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1 Crystal structure of the Brucella abortus deoxyxylulose 5-phosphate reductoisomerase-like (DRL) enzyme involved in isoprenoid biosynthesis. Jordi Pérez-Gil* ,1 , Bárbara M. Calisto* ,2 , Christoph Behrendt 3 , Thomas Kurz 3 , Ignacio Fita 2 , and Manuel Rodríguez-Concepción 1 1, Department of Molecular Genetics, Centre for Research in Agricultural Genomics (CRAG) CSIC- IRTA-UAB-UB, Campus UAB Bellaterra, 08193 Barcelona, Spain. 2, Institut de Biologia Molecular de Barcelona (IBMB-CSIC) and Institute for Research in Biomedicine (IRB Barcelona), Parc Científic de Barcelona, Baldiri Reixac 10, 08028 Barcelona, Spain 3, Institut für Pharmazeustische und Medizinische Chemie, Heinrich-Heine-Universität Düsseldorf, Universitätsstr. 1, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany * These authors contributed equally to the work. Running Title: Targeting Isoprenoid Enzymes for Novel Antibiotics To whom correspondence should be addressed: Manuel Rodríguez-Concepción, Department of Molecular Genetics, Centre for Research in Agricultural Genomics (CRAG), Campus UAB Bellaterra, 08193 Barcelona, Spain. Tel.: +34 935636600 ext 3222; Email: [email protected] Keywords: antibiotics; Brucella; isoprenoid, MEP pathway _____________________________________________________________________________________ Background: The antibiotic resistance epidemic demands new drugs specifically targeting the infective agents. Results: Crystal structure of the Brucella DRL enzyme shows major differences with DXR, which catalyzes the same reaction in most other bacteria. Conclusion: Structural information will allow development of inhibitors targeting only DRL. Significance: Drugs against DRL could function as highly-specific, narrow-range antibiotics. SUMMARY Most bacteria use the 2-C-methyl-D- erythritol 4-phosphate (MEP) pathway for the synthesis of their essential isoprenoid precursors. The absence of the MEP pathway in humans makes it a promising new target for the development of much needed new and safe antimicrobial drugs. However, bacteria show a remarkable metabolic plasticity for isoprenoid production. For example, the NADPH- dependent production of MEP from 1-deoxy- D-xylulose 5-phosphate (DXP) in the first committed step of the MEP pathway is catalyzed by DXP reductoisomerase (DXR) in most bacteria, whereas an unrelated DXR-like (DRL) protein was recently found to catalyze the same reaction in some organisms, including the emerging human and animal pathogens Bartonella and Brucella. Here we report the X- ray crystal structures of the Brucella abortus DRL enzyme in its apo form and in complex with the broad spectrum antibiotic fosmidomycin solved to 1.5 and 1.8 Å resolution, respectively. DRL is a dimer, with each polypeptide folding into three distinct domains starting with the NADPH-binding domain in resemblance to the structure of bacterial DXRs. Other than that, DRL and DXR show a low structural relationship with a different disposition of the domains and a topologically unrelated C-terminal domain. In http://www.jbc.org/cgi/doi/10.1074/jbc.M112.354811 The latest version is at JBC Papers in Press. Published on March 22, 2012 as Manuscript M112.354811 Copyright 2012 by The American Society for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Inc. by guest on April 1, 2018 http://www.jbc.org/ Downloaded from
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Crystal structure of the Brucella abortus deoxyxylulose 5-phosphate reductoisomerase-like (DRL) enzyme involved in isoprenoid biosynthesis.

Jordi Pérez-Gil*,1, Bárbara M. Calisto*,2, Christoph Behrendt3, Thomas Kurz3, Ignacio Fita2, and

Manuel Rodríguez-Concepción1

1, Department of Molecular Genetics, Centre for Research in Agricultural Genomics (CRAG) CSIC-IRTA-UAB-UB, Campus UAB Bellaterra, 08193 Barcelona, Spain.

2, Institut de Biologia Molecular de Barcelona (IBMB-CSIC) and Institute for Research in Biomedicine (IRB Barcelona), Parc Científic de Barcelona, Baldiri Reixac 10, 08028 Barcelona, Spain

3, Institut für Pharmazeustische und Medizinische Chemie, Heinrich-Heine-Universität Düsseldorf, Universitätsstr. 1, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany

* These authors contributed equally to the work.

Running Title: Targeting Isoprenoid Enzymes for Novel Antibiotics

To whom correspondence should be addressed: Manuel Rodríguez-Concepción, Department of Molecular Genetics, Centre for Research in Agricultural Genomics (CRAG), Campus UAB Bellaterra, 08193 Barcelona, Spain. Tel.: +34 935636600 ext 3222; Email: [email protected]

Keywords: antibiotics; Brucella; isoprenoid, MEP pathway

_____________________________________________________________________________________

Background: The antibiotic resistance epidemic demands new drugs specifically targeting the infective agents.

Results: Crystal structure of the Brucella DRL enzyme shows major differences with DXR, which catalyzes the same reaction in most other bacteria.

Conclusion: Structural information will allow development of inhibitors targeting only DRL.

Significance: Drugs against DRL could function as highly-specific, narrow-range antibiotics.

SUMMARY Most bacteria use the 2-C-methyl-D-

erythritol 4-phosphate (MEP) pathway for the synthesis of their essential isoprenoid precursors. The absence of the MEP pathway in humans makes it a promising new target for the development of much needed new and safe antimicrobial drugs. However, bacteria show a

remarkable metabolic plasticity for isoprenoid production. For example, the NADPH-dependent production of MEP from 1-deoxy-D-xylulose 5-phosphate (DXP) in the first committed step of the MEP pathway is catalyzed by DXP reductoisomerase (DXR) in most bacteria, whereas an unrelated DXR-like (DRL) protein was recently found to catalyze the same reaction in some organisms, including the emerging human and animal pathogens Bartonella and Brucella. Here we report the X-ray crystal structures of the Brucella abortus DRL enzyme in its apo form and in complex with the broad spectrum antibiotic fosmidomycin solved to 1.5 and 1.8 Å resolution, respectively. DRL is a dimer, with each polypeptide folding into three distinct domains starting with the NADPH-binding domain in resemblance to the structure of bacterial DXRs. Other than that, DRL and DXR show a low structural relationship with a different disposition of the domains and a topologically unrelated C-terminal domain. In

http://www.jbc.org/cgi/doi/10.1074/jbc.M112.354811The latest version is at JBC Papers in Press. Published on March 22, 2012 as Manuscript M112.354811

Copyright 2012 by The American Society for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Inc.

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particular, the active site of DRL presents a unique arrangement, suggesting that the design of drugs that would selectively inhibit DRL-harboring pathogens without affecting beneficial or innocuous bacteria with DXR should be feasible. As a proof of concept, we identified two strong DXR inhibitors that have virtually no effect on DRL activity. ________________________________________

The increased prevalence of antibiotic

resistance, mainly caused by the use of broad-spectrum antibiotics at a huge scale in medicine and industry, is an ecological disaster that threatens to end the golden age of antibiotic therapy. One of the most promising novel antibiotic targets is the 2-C-methyl-D-erythritol 4-phosphate (MEP) pathway for isoprenoid biosynthesis (1,2). Isoprenoids are a large group of compounds synthesized by all free-living organisms from the universal precursors isopentenyl diphosphate (IPP) and its isomer dimethylallyl diphosphate (DMAPP) (3-5). Two pathways have been described for the synthesis of these precursors. Archaea (archaebacteria), fungi and animals synthesize IPP from mevalonate (MVA) and then convert it into DMAPP by an IPP/DMAPP isomerase (IDI) enzyme. By contrast, most bacteria (eubacteria) and apicomplexa protozoa (including the malaria parasites) use the MEP pathway, a completely different route that simultaneously produces both IPP and DMAPP (3,6). Specific inhibitors of the MEP pathway (which is absent from mammals) are expected to develop into much-needed antibiotics and novel agents against tuberculosis and malaria, among other infectious diseases (1,2). Among them, fosmidomycin (FSM) and derivatives such as FR900098 (Figure 1) have been shown to act as broad-spectrum agents against multidrug-resistant bacteria and malaria parasites (7-9). FSM is an inhibitor of 1-deoxy-D-xylulose 5-phosphate (DXP) reductoisomerase (DXR), the enzyme catalyzing the NADPH-dependent production of MEP from DXP (Figure 1) (10,11). DXR crystal structures from different bacteria (including Escherichia coli) and the human malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum are currently available (12-19).

Selection acts to maintain isoprenoid production but not necessarily at the level of

individual enzymes (20,21). Thus, two types of IDI enzymes with no sequence, structural, or catalytic similarity have been found in bacteria (22-24). In the case of DXR, we recently identified a DXR-like (DRL) enzyme that only shows some sequence similarity with DXR at the level of the NADPH-binding domain but catalyzes the same biochemical reaction (25). DRL is found instead of DXR in emerging animal and human pathogens such as Bartonella (responsible for a variety of HIV-associated infections) and Brucella (which usually infect livestock but can also spread to humans) (26-28). Although DRL can be inhibited with FSM (25), it would be most interesting to develop specific antibiotics against DRL-harboring pathogens that would not affect beneficial bacteria that use DXR (like those present in the gut). However, the identification and development of such narrow-spectrum drugs requires structural information for both enzymes.

Here we report the crystal structure of the B. abortus DRL enzyme in its apo form and in complex with FSM solved to 1.5 and 1.8 Å resolution, respectively. DRL catalytic residues were found to be structurally non-equivalent to the catalytic residues in DXR. Furthermore, comparison of the active sites of both enzymes led to the identification of FSM derivatives that inhibited DXR but had virtually no effect on DRL activity in vitro, opening the door to the design of new, safe, and highly specific antibiotics against only one of these two types of enzymes.

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES Protein expression and purification - Protein expression and purification was carried out as described (25). Protein-containing fractions were pooled, concentrated and loaded onto a HiLoad Superdex 200 16/60 gel filtration column (GE Healthcare) that was equilibrated in a buffer solution containing 0.02 M Tris-HCl (pH 7.5), 0.1 M NaCl, 2 mM MgCl2, 2 mM DTT and 5 % (v/v) glycerol. The correct size of the recombinant BaDRL protein was verified by SDS-PAGE. Size exclusion chromatography and dynamic light scattering experiments confirmed BaDRL to be a dimer in solution by showing a monodisperse peak of the dimer size. Purified BaDRL was concentrated to 10 mg/mL and flash-frozen in liquid nitrogen for storage at -80 ºC. The SeMet-labelled protein was produced by the methionine

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pathway inhibition method (29). PCR amplification of the pET-DRL plasmid (25) with complementary primers containing the desired mutations (E209S/R213A-F: 5´-G A T T A C A G G C A A T C A G C A G A C C G C G C G A A C A T G A A T G T G and E209S/R213A-R: 5’- C A C A T T C A T G T T C G C G C G G T C T G C T G A T T G C C T G T A A T C) followed by DpnI digestion generated the construct for the expression of the double mutant BaDRL protein. Both SeMet-labelled and mutant BaDRL proteins were expressed and purified following the protocol used for the unlabelled wild type protein. Crystallization - Initial crystallization conditions were screened by the sparse matrix method at 20ºC. In the optimized crystallization conditions obtained by vapour diffusion in hanging drops, 1 µL of protein (7.5-10 mg/mL) in 0.2 M Tris-HCl (pH 7.5), 0.1 M NaCl, 2 mM MgCl2, 2 mM DTT and 5 % (v/v) glycerol, was mixed with 1 µL of the reservoir solution (0.1 M HEPES (pH 7.0), 14-20 % (w/v) PEG4000, 0.2 M MgCl2). The drops were equilibrated against 1 mL of the reservoir solution. SeMet-labelled crystals were obtained at a protein concentration of 5 mg/mL in the same conditions determined for the unlabelled protein. BaDRL crystals were in some cases soaked with 0.5 mM FSM for 10 min in order to solve the structure of the BaDRL-FSM complex. Large needle-like crystals grew in just 5 days, reaching a maximum size of approximately 0.03 x 0.03 x 0.15 mm. Data collection and reduction - Crystals were briefly soaked in a drop of a cryoprotectant solution composed by 100 mM HEPES (pH 7.0), 20 % (w/v) PEG 4000, 200 mM MgCl2 and 20 % (v/v) glycerol (it also contained 0.5 mM FSM when complexation with the inhibitor was intended) before being flash-cooled in liquid nitrogen and exposed to X-rays. Diffraction data were collected in several beam lines of the European Synchrotron Radiation Facility (Grenoble, France; Table S1). Data were processed and scaled using DENZO and SCALEPACK (30). Processing statistics are summarized in Table S1. Structure determination and refinement - The program package HKL2MAP (31) was used both

to locate the osmium sites in the primitive orthorhombic P21212 crystal form, which had been soaked with OsCl6, and to calculate initial phases to 2.8 Å resolution. To improve the electron density, the osmium derivative was then combined with data from two other crystal forms: a SeMet-labelled BaDRL crystal belonging to space group C2 and a native data from a primitive triclinic (P1) crystal. The crystal density modification protocol was performed with DMM (32), including averaging, solvent flattening and histogram matching. A model containing BaDRL residues spanning from residues 2-437 was derived from progressive improvement of the electron density map using iterative rounds of restrained refinement with Refmac5 (33) and manual building with COOT (32). Refinement statistics are summarized in Table S1. TLS refinement in Refmac5 was applied in the last stage using eight TLS groups. Atomic isotropic B-factors were refined only in the final cycles. The stereochemical quality of the final models, assessed with MolProbity (34), showed no residues in the disallowed region of the Ramachandran plot. Atomic coordinates have been deposited in the Protein Data Bank (apo-BaDRL, 3UPL; BaDRL-FSM complex, 3UPY). Activity assays - In vivo activity assays were carried out by complementation of the MVA auxotrophy of DXR-defective E. coli EcAB4-10 cells as described (35). Positive transformants carrying plasmids with either wild type or mutant versions of BaDRL were selected on MVA-supplemented LB plates. Three independent colonies were then streaked on LB plates with no MVA or used to inoculate 5ml of LB liquid medium with no MVA. After incubation at 37ºC, complementation was assessed by visually monitoring the development of colonies on plates and by quantifying growth of liquid cultures by optical density at 600 nm. (OD600). In vitro activity was estimated using a photometric assay as described (25). For calculation of IC50 values, seven concentrations of the inhibitors in the range 0.016-100 µM were added to the reaction mixtures with 35 µg of recombinant BaDRL. Mean and standard deviation values were calculated from three replicates with GraphPad Prism 5 using a nonlinear regression method.

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RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Overall architecture - The crystal structure of the full length B. abortus DRL (BaDRL) enzyme fused to a C-terminal hexa-histidine tag was solved by the single-wavelength anomalous dispersion (SAD) method of an osmium-derivative together with density averaging between the three crystal forms available (see Experimental procedures). The structures of the apo-protein (Fig. 2), and of a binary complex, obtained by soaking with the inhibitor FSM (Fig. 3), were refined to 1.5 and 1.8 Å resolution (Table S1), respectively. The refined models comprise residues Thr2 to Gly437, with most of the side chains defined unambiguously in the electron density maps for the two subunits found in the asymmetric unit of the triclinic crystals (Fig. 2). The subunits are related by an accurate molecular binary axis with a buried surface of ~2000 Å2. A dimeric form of BaDRL had been previously detected by gel filtration (25) and confirmed by dynamic light scattering studies. The same dimer was also found in the other two BaDRL crystal forms available, where the molecular binary axis coincides with a crystallographic two-fold axis leaving only one BaDRL subunit in the asymmetric unit of these crystals.

Each BaDRL subunit is organized in three structural domains: N-terminal, central (catalytic), and C-terminal (Fig. 2A). The N-terminal domain, formed by residues 1 to 166 and 328 to 339, corresponds to the NADPH-binding domain, as anticipated from the sequence similarity between DRL and DXR in this region (25). This N-terminal domain starts with a helix (α1) followed by a Rossmann-like motif composed of seven parallel β-strands surrounded by seven α-helices (Fig. S1). The central or catalytic domain, stretching from residues 167 to 327, has an α/β fold with a central four-stranded mixed β-sheet (Fig. 2A). Two long α-helices (α8 and α11) are situated on the sheet face facing the N-terminal domain, while helix α12 locates on the opposite side of the sheet. A protrusion in the central domain, formed by two antiparallel helices (α9 and α10) connected by a short loop, forms the active site lid (see below). The central domains of BaDRL and DXR proteins present a distant structural relationship with a root mean square difference (r.m.s.d.) of 2.4 Å for 90 equivalent residues (55%) for the E. coli (EcDXR) enzyme

(Fig. S1). Finally, the small C-terminal domain of BaDRL, starting at residue 340, adopts a distorted β-sandwich topology that includes two three-stranded antiparallel β-sheets (Fig. 2A). The C-terminal domain is completed by helices α15 and α16, the later located at the C-terminal end of the domain and oriented perpendicularly to helices α6 and α7. A search with DALI (36) found that the C-terminal domain of BaDRL only had a clear structural similarity with the ice-binding domain of type III antifreeze proteins, with a r.m.s.d. of 2.2 Å for 57 equivalent residues (87%) for the ocean pout (Macrozoarces americanus) protein (37) (Fig. S2). The C-terminal domain of DXR presents a four-bundle helix topology unrelated to the one found for DRL. However, the two domains have similar overall volumes and occupy approximately the same position relatively to the N-terminal and central domains.

The interactions between the two subunits of the BaDRL dimer involve the N-terminal and central domains (Fig. 2B), with only one interaction being formed exclusively by residues of the central domains (Phe178 and Tyr322). A cavity at the dimer interface contains bulky blobs of electron density that were modelled as glycerol molecules forming hydrogen bonds with side chains from the residues Glu174, Arg320 and Tyr322, which are highly conserved in DRL enzymes (Fig. S3).

Active site and FSM binding - The active site, identified at the cleft formed between the N-terminal and the central domains, contains a Mg2+ ion bound with an octahedral coordination to Asp167, Glu168 and two water molecules (equatorial ligands) and to Glu232 and a third water (axial ligands) (Fig. 2A). These three residues are fully conserved in all the bona-fide DRL enzymes, i.e. those belonging to the DRL phylogenetic clade (25) (Fig. S3). The presence of the catalytic Mg2+ ion and its coordination geometry in BaDRL resemble those in DXR structures. Residues Asp167, Glu168 and Glu232 in BaDRL are structurally close to the Mg2+-coordinating residues Asp150, Glu152 and Glu231 in EcDXR. In the vicinity of the Mg2+

coordination sphere of DXR enzymes there is a highly conserved triad of charged residues (Lys125, Glu126, and Asp221 in EcDXR), which are assumed to play an important role in catalysis.

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Though not structurally equivalent, a similar triad of charged residues (Glu141, Glu222 and Lys228) is also found in BaDRL, with side chains of Glu141 and Glu222 interacting with each other in the selenomethionine crystal. Other catalytic residues identified in EcDXR such as Met214, His257 and Met276 (12), appear to be maintained in BaDRL but by the structurally non-equivalent residues Met215, His323 and Met34, respectively (Fig. S1).

In DXR enzymes, the active site requires the closing of a lid formed by residues from a flexible loop that is generally not well defined in the available structures. A similar role might be performed in BaDRL by the protrusion formed by the central domain helices α9 and α10 (Fig. 2 and S1). The electron density in the BaDRL-FSM complex shows a low occupancy alternative conformation where this protrusion has moved towards the active site, suggesting that inhibitor binding facilitates the closing of the lid. The EcDXR lid residue His209, shown to play a relevant catalytic role (38), is not conserved in BaDRL, where it might have been functionally replaced by residues Glu209 and Arg213 from the lid. Both residues are highly (but not fully) conserved in sequences of the DRL clade (Fig. S3). To verify their relevance for BaDRL enzyme activity, a mutant Glu209Ser/Arg213Ala enzyme was constructed and its activity was assayed both in vivo (based on its ability to complement a DXR-defective E. coli strain) and in vitro (based on the requirement of NADPH for the conversion of DXP into MEP). As shown in Fig. 4, the double mutant protein showed no enzymatic activity in either of these assays, supporting the conclusion that lid residues Glu209 and Arg213 are essential for the activity of the BaDRL enzyme.

In the BaDRL-FSM complex, the electron density corresponding to the FSM molecule was well defined in the active centre of one of the BaDRL subunits, with an estimated occupancy above 75% (Fig. 3A). Two oxygen atoms (O1 and O2) from the hydroxamic acid tail of the inhibitor coordinate with the catalytic Mg2+ ion replacing the two water molecules found as equatorial ligands in the apo structure. The hydroxamic acid moiety also makes a hydrogen bond with His323 and participates in a stacking interaction with the aromatic side chain of the mobile Phe223. The

phosphonate moiety of FSM is well anchored by two ionic bridges with Lys191 and Lys193 and two hydrogen bonds with the side chain of Thr229 and a water molecule (Fig. 3A). The five residues participating in the binding of FSM are fully conserved in all the bona-fide DRL enzymes with the only exception of protein B1CB96 from Anaerofustis stercorihominis, in which the Thr229 residue is conservatively changed to Asn (Fig. S3). Together, it is likely that these residues have an essential role in DRL activity, presumably participating either in the proper binding of the substrate or in catalysis.

The EcDXR residues involved in the binding of FSM are Trp212, which makes stacking with the hydroxamic acid moiety, and Ser186, Asn227 and Lys228, which interact with the phosphonate moiety of the inhibitor (Fig. 3B). It is remarkable that, despite the overall similarity of the binding of FSM to DRL and DXR, none of the residues participating directly in the binding are structurally equivalent and even the identities of many of the residues differ between both families of enzymes (Fig. 3).

Inhibition studies - The described data indicate that, despite the fact that DRL and DXR enzymes catalyze the same biochemical reaction (25), the arrangement of their active sites shows major differences, particularly between the lids. Interestingly, such substantial differences opened the possibility of identifying new drugs selectively inhibiting either DRL or DXR. As a first step in this direction, several FSM derivatives known to inhibit the activity of DXR enzymes in vitro (compounds 2, 3, and 4 in Fig. 1) were positioned into the BaDRL-FSM structure such that the phosphonate group and the hydroxamic acid skeleton common to all these compounds coincided with the experimental position of FSM (Fig. S4). In FR900098 (compound 2 in Fig. 1), the formyl-hydrogen of FSM is replaced by a methyl group that was shown to favourably interact with the lid residue Trp296 in the P. falciparum DXR enzyme (Trp212 in EcDXR), resulting in an increased affinity (8,11,19) (Fig. S4A). In BaDRL, the extra methyl group of FR900098 is predicted to establish new hydrophobic interactions, without steric clashes, with the side chains of residues Thr325 and Leu308 (Fig. S4B), suggesting that FR900098

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might be more efficient than FSM in inhibiting DRL activity. On the other hand, FSM derivatives with an α-phenyl substitution and a reverse orientation of the hydroxamic acid group, such as compounds 3 and 4 (Fig. 1), are excellent DXR inhibitors that, consistently, fit well into the active site of EcDXR (39,40) (Fig. S4C). However, positioning of compounds 3 and 4 into the BaDRL structure revealed that, for the two possible stereoisomers of both compounds, the α-phenyl group would either crash against the side chain of Phe223 (Fig. S4D) or remain exposed. This is expected to either prevent or destabilize binding, suggesting that these two compounds might not be good inhibitors of BaDRL.

To experimentally substantiate these predictions, purified recombinant BaDRL and EcDXR enzymes were used for in vitro activity assays in the presence of different concentrations of FSM and compounds 2 (FR900098), 3 or 4 (Fig. 5). FR900098 inhibited BaDRL activity more efficiently than FSM (IC50[FR900098] = 1.09 ± 0.19 µM vs. IC50[FSM] = 2.39 ± 0.62 µM), suggesting that the interactions predicted for the methyl group of FR900098 with BaDRL residues (Fig. S4B) might indeed improve the affinity for this enzyme. Interestingly, both FSM and FR900098 inhibited BaDRL with less efficiency than EcDXR (Fig. 5A), resulting in IC50 values for BaDRL that were about 10-fold higher than those reported in the literature for DXR (39,41). This might be due to the structural differences between the two types of enzymes, since the large size of the pocket around the hydroxamic acid tail of both FSM and FR900098 in BaDRL is predicted to result in a looser binding compared to DXR enzymes (Fig. 3 and Fig. S4). Most strikingly, compounds 3 and 4 inhibited EcDXR activity at similar concentrations than FSM and FR900098 (Fig. 5A) but they were unable to significantly inhibit BaDRL activity at concentrations up to 1 mM (Fig. 5B). These results confirm the structural analysis and represent a proof of concept for the

development of highly specific antibiotics targeting only one of the two enzyme families.

Perspectives - The large-scale, indiscriminate use of broad-spectrum antibiotics has resulted in a worldwide epidemic of antibiotic resistance. A solution to this problem is to find new antibiotics with novel targets that are only present in the specific pathogenic bacteria causing the infection. Here we show that DRL can be one of such targets. The determination of the crystal structures of the BaDRL enzyme in its apo form and in complex with FSM showed a low structural relationship with DXR proteins and revealed important differences in the active sites of these enzymes, opening the door to the development of highly specific inhibitors against only one of the two types of enzymes. Because DRL (but not DXR) is the enzyme catalyzing the essential production of MEP in important human and livestock pathogens such as Brucella, which can be potentially used as a biological weapon (42), inhibitors exclusively targeting DRL should be useful as narrow-range, highly specific antibiotics that would not cause undesired side effects by affecting beneficial or innocuous bacteria harbouring only DXR. Although finding and developing such inhibitors is not a straight-forward task, we show how the structural information can contribute to their identification.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We thank F.J. Sangari and J. Querol for critical reading of the manuscript. The Spanish Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovación provided a FPI fellowship to JPG, research grants BFU2009-09268 to IF and BIO2008-00432 to MRC, and funding through the Consolider program (CSD2007-00036). This work was also supported by grants from the Generalitat de Catalunya (2009SGR-26 and XRB).

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FIGURE LEGENDS Figure 1. Scheme of chemical structures. (A) Reaction catalyzed by DXR and DRL enzymes. DXP, 1-deoxy-D-xylulose 5-phosphate; MEP, 2-C-methyl-D-erythritol 4-phosphate. (B) Structure of DXR inhibitors used in this work. Figure 2. Overall architecture of the BaDRL enzyme. (A) Cartoon representation of the structure of a BaDRL subunit with the N-terminal domain colored orange, the central domain in dark blue and the C-terminal domain in green. The active site lid found in the central domain (helices α9 and α10) is depicted in light blue. The inset shows a close-up view of the conserved active site residues Asp167, Glu168 and Glu232, that together with three water molecules (red spheres) coordinate octahedrally a Mg2+ ion (cyan sphere), shown with their corresponding 2Fo-Fc electron density contoured at 1σ. (B) View of the BaDRL dimer down the molecular two fold axis (indicated as the oblong dot). Figure 3. FSM binding sites in BaDRL and EcDXR. (A) Stereo view of the BaDRL active site with relevant residues explicitly depicted in stick mode. The acidic residues that coordinate the catalytic Mg2+ ion (cyan sphere) are shown in yellow. The residues that bind the FSM phosphonate group and the (putative) catalytic residues referenced in the text are shown in blue. A bound FSM molecule is shown as atom colored sticks with its corresponding 2Fo-Fc electron density contoured at 1σ. Two water molecules (red spheres), involved in the coordination of the Mg2+ ion and in the phosphonate moiety binding, are also shown. (B) Stereo view of the EcDXR active site with a bound FSM molecule. Residues are explicitly depicted in stick mode using the same color code as in (A). Figure 4. In vivo and in vitro activity assays of wild-type and mutant BaDRL proteins. (A) Complementation of E. coli EcAB4-10 cells with plasmids carrying wild type (WT) or mutant Glu209Ser/Arg213Ala (209/213) versions of the B. abortus DRL gene. DRL activity was deduced from the ability of the cloned gene to rescue growth of the DXR-deficient strain in the absence of MVA. Positive transformants selected on MVA-supplemented plates were used for inoculation of solid (left) or liquid (right) LB medium lacking MVA. After incubation at 37ºC for 18 hours, growth was only observed with the WT construct. (B) Enzymatic activity of purified WT and mutant (209/213) BaDRL proteins in vitro. DRL activity was estimated from the decrease in NADPH levels monitored by absorbance at 340 nm. Mean and standard deviation of three experiments (n=3) are represented. Figure 5. In vitro activity of BaDRL and EcDXR proteins in the presence of inhibitors. Activity assays were carried out at 37ºC in reaction mixtures containing DXP (substrate), NADPH (cofactor), and the inhibitors shown in Fig. 1 at a concentration of 0.5 µM (A) or 500 µM (B). Control reactions (black circles) were prepared with no inhibitor. Following the addition of the same amount of either BaDRL or EcDXR, activity was monitored by the decrease in absorbance at 340 nm as NADPH was oxidized. Representative assays are shown.

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Figure 1.

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1: R=H (fosmidomycin, FSM)2: R=CH3. (FR900098)

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Figure 2.

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Figure 3.

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Manuel Rodriguez-ConcepcionJordi Perez-Gil, Barbara M. Calisto, Christoph Behrendt, Thomas Kurz, Ignacio Fita and

reductoisomerase-like (DRL) enzyme involved in isoprenoid biosynthesisCrystal structure of the Brucella abortus deoxyxylulose 5-phosphate

published online March 22, 2012J. Biol. Chem. 

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