Critical Thinking POINTERS 1. Critical thinking and creative thinking Creative thinking is about applying imagination to finding a solution to your learning task. Creative thinking embodies a relaxed, open, playful approach and is less ordered, structured and predictable than critical thinking. Therefore it also requires some risk-taking as there is a chance that you will make ‘mistakes’ or not come up with an answer at all. You need to be prepared to cope with the resultant risk, confusion and disorder. If you are generally ordered and organised this may take some getting used to. Creative thinking skills are as much about attitude and self-confidence as about talent. Critical thinking has been described as: …reasonable reflective thinking focused on deciding what to believe or do. (Ennis, 1993). No one always acts purely objectively and rationally. We connive for selfish interests. We gossip, boast, exaggerate, and equivocate. It is "only human" to wish to validate our prior knowledge, to vindicate. Our prior decisions, or to sustain our earlier beliefs. In the process of satisfying our ego, however, we can often deny ourselves intellectual growth and opportunity. We may not always want to apply critical thinking skills, but we should have those skills available to be employed when needed. Critical thinking enables us to recognise a wide range of subjective analyses of otherwise objective data, and to evaluate how well each analysis might meet our needs. Facts may be facts, but how we interpret them may vary. 2. Importance of critical thinking in nursing
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Critical Thinking POINTERS
1. Critical thinking and creative thinking
Creative thinking is about applying imagination to finding a solution to your learning task. Creative thinking embodies a relaxed, open, playful approach and is less ordered, structured and predictable than critical thinking. Therefore it also requires some risk-taking as there is a chance that you will make ‘mistakes’ or not come up with an answer at all. You need to be prepared to cope with the resultant risk, confusion and disorder. If you are generally ordered and organised this may take some getting used to. Creative thinking skills are as much about attitude and self-confidence as about talent.
Critical thinking has been described as: …reasonable reflective thinking focused on deciding what to believe or do. (Ennis, 1993). No one always acts purely objectively and rationally. We connive for selfish interests. We gossip, boast, exaggerate, and equivocate. It is "only human" to wish to validate our prior knowledge, to vindicate. Our prior decisions, or to sustain our earlier beliefs. In the process of satisfying our ego, however, we can often deny ourselves intellectual growth and opportunity. We may not always want to apply critical thinking skills, but we should have those skills available to be employed when needed. Critical thinking enables us to recognise a wide range of subjective analyses of otherwise objective data, and to evaluate how well each analysis might meet our needs. Facts may be facts, but how we interpret them may vary.
2. Importance of critical thinking in nursing
Critical thinking is the disciplined, intellectual process of applying skilful reasoning as a guide to belief or action (Paul, Ennis & Norris). In nursing, critical thinking for clinical decision-making is the ability to think in a systematic and logical manner with openness to question and reflect on the reasoning process used to ensure safe nursing practice and quality care (Heaslip). Critical thinking when developed in the practitioner includes adherence to intellectual standards, proficiency in using reasoning, a commitment to develop and maintain intellectual traits of the mind and habits of thought and the competent use of thinking skills and abilities for sound clinical judgments and safe decision-making.
Intellectual Standards for Reasoning
Practitioners in nursing who are critical thinkers value and adhere to intellectual standards. Critical thinkers strive to be clear, accurate, precise, logical complete, significant and fair when they listen, speak, read and write. Critical thinkers think deeply and broadly. Their thinking is adequate for their intended purpose (Paul, Scriven, Norris
& Ennis). All thinking can be examined in light of these standards and as we reflect on the quality of our thinking we begin to recognize when we are being unclear, imprecise, vague or inaccurate. As nurses, we want to eliminate irrelevant, inconsistent and illogical thoughts as we reason about client care. Nurses use language to clearly communicate in-depth information that is significant to nursing care. Nurses are not focused on the trivial or irrelevant.
Nurses who are critical thinkers hold all their views and reasoning to these standards as well as, the claims of others such that the quality of nurse's thinking improves over time thus eliminating confusion and ambiguity in the presentation and understanding of thoughts and ideas.
3. Clinical judgement, Clinical reasoning
Critical thinking— a broad term — includes reasoning both outside and inside of the clinical setting. Clinical reasoning and clinical judgment are key pieces of critical thinking in nursing.
Clinical reasoning— a specific term usually refers to ways of thinking about patient care issues (determining, preventing, and managing patient problems). For reasoning about other clinical issues (e.g., teamwork, collaboration, and streamlining work flow), nurses usually use the term critical thinking.
Clinical judgment refers to the result (outcome) of critical thinking or clinical reasoning — the conclusion, decision, or opinion you make. American Nurses Association (ANA) standards state that the nursing process — assessment, diagnosis, outcome identification, planning, implementation, and evaluation —serves as a critical thinking model that promotes a competent level of care.
Previewing enables you to develop a set of expectations about the scope and aim of the text. These very preliminary impressions offer you a way to focus your reading. For instance:
What does the presence of head notes, an abstract, or other prefatory material tell you?
Is the author known to you already? If so, how does his (or her) reputation or credentials influence your perception of what you are about to read? If the author is unfamiliar or unknown, does an editor introduce him or her
(by supplying brief biographical information, an assessment of the author’s work, concerns, and importance)?
How does the disposition or layout of a text prepare you for reading? Is the material broken into parts--subtopics, sections, or the like? Are there long and unbroken blocks of text or smaller paragraphs or “chunks” and what does this suggest? How might the parts of a text guide you toward understanding the line of inquiry or the arc of the argument that's being made?
Does the text seem to be arranged according to certain conventions of discourse? Newspaper articles, for instance, have characteristics that you will recognize; textbooks and scholarly essays are organized quite differently Texts demand different things of you as you read, so whenever you can, register the type of information you’re presented with.
2. Annotate
Annotating puts you actively and immediately in a "dialogue” with an author and the issues and ideas you encounter in a written text.
Throw away your highlighter: Highlighting can seem like an active reading strategy, but it can actually distract from the business of learning and dilute your comprehension. Those bright yellow lines you put on a printed page one day can seem strangely cryptic the next, unless you have a method for remembering why they were important to you at another moment in time. Pen or pencil will allow you do to more to a text you have to wrestle with.
Mark up the margins of your text with words and phrases: ideas that occur to you, notes about things that seem important to you, reminders of how issues in a text may connect with class discussion or course themes. This kind of interaction keeps you conscious of the reasons you are reading as well as the purposes your instructor has in mind. Later in the term, when you are reviewing for a test or project, your marginalia will be useful memory triggers.
Develop your own symbol system: asterisk (*) a key idea, for example, or use an exclamation point (!) for the surprising, absurd, bizarre. Your personalized set of hieroglyphs allow you to capture the important -- and often fleeting -- insights that occur to you as you're reading. Like notes in your margins, they'll prove indispensable when you return to a text in search of that perfect passage to use in a paper, or are preparing for a big exam.
Get in the habit of hearing yourself ask questions: “What does this mean?” “Why is the writer drawing that conclusion?” “Why am I being asked to read this text?” etc. Write the questions down (in your margins, at the beginning or end of the
reading, in a notebook, or elsewhere. They are reminders of the unfinished business you still have with a text: something to ask during class discussion, or to come to terms with on your own, once you’ve had a chance to digest the material further or have done other course reading.
3. Outline, Summarize, and Analyze
The best way to determine that you’ve really gotten the point is to be able to state it in your own words. Take the information apart, look at its parts, and then try to put it back together again in language that is meaningful to you.
Outlining the argument of a text is a version of annotating, and can be done quite informally in the margins of the text, unless you prefer the more formal Roman numeral model you may have learned in high school. Outlining enables you to see the skeleton of an argument: the thesis, the first point and evidence (and so on), through the conclusion. With weighty or difficult readings, that skeleton may not be obvious until you go looking for it.
Summarizing accomplishes something similar, but in sentence and paragraph form, and with the connections between ideas made explicit.
Analyzing adds an evaluative component to the summarizing process—it requires you not just to restate main ideas, but also to test the logic, credibility, and emotional impact of an argument. In analyzing a text, you reflect upon and decide how effectively (or poorly) its argument has been made. Questions to ask:
What is the writer asserting? What am I being asked to believe or accept? Facts? Opinions? Some mixture?
What reasons or evidence does the author supply to convince me? Where is the strongest or most effective evidence the author offers -- and why is it compelling?
Is there any place in the text where the reasoning breaks down? Are there things that do not make sense, conclusions that are drawn prematurely, moments where the writer undermines his or her purposes?
4. Look for repetitions and patterns
The way language is chosen, used, and positioned in a text can be an important indication of what an author considers crucial and what he or she expects you to glean from his argument. It can also alert you to ideological positions, hidden agendas or biases. Be watching for:
Recurring images Repeated words, phrases, types of examples, or illustrations
Consistent ways of characterizing people, events, or issue.
5. Contextualize
Once you’ve finished reading actively and annotating, consider the text from the multiple perspectives.
When you contextualize, you essentially "re-view" a text you've encountered, acknowledging how it is framed by its historical, cultural, material, or intellectual circumstances. Do these factors change, complicate, explain, deepen or otherwise influence how you view a piece?
Also view the reading through the lens of your own experience. Your understanding of the words on the page and their significance is always shaped by what you have come to know and value from living in a particular time and place.
6. Compare and Contrast
Set course readings against each other to determine their relationships (hidden or explicit).
At what point in the term does this reading come? Why that point, do you imagine?
How does it contribute to the main concepts and themes of the course?
How does it compare (or contrast) to the ideas presented by texts that come before it? Does it continue a trend, shift direction, or expand the focus of previous readings?
How has your thinking been altered by this reading, or how has it affected your response to the issues and themes of the course?
To read critically is to make judgements about how a text is argued. This is a highly reflective skill requiring you to "stand back" and gain some distance from the text you are reading. (You might have to read a text through once to get a basic grasp of content before you launch into an intensive critical reading.) THE KEY IS THIS:
don't read looking only or primarily for information do read looking for ways of thinking about the subject matter
When you are reading, highlighting, or taking notes, avoid extracting and compiling lists of evidence, lists of facts and examples. Avoid approaching a text by asking "What information can I get out of it?" Rather ask "How does this text work? How is it argued? How is the evidence (the facts, examples, etc.) used and interpreted? How does the text reach its conclusions?
How Do I Read Looking for Ways of Thinking?
1. First determine the central claims or purpose of the text (its thesis). A critical reading attempts to assess how these central claims are developed or argued.
2. Begin to make some judgements about context . What audience is the text written for? Who is it in dialogue with? (This will probably be other scholars or authors with differing viewpoints.) In what historical context is it written? All these matters of context can contribute to your assessment of what is going on in a text.
3. Distinguish the kinds of reasoning the text employs. What concepts are defined and used? Does the text appeal to a theory or theories? Is any specific methodology laid out? If there is an appeal to a particular concept, theory, or method, how is that concept, theory, or method then used to organize and interpret the data? You might also examine how the text is organized: how has the author analyzed (broken down) the material? Be aware that different disciplines (i.e. history, sociology, philosophy, biology) will have different ways of arguing.
4. Examine the evidence (the supporting facts, examples, etc) the text employs. Supporting evidence is indispensable to an argument. Having worked through Steps 1-3, you are now in a position to grasp how the evidence is used to develop the argument and its controlling claims and concepts. Steps 1-3 allow you to see evidence in its context. Consider the kinds of evidence that are used. What counts as evidence in this argument? Is the evidence statistical? literary? historical? etc. From what sources is the evidence taken? Are these sources primary or secondary?
5. Critical reading may involve evaluation. Your reading of a text is already critical if it accounts for and makes a series of judgments about how a text is argued. However, some essays may also require you to assess the strengths and weaknesses of an argument. If the argument is strong, why? Could it be better or differently supported? Are there gaps, leaps, or inconsistencies in the argument? Is the method of analysis problematic? Could the evidence be interpreted
differently? Are the conclusions warranted by the evidence presented? What are the unargued assumptions? Are they problematic? What might an opposing argument be?
WRITE
The most characteristic features of critical writing are: a clear and confident refusal to accept the conclusions of other writers without evaluating the arguments and evidence that they provide; a balanced presentation of reasons why the conclusions of other writers may be accepted or may need to be treated with caution; a clear presentation of your own evidence and argument, leading to your conclusion; and a recognition of the limitations in your own evidence, argument, and conclusion.With critical writing you are participating in the academic debate. This is more challenging and risky. You need to weigh up the evidence and arguments of others, and to contribute your own. You will need to: consider the quality of the evidence and argument you have read; identify key positive and negative aspects you can comment upon; assess their relevance and usefulness to the debate that you are engaging in for your assignment; and identify how best they can be woven into the argument that you are developing.A much higher level of skill is clearly needed for critical writing than for descriptive writing, and this is reflected in the higher marks it is given.Finding your academic voiceWhen you engage in critical writing you are developing your own academic voice within your subject. Wellington et al. (2005 p.84) offer some suggestions for distinguishing between the academic and the non-academic voice. They suggest that the academic voice will involve: “healthy scepticism … but not cynicism; confidence … but not ‘cockiness’ or arrogance; judgement which is critical … but not dismissive; opinions … without being opinionated; careful evaluation of published work … not serial shooting at random targets; being ‘fair’: assessing fairly the strengths and weaknesses of other people’s ideas and writing … without prejudice; and
making judgements on the basis of considerable thought and all the available evidence … as opposed to assertions without reason.”
Try to get into the habit of writing critically, by making sure that you read critically, and that you include critique in your writing.
Stringing together of quotesIt can be tempting to string together quotes to support an argument, feeling that
the more quotes you include, the stronger your argument. It is important, however, to remember that you also need to interpret the quotes to the reader, and to explain their relevance, discuss their validity, and show how they relate to other evidence.
Strategic use of paragraphsThere are several ways in which you can use the paragraph to enhance your critical writing.You can use paragraphs to make a clear and visual separation between descriptive writing and critical analysis, by switching to a new paragraph when you move from description to critical writing, and vice versa. This can help in:
emphasising to the reader that you are including both description and critical analysis, by providing a visual representation of their separation; and
pushing you to produce the necessary critical writing, especially if you find that your description paragraphs are always longer, or more frequent, than your critical analysis paragraphs.
A paragraph break can provide a brief pause for your readers within a longer argument; giving them the opportunity to make sure they are keeping up with your reasoning. Paragraphs that are overly long can require readers to hold too much in their mind at once, resulting in their having to re-read the material until they can identify the point you are making.
You can also use paragraphs to push yourself to include critical writing alongside descriptive writing or referencing, by considering each paragraph almost as an essay in miniature. Within each paragraph you would:
introduce the point you want to make;
make the point, with supporting evidence;
reflect critically on the point.
LISTEN
Critical listening in this context means using careful, systematic thinking and reasoning to see whether a message makes sense in light of factual evidence. Critical listening can be learned with practice but is not necessarily easy to do. Some people never learn this skill; instead, they take every message at face value even when those messages are in conflict with their knowledge. Problems occur when messages are repeated to others who have not yet developed the skills to discern the difference between a valid message and a mistaken one. Critical listening can be particularly difficult when the message is complex.
a. Recognizing the Difference between Facts and Opinions
Part of critical listening is learning to separate opinions from facts, and this works two ways: critical listeners are aware of whether a speaker is delivering a factual message or a message based on opinion, and they are also aware of the interplay between their own opinions and facts as they listen to messages.
b. Be Open to New Ideas
Sometimes people are so fully invested in their perceptions of the world that they
are unable to listen receptively to messages that make sense and would be of great
benefit to them. Human progress has been possible, sometimes against great odds,
because of the mental curiosity and discernment of a few people.
c. Rely on Reason and Common Sense
If you are listening to a speech and your common sense tells you that the
message is illogical, you very well might be right. You should be thinking about whether
the speech seems credible and coherent. In this way, your use of common sense can
act as a warning system for you. If the message is inconsistent with things you already
know, if the argument is illogical, or if the language is exaggerated, you should
investigate the issues before accepting or rejecting the message. Often, you will not be
able to take this step during the presentation of the message; it may take longer to
collect enough knowledge to make that decision for yourself.
d. Relate New Ideas to Old Ones
If you can make effective comparisons while you are listening, it can deepen your
understanding of the message. If you can provide those comparisons for your listeners,
you make it easier for them to give consideration to your ideas.
e. Take Notes
Note-taking is a skill that improves with practice. You already know that it’s nearly
impossible to write down everything a speaker says. In fact, in your attempt to record
everything, you might fall behind and wish you had divided your attention differently
between writing and listening.
Careful, selective note-taking is important because we want an accurate record
that reflects the meanings of the message. However much you might concentrate on the
notes, you could inadvertently leave out an important word, such as not, and undermine
the reliability of your otherwise carefully written notes. Instead, if you give the same care
and attention to listening, you are less likely to make that kind of a mistake.
SPEAK
Here are seven principles of public speaking that I’ve developed in my role as a media coach. Keep them in mind the next time you find yourself presenting before a group.
1. Perception: Stop trying to be a great “public” speaker.
People want to listen to someone who is interesting, relaxed, and comfortable. In the routine conversations we have every day, we have no problem being ourselves. Yet too often, when we stand up to give a speech, something changes. We focus on the “public” at the expense of the “speaking.” To become an effective public speaker, you must do just the opposite: focus on the speaking and let go of the “public.” Think of it as a conversation between you and the audience. If you can carry on a relaxed conversation with one or two people, you can give a great speech. Whether your audience consists of two people or two thousand and whether you’re talking about the latest medical breakthrough or what you did today at work, be yourself; talk directly to people and make a connection with them.
2. Perfection: When you make a mistake, no one cares but you.
Even the most accomplished public speaker will make a mistake at some point. Just keep in mind that you’ll notice more than anyone in your audience. The most important thing a speaker can do after making a mistake is to keep going. Don’t stop and—unless the mistake was truly earth shattering—never apologize to the audience for a minor slip. Unless they are reading the speech during your delivery, the audience won’t know if you left out a word, said the wrong name, or skipped a page. Because “to err is human,” a mistake can actually work for you, because it allows you to connect with your audience. People don’t want to hear from someone who is “perfect;” they will relate much more easily to someone who is real.
3. Visualization: If you can see it, you can speak it.
Winners in all aspects of life have this in common: they practice visualization to achieve their goals. Sales people envision themselves closing the deal; executives picture themselves developing new ventures; athletes close their eyes and imagine themselves making that basket, hitting that home run, or breaking that record. The same is true in public speaking. The best way to fight anxiety and to become a more comfortable speaker is to practice in the one place where no one else can see you—your mind. If you visualize on a consistent basis, your mind will become used to the prospect of speaking in public, and pretty soon you’ll conquer any feelings of anxiety.
4. Discipline: Practice makes perfectly good.
Your goal is not to be a perfect public speaker. There is no such thing. Your goal is to be an effective public speaker. Like anything else in life, it takes practice. We too often take communication for granted because we speak to people everyday. But when your prosperity is directly linked to how well you perform in front a group, you need to give the task the same attention as if you were a professional athlete. Remember, even world champion athletes practice every day. Try taking a class where you practice giving speeches.
5. Description: Make it personal.
Whatever the topic, audiences respond best when speakers personalize their communication. Take every opportunity to put a face on the facts of your presentation. People like to hear about other people’s experiences—the triumphs, tragedies, and everyday humorous anecdotes that make up their lives. Tell stories. Whenever possible, insert a personal-interest element in your public speaking. Not only will it make your listeners warm up to you, but it will also do wonders at putting you at ease. After all, on what subject is your expertise greater than on the subject of you?
For a twist that is sure to take much of the fear out of public speaking, take the focus off of yourself and shift it to your audience. After all, the objective is not to benefit the speaker but to benefit the audience, through teaching, motivation, or entertainment. So in all of your preparation and presentation, you should think about your purpose. How can you help your audience members achieve their goals?
7. Anticipation: Always leave ‘em wanting more.One of the most valuable lessons I have learned in my years in communications is that when it comes to public speaking, less is usually more. I don’t think I’ve ever left a gathering and heard someone say, “I wish that speaker had spoken longer.” On the other hand, I imagine that you probably can’t count the times that you’ve thought, “I’m glad that speech is over. It seemed to go on forever!” So surprise your audience. Always make your presentation just a bit shorter than anticipated. If you’ve followed the first six principles outlined here you already have their attention and interest, and it’s better to leave your listeners wishing you had spoken for just a few more minutes than squirming in their seats waiting for your speech finally to end.
5. Biological Psychologies relating to Critical thinking in nursing ex. Locations of learning, Hemispheres of the brain, intelligences and others.
The human brain is hugely interconnected but three major components can be identified: the cerebrum, the cerebellum and the brain stem.
The brainstem which includes the medulla, the pons and the midbrain, controls breathing, digestion, heart rate and other autonomic processes, as well as connecting the brain with the spinal cord and the rest of the body.
The cerebellum plays an important role in balance, motor control, but is also involved in some cognitive functions such as attention, language, emotional functions (such as regulating fear and pleasure responses) and in the processing of procedural memories.
The cerebrum (or forebrain), which makes up 75% of the brain by volume and 85% by weight, is divided by a large groove, known as the longitudinal fissure, into two distinct hemispheres. The left and right hemispheres ("left" and "right" refer to the owner's point of view, not an outside viewer's) are linked by a large bundle of nerve fibres called the corpus callosum, and also by other smaller connections called commissures.
Designates the human ability to discriminate among living things (plants, animals) as well as sensitivity to other features of the natural world (clouds, rock configurations). This ability was clearly of value in our evolutionary past as hunters, gatherers, and farmers; it continues to be central in such roles as botanist or chef. It is also speculated that much of our consumer society exploits the naturalist intelligences, which can be mobilized in the discrimination among cars, sneakers, kinds of makeup, and the like.
2. Musical Intelligence (“Musical Smart”)
Musical intelligence is the capacity to discern pitch, rhythm, timbre, and tone. This intelligence enables us to recognize, create, reproduce, and reflect on music, as demonstrated by composers, conductors, musicians, vocalist, and sensitive listeners. Interestingly, there is often an affective connection between music and the emotions; and mathematical and musical intelligences may share common thinking processes. Young adults with this kind of intelligence are usually singing or drumming to themselves. They are usually quite aware of sounds others may miss.
Logical-mathematical intelligence is the ability to calculate, quantify, consider propositions and hypotheses, and carry out complete mathematical operations. It enables us to perceive relationships and connections and to use abstract, symbolic thought; sequential reasoning skills; and inductive and deductive thinking patterns. Logical intelligence is usually well developed in mathematicians, scientists, and detectives. Young adults with lots of logical intelligence are interested in patterns, categories, and relationships. They are drawn to arithmetic problems, strategy games and experiments.
4. Existential Intelligence
Sensitivity and capacity to tackle deep questions about human existence, such as the meaning of life, why do we die, and how did we get here.
5. Interpersonal Intelligence (People Smart”)
Interpersonal intelligence is the ability to understand and interact effectively with others. It involves effective verbal and nonverbal communication, the ability to note distinctions among others, sensitivity to the moods and temperaments of others, and the ability to entertain multiple perspectives. Teachers, social workers, actors, and politicians all exhibit interpersonal intelligence. Young adults with this kind of intelligence are leaders among their peers, are good at communicating, and seem to understand others’ feelings and motives.
6. Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence (“Body Smart”)
Bodily kinesthetic intelligence is the capacity to manipulate objects and use a variety of physical skills. This intelligence also involves a sense of timing and the perfection of skills through mind–body union. Athletes, dancers, surgeons, and craftspeople exhibit well-developed bodily kinesthetic intelligence.
7. Linguistic Intelligence (Word Smart)
Linguistic intelligence is the ability to think in words and to use language to express and appreciate complex meanings. Linguistic intelligence allows us to understand the order and meaning of words and to apply meta-linguistic skills to reflect on our use of language. Linguistic intelligence is the most widely shared human competence and is evident in poets, novelists, journalists, and effective public speakers. Young adults with this kind of intelligence enjoy writing, reading, telling stories or doing crossword puzzles.
8. Intra-personal Intelligence (Self Smart”)
Intra-personal intelligence is the capacity to understand oneself and one’s thoughts and feelings, and to use such knowledge in planning and directioning one’s life. Intra-personal intelligence involves not only an appreciation of the self, but also of the human condition. It is evident in psychologist, spiritual leaders, and philosophers. These young adults may be shy. They are very aware of their own feelings and are self-motivated.
9. Spatial Intelligence (“Picture Smart”)
Spatial intelligence is the ability to think in three dimensions. Core capacities include mental imagery, spatial reasoning, image manipulation, graphic and artistic skills, and an active imagination. Sailors, pilots, sculptors, painters, and architects all exhibit spatial intelligence. Young adults with this kind of intelligence may be fascinated with mazes or jigsaw puzzles, or spend free time drawing or daydreaming.
6. Blooms taxonomy (3 Domains)
A. Bloom’s Taxonomy - Cognitive Domain - (intellect - knowledge - 'think')An adjusted model of Bloom's Taxonomy (1956) Cognitive Domain was produced
by Anderson & Krathwhol in which the levels five and six (synthesis & evaluation) were inverted and all the levels became verbs, suggesting that learning is an active process (Anderson & Krathwohl, A Taxonomy for Learning, Teaching, and Assessing: A Revision of Bloom's Taxonomy of Educational Objectives, 2001). This is why you will see different versions of this Cognitive Domain model. While debate continues as to the order of levels five and six, the revised version is gaining wider acceptance overall.
Cognitive DomainCategory or 'level'
Behavior descriptions
Examples of activity to be trained, or demonstration and evidence to be measured
'Key words' (verbs which describe the activity to be trained or measured at each level)
1. Remembering
Recall or recognize information
Multiple-choice test, recount facts or statistics, recall a process, rules, definitions; quote law or procedure
Identify constituent parts and functions of a process or concept, or de-construct a methodology or process, making qualitative assessment of elements, relationships, values and effects; measure requirements or needs
5. Evaluating Assess effectiveness of whole concepts, in relation to values, outputs, efficacy, viability; critical thinking, strategic comparison and review; judgment relating to external criteria
Review strategic options or plans in terms of efficacy, return on investment or cost-effectiveness, practicability; assess sustainability; perform a SWOT analysis in relation to alternatives;
Review, justify, assess, present a case for, defend, report on, investigate, direct, appraise, argue, project-manage
produce a financial justification for a proposition or venture, calculate the effects of a plan or strategy; perform a detailed risk analysis with recommendations and justifications
Develop plans or procedures, design solutions, integrate methods, resources, ideas, parts; create teams or new approaches, write protocols & contingencies
2. Bloom’s Taxonomy - Affective Domain - (emotions - attitude - 'feel')Bloom's Taxonomy second domain, the Affective Domain, was detailed by
Bloom, Krathwhol and Masia (1964, Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: Vol. II, The Affective Domain. Bloom's theory advocates this structure and sequence for developing attitude - also now commonly expressed in the modern field of personal development as 'beliefs'. As with the other domains, the Affective Domain detail provides a framework for teaching, training, assessing and evaluating the effectiveness of training and lesson design and delivery, and also the retention by and affect upon the learner or trainee.
Affective DomainCategory or 'level'
Behavior descriptions
Examples of experience, or demonstration and evidence to be measured
'Key words' (verbs which describe the activity to be trained or measured at each level)
1. Receiving Open to experience, willing to hear
Listen to teacher or trainer, take interest in session or learning experience, take notes, turn up, make time for learning experience, participate passively
Ask, listen, focus, attend, take part, discuss, acknowledge, hear, be open to, retain, follow, concentrate, read, do, feel
2. Responding React and participate actively
Participate actively in group discussion, active participation in activity, interest in outcomes, enthusiasm for action, question and probe ideas, suggest interpretation
React, respond, seek clarification, interpret, clarify, provide other references and examples, contribute, question, present, cite, become animated or excited, help team, write, perform
3. Valuing Attach values and express personal opinions
Decide worth and relevance of ideas, experiences; accept or commit to particular stance or action
The Psychomotor Domain was established to address skills development relating to the physical dimensions of accomplishing a task. Because, 'motor' skills extend beyond the originally traditionally imagined manual and physical skills, always consider using this domain, even if you think your environment is covered adequately by the Cognitive and Affective Domains. Whatever the situation, it is likely that the Psychomotor Domain is significant.
Dave’s Psychomotor DomainCategory or 'level' Behavior
descriptionsExamples of activity or demonstration and evidence to be measured
'Key words' (verbs which describe the activity to be trained or measured at each level)
1. Imitation Copy action of another; observe and replicate
Watch teacher or trainer and repeat action, process or activity
7. Factors that may hinder critical thinking (How to improve critical thinking)1. Misunderstanding what is meant by criticism (Cottrell, 2005 p.10)
• Criticism does not just mean making negative comments (Cottrell, 2005, p.10). Critical evaluation means identifying positive and negative aspects, what works and what does not work and weighing and considering the information available. Critical evaluation is active, thoughtful examination of what you read, hear and see to determine if the information is accurate and reliable. • Constructive criticism can clarify a situation and help a person excel. Everyone needs feedback on how they can improve (Cottrell, 2005, p.10). Example: In response to your English essay, your professor may write the following: “What I liked most about your essay was the way you described the characters in the novel. One way you could improve the essay is by discussing the significance of each character’s role in the novel. One of your greatest strengths is your imaginative and creative writing so this should assist you in conveying your ideas about the character’s roles to the readers of your essay."
2. Overestimating your reasoning abilities (Cottrell, 2005, p.10) • We often use automatic thinking, which makes us more efficient in our everyday lives. • Winning arguments does not necessarily mean you have the best case or good reasoning abilities. It may mean that your opponents didn’t recognize a poor argument or chose to yield the point to avoid conflict (Cottrell, 2005, p.10).
3. Lack of methods, strategies or practice 4. Reluctance to critique experts (Cottrell, 2005, p.11)
• Researchers and professors expect students to question and challenge material (Cottrell, 2005, p.11). It is a typical and expected activity in an academic environment.
5. Affective reasons (Cottrell, 2005, p.11) • Letting emotions take the place of the reasoning and evidence that could convince others can undermine an argument (Cottrell, 2005, p.11).
For example, if you feel strongly about the issue of child abuse, then you might let your feelings about this issue overrule evidence that supports arguments contrary to your beliefs. • Critical thinkers acknowledge their emotions and understand how they can influence decisions. They take control of whether emotions should become part of the reasoning process (Learning Express, 2010a, p.85). • Critical thinking does not mean that you must abandon beliefs that you feel strongly about (Cottrell, 2005, p.11); it means that you must be willing to critically evaluate and challenge deeply held beliefs and assumptions. When you avoid making assumptions, you get all the information you need before deciding anything.
6. Mistaking information for understanding (Cottrell, 2005, p.12) • Memorizing facts and answers is not a skill that helps you to make critical thinking judgments for yourself. Critical evaluation is a process that involves developing understanding and insight about the facts and answers you learn.
7. Insufficient focus and attention to detail (Cottrell, 2005, p.12) • “Critical thinking requires focus on the exact task at hand, rather than becoming distracted by other interesting tangents” (Cottrell, 2005, p.12). • It’s important to focus on details more than a general overview of the subject matter in order to use critical evaluation.
8. 10 ways to Develop Creative thinking
You can help your firm innovate by creating a culture in which all employees are actively encouraged to put ideas forward. But how do you get the best from people and encourage them to be at their most creative?
1. Stress the importance of creativity. Ensure all your staff know that you want to hear their ideas. Unless they understand how innovating your business processes can keep your firm competitive, your efforts at encouraging creative thinking risk falling flat.
2. Make time for brainstorming. Allocate time for new ideas to emerge. For example, set aside time for brainstorming, hold regular group workshops and arrange team days out. A team involved in a brainstorming session is likely to be more effective than the sum of its parts. Individuals within the team can feed off each other – exploring, testing and refining ideas. You should also give individuals the space to reflect privately on their work if you think they need it.
3. Actively solicit ideas. Place suggestion boxes around the workplace, appeal for new ideas to solve particular problems and, quite literally, keep your door open to new ideas.
4. Train staff in innovation techniques. Your staff may be able to bounce an idea around, but be unfamiliar with the skills involved in creative problem-solving. You may find training sessions in formal techniques such as brainstorming, lateral thinking and mind-mapping worthwhile.
5. Cross-fertilise. Broadening people’s experiences can be a great way to spark ideas. Short-term job swaps and shadowing in-house can introduce a fresh perspective to roles. Encourage people to look at how other businesses do things, even those in other sectors, and consider how they can be adapted or improved.
6. Challenge the way staff work. Encourage employees to keep looking anew at the way they approach their work. Ask people whether they have considered alternative ways of working and what might be achieved by doing things differently.
7. Be supportive. Respond enthusiastically to all ideas and never make someone offering an idea, however hopeless, feel foolish. Give even the most apparently outlandish of ideas a chance to be aired.
8. Tolerate mistakes. A certain amount of risk-taking is inevitable with creative thinking. Allow people to learn from their mistakes. Never put off the creative flow by penalising those whose ideas don’t work out.
9. Reward creativity. Motivate individuals or teams who come up with winning ideas by actively recognising creativity, for example through an awards scheme. You could even demonstrate your recognition that not all ideas work out by rewarding those who just have a rich flow of suggestions, regardless of whether they are put into action at work.
10. Act on ideas. Creative thinking is only worthwhile if it results in action. Provide the time and resources to develop and implement those ideas worth acting upon. Failure to do so not only means your firm will fail to benefit from innovation, but flow of ideas may well dry up if staff feel the process is pointless.
9. Art and dynamics of questioning (Socratic questioning)
Due to the rapid addition of new information and the advancement of science and technology that occur almost daily, an engineer must constantly expand his or her horizons beyond simple gathering information and relying on the basic engineering principles.
A number of homework problems have been included that are designed to enhance critical thinking skills. Critical thinking is the process we use to reflect on, access and judge the assumptions underlying our own and others ideas and actions.
Socratic questioning is at the heart of critical thinking and a number of homework problems draw from R.W. Paul's six types of Socratic questions:1. Questions for clarification: Why do you say that?
How does this relate to our discussion?
"Are you going to include diffusion in your mole balance equations?"
2. Questions that probe assumptions:
What could we assume instead?
How can you verify or disapprove that assumption?
"Why are neglecting radial diffusion and including only axial diffusion?"
3. Questions that probe reasons and evidence:
What would be an example?
What is....analogous to?
What do you think causes to happen...? Why:?
"Do you think that diffusion is responsible for the lower conversion?"
4. Questions about Viewpoints and Perspectives:
What would be an alternative?
What is another way to look at it?
Would you explain why it is necessary or beneficial, and who benefits?
Why is the best?
What are the strengths and weaknesses of...?
How are...and ...similar?
What is a counterargument for...?
"With all the bends in the pipe, from an industrial/practical standpoint, do you think diffusion will affect the conversion?"
5. Questions that probe implications and consequences:
What generalizations can you make?
What are the consequences of that assumption?
What are you implying?
How does...affect...?
How does...tie in with what we learned before?
"How would our results be affected if neglected diffusion?"
6. Questions about the question:
What was the point of this question?
Why do you think I asked this question?
What does...mean?
How does...apply to everyday life?
"Why do you think diffusion is important?"
10.Metacognition, IQ, EQ
Metacognition refers to awareness of one’s own knowledge—what one does and doesn’t know—and one’s ability to understand, control, and manipulate one’s cognitive processes (Meichenbaum, 1985). It includes knowing when and where to use particular strategies for learning and problem solving as well as how and why to use specific strategies. Metacognitionis the ability to use prior knowledge to plan a strategy for approaching a learning task, take necessary steps to problem solve, reflect on and evaluate results, and modify one’s approach as needed. Flavell (1976), who first used the term, offers the following example: I am engaging in Metacognition if I notice that I am having more trouble learning A than B; if it strikes me that I should double check C before accepting it as fact (p. 232).
Cognitive strategies are the basic mental abilities we use to think, study, and learn (e.g., recalling information from memory, analyzing sounds and images, making associations between or comparing/contrasting different pieces of information, and making inferences or interpreting text). They help an individual achieve a particular goal, such as comprehending text or solving a math problem, and they can be individually identified and measured. In contrast, metacognitive strategies are used to ensure that an overarching learning goal is being or has been reached. Examples of metacognitive activities include planning how to approach a learning task, using appropriate skills and strategies to solve a problem, monitoring one’s own comprehension of text, self-assessing and self-correcting in response to the self-assessment, evaluating progress toward the completion of a task, and becoming aware of distracting stimuli.
Elements of MetacognitionResearchers distinguish between metacognitive knowledge and metacognitive
regulation (Flavell, 1979, 1987; Schraw & Dennison, 1994). Metacognitive knowledge refers to what individuals know about themselves as cognitive processors, about different approaches that can be used for learning and problem solving, and about the demands of a particular learning task. Metacognitive regulation refers to adjustments individuals make to their processes to help control their learning, such as planning, information management strategies, comprehension monitoring, de-bugging strategies, and evaluation of progress and goals. Flavell (1979) further divides metacognitive knowledge into three categories:
Person variables: What one recognizes about his or her strengths and weaknesses in learning and processing information.
Task variables: What one knows or can figure out about the nature of a task and the processing demands required to complete the task—for example, knowledge that it will take more time to read, comprehend, and remember a technical article than it will a similar-length passage from a novel.
Strategy variables: The strategies a person has “at the ready” to apply in a flexible way to successfully accomplish a task; for example, knowing how to activate prior knowledge before reading a technical article, using a glossary to look up unfamiliar words, or recognizing that sometimes one has to reread a paragraph several times before it makes sense.
Livingston (1997) provides an example of all three variables: “I know that I (person variable) have difficulty with word problems (task variable), so I will answer the computational problems first and save the word problems for last (strategy variable).”
Why Teach Metacognitive Skills?Research shows that metacognitive skills can be taught to students to improve their learning (Nietfeld & Shraw, 2002; Thiede, Anderson, & Therriault, 2003).
Constructing understanding requires both cognitive and metacognitive elements. Learners “construct knowledge” using cognitive strategies, and they guide, regulate, and evaluate their learning using metacognitive strategies. It is through this “thinking about thinking,” this use of metacognitive strategies, that real learning occurs. As students become more skilled at using metacognitive strategies, they gain confidence and become more independent as learners.
Individuals with well-developed metacognitive skills can think through a problem or approach a learning task, select appropriate strategies, and make decisions about a course of action to resolve the problem or successfully perform the task. They often think about their own thinking processes, taking time to think about and learn from mistakes or inaccuracies (North Central Regional Educational Laboratory, 1995). Some instructional programs encourage students to engage in “metacognitive conversations”
with themselves so that they can “talk” with themselves about their learning, the challenges they encounter, and the ways in which they can self-correct and continue learning.
Moreover, individuals who demonstrate a wide variety of metacognitive skills perform better on exams and complete work more efficiently—they use the right tool for the job, and they modify learning strategies as needed, identifying blocks to learning and changing tools or strategies to ensure goal attainment. Because Metacognition plays a critical role in successful learning, it is imperative that instructors help learners develop metacognitively.
IQ, or intelligence quotient, is a number derived from a standardized intelligence test. On the original IQ tests, scores were calculated by dividing the individual's mental age by his or her chronological age and then multiplying that number by 100.
So a child with a mental age of 15 and a chronological age of 10 would have an IQ of 150. Today, scores on most IQ tests are calculated by comparing the test taker's score to the scores of other people in the same age group.EQ, on the other hand, is a measure of a person's level of emotional intelligence. This refers to a person's ability to perceive, control, evaluate, and express emotions. Researchers such as John Mayer and Peter Salovey as well as writers like Daniel Goleman have helped shine a light on emotional intelligence, making it a hot topic in areas ranging from business management to education.Since the 1990s, emotional intelligence has made the journey from a semi-obscure concept found in academic journals to a popularly recognized term.
Today, you can buy toys that claim to help boost a child's emotional intelligence or enroll your kids in social and emotional learning (SEL) programs designed to teach emotional intelligence skills. In some schools in the United States, social and emotional learning is even a curriculum requirement.
So Which One Is More Important?
At one point in time, IQ was viewed as the primary determinant of success. People with high IQs were assumed to be destined for a life of accomplishment and achievement and researchers debated whether intelligence was the product of genes or the environment (the old nature versus nurture debate). However, some critics began to realize that not only was high intelligence no guarantee for success in life, it was also perhaps too narrow a concept to fully encompass the wide range of human abilities and knowledge.
IQ is still recognized as an important element of success, particularly when it comes to academic achievement. People with high IQs typically to do well in school, often earn more money, and tend to be healthier in general. But today experts recognize it is not the only determinate of life success. Instead, it is part of a complex array of influences that includes emotional intelligence among other things.The concept of emotional intelligence has had a strong impact in a number of areas, including the business world. Many companies now mandate emotional intelligencetraining and utilize EQ tests as part of the hiring process. Research has found that individuals with strong leadership potential also tend to be more emotionally intelligent, suggesting that a high EQ is an important quality for business leaders and managers to have.
So you might be wondering, if emotional intelligence is so important, can it be taught or strengthened? According to one meta-analysis that looked at the results of social and emotional learning programs, the answer to that question is an unequivocal yes. The study found that approximately 50 percent of kids enrolled in SEL programs had better achievement scores and almost 40 percent showed improved grade-point-averages. These programs were also linked to lowered suspension rates, increased school attendance, and reduced disciplinary problems.
ADDITIONAL
11.Characteristics of Critical Thinkers
PERSONAL CRITICAL THINKING INDICATORS (CTIs)
PERSONAL CTIs are brief descriptions of behaviors, attitudes, and qualities often seen in individuals who are critical thinkers.
• SELF-AWARE: Identifies own learning, personality, and communication style preferences; clarifies biases, strengths, and limitations; acknowledges when thinking may be influenced by emotions or self-interest. • GENUINE/AUTHENTIC: Shows true self; demonstrates behaviors that indicate stated values. • EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATOR: Listens well (shows deep understanding of others ’thoughts, feelings, and circumstances); speaks and writes with clarity (gets key points across to others). • CURIOUS AND INQUISITIVE: Asks questions; looks for reasons, explanations, and meaning; seeks new information to broaden understanding.
• ALERT TO CONTEXT: Looks for changes in circumstances that warrant a need to modify approaches; investigates thoroughly when situations warrant precise, in-depth thinking. • ANALYTICAL AND INSIGHTFUL: Identifies relationships; expresses deep understanding. • LOGICAL AND INTUITIVE: Draws reasonable conclusions (if this is so, then it follows that … because … ); uses intuition as a guide; acts on intuition only with knowledge of risks involved. • CONFIDENT AND RESILIENT: Expresses faith in ability to reason and learn; overcomes problems and disappointments. • HONEST AND UPRIGHT: Looks for the truth, even if it sheds unwanted light; demonstrates integrity (adheres to moral and ethical standards; admits fl aws in thinking). • AUTONOMOUS/RESPONSIBLE: Self-directed, self-disciplined, and accepts accountability. • CAREFUL AND PRUDENT: Seeks help as needed; suspends or revises judgment as indicated by new or incomplete data. • OPEN AND FAIR-MINDED: Shows tolerance for different viewpoints; questions how own viewpoints are influencing thinking. • SENSITIVE TO DIVERSITY: Expresses appreciation of human differences related to values, culture, personality, or learning style preferences; adapts to preferences when feasible. • CREATIVE: Offers alternative solutions and approaches; comes up with useful ideas. • REALISTIC AND PRACTICAL: Admits when things are not feasible; looks for useful solutions. • REFLECTIVE AND SELF-CORRECTIVE: Carefully considers meaning of data and interpersonal interactions; asks for feedback; corrects own thinking; alert to potential errors by self and others; finds ways to avoid future mistakes. • PROACTIVE: Anticipates consequences; plans ahead; acts on opportunities. • COURAGEOUS: Stands up for beliefs; advocates for others; does not hide from challenges. • PATIENT AND PERSISTENT: Waits for right moment; perseveres to achieve best results. • FLEXIBLE: Changes approaches as needed to get the best results. • HEALTHY: Promotes a healthy lifestyle; uses healthy behaviors to manage stress. • IMPROVEMENT-ORIENTED (SELF, PATIENTS, SYSTEMS): S ELF— Identifies learning needs; finds ways to overcome limitations, seeks out new knowledge. P ATIENTS— Promotes health; maximizes function, comfort, and convenience. S YSTEMS— Identifies risks and problems with health care systems; promotes safety, quality, satisfaction, and cost containment.
12.Elements of reasoning
According to Paul and Elder (1997), there are two essential dimensions of
thinking that students need to master in order to learn how to upgrade their thinking.
They need to be able to identify the "parts" of their thinking, and they need to be able to
assess their use of these parts of thinking.
Elements of Thought (reasoning)
The "parts" or elements of thinking are as follows:
1. All reasoning has a purpose
2. All reasoning is an attempt to figure something out, to settle some question, to
solve some problem
3. All reasoning is based on assumptions
4. All reasoning is done from some point of view
5. All reasoning is based on data, information and evidence
6. All reasoning is expressed through, and shaped by, concepts and ideas
7. All reasoning contains inferences or interpretations by which we
draw conclusions and give meaning to data
8. All reasoning leads somewhere or has implications and consequences
Universal Intellectual Standards
The intellectual standards that are to these elements are used to determine the
quality of reasoning. Good critical thinking requires having a command of these
standards. According to Paul and Elder (1997 ,2006), the ultimate goal is for the
standards of reasoning to become infused in all thinking so as to become the guide to
better and better reasoning. The intellectual standards include:
Clarity
Could you elaborate?
Could you illustrate what you mean?
Could you give me an example?
Accuracy
How could we check on that?
How could we find out if that is true?
How could we verify or test that?
Precision
Could you be more specific?
Could you give me more details?
Could you be more exact?
Relevance
How does that relate to the problem?
How does that bear on the question?
How does that help us with the issue?
Depth
What factors make this difficult?
What are some of the complexities of this question?
What are some of the difficulties we need to deal with?
Breadth
Do we need to look at this from another perspective?
Do we need to consider another point of view?
Do we need to look at this in other ways?
Logic
Does all of this make sense together?
Does your first paragraph fit in with your last one?
Does what you say follow from the evidence?
Significance
Is this the most important problem to consider?
Is this the central idea to focus on?
Which of these facts are most important?
Fairness
Is my thinking justifiable in context?
Am I taking into account the thinking of others?
Is my purpose fair given the situation?
Am I using my concepts in keeping with educated usage, or am I distorting them
to get what I want?Intellectual Traits
Consistent application of the standards of thinking to the elements of thinking result in
the development of intellectual traits of:
Intellectual Humility
Intellectual Courage
Intellectual Empathy
Intellectual Autonomy
Intellectual Integrity
Intellectual Perseverance
Confidence in Reason
Fair-mindedness
13.Divergence and convergence
When it comes to problem solving and idea generation, two ways are commonly cited, namely divergent and convergent thinking strategies. In an abundance of
enthusiasm generated post-Sputnik 1, the convergent style of thinking was rapidly equated with typical intelligence. On the other hand, divergent thinking was equated with creativity and both were not uncommonly presented as competing or conflicting processes. While divergent thinking was considered to be good, its counterpart was seen as either bad or a necessarily evil considerably exaggerated in business and schools. Having said that, an important development in recent years is the increasing acceptance of the fact that real creative production needs both divergent thinking and convergent thinking, and not just the former.
WHAT IS DIVERGENT THINKING?
The term “divergent thinking” refers to that strategy of solving problems
characterized by the proposal of a multiplicity of possible solutions in an attempt to
determine the one that works. It usually happens in a free-flowing, spontaneous
manner, where multiple creative ideas are engendered and evaluated. A manifold
number of potential solutions are studied in a brief span of time, and unconventional
connections may be drawn. Once the stage of divergent thinking is complete,
information and ideas are structured and organized using convergent thinking.
Brainstorming and free writing are two processes that involve divergent thinking.
Divergence is typically signified by the capacity to produce many, or a greater number of complicated or complex ideas from a single idea or simple triggers or ideas. It calls for making unexpected combinations, changing information into unanticipated forms, identifying connections among remote associates, and the like. In divergent thinking, a single question returns multiple answers, and though the answers vary considerably depending on the person, all answers are of equal value. Perhaps they did not exist ever before and so are novel, surprising or unusual. At times, this is true purely for the specific setting or in the experience of the person responsible for the variability in question. However, it may also be the case in an absolute sense.
Described below are eight elements of divergent thinking:
Complexity – The capacity to conceptualize difficult, multifaceted, many layered
or intricate products or ideas;
Curiosity – The personality characteristic of displaying probing behaviors,
searching, asking questions, learning to get more knowledge/information about
something, and of being able to go deeper into ideas;
Elaboration – The skill of adding to, building off of or embellishing a product or an
idea;
Flexibility – The capability of creating varied perceptions or categories wherefrom
come a range of different ideas pertaining to the same thing or problem;
Fluency – The skill of engendering many ideas so as to have an increase in the
number of potential solutions or associated products;
Imagination – The capability of dreaming up, inventing, or to think, to see, to
conceptualize novel products or ideas, to be original;
Originality – The skill of coming up with fresh, unusual, unique, extremely
different or completely new products or ideas;
Risk–taking – The readiness to be courageous, daring, adventuresome – take
risks or experiment with new things so as to stand apart.
Divergent thinking has been detected in people with personality characteristics
such as these – curiosity, nonconformity, persistence and readiness to take risks.
Bubble mapping, creating artwork, maintaining a journal, subject mapping,
devoting some time to meditation and thinking, and building lists of questions are all
examples of activities that trigger divergent thinking.
Convergent thinking is a problem solving technique involving the bringing together different ideas from different participants or fields to determine a single best solution to a lucidly defined problem. In other words, this is a kind of thinking that concentrates on finding out the single best or frequently, correct solution to a problem or answer to a question. The credit for coining the term “convergent thinking” goes to Joy Paul Guilford. He came up with the term as an opposite term to “divergent thinking.” The focus for this thinking strategy is speed, logic and accuracy and on identifying the known, reapplying techniques, and amassing stored information. This strategy is best suited for situations characterized by a readily available answer that just has to be worked out or recalled by way of decision-making strategies. A vital facet of convergent thinking is that it culminates in one best answer, meaning there is no chance for ambiguity. You either have a right answer or a wrong one. This type of thinking is also
difference was observed between subjects engaging in divergent thinking and
convergent thinking.
Intellectual ability – A sequence of standard intelligence tests was utilized to
measure the divergent and convergent thinking capacities of adolescents. Outcomes
from the tests showed that subjects who were categorized as considerably divergent
thinkers had considerably higher reading and word fluency scores compared to subjects
who were categorized to be low on divergent thinking. In addition, the considerably
divergent thinkers were revealed as having higher penetration and anxiety scores. On
the other hand, subjects categorized in the considerably convergent thinkers groups
were revealed to have higher average grades for the previous school year and less of a
problem doing their homework which signifies that their parents pushed them in the
direction of post-secondary education.
Brain activity – Alterations in brain activity were assessed in subjects in the
course of both divergent and convergent thinking. To achieve this, researchers
analyzed the electroencephalography (EEG) patterns of participants in the course of
divergent and convergent thinking. The alterations in brain activity, as they appeared in
the EEG, were different for the two kinds of thinking. In contrast to a resting control
group, both divergent and convergent thinkers produced considerable Alpha 1, 2
desynchronization. While divergent thinking caused amplitude reductions in the cortex’s
caudal regions in the Theta 1 and 2 bands, convergent thinking caused coherence
boosts in the Theta 1 band that was more right-sided and caudal. The considerable
soaring of coherence and amplitude signifies a close iteration between both brain
hemispheres.
Personality – Personality correlates pertaining to convergent and divergent
thinking were studied. Results show that two personality characteristics namely
Extraversion and Openness were seen to make possible divergent thinking. Openness
analyzes intellectual curiosity, artistic interest, originality, liberal attitudes, and
imagination. No personality characteristics were found to be associated with convergent
thinking. This implies that all people irrespective of their personality engage in the
convergent manner of thinking.
Sleep deprivation – A 1988 study by J.A. Horne revealed that even a single night
of sleep deprivation can cause significant impairment to divergent thinking. On the other
hand, people engaged in convergent thinking tasks were seen to be more pliant with
respect to short-term sleep loss.
Convergent and divergent thinking are similar in that both thinking strategies are
used to determine solutions to problems. Not just that but both strategies are directed at
determining the best solutions. It is frequently seen that problems are solved through a
blend of convergent and divergent thinking.
Divergent thinking brings out the best outcomes when it is used for open-ended
problems that enable creativity. Convergent thinking is ideally suited for situations
where there exists one best correct answer and it is feasible to determine the answer by
way of evaluation of available stored information. In addition, though it doesn’t look the
case, convergent thinking also contributes to idea generation. However, owing to the
fact that the focus of divergent thinking is ideas rather than process, any solution
determined as a result of divergent thinking, frequently needs convergent thinking to
convert it into a practicable to-do-list.
Moving to everyday life, here’s an example of convergent and divergent thinking in
practice.
It is true that withstanding the earth’s gravity to travel in space has been a dream that
existed ever since women and men first cast their eyes on the stars. However, it was
only in the mid-20th century that there was actually technology available to make the
dream a reality.
October 14th, 1957 is an important day in history. It was on this day that the Russians
launched Sputnik into space, thereby initiating the space race. The success of the
Russians in technology came as a bolt to the United States. In response, the country
set up the National Aeronautics and Space Administration a year later.
In the first half of the 1960s, the then President John F. Kennedy sent letters to Wernher
von Braun and other key persons in the aerospace industry. He wanted to know how
the U.S. could defeat Russia in the space race. It was only after receiving expert advice
pertaining to the matter that the president made his famous speech where he promised
to get a man transported to the moon and also ensure his safe return, by the close of
the decade. That speech assisted with rousing nearly 400,000 NASA staff and
contractors to join hands as a cohesive team and achieve one of the best events of
history in under a decade.
Kennedy utilized data and facts to find out how the U.S. could defeat the Russians in
the space conquest. That was an example of chiefly convergent thinking. The
achievement of this remarkable feat called for the making of a lot of new technologies to
design and manufacture the rockets, lunar modules, spacesuits and other necessary
equipment. This required a considerable amount of divergent thinking.
Examples
Here are two more examples that make the comparison between divergent thinking and
convergent thinking clear.
Divergent thinking: Mr. A’s home is at a distance of five miles from work. His Chevrolet
gets 30 MPG. However, he wishes to expend less fuel in his travel for both monetary
and conservation-associated reasons. Money is not an issue. What choices does he
have to cut his fuel consumption?
Convergent thinking: Mr. A’s home is at a distance of five miles from work. His
Chevrolet gets 30 MPG. However, he wishes to expend less fuel in his travel for both
monetary and conservation-associated reasons. Money is not an issue. Which three
vehicles are the best replacements for his car?
Both examples would result in important outcomes. The trigger for the convergent
example could be some other problem – maybe his car was totaled, and he only had a
weekend to find an answer to the problem. More time may be required to investigate the
divergent example. However, it could still be possible to find an option that is entirely
different from what the user asked – like devise a vehicle that runs off of air, or start a
new business from home.
14.Obstacles of critical thinking
There are six major obstacles to creative thinking that could be preventing you from learning how to improve your problem solving skills for business success. Any one of them, if you fail to recognize and remove it, can hold you back.
OBSTACLE TO CREATIVE THINKING #1: LACK OF DIRECTION
The first obstacle to creative thinking is the lack of clear goals and objectives, written down, accompanied by detailed, written plans of action. When you become crystal clear about what you want, and how you are going to achieve it, your creative mind springs to life. You immediately begin to sparkle with ideas and insights that help you to move forward and improve your problem solving skills for business success.
OBSTACLE TO CREATIVE THINKING #2: FEAR OF FAILURE
The second major obstacle to creative thinking is the fear of failure or loss. It is the fear of being wrong, of making a mistake, or of losing money or time. As it happens, it is not the experience of failure that holds you back. You have failed countless times in life and it hasn’t done you any permanent damage. It is the possibilityof failure, the anticipation of failure that paralyses action and becomes the primary reason for failure and ineffective problem solving.1
OBSTACLE TO CREATIVE THINKING #3: FEAR OF CRITICISM
The third major obstacle to creative thinking is the fear of criticism, or the fear of ridicule, scorn or rejection. It is the fear of sounding dumb or looking foolish. This is triggered by the desire to be liked and approved of by others, even people you don’t know or care about. As a result, you decide that, “If you want to get along, you have to go along.”
It is amazing how many people live lives of underachievement and mediocrity because they are afraid to attempt to sell themselves or their ideas for business success. They are afraid to ask someone to buy or try their product or service. As a result of these fears of rejection and criticism, they play it safe and settle for far less than they are truly capable of earning.
OBSTACLE TO CREATIVE THINKING #4: STRIVING FOR CONSTANCY
A major obstacle to creative thinking is called “homeostasis.” This is a deep subconscious desire to remain consistent with what you have done or said in the past. It
is the fear of doing or saying something new or different from what you did before. This homeostatic impulse holds people back from becoming all they are capable of becoming and from achieving business success.
In homeostasis, there seems to be an irresistible unconscious pressure that brings you back to doing what you have always done. Unfortunately, this tendency leads you into your own “comfort zone.” Your comfort zone, over time, becomes a groove, and then a rut. You become stuck. All progress stops. In no time, you begin to use your marvelous powers of rationalization to justify not changing. As Jim Rohn says, “The only difference between a rut and a grave is the depth.” Homeostasis is a major killer of human potential, which will hinder you from achieving business success.
OBSTACLE TO CREATIVE THINKING #5: PASSIVE VS. PROACTIVE THINKING
The fifth obstacle to creative thinking for business success is passivity. If you do not continually stimulate your mind with new ideas and information, it loses its vitality and energy, very much like a muscle that is not exercised. Instead of thinking proactively and creatively, your thinking becomes passive and automatic.
A major cause of passive thinking is routine. Most people get up at the same time each morning, follow the same routine at their jobs, socialize with the same people in the evenings, and watch the same television programs. As a result of not continually challenging their minds, they become dull and complacent. If someone suggests or proposes a new idea or way of doing things, they usually react with negativity and discouragement. They very soon begin to feel threatened by any suggestion of change from the way things have been done in the past.
OBSTACLE TO CREATIVE THINKING #6: RATIONALIZING AND JUSTIFYING
The sixth obstacle to creative thinking for business success is rationalizing. We know that human beings arerational creatures, but what does that mean? Being rational means that we continually use our minds to explain the world to ourselves, so we can understand it better and feel more secure. In other words, whatever you decide to do, or not do, you very quickly come up with a good reason for your decision. By constantly rationalizing your decisions, you cannot learn to improve performance for business success.
