CROQUET LAWNS

Their construction, maintenance and development

by

Jeff Perris

Retired Director of Consultancy Services at The Sports Turf Research Institute, Bingley

CONTENTS

SUBJECT PARAGRAPH

Introduction 1-6 Playing Area 7-11 Lawns From Existing Turf 12 Construction of New Lawns General 13-17 Minor Levelling 18 Major Levelling 19 Drainage and Other Works General 20 Topsoil Drainage 21 Subsoil Drainage 22 Other Drainage Options 23-24 Irrigation Installation 25 Cultivation and Final Levelling 26-27 Establishment General 28 Seeding 29-31 Turfing 32 Early Care 33-34 Maintenance Mowing 35-37 Grooming/Verticutting 38-39 Aeration 40-41 Rolling 42 Improving Levels 43-44 Top Dressing 45-47 Renovation 48-50 Fertilising and Lime 51-52

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Irrigation 53-54 Turfgrass Diseases 55-56 Weed Control 57 Worm Control 58 Moss Control 59 Insect Pests 60 Pesticide Application and Legislation 61-62 Environmental Considerations 63 Education and Training 64 Greenkeeper’s Calendar 65-69 Basic Maintenance Equipment 70

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INTRODUCTION 1. These notes provide basic information on the construction, maintenance and development of

croquet lawns. 2. For professional advice on the development of croquet lawns one should use the services of a

turfgrass agronomist. The Croquet Association (CA) recommends the individuals listed on the Register of Independent Turfgrass Agronomists (RIPTA) – see their website, www.ripta.co.uk.

3. The Sports Turf Research Institute (STRI), St Ives Estate, Bingley, West Yorkshire, BD16 1AU

(Tel: 01274 565131, Fax: 01274 561891) is the main body in the UK dealing with sports turf consultancy, research and associated matters. Their website, www.stri.co.uk details their activities and services.

4. The Institute of Groundsmanship, 19-23 Church Street, The Agora, Wolverton, Milton Keynes,

MK12 5LG (Tel: 01908 311140, Fax: 01908 311140) is, as the name suggests, an organisation to assist groundsmen, particularly through the provision of courses in groundsmanship and various publications. For further details see their website, www.iog.org.uk.

5. Reference made in this booklet to “The Laws” means “The Laws of Association Croquet and

Golf Croquet” published by the CA. 6. These notes are based on a mixture of research and current best practice. The information,

nevertheless, is only in basic form and is not intended to convey any Specification of Work. Neither the CA nor the author can accept responsibility for the actions of clubs or their members in pursuing these guidance notes.

PLAYING AREA 7. The playing area of a standard full-sized croquet lawn is defined in Law 2a (1) as a rectangle 35

yd x 28 yd (32 m x 25.60 m). It will be noted that the ratio of the length to the width is 5 to 4. These dimensions are of the playing area measured to the inside of the definitive boundary lines.

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The Laws do not define the boundary lines except that they shall be marked out clearly. They are usually whiting lines 50 mm to 75 mm in width. It is important that they should be as straight as possible.

8. The playing area of a short croquet lawn is 24 yd x 16 yd (21.95 m x 14.63 m), but the practice

in most croquet clubs is to bisect a full court with a string line so giving two short courts each 28 yd x 17.5 yd (25.60m x 16 m).

9. If the ground available is too small for laying out a full-sized court then the dimensions may be

scaled down, keeping to the 5:4 ratio for the length and breadth.

10. It is desirable to have at least 1 metre all round the playing area of similar surface to allow for the free backswing of mallets but, more important, to make possible the moving of the court one way or another periodically to permit the moving of the hoop positions. Wear tends to occur around and between the upright of the hoops due to the constant passage of balls through them, particularly in wet weather.

11. The ideal surface for croquet is a perfectly level area of even, fine and closely mown grass that

forms a firm, fast and uniform surface (similar to a first class flat bowling green or tennis court). LAWNS FROM EXISTING TURF 12. It is quite feasible to develop a croquet lawn from an existing lawn in a garden or hotel (even if

neglected) providing that the turf is reasonably level. It is even possible to develop a general sports turf area for croquet, subject to it being reasonably well-drained and basically flat. A high quality turf surface may, however, take some time to establish using this method but it is usually considerably cheaper than a new court construction. A long-term regime of top dressing, aeration, scarification, mowing, nutrition, weed and pest control, as well as overseeding in most cases, will repay all the hard work with better quality finer turf. Advice on each of these turf improvement treatments is given in the section on maintenance. Whilst it is true that “you get what you pay for”, development from existing, reasonably flat lawns is well within the capabilities of willing volunteers in a Club. The highest element of the cost of contracted work is invariably labour.

CONSTRUCTION OF NEW LAWNS General 13. The way in which a croquet lawn is best constructed will reflect many factors such as:-

• Existing site conditions • Climate • Intensity of play • Standard required • Maintenance capabilities • Finances available.

14. Bearing in mind the above factors, the range of construction options and thus costs can be

considerable. If, for example, on a slow-draining, heavy clay site in a high rainfall area there is a requirement for a firm, dry, high quality turf surface, even after torrential rain, then it is likely that a free-draining construction profile, as exemplified by the United States Golf Association (USGA) guidelines for putting green construction, will be best (see later). The cost of such a free-draining profile, as exemplified by the USGA guidelines, will be high – maybe approximately £50 per m². In contrast, on free-draining soils construction work can be quite

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simple – maybe just ensuring a level surface with a uniform topsoil cover – and will be relatively inexpensive (if seeded, maybe £4 per m² or less).

15. In nearly every instance it is likely that a new lawn construction would best be carried out by a

specialist sportsground contractor. With regard to the latter, clubs could refer to The British Association of Landscape Industries (www.bali.org.uk), The Sports and Play Contractors Association (www.sapca.org.uk) or the Land Drainage Association (www.ldca.org). It is important that all development works are embraced in a clear contract between the Club (Client) and the Contractor. Contract documentation normally includes a Specification of Work, Bills of Quantities, Contract Drawings and Conditions of Contract. A turfgrass agronomist, as listed in RIPTA, could assist with initial site assessments and the compilation of appropriate Contract documentation (and maybe thereafter undertake a monitoring role on behalf of the Client). Planning, detailed specifications and correct execution of works are fundamental to successful construction projects. You should also be aware that projects may require the works to comply with CDM regulations (Construction, Design and Management Regulations 2007). Consult www.hse.gov.uk

16. Invariably croquet clubs are not rich organisations and development works can be costly. Often

consultants are seen as an unnecessary expense that can be avoided, and it is not uncommon for clubs to proceed with development works without outside help, but merely using “in-house” knowledge. Utilising local contractors who could be asked to price up development works is another option sometimes pursued. Both the “in-house” or local contractors approach can achieve what the club is looking for, but sadly this is not always the case. Initial independent and professional advice as offered through members of RIPTA must be seriously considered as the safest way forward in development projects. The consultancy fees involved can save money in terms of the envisaged overall costs, especially when such early advice can avoid costly mistakes and save time, as well as avoid a lot of heartache.

17. Construction work should only proceed when suitably dry site conditions prevail. In essence, this usually means construction work proceeding between April and September, dependent upon site conditions and climatic influences. Moving or working soils when they are wet can lead to a loss of natural soil structure and what originally may have been a decent, free-draining soil can end up with very much inferior drainage characteristics.

Minor Levelling 18. The minor levelling approach can be considered when there are gentle undulations (not

exceeding, say, 15 cm unless there is a great depth of topsoil, i.e. 30 cm or more). It is likely that this method of construction will suffice for most new croquet lawns unless there are major level discrepancies or slopes. This method of construction is meant to produce a level surface within the depth of topsoil on site. In most instances it will involve destruction of the vegetative cover unless you are fortunate enough to have good quality existing turf, in which case the turf should be cut, removed and stored for future replacement after levelling. Where it is necessary to destroy the existing grass cover prior to levelling, there may be merit in cutting down and removing any excessively long cover and thereafter applying a translocated total herbicide (perhaps one based on the chemical, glyphosate). Such a weedkiller may take 2-3 weeks to effectively kill the sward, after which the surface should be subject to deep rotovation (with a hand rotovator or a tractor-mounted rotovator according to circumstances). The loosened soil should then be redistributed to create a level surface, but make sure that filled areas are properly firmed as part of the levelling process. Care should also be exercised to avoid a rotovated surface that is full of lumps of dead vegetation, which will hinder future levelling as well as seedbed/turfbed development works. This technique of construction by minor levelling is only successful if at the end of the exercise there is a minimum 15 cm depth

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of topsoil in which to grow the grass. With the minor levelling method it is not uncommon to find a significant variation in topsoil depths on different parts of the site, in which case it is also possible to see some variation in grass growth due to the varying moisture contents in differing soil depths. After levelling within the topsoil there may be merit in some sand amelioration on heavier soils, as well as pipe drainage and pipe/slit drainage according to topsoil and subsoil characteristics. Occasionally, there can be a need to import some compatible topsoil to help produce the desired levels, especially when there is limited depth of topsoil to start with.

Major Levelling 19. This technique is adopted when there are major variations in surface levels or slopes. It

involves the removal of the topsoil, ensuring that the work is carried out carefully and that there is no contamination with subsoil during the removal works. The topsoil should be conveniently stored and then the exposed subsoil graded with appropriate equipment to a true level (±3 cm). Where it is necessary to cut and fill to achieve the necessary levels, the fill areas should be built up in no more than 25 cm layers, subjecting the surface to proper firming before adding the next layer, etc. It is only by this method that you will minimise the risks of future settlement. In an ideal world, one would not build a croquet lawn on an area subject to major levelling works owing to the risks of settlement, even if good constructional techniques were followed. After the subsoil has been properly levelled, the preserved topsoil should be re-spread to create a uniform thickness (as indicated in the minor levelling technique, you cannot expect to develop a good grass cover without a minimum of 15 cm firmed depth of topsoil). It may then be necessary to ameliorate the topsoil as well as carry out other works to ensure adequate drainage within the topsoil and subsoil (namely pipe drainage and slit or pipe drainage – see Drainage section).

DRAINAGE General 20. Unless you are very fortunate to have naturally free-draining topsoil and subsoil, it is almost

certain that work will be needed to improve drainage in the topsoil or subsoil or both. Hopefully, professional advice will have been taken on the construction development works and this should have embraced drainage requirements.

Topsoil Drainage 21. Heavy clay topsoils often have slow drainage characteristics, particularly if they are compacted

(as may happen during the course of construction or possibly later when subject to play and machinery traffic). Whilst subsequent maintenance works such as aeration and sandy top dressing can improve topsoil drainage, it is often a wise investment to improve topsoil drainage at the construction stage by amelioration with sand. Professional advice should be taken on the amount and type of sand best used, as well as how the mixing of the sand and the soil is best accomplished.

Subsoil Drainage 22. This will involve the installation of perforated plastic drainpipes in the subsoil. Figure 1 shows

a typical drain profile.

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Figure 1

Key factors for ensuring successful drainage in the subsoil are:-

• An effective outlet point for the drainage water. This could be a nearby ditch or stream or perhaps even linking into an existing drain. A soakaway should only be considered as a last resort, especially if the soakaway has to be formed in a very heavy impervious clay subsoil. Bodies such as the Local Authority and The Environment Agency should be consulted concerning the discharge of drainage waters.

• The drainage system should be appropriately designed, taking into account the depth and position of the outlet point in relation to the lawn(s), as well as the nature of the subsoil. The distance between drains may vary from 3-8 metres, dependent upon the porosity of the subsoil. The drainage design, and thus performance, can be tailored to site and client requirements.

• Drain trenches should be at least 50 mm wider than the diameter of the drainpipe (main

drains are normally 100 mm diameter with laterals of 80 mm diameter). • Drains are normally introduced at 50-60 cm depth on a firm base, ensuring a fall along their

length of at least 0.5% (1 in 200) or, better still, 1% (1 in 100). • Drainage aggregate should be carefully chosen. It should be clean, hard angular material.

Avoid soft limestones. • A suitable blinding layer is important. Do not omit this feature or replace it with a

geotextile membrane.

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• If the original topsoil was of a clay loam nature it should not be replaced on top of the

blinding layer unless it is heavily ameliorated with suitable sand. A better alternative would be to discard the clay loam topsoil and replace with a lighter sandy soil mixture.

• An inspection chamber/silt pit is desirable within the drainage system – perhaps several if a

number of lawns are being constructed. Other Drainage Options 23. Figure 2 shows the formation of a slit drainage system, which comprises an intensive series of

narrow, shallow slits at close centres, these slits linking into the blinding layer/stone backfill of an underlying pipe drainage system. The slit drainage technique is very effective in allowing water to “bypass” heavy, almost impervious topsoils and is often more effective than just ameliorating very heavy topsoils (although slit drainage as well as some topsoil amelioration is probably best). Regular sand top dressings for several years after slit drainage works are crucial to avoid “capping” of the slits with heavy soil, such capping can completely negate the value of slit drainage. However, the very heavy soils on slit drained areas must not be allowed to dry out as such soils can shrink when very dry, resulting in the slits widening and often a dangerous loss of surface levels.

Figure 2

24. Figure 3 shows the profile based on the USGA guidelines for putting green construction which allows the most effective drainage. This option should be seriously considered for the highest quality croquet lawns, especially where very heavy soils prevail and/or the lawns are in high rainfall areas. Choice of materials is crucial for the success of this method and professional advice is fundamental, otherwise the construction could be a very expensive mistake. However, this method of construction will probably be well beyond the reach of most clubs, except those who have a very big bank balance and want the best.

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Figure 3

The choice of using or omitting a blinding layer is often determined by the availability and cost of materials, these materials having to conform to very specific physical and chemical criteria.

Irrigation Installation 25. During construction development works you should not forget the installation of a suitable

irrigation system. Remember that lawns with effective drainage will also be prone to drying out during long dry spells and thus good drainage must be complemented by suitable irrigation facilities. Ideally, specialist independent advice should be taken on irrigation – various systems may be considered, ranging from portable or travelling sprinklers operating from hose pipes via hydrant points to, if finances allow, the installation of an automatic pop-up watering system.

Cultivations and Final Levelling 26. After the earlier phases of general levelling and drainage, the final stages of lawn construction

require equally high standards of workmanship and finish. Several cultivations through the top 75 mm will help facilitate the production of a clean surface, although if there have been delays prior to the finishing works, a significant weed problem may prevail which could necessitate the application of a non-residual translocated total weedkiller such as one based on glyphosate.

27. The shallow cultivations will loosen the immediate surface to facilitate final levelling works.

The use of specialist final grading machinery controlled by laser technology would be ideal at this stage, but for smaller areas such as extension works, there may remain a role for traditional heeling and raking as part of the final but crucial levelling phase. With skill, care and patience it should be possible to produce an evenly firmed final surface for seeding or turfing with tolerances of ± 6 mm. As part of surface preparation, all stones with a dimension of 10 mm should be removed and then an application of fertiliser (and possibly lime) should be made. A representative soil sample should be analysed to determine any nutritional requirement at this very important stage.

ESTABLISHMENT General 28. The decision as to whether to seed or turf will be determined by:-

• Requirements for play – If the new lawn is needed for significant play within 2-3 months, then turfing is the only option. Seeded areas will generally need at least 12 months to produce a suitably dense and strong grass cover capable of withstanding wear.

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• Time of establishment – Late summer is usually the preferred time for seeding but there is no reason why seeding cannot take place at any time between April and late August/early September as long as there are adequate irrigation and maintenance facilities available. It is possible to turf at any time of the year (except, of course, during frost or snow) but again there would be a requirement for good irrigation facilities if turfing was carried out during the spring/summer period.

• Cost – You could think of seeding perhaps being about 10-12% of the price of turfing.

Seeding 29. In the past, most croquet lawns have been seeded with 8 parts by weight Festuca rubra

commutata (Chewings fescue) and 2 parts by weight Agrostis capillaris (browntop bent) at the rate of 35 g/m². There is no reason why such a seeds mixture should not continue to be used, as the fescue and bentgrasses can produce the highest quality fine turf. It is important, however, to ensure that the best cultivars are used; more information on this point is available in the latest Turfgrass Seed booklet which is produced by the British Society of Plant Breeders Ltd in conjunction with STRI. This little booklet is updated annually and lists the performance characteristics of a huge range of cultivars of the different grass species. Visit www.pspb.co.uk or www.stri.co.uk.

30. In recent years the much improved cultivars of Lolium perenne (perennial ryegrass) have been

used to establish turf areas subject to intensive use but where a reasonably fine sward is required. Certainly, many of the modern ryegrass cultivars have fine leaves and can withstand relatively close mowing heights (say, down to 6 mm). Where ryegrasses have been used on relatively fine lawns they may have been used as a monoculture, or possibly blended with some fescue (and maybe even a little bent). It is also worth remembering that ryegrass has quite different agronomic requirements to bent and fescues (the latter perform satisfactorily on low nutrition and irrigation inputs, whereas ryegrass is more demanding of these aspects of management). If ryegrass is used it will also be crucial to ensure that the mowing equipment is in pristine condition in terms of efficiency of cut, and to combat any slight tendency for the ryegrass to get a little “leggy” you should also be prepared to provide adequate scarification from time to time.

31. For new lawns, specialist seeding machines would be most appropriate, although for small area

extensions the seed could be sown by hand or with a small spinner The grass seed should be sown at the rate of 35 g/m², although ideally the total quantity of seed should be divided in half and then each half sown in different directions. Any seed lying on the surface should be lightly raked in.

Turfing 32. Whilst supplies of smaller rolls of turf are still readily available and used to turf croquet lawns,

bowling greens and golf greens, etc., one should also seriously consider the significant advantages of using big roll turf (a single roll can cover 20 sq m). Using big roll allows an area to be turfed much faster (completion of a croquet lawn within a day) and a playing surface will be produced much more quickly – because there are fewer joints. The following points are also crucial when considering turfing:-

• Only use high quality turf of the desirable grasses, do not use cheaper meadow-turf. Ideally,

the turf should be purchased from a member of the Turfgrass Growers Association (website www.turfgrass.co.uk) stipulating certified turf of the chosen grade.

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• Make sure that the turf is grown in a soil compatible with the rootzone upon which it is being laid.

• After laying, the turf should be rolled with a 250 kg roller or similar. Thereafter in the

following weeks/months, some occasional appropriate top dressing must given to develop the smoothest and truest surface. Irrigation will also be crucial if dry weather follows turf laying.

Early Care 33. Following establishment by seeding, stone picking should take place when the grass is about

15-20 cm in height, removing all stones with a dimension of more than 10 mm. When the grass reaches a length of about 40 mm the sward should be gradually trimmed back to 25-30 mm and in subsequent weeks further gradual reductions made in mowing height. Never remove more than one third of the length of the leaf during any mowing. If seeding took place in the late summer and there is decent autumn growth, then hopefully the grass cover can be trimmed to 12-15 mm before growth slows down or ceases in the winter. During the following spring, a programme of light top dressing, appropriate fertilising and a gradual reduction in mowing heights as sward density and levels improve should be the objective. Certainly, a seeded croquet lawn should be available for use during the second spring after seeding undertaken in September. Indeed some limited, controlled play may be possible towards the end of the first full growing season.

34. On turfed areas the main requirement will be a little top dressing provided on a regular basis to

quickly develop the best and truest surface. It is important that this work only proceeds whilst there is good growth taking place. Dependent upon growing and weather conditions, it may be possible to use a croquet lawn established with the big roll system after 2-3 months.

MAINTENANCE The following operations/treatments are considered essential in the maintenance and development of good quality croquet lawns. Mowing 35. A cylinder mower of some 45-55 cm width with a 10-12 blade cylinder providing a minimum

of 150 cuts per metre should be capable of providing an excellent surface for croquet. Ideally, such mowers should also have a grooming facility as part of the cutting head mechanism. Some older mowers may have combs which fit between the front roller and the cutting cylinder.

36. Other mowers with fewer blades in the cutting cylinder can provide a reasonable finish but no

mower should be used that achieves less than 80 cuts per metre. Sites with several lawns could be maintained with a large, approximately 92 cm wide machine with trailed sit-on roller. Alternatively, a state-of-the-art ride-on triple mower could be employed. Although very expensive, they also offer the capability to groom, verticut and prick open the surface with different head attachments.

37. During the summer the lawns should be mown at 5-6 mm but the height should be temporarily

raised to 6-8 mm during any long, hot dry spells when the grass is under stress. For any “topping” required in the winter months to remove any growth made during mild spells, the mower should be set at 10-12 mm. Mowing frequency during the summer should be at least three times per week during periods of good growth and indeed on the best lawns subject to high standard play, daily mowing would be best. Cutting should be undertaken in different directions to prevent any “nap” or “grain” forming within the turf and, to produce the cleanest

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and firmest surface, the clippings should be boxed off at all times. Particular care should be taken to regularly check your mower to ensure that a uniform height of cut is achieved across the width of the machine and that the cylinder is always “on cut” in relation to the bottom blade. Adjustments and service requirements, as detailed in the mower handbook, should be rigorously pursued.

Grooming/Verticutting 38. Where groomer facilities prevail on the mowing machine they should be used regularly whilst

there is good growth about, setting the groomer some 1-2 mm below the height of cut. Groomers certainly assist in the prevention of immediate surface thatch development, help to remove flat and coarse growth and generally improve the speed of the surface.

39. Dedicated, single unit verticut machines or possibly verticut units on ride-on triple mowers are

also valuable in combating thatch development and procumbent growth. Again, good growth is important for verticut treatments to proceed and the severity of use should be carefully controlled so that the verticut blades only penetrate the surface 1-3 mm – any deeper during the main playing season could leave a marked surface which could be prone to drying out or even affect the run of the ball. Immediately at the end of the season, but whilst strong growth still prevails, a deeper verticutting should proceed where there is a significant thatch accumulation at the base of the turf. Various verticut or scarifying machines have different interchangeable blades or tines which create different effects on the surface.

Aeration 40. There is a wide range of aerating equipment available for use on fine turf, ranging from

machines with tines fitted to a revolving drum, to machines with tines which operate with a piston-type punch action. There are also machines that aerate by means of pulses of high pressure water jets and also machines that release compressed air below the surface. The more conventional drum-type or punch action aerators invariably operate to a depth of 10-15 cm but more specialist deep aerating machines (such as the Verti-Drain) can aerate to 35-40 cm depth, with a heave facility as a further benefit. Other machines that “aerate” are vibrating mole ploughs, discs and also, perhaps on a smaller scale, even a small, spiked (Sarel) roller.

41. The objective of aeration is to increase air content in the soil which will hopefully stimulate

bacterial action, which in turn gives rise to many indirect benefits (thatch breakdown, nutrient release, etc.). Aeration equipment that de-compacts will also assist root growth as well as water infiltration. There are a variety of aerating tines available on the more traditional machines such as hollow tines, slit tines and various diameter solid tines. Hollow tines are usually employed at the end of the season, whereas solid tines can be used throughout the whole year (say, about once a month if ground and weather conditions permit). During the summer if solid tines are used, many machines will often accommodate very small diameter “pencil” solid tines which can operate at quite close centres without any significant disruption or lasting visual effect on the surface. Slitting can be useful through the late autumn and winter (again about once a month) but care should be taken if slitting proceeds during the late spring and summer due to the risks of the turf drying out and the slit marks opening up. Where deep compaction prevails, use of a specialist deep aerating machine such as the Verti-Drain has often transformed turf quality and performance. Verti-draining in the autumn before the soil becomes too wet is often a very good time and is invariably undertaken by a specialist contractor.

Rolling 42. A light rolling in the early spring (250 kg roller) could prove helpful to settle the surface after

any winter frosts and firm the turf for the season ahead. Two passes, the second pass in a

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transverse direction to the first, should be sufficient. Any further rolling during the playing season should be confined to occasional use of a small tandem type roller (e.g. Trulevel), particularly before more important tournaments and competitions when there may be a wish to put a “polish” on the surface. There are, however, motorised ride-on tandem-type rollers which can complete rolling treatments very quickly, although the cost of such rollers is invariably beyond the budget of most clubs. Certainly, heavy rolling should be avoided; it does not provide the answer to an uneven surface but invariably produces unwanted compaction and poorer surface drainage.

Improving Levels 43. Many lawns have some level discrepancies for one reason or another. Indeed, quite simply

playing on the same area and not moving the hoops can contribute to the problem. If there are concerns about levels, the best approach would be to have the lawn surveyed, recording spot levels on a grid pattern at no more than 2 metre centres. One metre centres would be better still in terms of producing a more accurate contour map from the level points on, say, a 1 in 100 scale plan. An accurate survey will determine where the low spots are and where it may be possible to rectify the problem by additional selective top dressing over a period of time. Normally level discrepancies of, say, up to 20 mm can be addressed by top dressing (a little and often when good growth is taking place). Where the survey shows that there are high spots, these again would best be tackled over a period of time by perhaps periodic hollow tining, and avoiding subsequent top dressing of such areas. Sometimes if a lawn has a high ridge running through it, a light rolling after hollow tining can prove helpful in assisting the process of level reduction. Once again, this approach of hollow tining and avoiding top dressing can prove successful where high spots are no more than 20 mm. The Croquet Association are able to lend clubs laser surveying equipment with accompanying software if clubs wish to undertake surveying themselves. For further information see the Croquet Association’s website (www.croquet.org.uk).

44. Where level discrepancies are greater than ± 20 mm it may prove more positive and quicker to

address the problem by carefully removing the turf from the affected parts, adjusting the soil as necessary to create the desired level and then relaying the turf (this would be a job for the end of the season).

Top Dressing 45. This practice involves the application of a screened, sterilised sandy soil or sandy compost

material. It is primarily intended to improve general levels and the smoothness of the playing surface. There is no requirement for top dressing to include any significant amount of nutrients; indeed high levels of nutrients may produce uneven growth results as more top dressing will be given to low areas as part of the levelling objectives.

46. Apart from top dressing being applied to improve levels, sandy soil/compost dressings can

also physically improve the rootzone, e.g. sandy top dressings should help improve heavy topsoils. What is also crucially important is that after choosing the most appropriate quality top dressing, you thereafter consistently use the same top dressing. Changing the type of top dressing regularly will often produce layers in the turf profile, which can lead to various problems such as root breaks where roots are reluctant to grow through the layers of different materials. Drainage can also be compromised. Good quality top dressing to a consistent stipulated specification will be available through members of the British Rootzone & Top Dressing Manufacturers Association, see www.brtma.com.

47. Top dressing is usually provided as part of the end of season maintenance programme (after

aeration). Normally 2-5 tonnes per lawn is appropriate, although a little more could be given if

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there is any significant surface levelling to complete. What is important is that low areas are not dressed so heavily that the grass cover is smothered – it would be best if low areas could be dressed two or three times in the autumn at slightly lighter rates, as long as there is reasonable growth taking place for the grass to grow through the dressing. Late top dressings can often encourage disease activity, especially at sites where disease risks have historically been high. It is also essential that the top dressing is well worked into the surface on each occasion, perhaps initially with a long straight edge (3.5-4.0 m) such as a Levelawn, and then further worked into the turf with a drag brush. It is also possible to lightly top dress during the playing season but at very light rates and preferably if a lawn can be briefly taken out of play, as may be the case if there are a number of lawns and it is possible to operate rotational closure from time to time.

Renovation 48. Thinly grassed, weak or bare areas can arise at any time due to a number of reasons, mainly

dryness, damage from disease activity, excessively close mowing or simply the effects of continual heavy wear. Unless such poorer parts are given appropriate early attention, the situation is likely to get worse, with the quality of the playing surface often deteriorating very noticeably. The first action should always be to remove the cause of weakness, e.g. providing moisture to dry areas, applying fungicide to areas being damaged by diseases, aiming to reducing play on lawns where excessive use is resulting in damage/weakness, raising the height of cut slightly, etc. If several lawns are available for use and it is possible at certain times to pursue a policy of temporary rotational closure of a lawn, then this strategy can produce considerable benefits, not only facilitating a beneficial rest period, but also enabling other helpful treatments to be conveniently undertaken

49. Poorly grassed or weak areas should receive appropriate attention to restore a strong sward.

Whilst end of season renovation during September/October is important (after scarifying and aerating but prior to top dressing), it can also be time well spent undertaking reseeding/overseeding works during the playing season. Such works can be particularly successful if the renovated parts can be taken out of play, as could be the case if a club with a number of lawns could operate a policy of temporary rotational closure of playing areas. As part of the renovation process there can also be considerable benefit in sensibly using seed germination sheets, especially at times when there are significant temperature differences between day and night, as can be the case in the autumn. Clubs that have acquired germination sheets are always enthusiastic about the benefits of using them.

50. Apart from restoring a grass cover, renovation procedures can also be used to improve sward

composition, although it may take a number of years for ongoing overseeding to make a dramatic impact. To change sward composition it is also essential to provide appropriate management for the grass species used for overseeding – there is little point in regularly oversowing with bent and fescue if there are copious amounts of water and inappropriate fertiliser being applied as part of the management regime.

Fertilising and Lime 51. Nutrient and pH levels (the latter being an indication of acidity or alkalinity) are best

determined by the analysis of a representative soil sample carried out by a reputable independent laboratory. Some fertiliser companies may offer this facility but be aware of some of the subsequent advice that invariably follows the analysis results, fertiliser companies will want to sell you fertiliser! It is worth remembering that bent and fescue turf usually does best in moderately acid conditions, whereas ryegrass prefers less acidic and indeed neutral type soils. Nutrition and pH values are likely to be influenced by factors such as soil type as well as perhaps the quality of the irrigation water (alkaline “hard” water can raise soil pH, that is make the soil less acid and more alkaline).

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52. Bent/fescue turf has lower nutritional requirements and normally some nitrogen and potash

often proves adequate on most soils. In contrast, turf containing ryegrass may need more feeding to perform satisfactorily. Fertilisers come in a variety of forms, the main types for turf are mini granules or liquid applications. There are many to choose from including slow-release formulations and others containing trace elements and soil conditioners, etc. The question of the most appropriate fertilising programme is one that has to be very carefully considered as it can have a dramatic impact on turf quality and all sorts of secondary matters such as disease occurrence. Probably the best guidance that can be given on this subject is for the Club to initially seek some good professional advice before committing to a fertiliser programme.

Irrigation 53. Moisture control within a croquet lawn is fundamental for optimum turf performance. Good

drainage should be ensured at the construction stage and hopefully appropriate maintenance will also ensure good infiltration. It is important, however, to consider whether water is able to be applied efficiently and effectively as part of moisture control. Invariably those lawns that drain efficiently will have the greatest need for a good irrigation system. Certainly, professional advice should be taken with regard to identifying the best type of system for a site after considering site characteristics, monies available, availability of water volumes, etc.

54. When it comes to the actual application of water, one could generally consider about

20-25 litres of water per m² each week (4-5 gal per sq yd) as being a likely requirement during a spell of hot, dry summer weather. From an agronomic viewpoint, the way that this amount of water is best applied would be through two or three applications each week, allowing the immediate surface to dry out between applications. If, however, the croquet lawns are in daily and important use and there is a need to ensure consistent conditions from day to day, then it may be necessary to apply the 20-25 litres of water per week through daily irrigation. It is important that whatever irrigation system is employed, the water is applied evenly across the entire croquet lawn area, preferably avoiding the hottest parts of the day when a lot of irrigation water will be lost by evaporation. Without uniform moisture content in the soil profile there is likely to be variation in turf performance and growth. However, even with good irrigation practice, it is not uncommon on some lawns to find a tendency towards dry patch development. This problem is best tackled by ensuring monthly aeration to keep the surface open, as well as providing some additional hand watering to developing dry patch areas. Application of a wetting agent to ensure better infiltration is also advised. One final point on irrigation – it really should be kept to a minimum so that there is just enough moisture to keep the grass alive and with sufficient growth to withstand wear and tear.

Turfgrass Diseases 55. The most common turfgrass diseases found on croquet lawns are fusarium patch disease, red

thread, dollar spot, leaf spot, anthracnose and also fairy rings. There are various illustrated technical books about turfgrass diseases and a search on the internet will identify them (although some of these publications are expensive to buy). Several websites of companies who sell fungicides can also be a good source of turfgrass disease identification, perhaps one of the best being www.greencast.co.uk/weather-and-disease-forecasts.

56. To minimise and control turfgrass diseases one should adopt a dual approach. Initially, and

most importantly, an integrated turf management programme (ITM) should be in place, pursuing the most appropriate management practices to minimise disease risks, e.g. when sowing seed using turfgrass cultivars with the greatest disease resistance, avoiding over-watering, fertilising correctly, pursuing appropriate mowing heights, etc. If, despite good ITM practices, disease activity threatens, or is indeed present, then appropriate fungicide treatment

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should be made. There are many turf fungicides on the market with different modes of action, each helping to prevent and/or control disease attacks. It is essential that the disease is properly identified before treatment using the most appropriate fungicide in the circumstances. If there is any doubt about disease identification or optimum fungicide treatment, seek professional advice.

Weed Control 57. If there are just a small number of broad-leaved weeds such as daisies or plantains present in

the turf, the simplest and safest answer may be to carefully and fully remove them with a sharp knife. If there are a few small patches of finer-leaved weed such as clover or yarrow, these could be simply “spot” treated very carefully with an appropriate aerosol weedkiller. Where weed infestation is more general, then chemical control measures should be considered, ensuring that only approved products for turf use are applied and that they are sprayed onto the turf exactly as detailed by the manufacturer (to do otherwise would be illegal). There are many weedkillers that could be considered, ranging from those that simply contain one chemical such as 2,4-D (very useful against broad-leaved weeds) to various mixtures such as 2,4-D and mecoprop/dicamba, etc. for a range of broad-leaved and fine-leaved weeds. There are also some weed and feed products on the market which some clubs use, often with very decent results. For further guidance on the type of weedkiller best employed, the Club should seek advice from an agronomist or maybe a technical representative from one of the leading turf product companies. If spraying, timing of application (still conditions with good growth taking place and no rainfall likely for 24 hours), combined with the correct use of the most appropriate weedkiller and a few days for the chemical to do its job before mowing again, are the keys to a successful kill.

Worm Control 58. Whilst a few worm casts can be tolerated (dispersing them before mowing and play with a

brush or fibreglass switch), significant numbers can be a serious nuisance, possibly leading to deterioration in immediate surface drainage as well as encouraging the development of coarser grasses and weeds. Modern wormkillers (lumbricides) are effective but the duration of their control seems short-lived (often only 2-3 months). Lumbricides based on carbendazim could be used, but again advice from an agronomist or technical representative from a chemical company should be sought as the legislation regarding all kinds of pesticides is continually being reviewed. Many of the wormkillers used in the past are no longer permitted, indeed it is likely to be illegal for you to even store them. To deter earthworms from casting, turf/soil acidity should be encouraged. As the pH drops towards 5.5, worm control treatment will become less necessary. One of the cheapest ways to lower the pH is to occasionally apply calcined sulphate of iron at 8 grams per m2 (¼ oz. per sq yd).

Moss Control 59. Moss is encouraged by excessively wet conditions, thatch, low fertility, over-acidity or

excessively close mowing. The best solution to moss is to diagnose the reason for its presence and then remove that cause of the moss growth. Seasonal infestations during very wet weather are not uncommon and can be persistent, in which case control could be attempted through applying lawn sand (a mixture of ammonium sulphate and iron sulphate) in mild, dry, open weather in the early spring, or by applying one of the many iron based preparations available from turf product suppliers.

Insect Pests 60. Leatherjackets, cockchafers and frit fly may be troublesome, requiring control measures.

Currently, insecticides based on chlorpyrifos are sold to control leatherjackets and frit fly, but

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for chemically controlling chafer grubs one must use a product based on imidaclorprid. Again professional advice should be sought regarding the treatment of insect pests in turf.

Pesticide Application and Legislation 61. For a variety of reasons, such as environmental, safety or national/EU directives, the range of

pesticides available to the amenity turf user seems to be continually changing, some products being withdrawn but also with new products being available. Up-to-date information on approved pesticides is available at www.pesticides.gov.uk. Similarly, a significant amount of legislation relating to pesticide use is also changing and will continue to do so as EU bodies and directives dictate. However, there are some basic criteria that can be referred to on the Health and Safety Executive website, www.hse.gov.uk. Particular attention is drawn to the Control of Pesticides Regulations 1986 (as amended) as well as the Control of Substances Hazardous to Health Regulations 2002 (COSHH). Of more recent origin are the Plant Protection Products (Sustainable Use) Regulations 2012, some of which will possibly have an early impact at croquet clubs whose members look after the lawns themselves and use pesticides under the so called “Grandfather Rights”.

62. Personnel at croquet clubs who apply pesticides must have a certificate of competence if they

were born after 31st December 1964, those born prior to this date are currently able to carefully apply approved products under what the legislation called “Grandfathers Rights”. However, after 26th November 2015, everyone who uses a professional product, including those who previously relied on “Grandfather Rights”, must hold a specified certificate of competence relating to pesticide use.

ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS 63. Good light and air movement are fundamental to grass growth. Shade from nearby trees or

hedges can certainly weaken adjacent turf and shaded areas can often be more prone to disease (especially fusarium) as a consequence of shaded areas often staying damper than those areas in open, sunny conditions. High hedges can also restrict air movement, which again in turn can create a damper surface prone to disease activity. It is also not uncommon with some trees to find that roots invade adjacent croquet lawns. Often a deep trench between the lawn and the tree to severe the roots can bring about some improvement, albeit just for a few years. Trimming back trees or hedges to improve light levels and air movement would certainly be well worthwhile to improve the environment and subsequent grass performance.

EDUCATION AND TRAINING 64. The IOG (Institute of Groundsmanship) run training courses for professional and amateur

groundsmen. Similarly, STRI (The Sports Turf Research Institute) run training courses and have provided dedicated training for the Croquet Association in the past. Training and educational courses are also available from Pitchcare, an organisation that has grown in recent years to be a major source of information as exemplified in their quarterly magazine, see www.pitchcare.com. Local colleges that run sportsground courses may also be able to help.

THE GREENKEEPER’S CALENDAR This is offered as a general guide, but requirements will vary with type of lawns, drainage, intensity of use, etc.

65. January, February, early March Operations subject to suitable ground and weather conditions. Avoid work whilst there is frost

or excessively wet conditions.

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• Mowing – keep grass length to about 10 mm, never letting it exceed 12-13 mm. • Disease control – if necessary. • Aeration – every 3-4 weeks with solid or slit tines if ground conditions allow.

66. March – April

• Mowing – as growth improves, slowly reduce the mowing height to 5-6 mm. • Worm control – if required apply a lumbricide in mild, moist weather. • Disease control – if necessary. • Grooming/verticutting – commence when reasonable growth gets underway. • Aeration – continue once a month fitting solid tines. • Rolling – firm the surface to settle any slight upheavals caused by winter weather with a

suitable, light roller. • Fertiliser – once genuine spring growth is apparent apply lawn sand or a proprietary

spring/summer fertiliser dressing. • Moss control – lawn sand should help tackle this problem, otherwise use a product based on

iron. 67. May – September

• Mowing – 3 times each week when there is good growth about, setting the machine at 5-6 mm.

• Fertiliser – a further one or two treatments with a suitable spring/summer fertiliser dressing should be provided.

• Grooming/verticutting – regularly use the groomer facility if part of the mowing machine. If a verticutter is available, the operation should be carried out every 3-4 weeks when good growth is taking place.

• Aeration – continue monthly aeration with thin solid tines (pencil tines) as well as possibly carrying out occasional Sarel rolling.

• Disease control – fungicide treatment may be necessary. • Weed control – apply a suitable selective weedkiller during a period of strong growth. • Irrigation – apply water when necessary but take a minimalistic approach, namely just

enough to keep the grass alive and with sufficient growth to withstand wear and tear. Where dry patches are developing, undertake treatment with a wetting agent.

• Ball stop boards – move to new positions at each mowing to maintain healthy grass. • Line marking – once per week. • Rotational closure – if a number of lawns are available, it is often helpful to rest a lawn

from time to time by means of rotational closure. 68. September – October

• End of season works – deep scarifying, thorough aerating, overseeding and top dressing should be completed relatively early in the autumn so that recovery is quick and certainly complete before poorer weather arrives. Where a number of lawns exist, they could be gradually taken out of play through September.

• Mowing – raise the mowing height as growth slows down to 7-8 mm. • Disease control – immediate fungicide treatment should be carried out if any disease

activity threatens. • Aeration – in October after the general end of season programme has been completed, a

policy of monthly aeration should be commenced using solid or slit tines. 69. November – December

• Mowing – continue topping as necessary with the machine set at about 10-12 mm. • Aeration – continue on a monthly basis when ground conditions permit.

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• Disease control – as necessary. BASIC MAINTENANCE EQUIPMENT 70. The following should be considered as the basic equipment necessary to maintain a croquet

lawn in good condition:-

• 45-55 cm wide cylinder mower achieving a minimum of 150 cuts per metre, ideally complemented with a groomer facility

• Verticut machine (with various knife or wire tine reels) • Aerator, which can be fitted with solid, slit or hollow tines. A Sarel (spiked) roller can also

be useful • Fertiliser distributor • Spraying machine • Line marking machine • Level lawn, brushes and lutes • Irrigation equipment • Top dressing machine, if there are several lawns to maintain • Roller (e.g. Trulevel).

Maintenance equipment should be housed in safe, dry accommodation. If pesticides are kept,

they should be stored in a suitable container that meets the pesticide legislation requirements. Where clubs have limited equipment or labour, it may be possible to let part of the maintenance programme out to a specialist contractor.

Each piece of equipment available for club use should be operated as directed by the

manufacturer, as well as observing best current practice for the operation. Particular attention should be given to applying materials to the surface, e.g. fertiliser application and spraying, ensuring that the application of product is both even and accurate in terms of application rate (correct application rates are a legal requirement). Calibration of the distributor or sprayer in relation to product and speed of travel is crucial for successful results.

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