UNIT TWO ENVIRONMENTAL AND DEVELOPMENT
ISSUESCORE THEMES:
5) WEATHER, CLIMATE AND ECOSYSTEMS6) DEVELOPMENT AND RESOURCE ISSUES
OPTIONS: 8) ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES
YOU WILL NOT ANSWER QUESTION 7 ON THE PAPER
WEATHER, CLIMATE AND ECOSYSTEMCLIMATE CHANGE DURING THE QUATERNARY SECTION A – QUESTION 1
What does the term ‘Quaternary’ mean?The most recent period in geological time that contains the ice age.
What has happened to ice sheets over the quaternary? They have become smaller.
What is an ‘inter-glacial’ period?Periods where the ice has retreated but has not disappeared entirely.
What are the three natural causes of climate change that you have studied? - Milankovitch theory- Volcanic eruptions- Natural greenhouse effect
What is the Milankovitch theory? - The earth has a natural wobble on its own axis- This means that there is a variation in the amount of solar radiation that the reaches the north and south
hemisphere at different times of the year.
How are volcanic eruptions a cause for climate change? - Large volcanic eruptions release high amounts of ash and SO2- This results in volcanic material being spread around the world by a jet stream- This then impacts the amount of solar radiation that is impacting the earth - Solar radiation has a direct impact on warming
How is the natural greenhouse effect a cause for climate change? - The greenhouse effect is a natural process that warms the Earth’s surface. When the Sun’s energy
reaches the Earth’s atmosphere, some of it is reflected back to space and the rest is absorbed and re-radiated by greenhouse gases.
- Greenhouse gases include water vapour, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, ozone and some artificial chemicals such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs).
- The absorbed energy warms the atmosphere and the surface of the Earth. This process maintains the Earth’s temperature at around 33 degrees Celsius warmer than it would otherwise be, allowing life on Earth to exist.
How is the natural greenhouse effect a cause for climate change? - Increase in CO2 from factories and vehicles add more gases into the atmosphere- Fossil fuels are being burned at a faster rate than ever- Transfers of carbon into the atmosphere are faster from forest fires and burning CO2 directly.
What is a carbon sink? An area that absorbs and/or converts more carbon than it releases such as a vast area of trees such as the tropical rainforest.
What is the carbon cycle? The movement and transfer of carbon in a natural cycle that involves trees taking in CO2, photosynthesizing, decomposing material and intake of solar energy to manage the natural carbon cycle.
What did Charles Keeling (Keeling Curve) discover about climate change?That there was a relationship between temperature and CO2 levels from observations in Hawaii in 1958.
How do ice cores tell us about climate change? - Drilling for ice cores in polar/tundra environments - Bubbles in the ice hold information about the levels of CO2 and temperatures at the time that they were
captured- This information can be analysed like tree rings to look at evidence over time
What natural evidence is there for climate change? (You should be able to say a positive and negative about each)Tree rings –
- Many trees are sensitive to changes in temp, sunlight and precipitation. - In warm years trees have wide rings & vice versa- Record can go back 8,000years
Glacial Retreat – - Glaciers change in response to climate change.- We can look at old photos/maps/paintings to measure direct differences in glacial positions. But
nowadays, more effectively is the use of GIS.- These methods are reliable – Good records stretch back to around 1880.
What is the most reliable form of natural evidence for climate change? Ice cores, as this is based on exact testing not estimates from the information that has been interpreted by different people in different ways.
Explain why some evidence for climate change is incomplete and unreliable.- Scientific methods/technology may have been unreliable or inaccurate in the past- Temperature records only began in 1850s- Tree rings only go back around 8000 years- Tree rings are regional not global- Ice core data does not cover the whole of Earth’s history- GIS data has only recently been used for glacial retreat – maps/photos were often used before which
often doesn’t give us a scientific measurement of retreat
Investigating patterns of extreme weather
What is the difference between a cyclone, hurricane and a tropical storm? They are all the same they just happen n different areas of the world. Cyclone in the southern hemisphere and hurricanes in the Northern hemisphere.
What is a drought? An extended period of time when there has been little to no rainfall.
What is does ‘ITCZ’ stand for?
Intertropical convergence zone.
What happens in the intertropical convergence zone? This is where the climate close to the equator is hot throughout the year which becomes unstable and rises. This creates a band of low pressure in the atmosphere, this is called the ITCZ.
What is monsoon rainfall? Rainfall that occurs between May-September that is largely in South East Asia in areas such as Bangladesh and India.
How do cyclones and hurricanes form? - Seasonal events when there is low pressure in the ITCZ- Warm sea temperatures of 27C or more- Heating of the ocean causes evaporation in an area of low pressure- Large rain clouds and heavy air- As the air rises warmer air rises to replace it - It starts to spiral because of the Coriolis effect of the earth rotating on its own axis
What is the name of a Hurricane event that you have studied? Cyclone Pam, March 2015, Vanuatu in the Pacific
What were the effects of Cyclone Pam?- Valuable water supplies were affected- Sea water from the surge flooded coastal areas and contaminated freshwater wells- The destructive winds damaged up to 90% of homes on islands- 90,000 people had their homes damaged- The winds also damaged hospitals and schools, affecting more than 35,000 pupils- The winds destroyed up to 80% of subsistence crops, such as vegetables, and cash crops such as coffee.- Damage to farming was estimated to be US$2.5 million.-
Extra Case Study – Hurricane Katrina, New Orleans, USA. August 2005
What were the effects of hurricane Katrina? - Katrina redistributed over one million people.- Many people were totally traumatised and the poor had to live in the Super dome stadium temporarily.- Racial tensions were exposed as many of the victims were black African Americans- Many people felt that they could never return to the area as they had lost everything- 1.3 million acres (5,300 km2) of forest lands were destroyed costing about $5 billion- Some insurance companies have stopped insuring homeowners in the area because of the high costs - Hurricane Katrina and raised homeowners' insurance premiums to cover their risk- Businesses never recovered from the looting during the Hurricane and closed down permanently.- The storm surge caused substantial beach erosion, in some cases completely devastating coastal areas.- The damage from Katrina forced the closure of 16 National Wildlife Refuges.- The storm caused oil spills from 44 facilities throughout southeastern Louisiana, which resulted in over
7 million U.S.gallons (26 million L)
What is a drought? An extended period of time with low or little rainfall as a result of high pressure.
Where did you study to look at a drought? California drought, 2012-2016.
What were the causes of the California drought? - Low winter rainfall has been caused by the position of the jet streams. Jest streams are the strong
ribbons of wind that circle the globe between 9 and 16km. - Between 2012 and 2016 there was a large area of high pressure that was called the ‘reluctant ridge’, it
was an area of high pressure that could not be moved.- This meant that dry air to the west of California had remained this way for long periods of time, as a
result there had been no rainfall and conditions were consistently warm and sunny meaning increased evaporation of existing water sources.
What were the effects of the California drought? Economic effects- Farmer in the central valley los $180 million due to crops being burned and dehydrated- 17,100 people have lost jobs in the farming industry as a result of the drought- The government paid $687 million to support homeowners and farmer who had lost homes and crops,
money that could have been used for other projectsSocial impacts- Homeowners had water restrictions and shamed neighbours for watering gardens and cleaning their cars
during the water shortage- Fruit and vegetables were no longer grown locally and therefore the prices increased and availability in
supermarkets decreased- Many building and roads started to crack due to the expansion from heat and decrease in ground water. Environment impacts - Salmon and trout died in many major rivers and as a result of temperatures increasing by reducing the
amount of oxygen in the river - 36% increase in wildfires killing animals, ruining crops, destroying homes and in 2017 the worst fires
California has seen in over 50years.
What have been the long term impacts of drought in California? - Groundwater had not had the opportunity to recharge as there has been no groundwater soaking into the
ground.- Long term water supplies are in short supply which is the main source of water in California. - Alternative sources of energy are now being developed as HEP supplies are almost non-existent,
UK Weather and Climate
What does the word maritime mean? Climate that is influenced by ocean currents.
Why is the UK a maritime climate? Because it is surrounded by ocean as the UK is a large island.
What are the main factors that influence the climate of the UK? i. Latitude – distance a place is away from the equatorii. Jet stream track - separates the cold polar air masses to the north from the warmer tropical air masses
to the south.iii. Air masses – 5 different air masses affect the UKiv. Effect of ocean currents - Oceans contain flowing currents of sea water. These ocean currents circulate
around the globe. They are able to transfer heat from warm latitudes to cooler ones
v. Altitude – the height of a place – higher the place, temperature drops 1°cvi. Aspect – facing the sun
How can aspect and altitude impact the local conditions in the Northern hemisphere? - Temperature decreases 1C for every 100m in height. - South facing slopes are warmer and North facing cooler (this is the opposite in the southern hemisphere).
What are the air masses that impact the UK? (Make sure you can describe each one and how it impacts the UK)- Polar maritime - This air starts very cold and dry and during its long journey across the warm waters of the
North Atlantic its temperature rises rapidly. This allows it to become unstable and causes the moisture content to rise
- Arctic maritime - Arctic maritime air is a more direct form of Polar maritime. The air is colder and has a lower humidity.
- Polar continental - It mainly affects Britain in winter. The air is usually very cold and dry - Tropical maritime - It is warm and moist. Weather is characterised by much low cloud, drizzle and hill
fog. - Tropical continental - Tropical continental air affects the British Isles during the summer. This air is very
dry.
How does a jet stream affect the weather in the UK? The jet stream in the UK separates the cold air polar masses from the north and the tropical air masses from the south. When the jet stream takes a northerly track this results in high pressure and creates an anticyclone.
What is the name of a weather condition associated with low pressure?A depression.
Describe the passage of a depression? - Battle between warm and colder air- Air masses move around each other anticlockwise - The air starts to move east- Huge banks of clouds form along the cold and warm front - Rainfall is heaviest along these fronts- Conditions are unsettled and rain is heaviest in the centre of the
depression
What happens in the UK when there is a major depression? Between December 2013 and February 2014 there was extreme pressure that resulted in prolonged storms for a period of time. North East coast lines were battered causing extreme flooding and increased erosion as a result of high winds, rain and storm surges.
What is the name of a weather condition associated with high pressure?An anticyclone.
What happens in the UK when there is an anticyclone?- In Britain, anticyclones are experienced far less frequently than depressions.- However, once established they can remain stationary for several days.
- Under extreme conditions they can last weeks.
What is the difference between anticyclones in the summer and winter?Summer:- Absence of clouds gives very warm, sunny conditions in the day although at night the clear skies allow some
of the heat to escape meaning temperatures drop rapidly.- As air next to the ground cools, condensation can occur and dew and mist may form.- Thunderstorms are a risk during ‘heat-wave’ conditionsWinter: - Temperatures are low during the day due to the sun’s low angle in the sky, the weather is dry and bright.- The rapid loss of heat under the clear evening sky (lack of clouds) mean the nights can be very cold.- Condensation near the ground can produce frost and fog which may (due to the lack of sun’s heat) last
throughout the day.
What is an ‘urban microclimate’?A local climate that is the result of the urban environment such as traffic, building heat and wind patterns.
What is an ‘urban heat island’? An area that has a warmer climate such as London as a result of the infrastructure.
How does concrete and tarmac cause temperatures to increase? Tarmac and concrete stores heat throughout the day when the sun shines, on an evening this heat is released back into the atmosphere resulting in increased local temperatures.
How do parks and green spaces impact the climate of an urban area? Vegetation does not absorb heat like tarmac however they are essential in urban areas as they help to absorb rainfall and stop surface run off being so severe.
How do cities affect patterns of wind and rainfall? - Buildings act as blockades for the flow of wind and the wind moves around cities in patterns Different places
that you stand in around a city can impact the strength of the wind greatly. - Dust particles from the city are in the air and as rainfall forms during evaporation then this means that the
dust particles attach to the rain drops making the rainfall heavier and more frequent to rain.
ECOSYSTEMS
What is an ‘ecosystem’?A natural system of plants and animals within a biome.
What is a biome? A large scale ecosystem.
What are the ‘Geography terms’ that you would use to refer to plants and animals?Flora (plants) and Fauna (animals)
What is solar heating?
Solar heating is how much solar energy strikes the ground depending on the distance from the equator. For example at the equator solar heating reaches the ground at a right angle and is concentrated into a smaller footprint than at the poles.
Where are tropical rainforest biomes found? At the equator. Where are Tundra biomes found?At the north and south poles.
What does the word ‘deciduous’ mean? A seasonal climate where trees lose their leaves.
Why do plants grow so slow in the Taiga and the Tundra? Because in some months of the year there is little sunlight and this results in slow plant growth and maximize their growth in the months when there is higher degrees of sunlight.
Why is there so much vegetation in a tropical rainforest biome? Growth is continuous as it is hot and wet all year round and non seasonal.
Why do plants in the rainforest grow so tall? Because there is so much vegetation there is more competition for sunlight so trees tend to grow upwards rather than out.
What is a nutrient cycle? The movement of nutrients from one area of an ecosystem to another, plants grow and decomposer into the soil. The nutrients that go into the soil then are used to help the plants to grow.
Why is the cycle of nutrients slower in a tundra ecosystem in comparisons to a tropical rainforest?Decomposition is slower in the tundra and there is less vegetarian therefore there is less to decompose in the first place.
What does the term ‘biomass’ mean? The weight of all of the living matter in an area.
What are the two main items that an ecosystem stores? Carbon and water.
Where is carbon stored in an ecosystem?Plants, trees, birds, insect, animals and soil.
Why is the Tundra and a Tropical ecosystem ‘carbon sinks’?Both of these ecosystems store significant amounts of carbon. In the tropical rainforest this occurs in the vegetation and in the Tundra this is largely in the soil.
What are the key services that an ecosystem provides? Give an example for a coral reef, a tropical rainforest and desert ecosystem?
- Coral reef: Act as a natural coastal defense- Tropical rainforest: Provide a water source and medicines - Desert: Sand dunes are being developed for tourism such as in Dubai
How are tropical rainforest used to regulate water supply? - High rainfall in the tropical rainforest result in a large volume of water being stored- 80% of water is then transferred back into the atmosphere- Then this water condenses into clouds for the next rainstorm
Why is water from the tropical rainforest so important? Because it supplies water to so many indigenous people that live in the rainforest in order for survival. Water flows at different periods of time in the rainforest this either means that there is a low level of water or flooding in the area, there is a fine balance of water in the ecosystem and it needs to be managed very carefully.
Tropical rainforest uses
Name 4 uses of the tropical rainforest in Brazil? - Mineral extraction such as iron ore and gas extraction - Turcrui dam generates HEP to help industrial development - Cattle ranching to provide Brazilian beef- Huge growth in the agricultural industry such as soybean production
Give 4 reasons that soybean production has expanded in Brazil? - Increase in the global demand for soybean- A high protein source that is used in many foods- Brazil is the perfect location for soybean production- Used in agriculture to feed cattle, sheep and pigs
How is soybean production an example of monoculture? Because it is the growth of one crop.
Why are conservationists against soybean production?They feel that it is not environmentally friendly to destroy virgin rainforest for agricultural and economic gain.
When there is deforestation in a tropical rainforest how does this impact the likelihood of flooding?- Removing trees decreases the interception and increases surface run off causing flooding.- Increase in soil run-off as there is less interception this causes sediment to build up in the river channels and increases flooding further
What are the reasons for deforestation? - Farmland - Urbanisation- Timber supply - Resources (medicines)
What are buffer zones manage the tropical rainforest? Areas that are designated between the different areas and uses in a rainforest that cannot be crossed.
What are wildlife corridors in a tropical rainforest?Areas of the rainforest that are fully protected and cannot be used for human purposes and are seen as conservation zones that allow the natural habitat and wildlife to develop without human intervention.
How do wildlife corridors and buffer zones work?
They are recognised as areas of the rainforest to protect and therefore are respected by individuals using the tropical rainforest so that they are managed carefully.
What is agroforestry? Areas of the forest that are managed and controlled for farming.
Where are the Talamanca highlands? Costa Rica.
What is the management strategy that has been used in the Talamanca Highlands? There is a wildlife corridor and buffer zones that have been maintained and protected to enable the area to thrive. Certain areas can be used for ecotourism, others for research and development, areas for agro-forestry and areas that cannot be touched at all so that the natural environment is maintained.
Name a hot semi-arid Savanna Grassland biome that you have studied? Chad, Africa.
Where are semi-arid Savanna Grasslands located globally? North and South of the Equator between the tropic of cancer and the tropic of Capricorn.
What is the climate of a semi-arid Savanna Grassland?Dry throughout the year with a 5 moth wet season when there are heavy storms and humidity followed by months of drought (June to October).
Name two types of vegetation that you have studied that are found in a semi-arid Savanna Grassland? Baobab tree and the Acacia tree.
Name three ways that the Baobab tree has adapted to the Savanna Grassland climate? - Thick bark that is fire resistant.- Shallow roots that spread out to collect water when it rains. - Large barrel like trunk holds up to 500 litres of water at any one time.
Name three ways that the Acacia tree has adapted to the Savanna Grassland climate?- Thorns on the branches deter animals from eating them. - Leaves on the tree has a waxy skin to reduce water loss from evaporation. - Broad flat canopy provides shade for animals.
How do we understand energy flows in the semi-arid Savanna Grassland ecosystem?Food chains and food webs.
What do the following mean with regards to a food web and try and give an example of each in a Savanna Grassland? Producer: Makes its own food. Acacia tree.Primary consumer: Eats producers (plants) such as a giraffe.Secondary consumer: Eats primary producers like a Hyena eating a Zebra. Tertiary consumer: Eats secondary and primary consumers such as a Lion.
Give three reasons why biodiversity in the Savanna Grassland is under threat? (you should be able to explain each of these)
- Safari holidays- Hunting and poaching- Grass fires
What does the word biodiversity mean? The variety and richness of plants and animals that live in a location (for example a tropical rainforest will have a much greater biodiversity than the Tundra).
Human activity in the Savanna Grassland
What is desertification? Soil that has been over used or over heated and therefore dries beyond use, this then means that it is likely to be eroded and blown away so that it loses any fertility.
What are the physical and human causes of desertification? Physical- Extreme hot dry conditions and periods of time without rainfall - Global warming that results in rising global temperatures and therefore puts more pressure on the
Savanna. Human- Overusing the land for farming leaving it less fertile- Overgrazing the land and there is little to no vegetation keeping the land in place- Slash and burn where vegetation is burnt to the ground and leaves It over exposed.
What are the consequences of desertification? - Lack of food supply for the local people in terms of feeding their families and for farm goods to sell - Land is not able to be used for a longer period of time - Local people have to move and leave the area as the land is no longer fertile for farming purposes
Give two reasons why there is increased demand on food production in the semi-arid grassland? - Increase in population- Farming products are being exported more so they are farmers want to grow more in order to be
productive
What is a fallow period? A period of time where farmers leave the land to recover rather than continually farm and destroy the land.
How long should a fallow period be? 8-10 years
Why are farmers not likely to observe a fallow period? As they are living in poverty and need to farm the land in order to feed their families and gain an income and cannot leave the field for that long.
Give three consequences of food production in the semi-arid Savanna Grassland? - Soil dries out further and takes longer to recover- Rural poverty increases
- Other vegetation such as trees and plants are also destroyed due to the lack of nutrients
What are GM crops? Crops that have been genetically modified in order to make them drought resistant (able to grow with less water).
Give three advantages of GM crops? - More likely to survive without water- Able to have more harvest - Local farmers are able to feed their families and make a better income
Give 3 disadvantages of GM crops? - Unaware what the impacts are on health - Lots of chemicals are used in production - Can cost a lot more money and still not be guaranteed to grow
How has intensive farming impacted Lake Chad? Water extraction and irrigation has dramatically reduced the Lake in size.
How has shrinking Lake Chad impacted local people? - Lack of drinking water- Decline in fishing industry- Less water to irrigate crops- Lake can no longer be used to transport goods
How has shrinking Lake Chad impacted the environment? - Salinization as a result of evaporation has reduced the size of the lake- Biodiversity in and around the lake has decreased- Fish stocks have declined
Name one way that it is suggested that Lake Chad can be saved? The Transaqua project was to build a canal that would transfer water from the Congo back into Lake Chad. Many NIC’s were keen to invest in the programme, however as of yet levels of violence and political unrest have stopped this development happening.
What is the name scheme to reduce desertification across Africa? The Great Green wall
What are aims of the scheme? To create a wall of trees stretching from the East to the West of central Africa by planting trees this will reduce desertification and encourage productivity.
How successful has the scheme been? - Senegal has had the greatest success and started the scheme first- The world media and many charitable organisation have contributed to the scheme- Many countries that are involved in the scheme have not previously seen the benefit of aid or been
included in a development project- Some areas of Senegal and Niger are already seeing a reduction in desertification.
What re the limitations of the scheme? - The scheme is a top down scheme so not everyone feels that they are involved
- Countries that had a head start on the scheme have better climates to cope (the coastal countries)- Many people feel that it will take too long for the wall to be productive and need urgent help where
they will see fast benefits. -Is the scheme a top down or grass roots strategy? Top-down
What does a ‘top-down’ strategy mean? Decision makers such as global or national government organisation making decisions about how to solve an issue and providing aid.
What does a ‘grass-roots’ or ‘bottom-up’ strategy mean? Local people help themselves to resolve the situation and take more ownership as they feel directly involved.
MARINE ENERGY ECOSYSTEMSWhat ecosystem have you studied to look at Marine energy production? Gwynt y Môr, North Wales and Swansea
What are the two types of energy that are utilised here? Gwynt y Môr – Wind Energy Swansea – Tidal Energy
Why is Wales such an ideal location for energy production? It is an exposed coastline that can obtain wind and tidal energy.
What is the tidal lagoon near Swansea? The flow and ebb of the tide here will be able to build 9.5km of sea wall that can be used to house 16 turbines to generate power for 150,000 homes for 120 years.
What are the positive opinions for the scheme? - Increase in clean energy- Wales being seen as a UK leader in renewable energy- Provides jobs for local people - Boost leisure and tourism to the area
What are the negative opinions for the scheme? - Too expensive when there are other things that need money spending on them in he region- The energy seems a good idea however it will be a long time until we see the benefits of it - The sea wall will actually reduce tourism as it will be ugly and unsightly.
Name an ecosystem in the UK that is managed carefully? Pumlumon project, River Severn, Wales.
What is the aim of Pumlumon project? - Led by the Montgomeryshire Wildlife Trust- To make an upland economy built around wildlife, ecology and long-term sustainability - Create new working partnerships between conservation, farming and forestry, and tourism interests at
a scale involving over 250 farms, 11 local communities and 15,000 people. It attempts to create a blended landscape level issues using an ecosystems approach.
What are the successes of the project so far?
- Flood water management through restoration of bog on Glaslyn to try and regulate the natural CO2 stores to encourage carbon sinks.
- Changing grazing patterns on sensitive areas for habitat restoration.- Demonstrating to farmers that cows grazed on mixed vegetation can still produce premium meat and
therefore make a high profit.
THEME 6 GLOBAL INEQUALITIESSECTION A – QUESTION 2
What are the traditional ways of dividing up the world?HIC – High income countries LIC – Low income countries
What is the “Brandt Line”? What does it show?The Brandt report was published in 1971, and was an imaginary line that divided the world into the “rich north” and “poor south”. It used the development indicator GNP (Gross National Product) per capita which is a measure of a country’s wealth. It is criticised today for being too simplistic – every country above the line was “rich”, every country below the line was “poor”
What does the term NIC mean?NIC - Newly Industrialised Country (e.g. China, India)
How can we measure development? You should recognise the following (single) measures of development:- Infant Mortality - the number of babies (0-12 months) dying per 1000 live births. There is an inverse
relationship between the wealth of a country and its infant mortality.- GDI - Gross National Income, a measure of a country’s wealth within the boundaries of the country- GNP- Gross National Income – takes into account internal wealth and external profits and salaries of a
country.- PPP (Per capita) - Purchasing power parity (divided up per person)
What is the development continuum? Where countries were ranked along a line rather than put into a category.
What are the divisions that the World Bank use on the continuum? - HIGH income countries: GNI over $12,700 or more- UPPER MIDDLE income countries: GNI between $4,000 and $12,700- LOWER MIDDLE income with a GNI of $1,000 to $4,000
How was this beneficial for industrializing countries that were neither rich nor poor? It gave the opportunity for countries to be viewed as developing and improving on in the global economy, especially NIC’s such as China and Mexico (where industry has started to locate)
What is trade?The buying and selling of goods through import and export.
What countries have you compared to see how trade has impacted their development? China, India, Brazil and Malawi
What is a trade bloc? Agreements between countries or governments to agree to trade with each other to ensure that there is a fair and consistent market for all to develop
What is a tariff?Consistency to ensure that all imports have a the same level of taxation to make it fair to move goods.
What is a quota? How many goods can be brought into a country by type.
What is a subsidy?Agencies or governments subsidies certain industries in order to help them develop to compete in a global market.
India Case Study- In 2016 Nike was valued as the top clothing and sportswear brand in the world, its brand being given a
value at over £20 billion. - Nike’s global sales are about £21 billion per year that puts it above the GNI of over 90 countries
including Iceland, Jamaica and Madagascar.- Nike is a multinational company because it operates in over 140 countries all over the world. 41 of
these countries manufacture Nike products. - It directly employs 48,000 people, mostly in HICs such as the USA, UK and Australia.- However, another 1 million people are employed by companies who work for Nike to produce their
products. This is known as outsourcing
What is the positive multiplier effect?Industry locates in an area - This provides jobs - Workers have money to spend - More shops open (even more money in area) - Services improve - More jobs created
Describe the Geography of Malawi? - A small African nation in Sub-Saharan Africa- Landlocked so no coastline- Semi-arid grassland climate - Lake Malawi is a large fresh water supply - African continent is sometimes referred to as “switched off”.
How developed is Malawi? Malawi is one of the poorest countries in the world with a GDP PPP of $896
What is the most important product in the economy? Agriculture – 90% of Malawi’s exports come from agricultural products.
What are the most important agricultural products in Malawi? - Tobacco- Cotton- Rice - Tea
What primary agricultural product makes the most money in Malawi? Tobacco
What does Malawi import the most of?
Farming equipment to support the farming industry and farming chemicals.
Even with the support of trade blocs why does Malawi still struggle to trade?Due to the fact that it is landlocked and would still need to transport goods through different countries and border crossings to trade effectively. What subsidies is Malawi a part of? Farm Input and Subside Program (FISP) which is a non-government organisation (NGO) to tackle issues with farming exports for LIC’s.
What sort of scheme is this? Grassroots (helping the farmers to help themselves) and subsidies farmers in the equipment that they can access and the chemicals that they use to improve farm productivity. Although this is a brilliant strategy there are so many people that are dependent on the agricultural industry not just for trade but for food it is difficult for them to know where to start.
What are the limitations of the scheme? There are so many people that are dependent on the agricultural industry not just for trade but for food it is difficult for them to know where to start.
What is globalisation? The improvement in communications making the world more accessible- Products and goods being made and sold at a variety of locations around the world - A common market, language and understanding
What is an MNC? Multi-national company
A MNC that could be used as a case study? Nike in Vietnam
What is Nike famous for? Making clothing and sports equipment recognised by the famous tick and the slogan ‘Just do it’.
What makes Nike an MNC? - Operates in 140 countries in the world manufacturing, creating or selling products.- Headquarters in Oregon, USA - Factories and production in NIC’s or LIC’s
Why does Nike locate production in countries like Vietnam? - Cheap labour- No health and safety laws for workers- Factory land is cheap - No environmental laws to dispose of waster- Production is much greater and more goods can be made due to these laws
What are the benefits to Vietnam for hosting an MNC like Nike? - Local people have jobs- Infrastructure improves- Wages from families mean that they can improve their quality of life- Some local people have the opportunity to gain skills
What are the negatives for Vietnam?
- Workers have little control over their hours or conditions- Nike can change their location at anytime and Vietnam would suffer economically- Health of people declines as a result of the difficult and poor conditions
What is overdependence? When someone or something is too reliant in order for it to be successful economically or socially, such as Nike is on Vietnam.
What happened when Vietnam expressed in the media that it was unhappy with how Nike was treating Vietnam and its people? Nike threatened to leave Vietnam and then there would be no Nike employment or factories and this would result in Vietnam being in a worse position than it was to start with.
Who are Tata steel? Tata Group is an Indian MNC, its headquarters are in Mumbai and in 2014 earned over $103 billion from 100 countries.
What does Tata steel produce in addition to steel? - Tata owns 38 companies and is responsible for employing over 50,000 people including: - Jaguar cars- Tetley Tea - Tata chemicals
What makes Tata steel unique as an MNC? It is Indian owned and was once seen as a poor country and in the developing world, however now India is a key player in the international trade market.
What did Tata steel do in 2006? In 2006 Tata bought Corus a large steel making company with many different plants in the UK. When Tata bought all the factories it meant that it would be able to trade ad sell steel easier across Europe.
What happened to Tata steel in the UK by 2016? -China was beating India in the steel market and could not compete - China was making steel faster and cheaper - This was too much competition for Tata
What did the EU do to support Tata and keep jobs in the UK? TThe EU decided to step in and protect Tata by introducing tariffs. Therefore in 2016 the EU introduced a tariff of 16% on any Chinese steel imports (the US was more cross about this however and had a 236% tariff on Chinese steel!)
Despite the tariff what happened to Tata steel? - In 2017 Tata claimed that steel plants in the UK were losing £1million a day! - Tata decided to put the UK branch of the company up for sale, there were no buyers and the all UK
plants were closed as a result over 15,000 jobs were lost and the decline of an industry that had survived for so long was lost.
What is fair trade? Trade that gives farmers a good and fair price for the products that they grow.
Name a fair trade case study that you have completed? - Kuapa KoKo is the name for a large group of cocoa farmers in Ghana, Africa.
What do Kuapa KoKo make? They grow and sell the cocoa bean crop to make a product called Divine Chocolate.
What are the benefits of fairtrade products? - Farmers receive a fair price for the cocoa that they sell based on the price of the chocolate in the stores- Farmers receive training to help them detect and deal with pests and diseases that may impact the
health of the crops - Members of the Kuapa KoKo group can lend small amounts of money to farmers that can be invested
into farms to improve their crops. - Farmers include all of the village and community in the growing and weighing of the crops this means
that the villagers feel that there is more trust and are part of the process.
Why does free trade seem like a good idea? A country can import and export as many goods as they wish at any one time.
What are the disadvantages to free trade?Countries (especially LIC’s) end up in a situation where they can have many poor quality imports and they are unable to sell them as there are too many. This puts them in debt and job losses in their own country.
Global tourism and development
What are the three factors that have led to the increase in global tourism? - Changes in technology including air travel and the internet means that it is easier and more accessible
for people to go on holiday. - Increased levels of wealth and paid time off work so people have more money to travel further and can
afford to take time off work. - Package holidays so people can book everything they need to go on holiday in one place.
A NIC you have studied that has developed as a result of tourism? Mexico, over 19 million people visit Mexico every year.
How has tourism benefited Mexico? Improved infrastructure (better roads and airports) Employment increase, many people have gained jobs directly and indirectly in the the tourist industry.
What is direct employment in the tourist industry? People that are employed in regulated jobs such as hotels and restaurants.
What is indirect employment in the tourist industry?People that work in jobs such as riding TukTuks or selling home made products on the streets.
What is the main tourist area in Mexico? Cancun, over 150 hotels and 3.8million visitors a year.
How much does tourism contribute to the Mexican economy? $4.36 million
What is the ‘tourist enclave’ the hotel zone in Cancun? An area specifically for tourists away from the local community where local people and tourists are kept separate, local people are not even allowed on the beaches where the tourists are!
What is the Geography of Cancun? Cancun is built on a long area of sand that stretches out into the ocean with a beautiful lagoon behind it filled with mangrove forests and tropical coral reefs.
Why are scientists worried about Cancun? Scientists see this as an important habitat and ecosystem to protect.
What are the main environmental issues in Cancun? Sewerage from the resort has caused the coral reef to become diseased and therefore is slowly
shrinking and dying off making it difficult to sustain habitats. Sand was taken from the beach to be used in the construction of hotels and this resulted in the beach
being more susceptible to erosion. Plants that naturally grow are removed to maximize the space for tourists, not only does this destroy
the natural habitat but it also makes the sand more likely to be swept away during storms as there is nothing to anchor it in place.
Sewerage is managed poorly and therefore it is pumped out to untreated straight into the sea, this can impact fish and therefore fishermen that still reply on the local industry struggle to make a living.
Why does Mexico try and reduce tourism? Cancun is very important to Mexico, considering that many areas of Mexico people are in poverty and have low standard of living tourism is still considered to be the priority for the countries development. Some Mexican’s worry that tourists won’t keep coming to Mexico forever and it is important not to become over dependent on tourism.
EXTRA CASE STUDY:
Where is the Gambia? West coast of Africa
What is the Geography of the Gambia? Poverty is high with over 40% of the population living in poverty. Standards of education and healthcare are very low, especially for those living in rural areas.
What is the main industry in the Gambia? 75% of the country work in the agricultural industry, however Gambia is not successful in exporting the goods that they grow as feeding the population is a priority for many farmers.
How many people are employed in the tourist industry? 20,000 people are employed directly and 35,000 people employed indirectly in the tourism industry.
How does the profit of the tourist industry help development? Money generated from tourists goes towards importing food stuffs and making improvements to the infrastructure of the country so more tourists feel secure visiting there.
Why do people choose to holiday in the Gambia from the UK?
Tourists come to the Gambia mainly from Europe, although it would feel like it would be a long way to travel for a beach holiday the flight time is only an hour longer than Tenerife or Cyprus and there is no change in time zone, so no jet lag!
Why is tourism in the Gambia unstable? - Health issues such as diseases and Ebola- Conflict and issues with local people and governments
Is tourism good for the Gambia? - During peak season there is a lot of employment and economy dependent on tourism- Infrastructure that would not have been in place is now thriving
Regional inequality
Where have you studied to look at regional inequality? Brazil and India (both NICs)
Describe some features of Brazil’s core areas on the South East coast? - Cities of São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro and Belo Horizonte has fertile soils for farming- Good access to ports for trading has benefited from business investment in the area
Describe some of the features of Brazil’s peripheral areas in Central Brazil?- Suffer from a wet and tropical climate in the north, and semi-arid in the north east include dense rainforest- Difficult for access to ports and trading links
Why does India have regional inequality?- Some regions of India has seen rapid economic growth through tertiary and IT sectors- Whereas some regions are still reliant on primary industries e.g. farming
How do regions in India differ?North – large English speaking and highly skilled workforce – investment from many TNCsEast – IT sector has grown in this area, as well as Tata MotorsSouth – 30% of car industry is located here. Universities specialise in ICT e.g. Bangalore West – Industries locate here – coastal location. Good for trading. Mumbai’s film location (Bollywood)
What region is considered to be the poorest state in India?Bihar, North East of India
Why is Bihar the poorest state?- Incomes are 4x lower than many other cities in India- Only 60% of the state can read and write.- 85% work in the informal sector/primary sector e.g. farming- Farming is long hours for little pay- Government predicts up to 40% live in poverty
What is the difference between the North and South of the UK in terms of life expectancy? If you live in London you will live on average 5 years longer than in the North of the UK.
What are the characteristics of living in the South of the UK?
- Earn more money per week- Generate more income to the UK - Are more likely to have a job- Live longer
What are the reasons that there is considered to be a North South divide in the UK? - Heavy industry such as coal mining, shipbuilding was in the North, when this declined there has been
high unemployment that has not recovered. - Overseas cheaper competition from MNC’s meant that many Northern factories closed as they could
not compete with cheap prices in LIC’s leaving many people unemployed. - London is where all of the investment and international investment is and wealth and employment
grows from there. - Conditions in the North are more difficult in terms of gaining employment, success in education and
infrastructure meaning that people continue to remain worse off than their southern counterparts.
What is the M4 corridor?- The zone stretching along the M4/M11 corridor between Bristol, London and Cambridge. - This corridor has a total population of around 15 million - large labour pool.- It has attracted modern hi-tech manufacturing industries and jobs in service industries such as finance. - A number of Asian MNCs including Sony and LG invested in South Wales in the 1990s in this area.- These businesses are located near to a highly skilled workforce (from nearby universities) with fantastic
transport links to their market, including main land Europe. - Close to airports and ports.
What are the government proposals to close the gap between the North and South of the country? - Improve transport links using motorways- Faster and more efficient motorways would mean people could travel and goods could move between
these areas quickly and encourage business. - Invest in science innovation- Putting cities on the map as leading centres for scientific development not only develops areas of
research and development but also brings an educated workforce to the area, such as ‘Science city’ in Newcastle.
What is happening in Wales? - Decline of traditional primary industries such as coal mining in the South Wales valleys.- This has led to unemployment (many people who worked in coal mines have no/little education)- Former coal mining communities become run down and derelict- Cycle of deprivation - People leave the area.
THEME 8 ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGESSECTION B – QUESTION 4
What is meant by the term ‘consumerism? The idea that it is good if people buy an increasing amount of goods or services.
What is our ‘ecological footprint’? A measure of the impact on the natural environment a person’s lifestyle has. It is measured as the land area that it takes to sustain this lifestyle.
What do we mean by the term ‘food miles’? The distance that food travels from where it has grown or reared to where it is consumed.
What are the 5 ways we can reduce our ecological footprint? 1) RECYCLE by processing materials so they can be used again 2) REFUSE/RETHINK your habits 3) REUSE items instead of throwing them away 4) REDUCE your consumption 5) REPAIR by finding a new way to use an old object
What is the link between global interdependence and global consumerism? The buying and selling of goods between countries is known as global interdependence. Countries rely on each other to supply goods or services which their populations consume.
What is e-waste? Electronic waste such as computers/mobile phones that contain various metals e.g. copper
What impact does e-waste have on the environment? - More extraction needed to source new metals - Hazardous materials e.g. mercury, lead and chemicals - Pollution
What factors lead to the destruction of Tropical Rainforests? Palm oil is highly profitable (used for healthier alternative to cooking oil as well as bio-fuel for cars) Deforestation – need for wood as a resource Consumerism – wanting the best products
What is a Mangrove Forest? Shrub and tree species that live along shores, rivers, and estuaries in the tropics and subtropics. Mangroves are remarkably tough. Most live on muddy soil, but some also grow on sand, peat, and coral rock. They live in water up to 100 times saltier than most other plants can tolerate.
Mangrove Forest case study Bangladesh is a South Asian country to the north of the Bay of Bengal and is the 8th most populated country in the world. Due to its extensive coastline there are large areas of mangrove forests which provide an ideal habitat for shrimps (prawns). The increased demand for shrimps impacts on the mangrove forests in Bangladesh
What factors lead to the destruction of Mangrove Forests? - Large businesses cut down areas of mangrove forests so that the area can be developed for aquaculture (commercial farming of fish and shellfish) - Forests are cleared to make way for other forms of agriculture and tourism. Mangrove forests are destroyed so that shrimp farms can be constructed in the ponds which are flooded.
- Unlike fishing at sea, shrimp farms are a form of intensive farming where shrimps are purposely grown, and not caught from the sea.
What do we mean by the term ‘agribusiness’?Agribusiness is the various businesses that produce, sell, and distribute farm products, especially on a large scale.
How does agri-business impact the environment?- Land conversion & habitat loss. - Wasteful water consumption. - Soil erosion and degradation
What is the difference between a retailer and a consumer?Retailer - A person or business that sells goods to the public in relatively small quantities for use or consumption rather than for resale.Consumer - A person who purchases goods and services for personal use.
What are the impacts of climate change on the UK?UK temperatures have already risen. Globally, extreme weather is predicted to become more common and to have a negative impact on humans, animals and plants.- Hotter summer temperatures will become more frequent and very cold winters will become
increasingly rare. The amounts and frequency of rain will change. - Winters will be wetter and summers will become hotter and more prolonged. - There will be increased local flooding with more flash flooding occurring. - Sea levels could rise by 40cm by the end of the century leading to further coastal erosion and flood
risks. Parts of East Anglia as well as parts of the south east could end up under water.- Farming and crops will be affected by changes in weather throughout the UK which could impact on
the types of crop grown, where they are grown and their availability. Fruits that are also associated with warmer climates, like peaches and nectarines, would also be grown more widely.
- Some birds, fish and land animals are under threat as their environment changes due to temperature changes. Some of these species will not be able to adapt to these changes in their environment. The plants, trees and shrubs that can grow in the UK will change.
- Bloodsucking ticks, scorpions and poisonous spiders and even malaria carrying mosquitoes all might become a feature of life in a hotter UK.
What are the impacts of climate change on Tuvalu?• Residents are at risk of becoming environmental refugees.• Water contamination.• Plants are contaminated by sea salt water.• Isolation from markets.• Animals drowning• Erosion of the land cause of rising sea levels.• Trees are tilted due to the land being slopped down the ocean.• Stemming the tide.
What strategies have been used to manage climate change?To meet increasing global demands for energy, while reducing the risk of causing either damage to the environment or contributing to global warming, it is important that: - Developing countries reduce deforestation and increase afforestation - planting trees.
- All countries find new types of energy, while developing and expanding existing sources more sustainable than fossil fuels. - Industries and domestic users of energy use it more efficiently and reduce needless waste.- Developed countries start to switch from fossil fuels to alternative sources of energy, such as solar, wind, tidal and hydroelectric power. - World summits enable governments to get together and discuss global strategies. The Kyoto Protocol (2011) is an international treaty that sets binding obligations on industrialised countries to reduce emissions of greenhouse gasesWhat local strategies are being used to manage climate change?- Energy efficient cars- Energy efficient light bulbs- Turning off appliances - Use of renewable energy- Improve and encourage use of public transport- Reuse/Recycle- Buy locally grown food- Park and Ride schemes (limits CO2 emissions)
How can we manage our Tropical Rainforests?- Agro-forestry - growing trees and crops at the same time. This lets farmers take advantage of shelter
from the canopy of trees. It prevents soil erosion and the crops benefit from the nutrients from the dead organic matter.
- Selective logging - trees are only felled when they reach a particular height. This allows young trees a guaranteed life span and the forest will regain full maturity after around 30-50 years.
- Education - ensuring those involved in exploitation and management of the forest understand the consequences behind their actions.
- Eco-tourism - Ensuring that tourism does not exploit the natural environment or local communities.- Afforestation - the opposite of deforestation. If trees are cut down, they are replaced to maintain the
canopy.- Forest reserves - areas protected from exploitation.- Monitoring - use of satellite technology and photography to check that any activities taking place are
legal and follow guidelines for sustainability.
How can we manage the Savanna Grassland?Conservation is the key to protecting the grassland for future generations. A sustainable future could be achieved if the following policies are adopted:
- Local people employed by investors.- Respect for local cultures and customs.- Local people should receive some financial rewards from tourism.- Sustainable methods are used in order to protect the environment.- Improved conservation education programmes for local communities and farmers.
Possible strategies to achieve these goals:- Harvesting branches rather than whole trees to prevent deforestation, soil erosion and desertification.- Controlled burning of grassland to avoid wildfires.- Crop rotation to keep a varied supply of nutrients in the soil and prevent soil erosion and
desertification.- Stone lines along the soil contours keep it in place, prevent erosion and improve crop yields. Projects
such as this can involve the whole community and give them a sense of ownership and responsibility.
- Managing grazing land to avoid overgrazing, soil erosion and desertification.
What are the factors that lead to global tourism?- More affluence - since 1950 people have become more wealthy. There is more disposable income.
People also now have paid time off work for holidays.- Greater awareness - through advertising or television programmes people are more aware of how and
where they can spend their free time.- More car ownership - more families own a car. This gives greater freedom to choose when and where
to spend time.- Improvements in technology - travelling today is much quicker. Motorways and aircraft have helped
reduce the time it takes to get to different countries. Travelling by air has become more accessible as you can book on line and choose more budget options.
- More leisure time - people have paid holidays from work (on average three weeks per year are paid). Also people who are retired remain active for longer. There is also a trend to take more than one holiday in a year.
- More choice - in the past seaside holidays and package holidays were the most popular. The industry is seeing more people look at ecotourism and more unusual holiday destinations.
What are the benefits and problems of global tourism?Benefits:- Jobs created (directly and indirectly)- More money brought into the country- Local traditions and customs are kept alive by tourism- Monet from tourism can be used to protect the natural landscape- New facilities for the tourists can also benefit locals e.g. new roads- Greater demand for local food and crafts- Positive Multiplier Effect
Problems:- Jobs are often seasonal and are poorly paid- Most money goes out of the area to big companies not locals- Culture and traditions change as outsiders arrive- Damage to the natural environment e.g. footpath erosion, litter, habitats destroyed to build hotels- Overcrowding and traffic jams- Noise and visual pollution- Prices increase in local shops as tourists are often more wealthy than the local population- Valuable resources such as water can be consumed in large quantities by hotels for swimming pools etc.
What is ecotourism?Ecotourism encourages visitors to a country to leave a small carbon footprint, to the benefit of local communities and environments. It has become an increasingly popular option for many people. Ecotourism is increasingly popular and many people appreciate remote locations, small numbers of tourists and less sophisticated facilities. If a resort becomes overdeveloped then they will choose alternative destinations.
Ecotourism sets out guidelines for how tourists should behave when visiting fragile environments:Protect the environment - keep to footpaths, don't leave litter or start fires.Don't interfere with wildlife - don't scare or feed the animals.Protect resources - don't take too many showers or use air conditioning.Support local communities - stay in locally owned accommodation and buy produce from local people.Eat local food and drink - avoid products that have been imported from MEDCs.
Respect local customs and traditions - some communities are offended when tourists wear inappropriate clothes in religious places, strip off on the beach or behave in a rowdy manner. Locals appreciate tourists who try to learn the language and show an interest in their culture.
What is ethical tourism?Ethical tourism simply means tourism which benefits people and the environment in different destinations. It can offer a better income to families living in the area, by sourcing products and services locally.
