CS 3204Operating Systems

Godmar Back

Lecture 26

04/21/23CS 3204 Spring 2007 3

Announcements

• Office Hours moved to one of McB 133, 116, or 124. Last office hours today.

• Please see revised grading policy posted on website– Project 3 has been graded (and should have been

posted)– Will provide standing grade by tomorrow– Accept project 4 until May 7, 23:59pm

• You must send email to your advisor by Wednesday 5pm if you want to switch to P/F!

• Reading assignment: Ch 10, 11, 12

Filesystems

Consistency & Logging

FFS’s Consistency• Berkeley FFS (Fast File System) formalized rules for filesystem

consistency• FFS acceptable failures:

– May lose some data on crash– May see someone else’s previously deleted data

• Applications must zero data out if they wish to avoid this + fsync– May have to spend time to reconstruct free list– May find unattached inodes lost+found

• Unacceptable failures:– After crash, get active access to someone else’s data

• Either by pointing at reused inode or reused blocks• FFS uses 2 synchronous writes on each metadata operation that

creates/destroy inodes or directory entries, e.g., creat(), unlink(), mkdir(), rmdir()– Updates proceed at disk speed rather than CPU/memory speed

Write Ordering & Logging

• Problem: as disk sizes grew, fsck becomes infeasible– Complexity proportional to used portion of disk– takes several hours to check GB-sized modern disks

• In the early 90s, approaches were developed that – Avoided need for fsck after crash– Reduced the need for synchronous writes

• Two classes of approaches:– Write-ordering (aka Soft Updates)

• BSD – the elegant approach

– Journaling (aka Logging)• Used in VxFS, NTFS, JFS, HFS+, ext3, reiserfs

Write Ordering

• Instead of synchronously writing, record dependency in buffer cache– On eviction, write out dependent blocks before evicted block:

disk will always have a consistent or repairable image– Repairs can be done in parallel – don’t require delay on system

reboot• Example:

– Must write block containing new inode before block containing changed directory pointing at inode

• Can completely eliminate need for synchronous writes• Can do deletes in background after zeroing out directory

entry & noting dependency• Can provide additional consistency guarantees: e.g.,

make data blocks dependent on metadata blocks

Write Ordering: Cyclic Dependencies

• Tricky case: A should be written before B, but B should be written before A? … must unravel

Logging Filesystems

• Idea from databases: keep track of changes– “write-ahead log” or “journaling”: modifications are first

written to log before they are written to actually changed locations

– reads bypass log

• After crash, trace through log and – redo completed metadata changes (e.g., created an

inode & updated directory)– undo partially completed metadata changes (e.g.,

created an inode, but didn’t update directory)

• Log must be written to persistent storage

Logging Issues

• How much does logging slow normal operation down?

• Log writes are sequential– Can be fast, especially if separate disk is used– Subtlety: log actually does not have to be written

synchronously, just in-order & before the data to which it refers!

• Can trade performance for consistency – write log synchronously if strong consistency is desired

• Need to recycle log– After “sync()”, can restart log since disk is known to

be consistent

Physical vs Logical Logging

• What & how should be logged?• Physical logging:

– Store physical state that’s affected• before or after block (or both)

– Choice: easier to redo (if after) or undo (if before)

• Logical logging:– Store operation itself as log entry (rename(“a”, “b”))– More space-efficient, but can be tricky to implement

Summary

• Filesystem consistency is important• Any filesystem design implies metadata

dependency rules• Designer needs to reason about state of

filesystem after crash & avoid unacceptable failures– Needs to take worst-case scenario into account –

crash after every sector write

• Most current filesystems use logging– Various degrees of data/metadata consistency

guarantees

Filesystems

Volume Managers

Linux VFS

Example: Linux VFS

• Reality: system must support more than one filesystem at a time– Users should not notice a

difference unless unavoidable

• Most systems, Linux included, use an object-oriented approach:– VFS-Virtual Filesystem

Example: Linux VFS Interfacestruct file_operations { struct module *owner; loff_t (*llseek) (struct file *, loff_t, int); ssize_t (*read) (struct file *, char __user *, size_t, loff_t *); ssize_t (*aio_read) (struct kiocb *, char __user *, size_t, loff_t); ssize_t (*write) (struct file *, const char __user *, size_t, loff_t *); ssize_t (*aio_write) (struct kiocb *, const char __user *, size_t, loff_t); int (*readdir) (struct file *, void *, filldir_t); unsigned int (*poll) (struct file *, struct poll_table_struct *); int (*ioctl) (struct inode *, struct file *, unsigned int, unsigned long); int (*mmap) (struct file *, struct vm_area_struct *); int (*open) (struct inode *, struct file *); int (*flush) (struct file *); int (*release) (struct inode *, struct file *); int (*fsync) (struct file *, struct dentry *, int datasync); int (*aio_fsync) (struct kiocb *, int datasync); int (*fasync) (int, struct file *, int); int (*lock) (struct file *, int, struct file_lock *); ssize_t (*readv) (struct file *, const struct iovec *, unsigned long, loff_t *); ssize_t (*writev) (struct file *, const struct iovec *, unsigned long, loff_t *); ssize_t (*sendfile) (struct file *, loff_t *, size_t, read_actor_t, void *); ssize_t (*sendpage) (struct file *, struct page *, int, size_t, loff_t *, int); unsigned long (*get_unmapped_area)(struct file *, unsigned long, unsigned long, unsigned long, unsigned long); int (*check_flags)(int); int (*dir_notify)(struct file *filp, unsigned long arg); int (*flock) (struct file *, int, struct file_lock *);};

struct file_operations { struct module *owner; loff_t (*llseek) (struct file *, loff_t, int); ssize_t (*read) (struct file *, char __user *, size_t, loff_t *); ssize_t (*aio_read) (struct kiocb *, char __user *, size_t, loff_t); ssize_t (*write) (struct file *, const char __user *, size_t, loff_t *); ssize_t (*aio_write) (struct kiocb *, const char __user *, size_t, loff_t); int (*readdir) (struct file *, void *, filldir_t); unsigned int (*poll) (struct file *, struct poll_table_struct *); int (*ioctl) (struct inode *, struct file *, unsigned int, unsigned long); int (*mmap) (struct file *, struct vm_area_struct *); int (*open) (struct inode *, struct file *); int (*flush) (struct file *); int (*release) (struct inode *, struct file *); int (*fsync) (struct file *, struct dentry *, int datasync); int (*aio_fsync) (struct kiocb *, int datasync); int (*fasync) (int, struct file *, int); int (*lock) (struct file *, int, struct file_lock *); ssize_t (*readv) (struct file *, const struct iovec *, unsigned long, loff_t *); ssize_t (*writev) (struct file *, const struct iovec *, unsigned long, loff_t *); ssize_t (*sendfile) (struct file *, loff_t *, size_t, read_actor_t, void *); ssize_t (*sendpage) (struct file *, struct page *, int, size_t, loff_t *, int); unsigned long (*get_unmapped_area)(struct file *, unsigned long, unsigned long, unsigned long, unsigned long); int (*check_flags)(int); int (*dir_notify)(struct file *filp, unsigned long arg); int (*flock) (struct file *, int, struct file_lock *);};

Volume Management

• Traditionally, disk is exposed as a block device (linear array of block abstraction)– Refinement: disk partitions = subarray within block

array

• Filesystem sits on partition• Problems:

– Filesystem size limited by disk size– Partitions hard to grow & shrink

• Solution: Introduce another layer – the Volume Manager (aka “Logical Volume Manager”)

Volume Manager

• Volume Manager separates physical composition of storage devices from logical exposure

ext3/home

ext3/usr

jfs/opt

LV1 LV2 LV3

VolumeGroup

PV1 PV2 PV3 PV4

filesystems

logical volumes

physicalvolumes

RAID – Redundant Arrays of Inexpensive Disks

• Idea born around 1988• Original observation: it’s cheaper to buy multiple, small

disks than single large expensive disk (SLED)– SLEDs don’t exist anymore, but multiple disks arranged as a

single disk still useful• Can reduce latency by writing/reading in parallel• Can increase reliability by exploiting redundancy

– I in RAID now stands for “independent” disks• Several arrangements are known, 7 have “standard

numbers”• Can be implemented in hardware/software• RAID array would appear as single physical volume to

LVM

RAID 0

• RAID: Striping data across disk• Advantage: If disk access go to different disk,

can read/write in parallel, decrease in latency• Disadvantage: Decreased reliability

(MTTF(Array) = MTTF(Disk)/#disks

RAID 1

• RAID 1: Mirroring (all writes go to both disks)• Advantages:

– Redundancy, Reliability – have backup of data– Can have better read performance than single disk –

why?– About same write performance as single disk

• Disadvantage:– Inefficient storage use

Using XOR for Parity

• Recall:– X^X = 0– X^1 = !X– X^0 = X

• Let’s set: W=X^Y^Z– X^(W)=X^(X^Y^Z)=(X^X)^Y^Z=0^(Y^Z)=Y^Z– Y^(X^W)=Y^(Y^Z)=0^Z=Z

• Obtain: Z=X^Y^W (analogously for X, Y)

X Y Z W

XOR 0 1

0 0 1

1 1 0

RAID 4

• RAID 4: Striping + Block-level parity• Advantage: need only N+1 disks for N-disk capacity & 1

disk redundancy• Disadvantage: small writes (less than one stripe) may

require 2 reads & 2 writes – Read old data, read old parity, write new data, compute & write

new parity– Parity disk can become bottleneck

RAID 5

• RAID 5: Striping + Block-level Distributed Parity• Like RAID 4, but avoids parity disk bottleneck• Get read latency advantage like RAID 0• Best large read & large write performance• Only remaining disadvantage is small writes

– “small write penalty”

Other RAID Issues

• RAID-6: dual parity, code-based, provides additional redundancy (2 disks may fail before data loss)

• RAID (0+1) and RAID (1+0):– Mirroring+striping

• Interaction with filesystem– WAFL (write anywhere filesystem layout) avoids in-

place updates to avoid small write penalty– Based on LFS (log-structured filesystem) idea in

which all writes go to new locations