social patterns that pervade within society andwhich diminish the quality of peoples’ lives. Power and influencewithin society needs to be redistributed. As people becomeempowered they people a critical consciousness about theunequal distribution of goods, opportunities and knowledgewithin society, and how this social reality can be changed.Empowerment is also about locating our own resources,discovering what other resources are available, and learning touse them.


The Teacher As Professional

Teacher empowerment means that the teacher is seen as an autonomous professional, responsible for, and an authority on, professional learning and practice, rather than subordinate to external authority and expertise. The concept "professional" may be clarified by contrasting it with opposing ones such as "lay." "amateur." "technician." and "academic"


Action research

…is a reflective process of progressive problem solving led by individuals working with others in teams or as part of a "community of practice" to improve the way they address issues and solve problems. Action research can also be undertaken by larger organizations or institutions, assisted or guided by professional researchers, with the aim of improving their strategies, practices, and knowledge of the environments within which they practice. As designers and stakeholders, researchers work with others to propose a new course of action to help their community improve its work practices. Kurt Lewin, then a professor at MIT, first coined the term “action research” in about 1944, and it appears in his 1946 paper “Action Research and Minority Problems”. In that paper, he described action research as “a comparative research on the conditions and effects of various forms of social action and research leading to social action” that uses “a spiral of steps, each of which is composed of a circle of planning, action, and fact-finding about the result of the action”.

Wikipedia: Action Research – http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Action_research

The Experiential Learning Cycle

Concrete ExperienceExperience

Observationand ReflectionReflection

Formation of AbstractAbstractConceptsConcepts and Generalizations

Testing Implicationsof Concepts in NewSituations (ExperimentationExperimentation)

The Experiential Learning CycleThe Experiential Learning Cycle

Concrete Concrete ExperienceExperience

ReflectiveReflectiveObservationObservation

Formations of Formations of Abstract ConceptsAbstract Concepts& Generalizations& Generalizations

ActiveActiveExperimentationExperimentation

Artists,Artists,Musicians,Musicians,PsychologistsPsychologists

ScientistsScientistsEngineersEngineers

SociologistsSociologistsAnthropologistsAnthropologists

BusinesspeopleBusinesspeople

TeachersTeachers

FeelingFeelingPerceptionPerception

ApApprehensioprehensionn

ThinkingThinkingConceptionConception

ComComprehensionprehension

-pre

hen

sion

-pre

hen

sion

The prehension dimension refers to the way in which the individual grasps experience. This dimension can be seen as two modes of knowing, ranging from what Kolb calls grasping via “apprehension” to what he calls grasping via “comprehension.” Apprehension is instant intuitive knowledge without a need for rational inquiry or analytical confirmation. The other end of the dimension, grasping via comprehension, on the other hand, emphasizes the role of conscious learning, whereby comprehension introduces order and predictability to the flow of unconscious sensations. This dimension is thus concerned with the ways of grasping reality through the varying degrees of emphasis on unconscious and conscious learning.

(Kohonen, Experiential language learning: second language learning as cooperative learner education. 1992, p. 16)

Two Ways of Knowing: Two Ways of Knowing: Apprehension & ComprehensionApprehension & Comprehension

PraxisPraxis““reflection and action upon the world in reflection and action upon the world in

order to transform it.” order to transform it.” Paulo FreirePaulo Freire

PraxisPraxis ReflectionReflection(Verbalism)(Verbalism)

ActionAction(Activism)(Activism)

Models of Teacher Learning

One "way in" to this distinction which I have found helpful is to define it in terms of Wallace's (1991) three models of teacher learning: the applied science, craft, and reflective models. According to the applied science model, teachers learn to be teachers by being taught research-based theories, and then applying them in practice: The implication is that the most important professional knowledge is generalizable theory. The craft model means learning teaching in the way apprentices learn crafts like shoemaking or carpentry: The novice watches and imitates a master teacher, and obeys the latter's directions for improvement. Here the implication is that teaching is mainly a practical skill. Finally we have the reflection model, according to which teachers learn by reflecting on their own experience and applying what they have learned in order to develop their professional abilities further. Penny Ur 1997 “Teacher Training and Teacher Development: A Useful Dichotomy?” The Language Teacher.

Concrete Concrete ExperienceExperience

ReflectiveReflectiveObservationObservation

Abstract Abstract ConceptualizationConceptualization

ActiveActiveExperimentationExperimentation

Expert PracticeExpert PracticeAnecdote, etc.Anecdote, etc.

CriticalCriticalObservationObservation

Theories,Theories,Abstract ConceptsAbstract Concepts

Research,Research,ExperimentExperiment

Ur’s Optimal Teaching & Ur’s Optimal Teaching & Learning ModelLearning Model

(in the Vygotskian sense)(in the Vygotskian sense)

The LearnerThe Learner

The Outside WorldThe Outside World

…to learn only from oneself is limited: One needs also to take advantage of the enormous amount of … knowledge and expertise “out there” waiting to be tapped. Your own experience can be enriched by hearing, seeing, or reading about the experiences of others: your reflections on your own or other’s performance can be enriched by other people’s critical observations; you can discover some beautiful theories through reading the literature or listening to lecturers that help you understand what you are doing; you can supplement your own experimentation by finding out about the experiments of researchers. Such knowledge cannot be taken on board simply through reading or hearing about it. In order for it to function as real knowledge and not just as inert items of information, you need to process it through your own experience, reflection, conceptualization, and experimentation and to construct your own understanding of it. Penny Ur 1997 “Teacher Training and Teacher Development: A Useful Dichotomy?” The Language Teacher.

Optimal Teacher Development

The End

Thank you

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