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CRITICAL EVALUATION ON LANDSCAPE INSTITUTE (UK) CLAIMS FOR THE BENEFITS
OF GREEN INFRASTRUCTURE: A SYSTEMATIC REVIEW
Muhammad Anwar Bin Ramli MA Landscape Architecture
University of Sheffield LSC6140 Landscape Research Dissertation
Department of Landscape January 2011
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CRITICAL EVALUATION ON LANDSCAPE INSTITUTE (UK) CLAIMS FOR THE BENEFITS OF GREEN INFRASTRUCTURE:
A SYSTEMATIC REVIEW Content
Chapter 1: Introduction
1.1 Purpose Of The Review 1.2 Aim 1.3 Objectives
Chapter 2: Literature Review
2.1 Systematic Reviews 2.2 Benefits of Green Infrastructure
Chapter 3: Review Methodology
3.1 Setting up the Testable Statement and Related Keywords
3.2 Identifying The Scientific Evidence to Support Claims 3.3 Gap Analysis to Identify Deficient Evidence 3.4 Compilation of Summaries of Research Evidence
Chapter 4: Scientific Evidence and Analysis
4.1 Evaluation by Theme & Testable Statement 4.2 Gap Analysis
Chapter 5: Findings and Conclusion References
Acknowledgement
This research was carried out with the supervision and support of Professor Paul Selman from Department of Landscape, University of Sheffield.
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Abstract
Green Infrastructure (GI) has been recognised as a tool to combat climate change
and it provides social, economic and environmental benefits. In the United Kingdom,
GI is becoming a prominent task to the all levels of planning either in ministerial
level, regional or local development frameworks. This is reflected in various aspects
of national planning policy. The Landscape Institute of UK is a chartered
professional membership body of Landscape Architects who believes that
landscape practitioners are playing a key role in GI delivery in collaboration with
other professions. They have produced the position statement; ‘Green
Infrastructure: Connected and Multifunctional Landscapes’ to explain the potential of
many benefits GI can offer. Unfortunately there is a shortage of scientific evidence in
the position statement that led this research. Therefore, this research will review the
many benefits that GI can offer in the position statement and how the claims
become a verified statement. In order to do this research, the task is to test the
claims by searching the research evidence and analyzing them using gap analysis.
From there, the original statement will become the verified statement.
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Chapter 1
1. INTRODUCTION
Green Infrastructure (GI) has been recognised as a tool to combat climate
change and other environmental issues because of the benefits it generates.
Generally, it provides social, economic and environmental benefits. Green
infrastructure is not a new idea, but it is a new term and the concept evolved over
150 years from: (1) linking of parks and green spaces for the benefit of the people,
and (2) linking of the natural areas for the benefit of biodiversity and habitat
fragmentation (Benedict 2002, 13).
It can be defined as an ‘interconnected network of green space that
conserves natural ecosystem values and functions and provides associated benefits
to human populations’ (Benedict 2002, 12). While Natural England has defined
‘Green Infrastructure is a strategically planned and delivered network comprising the
broadest range of high quality green spaces and other environmental features. It
must be designed and managed as a multifunctional resource capable of delivering
those ecological services and quality of life benefits required by the communities it
serves and needed to underpin sustainability’.
The components of green infrastructure include parks and gardens, amenity
green space, natural and semi-natural urban green spaces, green corridors and
others (allotments, community gardens, city farms, cemeteries and churchyards). In
order to make green infrastructure functionally workable, it must be planned,
designed and managed properly to achieve a multifunctional and connected nature
underpinned by the concept of ecosystem services.
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`
In the United Kingdom, green infrastructure is becoming a prominent task to
the all levels of planning either in ministerial level, regional or local development
frameworks. This is reflected in various aspects of national planning policy such as:
Planning Policy Statement 1 (PPS1) – Delivering sustainable development (2005),
Planning and Climate Change – Supplement to PPS1 (2007) and PPS12 – Local
Spatial Planning (2008). Moreover, green infrastructure has been planned and
implementation is still in progress through out across the region. Most regions have
produced their own green infrastructure document to ensure planning, design and
management working together to achieve all the benefits expected.
The Landscape Institute of UK is a chartered professional membership body
of Landscape Architects who believes that landscape practitioners are playing a key
Park and gardens Amenity green space Natural and semi-natural urban green spaces
Green corridors Allotments
Community gardens
City farms
Cemeteries
Churchyards
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role in green infrastructure delivery in collaboration with other professions. This will
ensure green infrastructure delivers the wide range of benefits and they have
produced the position statement; ‘Green Infrastructure: Connected and
Multifunctional Landscapes’ to explain the potential of many benefits GI can offer.
The next chapter (literature review) will explain the detail of the benefits claimed by
the Landscape Institute (Landscape Institute, 2009).
The Position Statement is designed to explain the many benefits of GI and
the policy objectives it can help achieve, demonstrate the critical role that landscape
practitioners have to play in the development of GI and it is also show how GI works.
From the observations made, there is a shortage of scientific evidence in the
benefits of GI claims by the Landscape Institute that led this research. Therefore,
this research will review the many benefits that GI can offer in the position statement
and how the claims become a verified statement. In order to do this, the whole
research will be based on the systematic review (type 2 – review based
dissertation).
1.1 Purpose Of The Review
The purpose of this systematic review is to evaluate and investigate
the research evidence of the Green Infrastructure benefits claim by the
Landscape Institute, UK. Thus, the review method will be based on the
academic literature review searching for research evidence of green
infrastructure benefits.
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1.2 Aim
The aim of this research is to test the claims about the benefits of
green infrastructure made in the Landscape Institute‘s Position Statement.
1.3 Objectives
The objectives of this study are:
to propose a set of ‗testable statements‘ regarding the benefit of
GI based on the LI publication;
by means of a systematic review, to identify three evidence-
based research papers in relation to each testable statement;
to identify where there are gaps in the evidence base to support
the claims; and
to summarise the evidence gathered in relation to each
statement.
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Chapter 2
2. LITERATURE REVIEW
In this chapter, there will be a literature on the systematic review and the
benefit of green infrastructure itself. The understanding of the systematic review and
how it is used in this research will be a main focus.
2.1 Systematic Reviews
In the last decade moves have been made to ensure that policy and
practice are firmly based on research evidence. The idea of using ‗what
works‘ suggests a move beyond ideology but, in reality, it has become a
powerful ideology in itself suggesting that government be based on
pragmatic responses even where this goes against political expediency or
financial constraints (Davies, Nutley, and Smith, 2000). Nevertheless, it
would seem that policy based on more and better evidence is no bad thing.
Indeed, social scientists have pushed for such responsiveness for decades.
Systematic reviews fall neatly into this growing movement and refer to
studies that try to answer a clear question by finding and describing all
published and, where possible, unpublished work on a topic.
Systematic reviews may be differentiated from literature reviews in
the social sciences. Such ‗narrative‘ reviews are often carried out with no
explicit search criteria, are not spatially and temporarily delimited and are
usually not carried out with the aim of being exhaustive. A further charge is
that such reviews are also selective in their presentation of evidence, though
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many social scientists would dispute these points. Being systematic does not
logically entail achieving comprehensive coverage; thus a further phase in
systematic review is the attempt to estimate coverage as well as quality.
Wikipedia has defined a ‗systematic review‘ as a literature review on
a single question that tries to identify, appraise, select and synthesize all
high quality research evidence relevant to that question. Systematic review is
not limited to medicine and is quite common in other science such as
psychology, educational research and sociology.
When used in contemporary literature, the term systematic refers to
‗methodological‘ or something ‗done or conceived according to a plan or
system‘. The term review is defined as ‗a general survey or assessment of a
subject or thing‘. A systematic review therefore could be defined as a
methodical assessment of a subject using a predetermined plan. In research
literature, a systematic review has been defined as a concise scientific
investigation, with pre–planned methods that summarise, appraise,
synthesise and communicate the results of multiple primary researches.
As a conclusion, we can summarise that the systematic review is a
systematic approach for assessment of a subject based on the
methodological sequences. In this study, the GI benefits claimed by The
Landscape Institute UK will become a subject for assessment.
2.2 Benefits of Green Infrastructure
The benefits of green infrastructure have been claimed by many
parties. Benedict and McMahon (2002) agree that the green infrastructure
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contributes to enrichment of habitat and biodiversity; maintenance of natural
landscape processes; cleaner air and water; increased recreational
opportunities; improved health; and better connection to nature and sense of
place. Green space also increases property values and can decrease the
costs of public infrastructure and services such as, flood control, water
treatment systems and storm water management.
In the UK, the Landscape Institute and others such as Natural
England and Commission for Architecture and Built Environment (CABE)
also agree the same benefits generated from having the green infrastructure
network. In the Landscape Institute Position Statement, it is emphasized on
the benefit of incorporating the planning, design and management to achieve
multifunctional nature of green infrastructure assets underpinned by the
ecosystem services. The benefits will be reinforced and enhanced by the
connectivity of these assets and include (Landscape Institute, 2009) :
i. Climate change adaptation
Even modest increases in tree canopy cover can significantly reduce
the urban heat island effect via evapotranspiration and shading, as
well as improving air quality, which often suffers because of higher
temperatures. Connectivity of GI via wildlife corridors is critical in
ensuring that biodiversity is safeguarded in the face of a changing
climate and green space can ameliorate surface water run-off to
reduce the risk of flooding.
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ii. Climate change mitigation
Well-designed and managed GI can encourage people to travel in a
more sustainable way, such as cycling and walking. In addition to
acting as carbon sinks, trees and landform can reduce energy use for
heating and cooling buildings by shading them in summer and
sheltering them in winter. A GI approach to planning can also
optimise the potential for efficient, decentralised, renewable energy,
improving local energy security, providing space for ground source
heating, hydroelectric power, biomass and wind power.
iii. Water management
GI is a good approach for managing flood risk. This can involve
placing sustainable drainage systems (SUDs) in developments to
attenuate surface water runoff and enhance biodiversity and
recreation. Agricultural land and wetlands can be used to store flood
water in areas where there is no risk to homes and commercial
buildings. GI can be used to manage coastal retreat as well as to
restore wetlands, enhancing carbon sequestration whilst providing
important wildlife habitat.
iv. Dealing with waste
GI assets can deal with waste in a sustainable way. A good example
of this is the use of reed beds which remove pollutants from water.
Historically, waste has been placed in landfill sites, which have then
been adapted for other GI functions, including wildlife habitats and
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leisure parks. Closed landfill sites are a legacy which could provide a
much greater range of functions if greater investment was made
available.
v. Food production
Creating space for food production through allotments and
community gardens and orchards, increases access to healthy food,
provides educational opportunities, contributes to food security and
reconnects communities with their local environment. Connecting
local communities with these assets via footpaths and cycle ways can
encourage this reconnection further.
vi. Biodiversity enhancement, corridors and linkages
The role of GI in providing wildlife habitat in both urban and rural
areas is well established, but taking a landscape-scale approach to
the planning, design and management of connected GI assets
provides the framework within which species migration can more
readily occur in response to environmental pressures such as climate
change.
vii. Recreation and health
As illustrated by all of the case studies in this position statement,
accessible GI provides important opportunities for informal and active
recreation. Ensuring that these assets are provided in close proximity
to people‘s homes, are maintained properly, and are designed with
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the needs of local communities in mind, is critical to their positive role
in public health and wellbeing.
viii. Economic values
Quality green space can have a major positive impact on land and
property markets, creating settings for investment and acting as a
catalyst for wider regeneration.
ix. Local distinctiveness
Well-designed and managed GI assets, particularly those that
engage local communities and which relate to landscape character
and heritage, can enhance local sense of place and foster community
spirit. They can be a catalyst for regeneration and stimulate
employment opportunities by attracting investment and tourism.
x. Education
As demonstrated by the River Ray Corridor and Ingrebourne Hill,
natural environments which are connected to local communities can
provide a range of educational opportunities and assist in
reconnecting society with the natural environment; a fundamental
prerequisite of living within environmental limits, and a cornerstone of
the Government‘s sustainable development strategy.
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xi. Stronger communities
GI can help in meeting a wide range of community needs. The spirit
of the GI approach means that social, environmental and economic
potential is considered and optimised. It can be a focus for
community participation through public management, as well as
providing opportunities for education, training, volunteering and
capacity building.
From the above statement, it‘s clearly shown that there are eleven
(11) aspects of GI benefits claimed by Landscape Institute of UK in the
position statement and it‘s covered all aspects. Unfortunately there is a lack
of the scientific evidence for each aspect and this research will explore into it.
While the Commission for Architecture and Built Environment (CABE)
focuses on the benefit of GI for residents and local communities in terms of
better quality of life, healthier residents, stronger local economy and
protection from climate change. The detail of the benefit quoted from CABE
website as below:
Table 2.1: The Benefit of GI Quoted by
Commission for Architecture and Built Environment (CABE)
Aspects Benefit Mechanism
Better quality of life Reduce crime. Natural surveillance of public spaces.
Boost-up community integration.
Green spaces for social events.
Attracting businesses. By ensuring attractive environmental surroundings.
Increasing house prices.
By increasing green spaces.
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Aspects Benefit Mechanism
Healthier Residents Reduce urban heat island effect.
Evaporative cooling.
Shading and providing corridors for cooler air to flow into urban areas as well as filtering polluted air.
Provide safe and highly accessible green routes.
Walking and cycling.
Reduce physical and mental problems.
Recreation using open space and nature.
Stronger Local Economy Increasing green space.
Lead to an increase in average house prices in an area.
Creating environmentally attractive surroundings.
Encourage businesses to relocate to a place.
Protection from Climate Change
Manage surface water runoff for flood prevention.
Storing tidal flood water to reduce flooding in estuaries.
Storing river flood water to reduce the risk of fluvial flooding.
Create cooler microclimates will reduce the need for cool buildings.
Providing shelter and protection in extreme weather.
Provide habitats, corridors and a more permeable landscape to help wildlife adapt to climate change.
Provide local recreation area to reduce travel.
Providing sustainable transport corridors to reduce carbon emissions from vehicles.
Supplying biomass or bio-fuels to directly replace fossil fuels.
Encourage sustainable construction materials by supplying timber.
Increasing local food production to reduce food miles.
Improving carbon sink and sequestration.
Higher Biodiversity Provides wildlife habitat
Creates green corridors Source: Adapted from CABE Website (http://www.cabe.org.uk/sustainable-places/green-infrastructure/benefits)
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Natural England believes that green Infrastructure can provide many
social, economic and environmental benefits close to where people live and
work including:
Table 2.2: The Benefit of GI Quoted by Natural England
Aspects Benefit
Social
Provide places for active and passive recreation
Improved health and well-being – lowering stress levels and providing opportunities for exercise
Economic Local food production - in allotments, gardens and
through agriculture
Environmental
Reserve and habitat for wildlife with access to nature for people
Climate change adaptation - for example flood alleviation and cooling urban heat islands
Environmental education
Source: Adapted from Natural England Website http://naturalengland.etraderstores.com/NaturalEnglandShop/NE176
In conclusion, there are many benefits of green infrastructure claimed
by various parties and this is a good sign of awareness of the existing
environmental issues that we are facing today. Based on the initiative from
the Landscape Institute and others, indirectly it will increase community
awareness to the environmental issues and also can educate people to act
with communities to battle the environmental issues such as climate change,
urban heat island, flooding and others.
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Chapter 3
3. REVIEW METHODOLOGY
3.1 Setting up the Testable Statement and Related Keywords
In order to review the benefits of GI claim by the Landscape Institute
of UK, it is vital to understand that this review will be undertaken as a review
based (Type 2) dissertation which is focused on academic or scientific
research evidence. The initial effort has been worked out by dividing the
benefit of GI (subject to evaluate) as a ‗theme to evaluate‘ and the ‗testable
statement‘ is formulate from the evaluate theme as the table 3.1 below.
Table 3.1: Formulation of Testable Statement
From the Theme to Evaluate
No Theme to Evaluate Testable Statement
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Climate Change Adaptation Even modest increases in tree canopy cover can significantly reduce the urban heat island effect via evapotranspiration and shading, as well as improving air quality, which often suffers because of higher temperatures. Connectivity of GI via wildlife corridors is critical in ensuring that biodiversity is safeguarded in the face of a changing climate and green space can ameliorate surface water run-off to reduce the risk of flooding.
1. Modest increases on tree canopy
cover can reduce urban heat island via evapotranspiration and shading, improving air quality.
2. Green space can ameliorate surface water run-off to reduce the risk of flooding.
3. Connectivity of GI via wildlife corridors is critical in ensuring that biodiversity is safeguarded (also mentioned in the other section)
Testable Statement 1 Modest increases on tree canopy cover can reduce urban heat island via evapotranspiration and shading, improving air quality. Keywords for search engine: Trees, urban heat island, vegetation, climate change adaptation, green infrastructure, urban green space.
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Testable Statement 2 Green space can ameliorate surface water run-off to reduce the risk of flooding. Keywords for search engine: Trees, green space, rainwater runoff, flood.
2
Climate Change Mitigation Well-designed and managed GI can encourage people to travel in a more sustainable way, such as cycling and walking. In addition to acting as carbon sinks, trees and landform can reduce energy use for heating and cooling buildings by shading them in summer and sheltering them in winter. A GI approach to planning can also optimise the potential for efficient, decentralised, renewable energy, improving local energy security, providing space for ground source heating, hydroelectric power, biomass and wind power.
3. Well designed and managed GI
can encourage cycling and walking.
4. Trees are carbon sinks. 5. Trees and landform can reduce
energy use for heating and cooling building.
6. GI approach to planning can optimise the potential for decentralised energy production.
Testable Statement 3 Well designed and managed GI can encourage cycling and walking. Keywords for search engine: Greenway movement, walking, cycling, active transport, landscape design. Testable Statement 4 Trees are carbon sinks. Keywords for search engine: Urban trees, benefits, vegetation, ecosystem service, trees, carbon sequestration, carbon sink.
Testable Statement 5 Trees and landform can reduce energy use for heating and cooling building. Keywords for search engine: Trees, Heat loss, Urban Heat Island (UHI), mitigation, shade trees, reduce energy
Testable Statement 6 GI approach to planning can optimise the potential for decentralised energy production. Keywords for search engine: Energy conservation, urban trees, renewable energy, wood fuel, micro generation
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3
Water Management GI is a good approach for managing flood risk. This can involve placing sustainable drainage systems (SUDs) in developments to attenuate surface water runoff and enhance biodiversity and recreation. Agricultural land and wetlands can be used to store flood water in areas where there is no risk to homes and commercial buildings. GI can be used to manage coastal retreat as well as to restore wetlands, enhancing carbon sequestration whilst providing important wildlife habitat.
7. Sustainable drainage systems (SUDs) can attenuate surface water runoff and enhance biodiversity and recreation.
8. GI can be used to manage coastal retreat, restore wetlands.
9. Wetlands are also carbon sinks.
Testable Statement 7 Sustainable drainage systems (SUDs) can attenuate surface water runoff and enhance biodiversity and recreation. Keywords for search engine: Sustainable drainage system, water runoff, biodiversity, greenway, recreation. Testable Statement 8 GI can be used to manage coastal retreat, restore wetlands. Keywords for search engine: Coastal retreat, wetland restoration, planning / manage coastal, manage retreat, coastal squeeze. Testable Statement 9 Wetlands are also carbon sinks. Keywords for search engine: Wetland, carbon sinks, carbon sequestration.
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Dealing With Waste GI assets can deal with waste in a sustainable way. A good example of this is the use of reed beds which remove pollutants from water. Historically, waste has been placed in landfill sites, which have then been adapted for other GI functions, including wildlife habitats and leisure parks. Closed landfill sites are a legacy which could provide a much greater range of functions if greater investment was made available.
10. Wider range of after uses on reclamation closed landfill sites.
11. Use of reed beds to remove water pollutants
Testable Statement 10 Effective reclamation of closed landfill site. Keywords for search engine: Closed landfill, biodiversity, woodland, recreation, education, tourism
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Testable Statement 11 Use of reed beds to remove water pollutants Keywords for search engine: Wetland, water pollution, water treatment, reed beds.
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Food Production Creating space for food production through allotments and community gardens and orchards, increases access to healthy food, provides educational opportunities, contributes to food security and reconnects communities with their local environment. Connecting local communities with these assets via footpaths and cycleways can encourage this reconnection further.
12. Space for food production through allotments will increase access to healthy food, provide educational opportunities and reconnect communities.
Testable Statement 12 Space for food production through allotments will increase access to healthy food, provide educational opportunities and reconnect communities. Keywords for search engine: Community garden, urban health, local participation
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Biodiversity Enhancement, Corridors And Linkages The role of GI in providing wildlife habitat in both urban and rural areas is well established, but taking a landscape-scale approach to the planning, design and management of connected GI assets provides the framework within which species migration can more readily occur in response to environmental pressures such as climate change.
13. Species migration – response to
climate change.
Testable Statement 13 Species migration – response to climate change. Keywords for search engine: Green space corridors, connectivity, species migration, greenway movement
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Recreation And Health As illustrated by all of the case studies in this position statement, accessible GI provides important opportunities for informal and active recreation. Ensuring that these assets are provided in close proximity to people‘s homes, are maintained properly,
14. Accessible GI provides
opportunities for informal and active recreation.
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and are designed with the needs of local communities in mind, is critical to their positive role in public health and wellbeing.
Testable Statement 14 Accessible GI provides opportunities for informal and active recreation. Keywords for search engine: Greenways, recreation, health, landscape health, landscape fitness, landscape wellbeing
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Economic Values Quality green space can have a major positive impact on land and property markets, creating settings for investment and acting as a catalyst for wider regeneration.
15. Quality green space – positive
impact on land and property markets.
16. Attract investment and tourism.
Testable Statement 15 Quality green space – positive impact on land and property markets Keywords for search engine: Greenways, property values, economic valuation, tree, water, open space
Testable Statement 16 Attract investment and tourism. Keywords for search engine: Green space, investment, green tourism, landscape, inward investment
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Local Distinctiveness Well-designed and managed GI assets, particularly those that engage local communities and which relate to landscape character and heritage, can enhance local sense of place and foster community spirit. They can be a catalyst for regeneration and stimulate employment opportunities by attracting investment and tourism.
17. Enhance local sense of place and foster community spirit.
Testable Statement 17 Enhance local sense of place and foster community spirit. Keywords for search engine: Community, landscape, sense of place, landscape character, local distinctiveness
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Education As demonstrated by the River Ray Corridor and Ingrebourne Hill, natural environments which are connected to local communities can provide a range of educational
18. GI provides range of educational opportunities.
19. Reconnecting society with natural environment.
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opportunities and assist in reconnecting society with the natural environment; a fundamental prerequisite of living within environmental limits, and a cornerstone of the Government‘s sustainable development strategy.
Testable Statement 18 GI provides range of educational opportunities. Keywords for search engine: Environment for play and development, education, recreation, landscape learning. Testable Statement 19 Reconnecting society with natural environment. Keywords for search engine: Ecological networks, connecting environment, social
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Stronger Communities GI can help in meeting a wide range of community needs. The spirit of the GI approach means that social, environmental and economic potential is considered and optimised. It can be a focus for community participation through public management, as well as providing opportunities for education, training, volunteering and capacity building.
20. Focus for community participations through public management.
Testable Statement 20 Focus for community participations through public management. Keywords for search engine: Community Participation, green community investment / engagement
After the entire ‗theme to evaluate‘ has been converted into the
‗testable statements‘, the suitable keywords will be identified from the
testable statement and from there, the appropriate scientific or research
evidence can be found from the search engine. In terms of searching the
suitable research evidence, familiar search engines such as Google Scholar
will be used and from there it will direct to another search engine for
academic purposes such as Scopus, ISI Web of Knowledge and Science
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Direct. The other resources are also available from publications, reports,
proceedings and conference papers.
The important part in searching the scientific evidence of Green
Infrastructure claims by the Landscape Institute is to understand the green
infrastructure assets because all these assets will determine the success of
the benefits it can generate.
3.2 Identify The Scientific Evidence to Support Claims
The next step is to identify at least three (3) or more scientific papers
or other research evidence for each testable statement to support the claims
(theme to evaluate). So, the next chapter will have the scientific evidence for
each testable statement and compile summaries of research abstracts (from
the research paper).
3.3 Gap Analysis to Identify Deficient Evidence
In this type of research, we cannot expect all the testable statements
should have the scientific evidence from the previous researcher. Maybe
there is lack of published evidence and we just can simply treat it as a claim,
and this is where the use of gap analysis is needed to identify areas where
the evidence is currently deficient.
3.4 Compilation of Summaries of Research Evidence
This is the last stage of this research where the entire claim will
become the verified statement after each claim filled by the gaps from the
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supporting scientific evidence. However, some of the testable statements
simply remains ‗claims‘ because they cannot yet be substantiated.
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Chapter 4
4. SCIENTIFIC EVIDENCE AND ANALYSIS
In this chapter, the research evidence will be found out from the academic
research papers based on the keywords generated on each ‗testable statement‘ for
each theme (GI benefit claim by LI) and these are useable for gap analysis.
4.1 Evaluation by Theme and Testable Statement
Theme 1: Climate Change Adaptation
Testable Statement 1: Modest increases on tree canopy cover can reduce
urban heat island (UHI) via evapotranspiration and shading, improving air
quality
The higher temperature in urban area is caused by the presence of hard
surfaces such as concrete and asphalt and the absence of greenery that would
otherwise help to cool the local atmosphere. The existence of buildings exacerbates
this issue. Cars and buildings also contribute to produce waste heat to the overall
effect of UHI.
Gill et al. (2007) found that if there is increasing green cover by 10% in urban
areas could keep extreme surface temperatures by 2.5°C by 2080s, despite climate
change. By removing 10% green cover would increase expected maximum surface
temperature by 7°C by the 2080s.
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While Solecki (2005) proved that urban vegetation can reduce health
hazards associated with the UHI effect by removing pollutants from the air. Planting
trees in urban area is an effective and economically efficient way to reduce energy
consumption at the sites. The effectiveness of UHI mitigation strategies
demonstrated that additional trees in neighbourhoods in and around Newark, UK
and Camden, UK will increase the amount of cooling energy saving.
Leonard (1972) found that the transpiration of a mature tree corresponds to a
refrigerator with a capacity of more than 150,000 thermal units/BTUs per day. A
large mature tree is able to transpire 450 litres of water per day. This enables it to
consume 1000 MJ of caloric energy in order to carry out the transpiration process,
thus lowering urban temperatures.
Akbari (2002) confirmed that urban tree planting can account for a 25%
reduction in net cooling and heating energy usage in urban landscapes. In hot
climates, deciduous trees shading a building can save cooling-energy use,
meanwhile in cold climates; evergreen trees shielding the building from the cold
winter wind can save heating-energy use.
Testable Statement 2: Green space can ameliorate surface water run-off to
reduce the risk of flooding
The same research done by Gill et al. (2007) also found that by adding 10%
green cover would reduce run-off from a 28mm rainfall event by 4.9% by the 2080s.
Reciprocally by adding 10% tree cover can reduce run-off from 28mm rainfall event
by 5.7% by 2080s. However, by adding green roofs to all the buildings in town
centres, retail and high-density residential areas significantly reduces run-off from
8% to14.1% by the 2080s for a 28 mm rainfall event.
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According to Mentens, et al. (2006) green roof (green space) can reduce
rainwater runoff. The application for the region of Brussels showed that extensive
roof greening on just 10% of the buildings would result in a runoff reduction of 2.7%
for the region and of 54% for the individual buildings. Green roofs can therefore be a
useful tool for reducing urban rainfall runoff.
Kolb (2004) reported that 45% of all rainfall can be recycled using the green
roofs. It may reduce runoff water by 60% to 100%, depending on the type of green
roof system.
Even though green roof systems retain storm water, runoff will still occur
after it becomes saturated. However, runoff is delayed because it takes time for the
green roof to become saturated and for the water to drain through the media. This
delay can prevent storm water sewer systems from overflowing, by allowing it to
process runoff for a longer time at a lower flow rate (Getter et al., 2006). Green roofs
can delay runoff between 95 min (Liu, 2003) and 4 hour (Moran et al., 2004),
compared with the reference roofs for which runoff was nearly instantaneous.
After runoff begins on a green roof system, the rate at which the rain leaves
the roof is slower than a non greened roof because of the nature of the green roof
components. Liu, 2003 found that when initial rainfall was 2.8 mm/h, runoff from the
green roof was reduced to 0.5 /hour. By slowing down the rate of runoff and turning
it out over a longer period of time, green roofs can help mitigate the erosion power
of runoff that does enter streams, either through direct runoff or storm sewers.
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Theme 2: Climate Change Mitigation
Testable Statement 3: Well designed and managed GI can encourage cycling
and walking
Pikora et al. (2003) performed the research on influence of the environment
to the physical activity whether walking or cycling in the neighbourhood area. A
physical environmental factor that may influence walking/cycling in the local
neighbourhood is functional, safety, aesthetic and destination. Based on the
interview result, the first reason for walking/cycling is factor is personal safety and
aesthetics is become the second reason. This is including the presence of trees,
garden, parks or views that encourage people to do so. This is where green
infrastructure elements can become an important factor for people to walking or
cycling.
Good design of the public open space (green infrastructure component) will
encourage physical activity in community that potentially contribute to the health of
local residents. Corti et al. (2005) examined the influence of attractiveness on the
use of public open space. 28.8% of the respondents using it for physical activity with
the increasing level of access are distance, attractiveness and size. 50% of the
respondents are attracted to the large public open space associated with the high
levels of walking (95% confidence level, 1.06 - 2.13). The study confirmed that
access to attractive large public open space is associated with higher levels of
walking or jogging.
Cervero et al. (2008) examines the influence of built environments on
walking and cycling with the example of Bogotá, Colombia. The city is well known as
sustainable urban transport systems. Ciclovı´a (‗‗cycleway‘‘) is the largest linear park
29
in the world located in this area are being used by the cyclist and pedestrian for
recreational purpose especially on Sundays and holidays. Surveys reveal around
half of Ciclovı´a users are on bicycle or roller-skate and the other half are on foot.
The influence of using this area was street design and for recreational activities,
having reserved lanes for bicycles and pedestrians reasonably close to one‘s
residence encouraged Ciclovı´a usage.
Parks and trails can promote physical activity. Killingworth et al. (2003)
revealed that a survey of U.S. adults using a park or walking and jogging trail, nearly
30% reported an increase in activity since they began using these facilities. This is
similar in a Missouri where 55.2% people using trails reported an increase walking
since they began using trails.
Testable Statement 4: Trees are carbon sinks
Under the Framework Convention on Climate Change, the Institute of
Terrestrial Ecology has been developing an inventory of carbon in the vegetation
and soils of Great Britain (GB). Milne and Brown, (1997) discover the total amount of
carbon held by vegetation is estimated to be 114 Mtonnes. Woodlands and forests
hold 80% of the GB total although they occupy only about 11% of the rural land
area. Broadleaf species hold about 50% of the carbon in woodlands and forests.
The predominant location of vegetation carbon is the broadleaved woodlands of
southern England while the amount of carbon in the soils of GB is estimated to be
9838 Mt (6948 Mt in Scotland and 2890 Mt in England and Wales). In Scotland,
most soil carbon is in blanket peats, whereas most soil carbon is in stagnogley soils
in England and Wales. Scottish peat soils have the greatest density of carbon and in
total contain 4523 Mt of carbon, 46% of the GB total.
30
It is estimated that the urban trees in Syracuse store some 163,500 tons of
carbon and have an annual carbon uptake of 3,870 tons/yr . As CO2 is an important
greenhouse gas that contributes to global warming, the value of the effect of urban
forests on carbon is estimated at $3 million for storage and $71,500/yr for uptake.
(Nowak et al. 2001)
Urban vegetation is increasingly recognized as an alternative ameliorative
method by removing some pollutants mainly through dry deposition process. Jim
(2008) examined the capability and monetary value of the ecosystem service in
Guangzhou city in South China. The annual removal of SO2, NO2 and total
suspended particulates at about 312.03 Mg, and the benefits were valued at
RMB90.19 thousand (US$1.00 ¼ RMB8.26). More removal was realized by
recreational land use due to a higher tree cover. Higher concentration of pollutants
in the dry winter months induced more removal.
Birdsay et al. (1993) reported that since 1952, carbon stored on US
woodland has increased by 38% (8.8x1015g), primarily in the East. This increase is
consistent with recently reported trends in Europe and accounts for as much as 21%
of a hypothesized carbon sink in Northern temperate forests.
Testable Statement 5: Trees and landform can reduce energy use for heating
and cooling building.
Trees and cool roofs that shade buildings also reduce the amount of solar
energy that enters building and help to reduce summer air conditioning loads. This
saves mainly electricity and of course money. The analysis by Rosenfeld et al.
(1996) in Los Angeles (LA) show that a ―cool communities‖ strategy (shade trees)
can directly lower the annual air conditioning bills in LA by about $100 million (M),
31
cooling the air (saving indirectly $70M more in air conditioning) and help to reduce
smog by 10% (worth another $360M) for a total savings of about $0.5 billion per
year.
It was reported in a study conducted by Spronken-Smith et al. (2000) that
parks could help control temperatures through an evaporation of more than 300% as
compared to its surrounding.
Urban trees and high-albedo surfaces can offset or reverse the heat-island
effect. Mitigation of urban heat islands can potentially reduce national energy use in
air conditioning by 20% and save over $10B per year in energy use and
improvement in urban air quality. This amounts to 40 TWh/year saving worth over
$4B per year by 2015, in cooling-electricity savings along. (Akbari, Pomerantz &
Taha, 2001)
Kikegawa et al. (2005) make conclusions based on simulation of cooling
energy saving and suggested that reduction in the air-conditioning anthropogenic
heat can be the most effective measure in office buildings‘ canopies and vegetation
increase on the side walls of buildings. This could decrease in near-ground summer
air temperature of 0.2 – 1.20C. Indirectly this decrease could result in the buildings‘
cooling energy-savings of 4 – 40%.
Testable Statement 6: Green infrastructure approach to planning can optimise
the potential for decentralised energy production
There is not much research evidence found for this testable statement.
32
However, Alanne and Saari (2004) suggested a new trend of distributed
energy generation which means that energy conversion units are situated close to
energy consumers. A distributed energy system is an efficient, reliable and
environmental friendly compare to the traditional way. They conclude that a
distributed energy system is a good option with respect to sustainable development
in the long run. Distributed energy generation aims at utilizing local fuels like
biomass and establishing local fuel storage.
Recently, South Yorkshire Forest Partnership introduces South Yorkshire
Woodfuel Program as a renewable energy generation from wood or biomass. It is
one of a number of alternative energy sources that can significantly reduce the
amount of harmful emissions that are released into the atmosphere. Wood is a
renewable fuel, and growing trees take up carbon dioxide as they grow, so burning
wood is far more sustainable and overall contributes some 90% less CO2 emissions,
than burning fossil fuels. Since heating consumes most of the energy used in
buildings, the introduction of low carbon fuels for heating will reduce the contribution
this has on climate change. Woodchip can also be a cheaper fuel than traditional
fossil-based resources such as oil or LPG. Woodfuel can be burned to generate
heat or electricity and is an important part of the UK‘s renewable energy supply. It is
a sustainable, low carbon, source of energy that is produced from managed woods,
where felled trees are replanted.
Theme 3: Water Management
Testable Statement 7: Sustainable drainage systems (SUDs) can attenuate
surface water runoff and enhance biodiversity and recreation
There is not much research evidence found for this testable statement.
33
Boller (2004) introduces a new technique for urban stormwater management
to ensure it can functional such as retention, contaminant barrier, infiltration or direct
discharge. Surface runoff in open channels, small creeks, ponds, reed beds and
other planted systems can be considered as elements of landscaping. It is
suggested that the structures for stormwater handling are integrated into local
landscaping in the surrounding of buildings such as ponds, reed-beds, ditches, etc.
creating attractive blue-green environments.
Broadhead and Jones (2010) recommend that flood risk management can be
done through restoration of natural systems. This is important for habitat creation
and biodiversity enrichment by integrating flood risk and biodiversity in river and
floodplain management. To achieve this, it should be extended to other community-
led benefits such as soil health, renewable energy, recreation and fishing.
Springhill Cohousing, Stroud, UK. High density housing on a steep site, yet SuDS proliferates here; rills and swales collect and store rain water, while benefiting biodiversity
(Robert Bray Associates)
34
Testable Statement 8: GI can be used to manage coastal retreat, restore
wetlands
According to Maddrell (1995), recycling shingle has been used for a beach
protection was unique and it is applied for Dungeness Nuclear Power Station to
protect it from erosion by beach feeding. The beach feeding scheme has operated
for 29 years and it is suitable to manage coastal area of Dungeness and protect this
area from flooding, damage to the station and has small adverse environmental
impacts. The concept of coastal retreat significantly reducing the quantities of
recharge shingle required.
Hsieh et al. (2004) explore the establishment of wetlands conservation
greenway. It will connect the various types of wetlands to form a conservation
greenway in Changhua County Coast, Taiwan. Three (3) different types of wetland
management areas are recognized: (1) protected areas, (2) ecological parks (for
sustainable use), and (3) restoration areas.
The wetlands conservation greenway along the west coast of Taiwan.
A wetlands conservation greenway on the Changhua County coast, Taiwan.
35
Henry and Amoros (1974) recognized ecological restoration as a discipline
that should be conducted scientifically and rigorously to increase success and self-
sustainability of restored ecosystems. Thus for future restoration projects should
follow these following steps: (1) increase restoration legitimacy with a team of
interdisciplinary scientists working on the project; (2) must have a precise restoration
missions, goal and objectives; (3) monitoring ecosystem changes (before and after
restoration).
Testable Statement 9: Wetlands are also carbon sinks
Wetlands are important in global carbon dynamics because of their large soil
carbon pools, high methane (CH4) emissions, and potential for carbon sequestration
in peat formation, sediment deposition and plant biomass.
Euliss Jr. (2006) evaluated the potential carbon sinks of wetlands restoration
in North America. It is estimated to sequester 378 Tg of organic carbon over a 10-
year period. It also can sequester over twice the organic carbon as no-till cropland
on only about 17% of the total land area in the North America. This research also
estimated the wetland restoration to offset 2.4% of the annual fossil CO2 emission
for North America in 1990 was 1.6 Pg C.
Twllley et al., (1992) revealed that the global storage of carbon (C) in
mangrove biomass is estimated at 4.03 Pg C; and 70% of this C occurs in coastal
margins from 0 ° to 10 ° latitude.
Meanwhile, according to Chmura et al., (2003) mangrove swamps and salt
marshes (wetlands) store at least 44.6 Tg C yr-1, and it release negligible amounts of
greenhouse gases and store more carbon per unit area.
36
Theme 4: Dealing With Waste
Testable Statement 10: Effective reclamation of closed landfill site
Aplet and Conn (1997) examined the successful conversion of landfill sites
for parks or other beneficial land uses in Los Angeles County, California. The uses
of completed landfills as golf course are golf courses, parks, playgrounds and ball
fields, botanical gardens, residential and industrial development, and others (parking
areas, airport runways and goods-transfer yards).
Simmons (1999) revealed a technique for restoration of landfill sites for
ecological diversity of both rural and semi-urban locations and improving their visual
appearance. The appropriate techniques for restoration for ecological diversity is
important and it must consider the combination of intervention followed by natural
progression, unless a particular habitat type needs to be established. The timing of
restoration works must take post-closure operational and environmental protection
works into account to minimize conflicts and wasted effort.
Brownfield land is used for waste disposal and closed landfills within
‗community forest‘ in England account for some 3,000 hectares. Tree planting and
reclamation of the brownfield land can meet the target of converting the landscape
from 4 to 12% woodland cover in period of 30 years. Dickinson et al. (2004) found
that closed landfill sites can be successfully restored to community forest with
selected species such as F. Excelsior, Q. Petraea, M. Sylcestris, S. Aucuparia, A.
Pseudoplatanus, C. Monogyna, A. Glutinosa, P. Padus and P. Spinosa.
37
Testable Statement 11: Use of reed beds to remove water pollutants
Gersberg et al. (1986) investigated the role of each of three higher aquatic
plant types, Scirpus validus (bulrush), Phragmites communis (common reed) and
Typha latifola (cattail), in the removal of nitrogen, biochemical oxygen demand
(BOD) and total suspended solids (TSS) from primary municipal wastewaters using
artificial wetlands. The bulrushes and reeds proved to be superior at removing
ammonia (1.4 mg 1-1 for the bulrush bed and 5.3 mg 1-1 for the reed bed). The high
ammonia-N (and total N) removal efficiencies shown by the bulrush and reed beds
are attributed to the ability of these plants to translocation O2 from the shoots to the
roots. The oxidized rhizosphere so formed stimulates sequential nitrification-
denitrification. Similarly BOD removal efficiencies were highest in the bulrush and
reed beds, both with mean effluent BOD levels (5.3 and 22.2 mg 1-1, respectively).
Green and Upton (1994) proved that design and construction of reed beds
used for effluent polishing in UK. The majority of sewage treatment plants in UK are
designed to meet effluent quality standards of 45 mg/L total suspended solids (TSS)
and 25 mg/L biochemical oxygen demand (BOD5) on a 95 percentile basis. It is
cheaper in capital running costs than sand filters for population less than 2,000.
Nevertheless, Cooper and Green (1995) realized that after 10 year‘s
implementation of reed bed treatment system for sewage system in UK (since
1985), the problems has overcome with the use of gravel-based system because of
the difficulty experienced with over-land flow in soil systems. After that, reed bed
treatment system has been accepted in the UK as an appropriate solution for village
treatment and they are being installed widely.
38
Theme 5: Food Production
Testable Statement 12: Space for food production through allotments will
increase access to healthy food, provide educational opportunities and
reconnect communities
Martin and Marsden (1999) explore the re-emergence of urban food
production initiatives in the local authorities of England and Wales. From the
questionnaires to the local authorities, the perception that urban food production
strengthens communities was reiterated, with the majority of respondents stating
that community development was a main benefit of urban food production and a
major reason why local authorities believed they should become involved in
schemes.
Holland (2004) examined the community garden movement in the UK and
these are to be found in the inner city areas such as Bradford, Leeds, Bristol and
Sandwell. They are usually are open spaces managed and operated by members of
the local community for a variety of purposes: in conjunction with vegetation growing
(either as landscape or for consumption), some schemes are experimental
permaculture plots, others use organic methods and yet others are concerned with
health, education and training. All appear to be based in a sense of community, with
participation and involvement being particularly strong features.
Wakefield et al. (2007) investigated the health impacts of community
gardening in Toronto, Ontario through participant observation, focus groups and in-
depth interviews. Result suggested that community gardens were perceived by
gardeners to provide numerous health benefits including improved access to food,
39
nutrient, physical activity and improved mental health. The community gardens were
also seen to promote social health and community cohesion.
Theme 6: Biodiversity Enhancement, Corridors and Linkages
Testable Statement 13: Species migration – response to climate change
Fabos (1995) broad up the issues of greenway movement and its emergence
since it was initiated by Sir Frederick Law Olmsted in the US. Majority of greenways
fall into one of three categories and that the three types are; (1) Greenways of
ecologically significant corridors and natural systems, mostly along rivers, coastal
areas and ridgelines to maintain biodiversity and to provide for wildlife migration and
appropriate nature studies; (2) Recreational greenways; and (3) Greenways with
historical and cultural values to attract tourists and to provide recreational,
educational, scenic and economic benefits.
Gilbert (1998) conduct field experiments to test the idea that corridors can
reduce the rate of loss of species help to maintain species richness and minimized
the extinctions by establishing the corridors. The result is positive whereby
connecting patches of habitat with corridors did slow the rate of extinction of species
and preserving species richness for longer period of time than disconnected habitat
patches. This is because the habitat can migrate to the other area using the corridor.
It is true that the theory predicts that species richness can be maintained or at least
extinctions minimized by boosting rates of immigration through corridors.
MoÈrtberg and Wallentinus (2000) investigated if the remnants forest in the
city and green space corridors could support target species for conservation. The
findings can be used for developing guidelines for design of urban green space
40
corridors. The logistic regression models showed that important properties of
remnants of natural vegetation were large areas of forest on rich soils, together with
connectivity in the form of amounts of this habitat in the landscape. These properties
were associated with the green space corridors.
Theme 7: Recreation and Health
Testable Statement 14: Accessible GI provides opportunities for informal and
active recreation
Shafer et al., 2000, conducted a research on three greenway trails in Texas.
The research was based on the human ecosystem concept and was intended to
determine if and how such greenway facilities were contributing to quality of life and
how people might perceive such contributions based on the way they used the trail
(e.g. for transportation or recreation). The results indicated that most people used
greenway trails for recreation but that trails differed in user types and activities
based on location and policy. Users felt that these urban greenway trails were
contributing most to community quality of life through resident health/fitness, the
natural areas they provide, better land use and resident pride. They felt that they
contributed least to diversifying industry, business development and access to
shopping areas or public transportation.
Dunnett, et al. (2002) estimated that in the UK there are 27,000 urban parks,
covering 14% of cities and towns and adding up to a total of 143,000 hectares.
About 74% of adults agree that green spaces are important for their general health.
Kuppuswamy (2009) reviewed the relationship between exercise and open
green space and reported that green infrastructure will help the government reach
41
targets to increase levels of physical activity and to provide a significant economic
reason to maintain green space.
Theme 8: Economic Values
Testable Statement 15: Quality green space – positive impact on land and
property markets
Anderson and Cordell (1988) conducted a survey on sales of 844 singles
family dwellings in Athens, Georgia, USA. The results indicated that trees are
associated with a 3.5 - 4.5% increase in the selling price of single family dwellings.
During the study period (1978 – 1980), the average house sold at $38,100 and this
sales price increased due to the trees between $1475 and $1750. This result means
that when the housing area is associated with the green element, it will increase the
property value and have economic impacts on land.
Tyrväinen (1997) investigated study on how urban forest benefits are
capitalized in property (apartment) prices using hedonic pricing method. The result
indicated that urban forests are an appreciated environmental characteristic and
their benefits are reflected in the property prices. Proximity of watercourses and
urban forest areas had a positive influence on apartment price.
While Luttik (2000) performed the research about an attractive environment
is likely to influence house prices using hedonic pricing method. The biggest impact
in housing prices is environmental factors (up to 28%) for houses with a garden
facing water or connected to a sizeable lake. From the 3,000 house transaction in
Netherlands, the research demonstrated that a pleasant view can lead to a
considerable increase in house price, particularly if the house overlooks water
42
(8±10%) or open space (6±12%). It can conclude that, the analysis revealed
housing prices varies by the landscape type and an attractive landscape types were
shown to attract a premium of 5±12% over less attractive environmental settings.
Des Rosiers, et al. (2002) undertake study on effect of landscaping on house
values based on the field survey of 760 single-family homes at the Quebec Urban
Community. Findings suggest that the good trees cover in the visible surroundings
housing area give a positive price to the higher house value (raises a property‘s
value by nearly 4%).
Nicholls and Crompton (2005) proved that the effect of greenways on
surrounding residential property. By using the hedonic pricing method, the study
showed that greenways had significant positive impacts on properties sales prices.
Testable Statement 16: Attract investment and tourism
Lerner and Poole (1999) found that greening projects in the US tend to
reduce costs related to urban sprawl and infrastructure provision; attract investment,
raise property values and invigorate local economies; boost tourism; preserve
farmland; prevent flood damage; and safeguard environmental quality generally.
De Sousa (2003) conducted research on ―greening experience‖ in Toronto
where Brownfield sites is redeveloping in urban areas as a green space to bring
improvement to the environment. Brownfield sites have a great potential for
―greening‖ the city environments, through the implementation of parks, playgrounds,
trails, greenways, and other open spaces. Overall, the greening projects generated
new 614 hectares of green space in Toronto and it is involved former industrial area,
former railway corridor and properties contaminated by previous land filling and
43
waste disposal activities. Some of the famous site is Parliament Square, The Music
Garden, Woodbine Park, Beaches North, Colgate Park and Don Valley Brickworks.
All of the projects were carried out by the public sector, with the majority of sites
redeveloped by the municipal government‘s Parks Department and each one taking
from 3 to 5 years to complete. Over half of the sites were already owned by the city
or by some other level of government, while the remaining sites were privately
owned.
Dodds and Joppe (2010) examined how the Green Tourist Association in
Toronto, Canada, developed the concept of urban green tourism by developing the
‘Other Map of Toronto’ to highlight ‗green‘ activities including eco-businesses, green
spaces, galleries and heritage sites, natural food stores and sustainable
transportation. It‘s also provided features relating to environmental awareness. Short
paragraphs on the map also added a green perspective, addressing topics such as
natural history, environmental visits, green spaces and parklands, special garden
and tips on how to be a green tourist.
Theme 9: Local Distinctiveness
Testable Statement 17: Enhance local sense of place and foster community
spirit
There is not much research evidence found for this testable statement.
However, Mazlina & Ismail (2008) conducted a study on the roles of green
infrastructure network as social spaces for well-being of urban residents in Taiping,
a town in central Peninsular Malaysia. It‘s involved 32 respondents from the
residents. A large percentage of residents (91%) participated in recreational
44
activities with the greenery and open spaces allowing mobility and active living, thus
trigger many positive moods such as feeling serene, cheerful, relaxation, comfort
and restful. The physical experiences are associated with social interactions of
residents in the open spaces that stimulate community integration and
empowerment affording sense of harmony, bonding and attachment to the town.
The study suggests that the characteristics and experience of the green network
resulted in progressive physical, cognitive and social functioning of urban residents,
hence, offering well-being.
Meanwhile Ottmann, et al, (2010) interviewed the gardeners by visiting and
observing the Community Gardens in Bronx, New York City with 19 community
gardens and 32 gardeners in this study. It can conclude that the community
gardening can play a very important for the social reproduction of the community in
the Bronx, NY. The program is beneficial to the community for food production but
also as a place where gardeners and community ‗feel at home‘. Basically the garden
is help to promote a sense of place which is a focus for communities and as a centre
for community cultural and educational activities.
Theme 10: Education
Testable Statement 18: GI provides range of educational opportunities
DeLucio and Mugica (1994) considered that visiting national parks or other
ecologically valuable areas is positive in terms of environmental education. The
experience of the visit can contribute to improving the visitors‘ sensitivity and in
changing their preferences. It is the result of the comparison from the four Spanish
national parks from different types of visitor relating to their behaviour, expectations
and attitudes.
45
While Fjørtoft (2001) conducted an experimental study to a small group of
five to seven-year-old children in kindergartens in Telemark, Norway. The
experimental site was a small forest of 7.7 hectares of mixed woodland vegetation,
located closed to a kindergarten. The children were allowed to go at will, but they
will accompanied by adults in certain part. The children have some favourite places
in the forest so that they can climb the trees, hiding and role-play, climbing rocks.
From the result, there is strong relation between the structures of the landscape
(environment) and the impact on motor fitness in children. The motor fitness tests
showed a general tendency that the children using the forest as a playscape
performed better in motor skills than the children on the traditional playground.
At the international level, United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organization (UNESCO) Network of National Geoparks was established to preserve
geological heritage for future generations (conservation) and at the same time to
educate and teach the public about issues in geological landscapes and
environmental matters (education). There are about 25 National Geoparks (17
European an 8 Chinese) are members of the UNESCO Network until February 2004
(Eder and Patzak, 2004).
Testable Statement 19: Reconnecting society with natural environment
There is not much research evidence found for this testable statement.
However, we can see the evidence of Natural England‘s Access to Nature
grant scheme is aiming to encourage people to appreciate England‘s natural
environment and enjoy green spaces to those people who currently have little or no
contact with the natural environment. The scheme is about £25 million funded
through the Big Lottery Fund‘s Changing Spaces programme. The programme is
46
aiming for 1.7 million people from urban, rural and coastal communities to have
benefited from the grant that gives them the opportunity to experience and enjoy the
natural environment through variety of funded projects. The recipients of the grant
funding so far are Community Service Volunteers at country parks in Birmingham
with the grant value of £225,140.00. The project will establish ranger clubs in
primary schools and work with community groups. Visits to the wider countryside will
be organised where children will be able to learn about the work of countryside
rangers and undertake activities like guided walks/pond dipping.
Theme 11: Stronger Communities
Testable Statement 20: Focus for community participations through public
management
There is not much research evidence found for this testable statement.
4.2 Gap Analysis
Gap analysis has been identified in the early stage of the research to
become the analysis method for this research review. In that manner, to complete
the gap analysis, the table 4.1 below include verifiable evidence to produce verified
statement. By adding the scientific evidence to the statement (italic and bold font),
the statement is verified. Meanwhile, the other statement which is lack of scientific
evidence (verifiable evidence), it will remain as it before.
47
Table 4.1: Gap Analysis of the verifiable evidence to produce verified statement
Benefit of GI Claimed
by Landscape Institute
Testable
Statement
Verifiable
Evidence
Verified
Statement
1. Climate Change Adaptation
Even modest increases in tree canopy cover can significantly reduce the urban heat island
effect via evapotranspiration and shading, as well as improving air quality, which
often suffers because of higher temperatures. Connectivity of GI via wildlife corridors is critical in ensuring
that biodiversity is safeguarded in the face of a changing climate and green
space can ameliorate surface water run-off to reduce the risk of flooding.
1. Modest increases
on tree canopy
cover can reduce urban heat island via
evapotranspiration and shading, improving air
quality.
Increasing green cover by 10% in urban areas
could keep extreme surface temperatures by 2.5°C, however by
removing 10% of green cover would increase expected maximum
surface temperature by 7°C by the 2080s.
Urban tree planting can
account for a 25% reduction in net cooling in
urban landscapes.
Even modest increases in tree canopy cover can significantly
reduce the urban heat island effect via evapotranspiration and shading, as well as improving air quality
which often suffers because of higher temperatures. By increasing 10% green cover in urban areas
could keep extreme surface temperatures by 2.5°C, however by removing 10% of green cover would increase expected
maximum surface temperature by 7°C by the 2080s. Tree planting in urban area can account for a 25%
reduction in net cooling in urban landscapes.
Connectivity of GI via wildlife corridors is critical in ensuring that biodiversity is safeguarded in the
face of a changing climate and green space can ameliorate surface water run-off to reduce the risk of
flooding. By adding 10% tree cover can reduce run-off from 28mm rainfall event by 5.7% by 2080s.
2. Green space can ameliorate surface
water run-off to reduce the risk of flooding.
By adding 10% green
cover would reduce run-off from a 28mm rainfall event by 4.9% by the
2080s.
Reciprocally by adding
10% tree cover can reduce run-off from 28mm rainfall event by
5.7% by 2080s.
2. Climate Change Mitigation Well-designed and managed
GI can encourage people to travel in a more sustainable way, such as cycling and
walking. In addition to acting as carbon sinks, trees and landform can reduce energy use for heating and cooling
buildings by shading them in summer and sheltering them in winter. A GI approach to
planning can also optimise the potential for efficient, decentralised, renewable
energy, improving local energy security, providing space for ground source
heating, hydroelectric power, biomass and wind power.
3. Well designed and managed GI can encourage cycling
and walking.
The presence of trees, garden, parks or views that encourage people to
cycle and walk.
Access to attractive large
public open space is associated with higher levels of walking or
jogging
Well-designed and managed GI can encourage people to travel in a more sustainable way, such as cycling
and walking. Trees, garden, parks or views will encourage people to do cycling and walking.
In addition to acting as carbon sinks, it is estimated that carbon held by vegetation in GB is to be 114
Mtonnes (Mt.) while the amount of carbon in the soils of GB is estimated to be 9838 Mt.
Trees and landform can reduce energy use for heating and cooling
buildings by shading them in summer and sheltering them in winter. Canopies and vegetation
on the side walls of buildings could cool energy-savings of 4-40%.
A GI approach to planning can also optimise the potential for efficient,
decentralised, renewable energy, improving local energy security, providing space for ground source
heating, hydroelectric power, biomass and wind power. This is because the distributed energy
system is an efficient, reliable and environmental friendly and it is good for sustainable
development. The example of local project is South Yorkshire Woodfuel Program as a renewable
energy generation from wood or biomass.
4. Trees are carbon sinks.
Total amount of carbon
held by vegetation in Great Britain (GB) is estimated to be 114
Mtonnes (Mt.) while the amount of carbon in the soils of GB is estimated
to be 9838 Mt.
5. Trees and landform can
reduce energy use for heating and cooling building.
Canopies and vegetation
increase on the side walls of buildings could decrease in near-ground
summer air temperature of 0.2-1.2
0C, indirectly
this decrease could result
in the buildings‘ cooling energy-savings of 4-40%.
6. GI approach to
planning can optimise the potential for
decentralised energy production.
Distributed energy
system is an efficient, reliable and environ-
mental friendly compare to the traditional way. Distributed energy
system is a good option with respect to sustainable development
in the long run and aims at utilizing local fuels (biomass and local fuel
storage).
48
Benefit of GI Claimed by Landscape Institute
Testable Statement
Verifiable Evidence
Verified Statement
3. Water Management
GI is a good approach for managing flood risk. This can involve placing sustainable
drainage systems (SUDs) in developments to attenuate surface water runoff and
enhance biodiversity and recreation. Agricultural land and wetlands can be used to
store flood water in areas where there is no risk to homes and commercial
buildings. GI can be used to manage coastal retreat as well as to restore wetlands,
enhancing carbon sequestration whilst providing important wildlife habitat.
7. Sustainable
drainage systems
(SUDs) can attenuate surface water runoff and
enhance biodiversity and recreation.
The structures for
stormwater handling are integrated into local landscaping such as
ponds, reed-beds, ditches for creating attractive blue-green
environments.
GI is a good approach for managing flood risk. This can involve placing
sustainable drainage systems (SUDs) in developments to attenuate surface water runoff and
enhance biodiversity and recreation. Agricultural land and wetlands can be used to store flood water in areas
where there is no risk to homes and commercial buildings. The structures for stormwater
handling can be integrated into local landscaping such as ponds, reed-beds and ditches for
creating attractive blue-green environments.
GI can be used to manage coastal retreat as well as to restore wetlands through recycling shingle to
protect it from erosion by beach feeding. This can be seen at Dungeness Nuclear Power
Station. GI also could enhancing carbon
sequestration and it is estimated that global storage of carbon in mangrove biomass is 4.03 Pg C
whilst providing important wildlife habitat.
8. GI can be used to
manage coastal retreat, restore wetlands.
Recycling shingle has
been used for a beach protection was unique and it is applied for
Dungeness Nuclear Power Station to protect it from erosion by beach
feeding.
9. Wetlands are also carbon sinks.
Global storage of carbon (C) in mangrove biomass is estimated at 4.03 Pg C
The annual fossil CO2 emission for North
America in 1990 was 1.6 Pg C.
4. Dealing With Waste
GI assets can deal with waste in a sustainable way. A good example of this is the use of
reed beds which remove pollutants from water. Historically, waste has been
placed in landfill sites, which have then been adapted for other GI functions, including
wildlife habitats and leisure parks. Closed landfill sites are a legacy which could provide
a much greater range of functions if greater investment was made available.
10. Wider range of
after uses on
reclamation closed landfill sites.
The uses of completed
landfills as golf course are golf courses, parks, playgrounds and ball
fields, botanical gardens, residential and industrial development, and others
(parking areas, airport runways and goods-transfer yards).
Closed landfill sites can be successfully restored
to community forest.
GI assets can deal with waste in a sustainable way. A good example of
this is the use of reed beds which remove pollutants from water. Reed beds proved to be superior at
removing ammonia (5.3 mg 1-1
) and BOD at (22.2 mg 1
-1).
Historically, waste has been placed in landfill sites, which have then been adapted for other GI functions,
including wildlife habitats and leisure parks. Closed landfill sites are a legacy which could provide a much
greater range of functions if greater investment was made available. Completed landfills can be used
as golf courses, parks, playgrounds and ball fields, botanical gardens, residential and
industrial development, and others (parking areas, airport runways and goods-transfer
yards). It also can be restored to community forest.
11. Use of reed beds to
remove water pollutants.
Design and construction
of reed beds used for effluent polishing in UK.
The majority of sewage treatment plants in UK are designed to meet
effluent quality standards.
Reed beds proved to be superior at removing
ammonia (5.3 mg 1-1
).
BOD removal efficiencies
were highest in the reed beds, with mean effluent BOD levels (22.2 mg 1
-1).
49
Benefit of GI Claimed by Landscape Institute
Testable Statement
Verifiable Evidence
Verified Statement
5. Food Production
Creating space for food production through allotments and community gardens and
orchards, increases access to healthy food, provides educational opportunities,
contributes to food security and reconnects communities with their local environment.
Connecting local communities with these assets via footpaths and cycle ways can
encourage this reconnection further.
12. Space for food
production through
allotments will increase access to healthy food,
provide educational opportunities and reconnect
communities.
Community development
was a main benefit of urban food production in the local authorities of
England and Wales.
Community gardening in
Toronto were perceived by gardeners to provide numerous health benefits
including improved access to food, nutrient, physical activity and
improved mental health, promote social health and community cohesion.
Creating space for food production through allotments and community
gardens and orchards, increases access to healthy food, provides educational opportunities,
contributes to food security and reconnects communities with their local environment. Connecting local
communities with these assets via footpaths and cycle ways can encourage this reconnection further.
Local authorities of England and Wales agreed that the main benefit of urban food production
was community development and it is similar in Toronto where it is improved access to food, nutrient,
physical activity and improved mental health, promote social health and community cohesion.
6. Biodiversity Enhancement, Corridors And Linkages The role of GI in providing
wildlife habitat in both urban and rural areas is well established, but taking a
landscape-scale approach to the planning, design and management of connected GI
assets provides the framework within which species migration can more
readily occur in response to environmental pressures such as climate change.
13. Species migration – response to climate change
Corridors can reduce the rate of loss of species help to maintain species
richness and minimized the extinctions by establishing the corridors.
This is positive whereby connecting patches of habitat with corridors did
slow the rate of extinction of species and preserving species richness for
longer period of time than disconnected habitat patches. This is because
the habitat can migrate to the other area using the corridor.
The role of GI in providing wildlife habitat in both urban and rural areas is well established, but taking a landscape-scale approach to the
planning, design and management of connected GI assets provides the framework within which species
migration can more readily occur in response to environmental pressures such as climate change.
This is proved where corridors can reduce the rate of loss of species whereby connecting
patches of habitat with corridors did slow the rate of extinction of species and preserving species
richness for longer period of time so that habitat can migrate to other area using the corridor.
7. Recreation And Health As illustrated by all of the
case studies in this position statement, accessible GI provides important
opportunities for informal and active recreation. Ensuring that these assets are provided in close proximity to people‘s
homes, are maintained properly, and are designed with the needs of local
communities in mind, is critical to their positive role in public health and wellbeing.
14. Accessible GI provides opportunities for
informal and active recreation
About 74% of adults in UK agreed that green spaces are important for
their general health.
In Texas, most people
used greenway trails for recreation. Users felt that these urban greenway
trails were contributing most to community quality of life through
resident health/fitness, the natural areas they provide, better land use
and resident pride.
As illustrated by all of the case studies in this position statement, accessible GI provides important
opportunities for informal and active recreation. In UK, about 74% of adults in UK agreed that green
spaces are important for their general health. Ensuring that these assets are provided in close proximity to people‘s homes, are
maintained properly, and are designed with the needs of local communities in mind, is critical to
their positive role in public health and wellbeing.
50
Benefit of GI Claimed by Landscape Institute
Testable Statement
Verifiable Evidence
Verified Statement
8. Economic Values
Quality green space can have a major positive impact on land and property markets,
creating settings for investment and acting as a catalyst for wider
regeneration.
15. Quality green
space – positive
impact on land and property markets
Trees are associated with
a 3.5 - 4.5% increase in the selling price of single family dwellings.
Proximity of watercourses and urban forest areas
had a positive influence on apartment price.
The good trees cover in
the visible surroundings housing area give a
positive price to the higher house value (raises a property‘s value
by nearly 4%)
Quality green space can have a major positive impact on land and
property markets, creating settings for investment and acting as a catalyst for wider regeneration. The
good trees cover in housing areas will increase 3.5 – 4.5% property’s value. At the same time, having a
greening project or green space will attract investment and tourism activity.
16. Attract investment and tourism
Greening projects in the
US tend to attract investment.
Redeveloping in urban
areas as a green space in the city of Toronto the implementation of parks,
playgrounds, trails, greenways, and other open spaces can attract
tourism activity.
9. Local Distinctiveness Well-designed and managed
GI assets, particularly those that engage local communities and which relate
to landscape character and heritage, can enhance local sense of place and foster
community spirit. They can be a catalyst for regeneration and stimulate employment
opportunities by attracting investment and tourism.
17. Enhance local sense of place and foster community
spirit
The characteristics and experience of the green
network resulted in progressive physical, cognitive and social
functioning of urban residents, hence offering well-being.
Community gardening can play a very important
for the social reproduction of the community in the Bronx,
NY where the garden is help to promote a sense of place which is a focus
for communities and as a centre for community cultural.
Well-designed and managed GI assets, particularly those that engage local communities and which
relate to landscape character and heritage, can enhance local sense of place and foster community spirit.
This is where the community gardening play a very important role in Bronx, New York to
promote sense of place and focus as a centre for community cultural. They can be a catalyst for
regeneration and stimulate employment opportunities by attracting investment and tourism.
10. Education
As demonstrated by the River Ray Corridor and Ingrebourne
Hill, natural environments which are connected to local communities can provide a
range of educational opportunities and assist in reconnecting society with the
natural environment; a fundamental prerequisite of living within environmental
limits, and a cornerstone of the Government‘s sustainable development strategy.
18. GI provides range
of educational opportunities
Visiting national parks or
other ecologically valuable areas is positive
in terms of environmental education. It can contribute to improving
the visitors‘ sensitivity and in changing their preferences.
As demonstrated by the River Ray
Corridor and Ingrebourne Hill, natural environments which are connected to local communities can
provide a range of educational opportunities and assist in reconnecting society with the natural
environment; a fundamental prerequisite of living within environmental limits, and a
cornerstone of the Government‘s sustainable development strategy. By visiting the national parks or
other ecologically valuable areas is positive in terms of environmental education and
Natural England’s Access to Nature grant scheme is helping people who currently have little or
no contact with the natural environment.
19. Reconnecting society with natural environment
Natural England‘s Access to Nature grant scheme is
aiming to encourage people to appreciate England‘s natural
environment and enjoy green spaces to those people who currently have little or no contact
with the natural environment.
51
Benefit of GI Claimed by Landscape Institute
Testable Statement
Verifiable Evidence
Verified Statement
11. Stronger Communities
GI can help in meeting a wide range of community needs. The spirit of the GI approach
means that social, environmental and economic potential is considered and
optimised. It can be a focus for community participation through public management,
as well as providing opportunities for education, training, volunteering and
capacity building.
20. Focus for
community
participations through public management
None
GI can help in meeting a wide range of community needs. The spirit of
the GI approach means that social, environmental and economic potential is considered and
optimised. It can be a focus for community participation through public management, as well as
providing opportunities for education, training, volunteering and capacity building.
From the table 4.1 above, we can see most of the testable statement have its
own scientific or research evidence. Only one (1) didn‘t have any of scientific or
research evidence to support the statement. The next chapter will discuss detail on
findings of this research review.
52
Chapter 5
5. FINDINGS AND CONCLUSION
5.1 Findings
According to the previous chapter, the benefit of green infrastructure
has been recognized by many and research evidence is successfully proven
to verify the Position Statement from Landscape Institute, UK claims the
many benefits of GI. Generally, there is certain testable statement with too
many scientific or research evidence and some of them none. This can be
seen from the topics of climate change adaptation and mitigation, water
management, waste, biodiversity and corridor linkages, food production,
recreation and health, economic values and education. There is significant
lack of scientific or research evidence under the topics of stronger
communities, local distinctiveness and some of the topics related to the
communities. Therefore, further research should lead to a lack of research
evidence to this topic to support the claims.
In the meantime, it is vital to understand the GI assets related to each
testable statement and the benefits it can offer. For example, the education
benefit can be achieved through the GI assets (urban forest, national park or
green space) by the community. On the other hand, there must be the GI
assets stated in the claims for each position statement.
The other findings is also weather the scientific or research evidence
is really can apply in the UK context is still questionable. This is because
53
there is no specific scientific or research in UK which is only focus on the
specific topics under the green infrastructure benefits in UK. So, this
research review is necessary to make an assumption there is same scenario
can be applied in UK or throughout the world. Below are the new position
statement suggested for the Landscape Institute to include in the position
statement:
i. Climate Change Adaptation
Even modest increases in tree canopy cover can significantly
reduce the urban heat island effect via evapotranspiration and
shading, as well as improving air quality which often suffers
because of higher temperatures. By increasing 10% green cover
in urban areas could keep extreme surface temperatures by
2.5°C, however by removing 10% of green cover would increase
expected maximum surface temperature by 7°C by the 2080s.
Tree planting in urban area can account for a 25% reduction in
net cooling in urban landscapes. Connectivity of GI via wildlife
corridors is critical in ensuring that biodiversity is safeguarded in
the face of a changing climate and green space can ameliorate
surface water run-off to reduce the risk of flooding. By adding
10% tree cover can reduce run-off from 28mm rainfall event by
5.7% by 2080s.
ii. Climate Change Mitigation
Well-designed and managed GI can encourage people to travel in
a more sustainable way, such as cycling and walking. Trees,
garden, parks or views will encourage people to do cycling and
walking. In addition to acting as carbon sinks, it is estimated that
54
carbon held by vegetation in GB is to be 114 Mtonnes (Mt.) while
the amount of carbon in the soils of GB is estimated to be 9838
Mt. Trees and landform can reduce energy use for heating and
cooling buildings by shading them in summer and sheltering them
in winter. Canopies and vegetation on the side walls of buildings
could cool energy-savings of 4-40%. A GI approach to planning
can also optimise the potential for efficient, decentralised,
renewable energy, improving local energy security, providing
space for ground source heating, hydroelectric power, biomass
and wind power. This is because the distributed energy system is
an efficient, reliable and environmental friendly and it is good for
sustainable development. The example of local project is South
Yorkshire Woodfuel Program as a renewable energy generation
from wood or biomass.
.
iii. Water Management
GI is a good approach for managing flood risk. This can involve
placing sustainable drainage systems (SUDs) in developments to
attenuate surface water runoff and enhance biodiversity and
recreation. Agricultural land and wetlands can be used to store
flood water in areas where there is no risk to homes and
commercial buildings. The structures for stormwater handling can
be integrated into local landscaping such as ponds, reed-beds
and ditches for creating attractive blue-green environments. GI
can be used to manage coastal retreat as well as to restore
wetlands through recycling shingle to protect it from erosion by
beach feeding. This can be seen at Dungeness Nuclear Power
Station. GI also could enhancing carbon sequestration and it is
55
estimated that global storage of carbon in mangrove biomass is
4.03 Pg C whilst providing important wildlife habitat.
iv. Dealing With Waste
GI assets can deal with waste in a sustainable way. A good
example of this is the use of reed beds which remove pollutants
from water. Reed beds proved to be superior at removing
ammonia (5.3 mg 1-1) and BOD at (22.2 mg 1-1). Historically,
waste has been placed in landfill sites, which have then been
adapted for other GI functions, including wildlife habitats and
leisure parks. Closed landfill sites are a legacy which could
provide a much greater range of functions if greater investment
was made available. Completed landfills can be used as golf
courses, parks, playgrounds and ball fields, botanical gardens,
residential and industrial development, and others (parking areas,
airport runways and goods-transfer yards). It also can be restored
to community forest.
v. Food Production
Creating space for food production through allotments and
community gardens and orchards, increases access to healthy
food, provides educational opportunities, contributes to food
security and reconnects communities with their local environment.
Connecting local communities with these assets via footpaths and
cycle ways can encourage this reconnection further. Local
authorities of England and Wales agreed that the main benefit of
urban food production was community development and it is
similar in Toronto where it is improved access to food, nutrient,
56
physical activity and improved mental health, promote social
health and community cohesion.
vi. Biodiversity Enhancement, Corridors And Linkages
The role of GI in providing wildlife habitat in both urban and rural
areas is well established, but taking a landscape-scale approach
to the planning, design and management of connected GI assets
provides the framework within which species migration can more
readily occur in response to environmental pressures such as
climate change. This is proved where corridors can reduce the
rate of loss of species whereby connecting patches of habitat with
corridors did slow the rate of extinction of species and preserving
species richness for longer period of time so that habitat can
migrate to other area using the corridor.
vii. Recreation and Health
As illustrated by all of the case studies in this position statement,
accessible GI provides important opportunities for informal and
active recreation. In UK, about 74% of adults in UK agreed that
green spaces are important for their general health. Ensuring that
these assets are provided in close proximity to people‘s homes,
are maintained properly, and are designed with the needs of local
communities in mind, is critical to their positive role in public
health and wellbeing.
viii. Economic Values
Quality green space can have a major positive impact on land and
property markets, creating settings for investment and acting as a
57
catalyst for wider regeneration. The good trees cover in housing
areas will increase 3.5 – 4.5% property’s value. At the same time,
having a greening project or green space will attract investment
and tourism activity.
ix. Local Distinctiveness
Well-designed and managed GI assets, particularly those that
engage local communities and which relate to landscape
character and heritage, can enhance local sense of place and
foster community spirit. This is where the community gardening
play a very important role in Bronx, New York to promote sense of
place and focus as a centre for community cultural. They can be a
catalyst for regeneration and stimulate employment opportunities
by attracting investment and tourism.
x. Education
As demonstrated by the River Ray Corridor and Ingrebourne Hill,
natural environments which are connected to local communities
can provide a range of educational opportunities and assist in
reconnecting society with the natural environment; a fundamental
prerequisite of living within environmental limits, and a
cornerstone of the Government‘s sustainable development
strategy. By visiting the national parks or other ecologically
valuable areas is positive in terms of environmental education and
Natural England’s Access to Nature grant scheme is helping
people who currently have little or no contact with the natural
environment.
58
xi. Stronger Communities
GI can help in meeting a wide range of community needs. The
spirit of the GI approach means that social, environmental and
economic potential is considered and optimised. It can be a focus
for community participation through public management, as well
as providing opportunities for education, training, volunteering and
capacity building.
5.2 Conclusion
In conclusion, it is hoped that this review may informed the
Landscape Institute, UK on how the benefit of green infrastructure should be
addressed in the Position Statement. The scientific or research evidence is
very important to address together with the statement to ensure that the
benefits of green infrastructure are able to deliver by the landscape
practitioners. The research evidence found from this review is applicable to
the UK context and some of the can be apply throughout the world.
59
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