CS101 Introduction of computingapi.ning.com/...E2hahEm9zh4p-UzW-utFt-1GX36SdDmRM/... · CS101...

CS101 Introduction of computing

www.Virtualins .pk Prepared by Imran Baloch

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CS610 Computer Network Lecture Wise Questions and Answers

For Final Term Exam Preparation By

Virtualians Social Network

CS610 Computer Network Lecture No.23

What is Host computer?

Host computer is any computer system that is connect to an internet and runs applications. The

term "host" means any computer that has full two-way access to other computers on the Internet.

A host has a specific "local or host number" that, together with the network number, forms its

unique IP address. If you use Point-to-Point Protocol to get access to your access provider, you

have a unique IP address for the duration of any connection you make to the Internet and your

computer is a host for that period. In this context, a "host" is a node in a network.

Explain "DELAY THROUGHPUT PRODUCT"

Delay-Throughput Product represents the number of bits in transit between the sender and the

receiver. It is the product of the propagation delay times the data rate. So in Ethernet if the sender

is 200 meters away from the receiver, the propagation delay is 1 microsecond, thus, since data

rate is 10Mbps, there are 10 bits in transit: no more at sender, not yet at receiver. It tells us how

much data must be transmitted before the receiver starts getting it. If we are communicating

coast to coast on a one gigabit channel, then the Delay-Throughput product is, since propagation

time is about 20ms, 2.5MB. The Delay-Throughput product has an impact on the size of the

buffers used at the transmitter and receiver. The buffer size should be at least as big as the delay-

throughput product otherwise some data may get lost (if receiver's buffer is smaller) or the

communication medium (the pipe) may become unfilled (if transmitter's buffer is smaller).

Another aspect of this product: suppose that data at the receiver arrives too fast and we want to

indicate to the sender that it should slow down; then we need a buffer at the receiving end that is

at least 2*Delay-Throughput Product (what was in the pipe when the receiver decides, plus what

transmitted while signal propagates from receiver to sender).




Bit-Length: The length of a one-bit signal. It can be easily understood with an example. We are

in communication channel where the data-rate is 10Mbps. That means that one bit is transmitted

in 1/107 seconds (this is the time-to-transmit-one-bit). Since signals propagate in a medium at

about 200,000km/s, ie 2*108 m/s, the bit-length will be 10-7 * 2 * 108 meters, that is, 20 meters.

In general,

Bit-Length = speedoflight/datarate

The larger the bit-length of a channel, the slower it is that channel. The relationship between

Delay Throughput product and Bit-length is

Delaythroughoutproduct = L/bitlength

Where L is length of the channel.

What is the differentiate between virtual network and physical network

A virtual network works just like a physical network except that the switch is software based and

ports can be added or removed dynamically as they are needed. After an external virtual network

is configured, all networking traffic is routed though the virtual switch. For this reason, we

recommend using at least one additional physical network adapter for managing network traffic.

The virtual switch functions as a physical switch would and routes networking traffic through the

virtual network to its destination.

What is Universal Service?

A communication system that supplies universal services allows arbitrary pairs of computers to

communicate. Universal service is desirable because it increases individual productivity.

What is TCP/IP ?

TCP/IP is the basic communication protocol of the Internet. It can also be used as a

communications protocol in a private network (either an intranetor an extranet). When you are

set up with direct access to the Internet, your computer is provided with a copy of the TCP/IP




program just as every other computer that you may send messages to or get information from

also has a copy of TCP/IP.

The TCP/IP protocol suite does not deal with session or presentation layers at all. The operating

system is typically responsible for the transport layer, but how an application takes advantage of

that is left up to the designer of the application protocol. In practice, however, a variety of

session and presentation protocols have evolved as application protocol designers build on each

other's work and borrow ideas from each other.

The layer above the Network Access Layer in the protocol hierarchy is the Internet Layer. The

Internet Protocol, RFC 791, is the heart of TCP/IP and the most important protocol in the

Internet Layer. IP provides the basic packet delivery service on which TCP/IP networks are built.

All protocols, in the layers above and below IP, use the Internet Protocol to deliver data. All

TCP/IP data flows through IP, incoming and outgoing, regardless of its final destination.

What is the difference B/W OSI Model and TCP/IP suite?

OSI Model is an abstract description for layered communications and computer network protocol

design‟s model. The Internet Protocol Suite also known as TCP/IP is the set of communications

protocols used for the Internet and other similar networks. The OSI model consists of 7

architectural layers whereas the TCP/IP only has 4 layers. There are more layers in OSI that‟s

why easy to understand. OSI is reference/conceptual model to understand how network works.

TCP/IP is considered to be a more credible model. This is mainly due to the fact because TCP/IP

protocols are the standards around which the internet was developed.

What is heterogeneous network?

A network that includes computers and other devices from different manufacturers are said to be

heterogeneous network. For example, local area networks (lans) that connect Microsoft

Windows and Linux based personal computers with Apple Macintosh computers are

heterogeneous. The word heterogeneous network is also used in wireless networks using

different access technologies. For example, a wireless network which provides a service through




a wireless LAN and is able to maintain the service when switching to a cellular network is called

a wireless heterogeneous network.

Ptcl internet used by us. Which type of network is this Lan , Wan or something else

PTCL router is a WAN device where you connect your LAN connection. As you earlier study

that router is WAN device that work on network layer. Let me explain you with an example of

WAN

Wans (like the Internet) are not owned by any one organization but rather exist under collective

or distributed ownership and management over long distances. Internet is the best example of a

WAN.


What is the difference between virtual network and physical network?

A virtual network works just like a physical network except that the switch is software based and






What is mathematical relation between delay and throughput?




If a packet switch had a queue of packets waiting when a new packet arrives the new packet

will be placed on the Tail of the queue and will need to wait while the switch forwards the

previous packets

What was basic reasons/needs or logic to divide an IP addresses into Classes.And in Class E

what reserved for future use i don't understand that.??

Classful addressing reduces the wastage of IP addresses. Classful addressing makes it possible to

determine the network portion of the IP address by looking at the first four bits of the first octet

in the IP address. From this information, a receiving host can determine which part of the IP

addresses being used to identify the specific network on which the host resides, and which

portion of the IP address is used to identify the host.

Class A: 126 class A networks. These networks consist of 16,777,214 possible IP addresses that

can be assigned to devices and computers. This type of allocation is generally given to very large

networks such as multi-national companies. Class B: This class consists of 16,384 individual

networks, each allocation consisting of 65,534 possible IP addresses. These blocks are generally

allocated to Internet Service Providers and large networks, like a college or major hospital. Class

C: There are total of 2,097,152 Class C networks available, with each network consisting of 255

individual IP addresses. This type of class is generally given to small mid-sized companies.

Class D: The IP addresses in this class are reserved for a service called Multicast. The ipv4

networking standard defines Class E addresses as reserved, meaning that they should not be used

on IP networks. Some research organizations use Class E addresses for experimental purposes.

However, nodes that try to use these addresses on the Internet will be unable to communicate

properly.




"heterogeneous world" then whats we mean?

A network that includes computers and other devices from different manufacturers are said to be

heterogeneous network. For example, local area networks (lans) that connect Microsoft

Windows and Linux based personal computers with Apple Macintosh computers are

heterogeneous. The word heterogeneous network is also used in wireless networks using

different access technologies. For example, a wireless network which provides a service through

a wireless LAN and is able to maintain the service when switching to a cellular network is called

a wireless heterogeneous network.

What are the universal services?

Universal Service, as set of services of specified quality which is available to all users

independent of their geographical location and in the light of specific national conditions at an

affordable price.

Wich kind of operating system and network is used to communicate and control satellite, as

microrwave transmission has low bandwidth then that of fiber optic then how can we get instant

response from settelite?

A real-time operating system (RTOS) is an operating system (OS) intended to serve real-time

application requests. It must be able to process data as it comes in, typically without buffering

delays. Processing time requirements (including any OS delay) are measured in tenths of seconds

or shorter. In general, an operating system (OS) is responsible for managing the hardware

resources of a computer and hosting applications that run on the computer. An RTOS performs

these tasks, but is also specially designed to run applications with very precise timing and a high

degree of reliability.

What is the work of tcp /ip in physical networks?




TCP/IP is the communication protocol for communication between computers on the Internet.

TCP/IP stands for Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol. TCP/IP defines how

electronic devices (like computers) should be connected to the Internet, and how data should be

transmitted between them. TCP/IP protocols are the standards protocol suit. Standards are

extremely important in the computer industry because they allow the combination of products

from different manufacturers to communicate each other.

TCP/IP is TCP and IP working together. TCP takes care of the communication between your

application software (i.e. Your browser) and your network software. IP takes care of the

communication with other computers. TCP is responsible for breaking data down into IP packets

before they are sent, and for assembling the packets when they arrive. IP is responsible for

sending the packets to the correct destination.

What is the diff between virtual network and physical network?

Virtual network works just like a physical network except that the switch is software based and






The IP Addressing Scheme and IP Address Hierarchy.??

THE IP ADDRESSING SCHEME: An Internet address (IP address) is a unique 32-bit binary

number assigned to a host and used for all communication with the host. Each packet sent across

an Internet contains the 32-bit IP address of the sender (source) as well as the intended recipient

(destination). THE IP ADDRESS HIERARCHY: Each 32-bit IP address is divided into two

parts: • PREFIX: It identifies the physical network to which the computers are attached. •

SUFFIX: It identifies an individual computer on the network. The physical network in an

Internet is assigned a unique value known as a network number. No two networks can be

assigned the same network number and no two computers on the same network can be assigned

the same suffix. A suffix value can be used on more than one network. The IP address hierarchy




guarantees two important principles: 1.Each computer is assigned a unique address. 2.Although

network number assignment must be coordinated globally, suffixes can be assigned locally.

1: Virtual network 2: host computer 3: Internet internet??

A virtual network is a computer network that consists, at least in part, of virtual network links. A

virtual network link is a link that does not consist of a physical connection between two

computing devices but is implemented using methods of network virtualization.

The Internet is a global system of interconnected computer networks that use the standardinternet

Protocol Suite (TCP/IP) to serve billions of users worldwide. It is a network of networks that

consists of millions of private, public, academic, business, and government networks, of local to

global scope, that are linked by a broad array of electronic, wireless and optical networking

technologies.

A network host is a computer connected to a computer network. A network host may offer

information resources, services, and applications to users or other nodes on the network. A

network host is a network node that is assigned a network layer host address.


Why Division of the Address Space is important?

As for a live IP address it must be unique in the world of internet means no other must have the

same IP. Secondly in ipv4 has a limited address space which may be end soon after total of its

capacity will be assigned world wide and ipv6 is now there for new IP addresses with new

format and more bits. So there should me some authority that can manage the division of IP

addresses, which is The Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA).

What is throughput or bandwidth




The throughput or bandwidth of a channel is the number of bits it can transfer per second.

In data communication a data transmission rate; the maximum amount of information

(bits/second) that can be transmitted along a channel

In computing: communications capacity: the capacity of a communications channel, for example,

a connection to the Internet, often measured in bits per second.

What is classless addressing

The difference between classful IP addressing and classless IP addressing is in selecting the

number of bits used for the network ID portion of an IP address. In classful IP addressing, the

network ID portion can take only the predefined number of bits 8, 16, or 24. In classless

addressing, any number of bits can be assigned to the network ID

How Can we find IP address of my machine?

Ans you can find your system IP address from this command

Z:\> ipconfig

This command write on command prompt.

What are octets?

An octet represents any eight-bit quantity. By definition, octets range in

mathematical value from 0 (zero) to 255.

In computer networking, an octet is the same as a byte. Octets most commonly refers to any of

the four bytes of an ipv4 address. In dotted-decimal notation, an IP address appears as follows -




[ octet ] . [ octet ] . [ octet ] . [ octet ]

Like this:

192 . 168 . 0. 1

Why Division of the Address Space is important?

As for a live IP address it must be unique in the world of internet means no other must have the

same IP. Secondly in ipv4 has a limited address space which may be end soon after total of its

capacity will be assigned world wide and ipv6 is now there for new IP addresses with new

format and more bits. So there should me some authority that can manage the division of IP

addresses, which is The Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA).

The concept of throughput and speed. Kindly explain here in detail with examples.

The throughput or bandwidth of a channel is the number of bits it can transfer per second.

In data communication a data transmission rate; the maximum amount of information

(bits/second) that can be transmitted along a channel

In computing: communications capacity: the capacity of a communications channel, for example,

a connection to the Internet, often measured in bits per second.

Can I find IP address of my machine? If yes then how???

You can find your system IP address from this command




Z:\> ipconfig

This command write on command prompt.

What are octets?

An octet represents any eight-bit quantity. By definition, octets range in mathematical value from

0 (zero) to 255.

In computer networking, an octet is the same as a byte. Octets most commonly refers to any of

the four bytes of an ipv4 address. In dotted-decimal notation, an IP address appears as follows -

[ octet ] . [ octet ] . [ octet ] . [ octet ]

Like this:

192 . 168 . 0. 1


The subnet mask of 128.211.0.32/28 addressing scheme will be 255.255.224.0?

Subnet mask for 128.211.0.32/28 address will be 255.255.255.240

Because this is class b address and default mask of class b address is 255.255.0.0 in above

address we have 28 mask bit be default mask bits for class b are 16 so here we are taking 12

bits from host portion that‟s why new subnet mask will be 255.255.255.240




How we calculate the Mask address and further addresses?

In non-CIDR IP subnetting, however, the value of n is restricted to either 8 (Class A), 16 (Class

B) or 24 (Class C). Examples:

10.0.0.0/8

172.16.0.0/16

192.168.3.0/24

CIDR supports Internet address allocation and message routing independent of the traditional

class of a given IP address range. For example,

10.4.12.0/22 represents the address range 10.4.12.0 - 10.4.15.255 (network mask 255.255.252.0).

This allocates the equivalent of four Class C networks within the much larger Class A space.


What is Bottleneck

In Centerlized technique of Message Exchange in Address Resolution, host sends requests to

servers for the address rosolation. Because all the request form all hosts is sent to server that can

become bottleneck server. Bottleneck mean trafic jam or blockage.

What is Media Access Control address (MAC address)




Hardware address is also called MAC address. Media Access Control address (MAC address) is

a unique identifier assigned to most network adapters or network interface cards (nics) by the

manufacturer for identification, and used in the Media Access Control protocol sub-layer. If

assigned by the manufacturer, a MAC address usually encodes the manufacturer's registered

identification number. It may also be known as an Ethernet Hardware Address (EHA), hardware

address, adapter address, or physical address.

What is Address Resolution?

Mapping between a protocol address and a hardware address is called Address Resolution. A

host or router uses address resolution when it needs to send a packet to another computer on the

same physical network. A computer never resolves the address of a computer that attaches to a

remote network. Address resolution algorithms can be grouped into three basic categories: •

Table lookup • Closed-form computation • Message Exchange 1. TABLE LOOKUP: In Table

Lookup, binding or mapping is stored in a table in memory, which the software searches when it

needs to resolve an address. 2. CLOSED-FORM COMPUTATION: In Closed-form

computation, the protocol address assigned to a computer is chosen carefully so that computer‟s

hardware address can be computed from the protocol address using basic Boolean and arithmetic

operations. 3. MESSAGE EXCHANGE: In Message Exchange, Computers exchange messages

across a network to resolve an address. One computer sends a message that requests an address

binding (translation) and another computer sends a reply that contains the requested information

What is ARP Message Delivery & Format

Router and host are needed to view the physical address or MAC address of the machine. It is

used address resolution protocol for mapping between protocol address and hardware addressing.

Basically arp command is used for view the address resolution protocol information.

Like Enter the arp command like C:\ > arp in command prompt.




What is HADDR and PADDR

Haddr and paddr len specify the number of octets in hardware address and protocol address.

What is UNICAST & CACHE

To reduce network traffic, ARP software extracts and saves the information from a response so

that it can be used for subsequent packets. ARP manages the Table as a cache short-term storage.

The communication of one to one host is called unicast.

What is A heterogeneous network

A heterogeneous network is a network that uses different technologies including different media,

physical addressing schemes or frame formats.

What is Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR)

It is an IP addressing scheme that replaces the older system based on classes A, B, and C. With

CIDR, a single IP address can be used to designate many unique IP addresses. A CIDR IP

address looks like a normal IP address except that it ends with a slash followed by a number,

called the IP network prefix. For example:

What is CIDR Notation

172.200.0.0/16

The IP network prefix specifies how many addresses are covered by the CIDR address, with

lower numbers covering more addresses. An IP network prefix of /12, for example, can be used

to address 1,048,576 former Class C addresses. CIDR addresses reduce the size of routing tables

and make more IP addresses available within organizations. CIDR is also called super netting.

What is Suffix and prefix




Suffix and prefix are there in class A, class B and class C

Each IP address is divided into a prefix and a suffix

The network ID/network Prefix, also known as a network address, identifies a single network

segment within a larger TCP/IP internetwork (a network of networks). All the systems that attach

and share access to the same network have a common network ID within their full IP address.

This ID is also used to uniquely identify each network within the larger internetwork. This is also

sometimes called the network prefix or even just the prefix.

The host ID/network suffix, also known as a host address, identifies a TCP/IP node (a

workstation, server, router, or other TCP/IP device) within each network. The host ID for each

device identifies a single system uniquely within its own network. This is also sometimes called

the network Suffix or even just the Suffix. IP classes ranges to identify each class.

The first 3 classes ( A, B and C) are used to identify workstations, routers, switches and other

devices whereas the last 2 Classes ( D and E) are reserved for special use.

Class A( Netid. Hostid. Hostid. Hostid)

Class B(Netid. Netid. Hostid. Hostid)

Class C(Netid. Netid. Netid. Hostid)

Class D(Multicast)

Class E(For Research)

How we convert the binay no in tow decimal no

Here we have simple method to convert binary into decimal

1101 =13

1*23+1*22+0*21+1*20

1*8+1*4+0*2+1*1




8+4+0+1=13

What is Cashe short-term storage?

Cache memory is random access memory (RAM) that a computer microprocessor can access

more quickly than it can access regular RAM. As the microprocessor processes data, it looks first

in the cache memory and if it finds the data there (from a previous reading of data), it does not

have to do the more time-consuming reading of data from larger memory.

Cache memory is sometimes described in levels of closeness and accessibility to the

microprocessor. An L1 cache is on the same chip as the microprocessor. (For example, the

powerpc 601 processor has a 32 kilobyte level-1 cache built into its chip.) L2 is usually a

separate static RAM (SRAM) chip. The main RAM is usually a dynamic RAM (DRAM) chip.

In addition to cache memory, one can think of RAM itself as a cache of memory for hard disk

storage since all of RAM's contents come from the hard disk initially when you turn your

computer on and load the operating system (you are loading it into RAM) and later as you start

new applications and access new data. RAM can also contain a special area called a disk cache

that contains the data most recently read in from the hard disk.


How much switches and bridges consume power

The power consumption of the switches may vary as the no of port and the technology varies like

Ethernet and fast Ethernet with the services included in that device. Most of the time it depends

upon the company and the model of that device and the power limit is mentioned of the devices.

A MAC address, or Media Access Control address, is a 48 bit address associated with a network

adapter.The MAC address is a unique value associated with a network adapter. MAC addresses

are also known as hardware addresses or physicaladdresses. The MAC address value is a direct

result of IEEE-enforced rules for vendors to ensure globally unique addresses for each Ethernet

device. The rules established by IEEE require any vendor that sells Ethernet devices to register




with IEEE. The IEEE assigns the vendor a 3-byte code, called the Organizationally Unique

Identifier (OUI).

IEEE requires a vendor to follow two simple rules:

All MAC addresses assigned to a NIC or other Ethernet device must use that vendor's

assigned OUI as the first 3 bytes.

All MAC addresses with the same OUI must be assigned a unique value (vendor code or

serial number) in the last 3 bytes.

The MAC address is often referred to as a burned-in address (BIA) because it is burned into

ROM (Read-Only Memory) on the NIC. This means that the address is encoded into the ROM

chip permanently - it cannot be changed by software. However, when the computer starts up, the

NIC copies the address into RAM. When examining frames, it is the address in RAM that is used

as the source address to compare with the destination address. The MAC address is used by the

NIC to determine if a message should be passed to the upper layers for processing.

What is Broadcast

Broadcast is a type of transmission in which information is sent from just one computer but is

received by all the computers connected to the network. This would mean that every time a

computer or a node would transmit a packet of type „broadcast‟, all the other computers will

receive that information packet.

Examples of broadcast are many but one that would be best to understand here is a computer

booting up and requesting for a IP address. In this case, the computerwhich is booting up and

requesting for an IP address does not know which computer will be able to provide it with an IP

address. It will then broadcast a request packet on the network which will be received by all the

other computers but will be acknowledged by only the computer acting as a DHCP server.

What is Multicast




Multicast is a very much different from Unicast and Multicast in definition andapplication as

well. It is a type of transmission or communication in which there may be more than one senders

and the information sent is meant for a set of receivers. Please note that sometimes information

might not be directed towards any receiver at all.

One good example of Multicast based network is video transmission network in which one

computer needs to transmit video channel to a specific group of computers. This way when the

other computers are also a part of this Multicast IP network, they will be able to receive same set

of data at the same time.

What is Hardware addresse

Hardware addresses are used in LAN whereas IP addresses are used in WAN.MAC addressing

works at the data link layer, IP addressing functions at the network layer (layer 3). IP addressing

as supporting the software implementation and MAC addresses as supporting the hardware

implementation of the network stack. The MAC address generally remains fixed and follows the

network device, but the IP address changes as the network device moves from one network to

another. IP networks maintain a mapping between the IP address of a device and its MAC

address.

What is ARP

The purpose of Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) is to find out the MAC address of a device in

your Local Area Network (LAN), for the corresponding IP address, which network application is

trying to communicate.

When an incoming packet destined for a host machine on a particular local area network arrives

at a gateway, the gateway asks the ARP program to find a physical host or MAC address that

matches the IP address. The ARP program looks in the ARP cache and, if it finds the address,

provides it so that the packet can be converted to the right packet length and format and sent to

the machine. If no entry is found for the IP address, ARP broadcasts a request packet in a special

format to all the machines on the LAN to see if one machine knows that it has that IP address




associated with it. A machine that recognizes the IP address as its own returns a reply so

indicating. ARP updates the ARP cache for future reference and then sends the packet to the

MAC address that replied.


What is internet and Internet

Internet with “I” is the traditional global internet or World Wide Web (WWW) anyone can use

and many people are using these days. But the internet with “i” is the internetwork within an

organization for the use of its employees to access there local system like Management

information system and some other networks within that organization connected together.

What is Broadcast Television Signals

Broadcast Television Signals are video and sound signals that are transmitted over the air.

Anyone using a television set that has a receiver and an antenna can pick them up for free.

Antennas are used to grab as much signal as possible and to sometimes amplify the signal.

All TV sets have the ability to switch the receiver‟s tuner to pick up specific channels. Each

channel is transmitted on its own frequency, which the TV set can tune into and receive

What is ICMP

ICMP is a network protocol useful in Internet Protocol (IP) network management and

administration. ICMP is a control protocol, meaning that it does not carry application data, but

rather information about the status of the network itself. ICMP can be used to report:




A) Errors in the underlying communications of network applications

B) Availability of remote hosts

C) Network congestion

The best known example of ICMP in practice is the ping utility, that uses ICMP to probe remote

hosts for responsiveness and overall round-trip time of the probe messages. ICMP also supports

trace route, that can identify intermediate "hops" between a given source and destination.

With the help of this protocol, routers are able to send error or control information to their hosts.

This protocol is of great help for system administrators, as it aids in testing for the connectivity

and searching for the configuration errors in a network.

What is Subnet mask ?

It is a 32-bit number that masks an IP address, and divides the IP address into network address

and host address. Subnet Mask is made by setting network bits to all "1"s and setting host bits to

all "0"s.


What is Loop back address

He IP address 127.0.0.1 is a special purpose address reserved for use on each computer.

127.0.0.1 is conventionally a computer's loopback address.Network software and utilities can use

127.0.0.1 to access a local computer's TCP/IP network resources. Messages sent to loopback IP

addresses like 127.0.0.1 do not reach outside to the local area network (LAN) but instead are

automatically re-routed by the computer's own network adapter back to the receiving end of the

TCP/IP stack.

Typically all IP addresses in the range 127.0.0.1 - 127.255.255.255 are reserved for private use,

but 127.0.0.1 is by convention the loopback address in almost all cases.




Like IP addresses, a subnet mask contains four bytes (32 bits) and is often written using the same

"dotted-decimal" notation. For example, a very common subnet mask in its binary representation

11111111 11111111 11111111 00000000

Is typically shown in the equivalent, more readable form

255.255.255.0

What is Applying a Subnet Mask

A subnet mask neither works like an IP address, nor does it exist independently from them.

Instead, subnet masks accompany an IP address and the two values work together. Applying the

subnet mask to an IP address splits the address into two parts, an "extended network address"

and a host address.

For a subnet mask to be valid, its leftmost bits must be set to '1'. For example,

00000000 00000000 00000000 00000000

Is an invalid subnet mask because the leftmost bit is set to '0'.

Conversely, the rightmost bits in a valid subnet mask must be set to '0', not '1'. Therefore,

11111111 11111111 11111111 11111111

Is invalid.

All valid subnet masks contain two parts: the left side with all mask bits set to '1' (the extended

network portion) and the right side with all bits set to '0' (the host portion), such as the first

example above.

Reference to testing IP address (127.0.0.1)

The IP address 127.0.0.1 is a special purpose address reserved for use on each computer.

127.0.0.1 is conventionally a computer's loopback address.

Network software and utilities can use 127.0.0.1 to access a local computer's TCP/IP network

resources. Messages sent to loopback IP addresses like 127.0.0.1 do not reach outside to the local




area network (LAN) but instead are automatically re-routed by the computer's own network

adapter back to the receiving end of the TCP/IP stack.

Typically all IP addresses in the range 127.0.0.1 - 127.255.255.255 are reserved for private use,

but 127.0.0.1 is by convention the loopback address in almost all cases.

What is IP V6 notation.

IP addresses change significantly with ipv6. Ipv6 addresses are 16 bytes (128 bits) long rather

than four bytes (32 bits). The ipv6 128-bit address is divided along 16-bit boundaries. Each 16-

bit block is then converted to a 4digit hexadecimal number, separated by colons. The resulting

representation is called colon-hexadecimal. This is in contrast to the 32-bit ipv4 address

represented in dotted-decimal format, divided along 8-bit boundaries, and then converted to its

decimal equivalent, separated by periods. Ipv6 addresses consist of eight groups of four

hexadecimal digits separated by colons, for example

2001:0db8:85a3:0042:1000:8a2e:0370:7334.

What is Protocol ports number

Protocol ports number are used to specify a certain application on destination computer. UDP

has to go through multiple networks to each its destination. Different networks use multiple

types of identifiers to specify applications. There is no common mechanism that exits; some

networks use the concept of protocol identifier, sometime use job names and sometime task

identifier is used to specify application .There is no way that UDP message adopt with operating

systems in order to specify a certain application because every network uses different types of

identifiers to which UDP message is passed. To solve this problem UDP use certain type of

identifiers that is called protocol port numbers. Protocol port numbers are used to identify the

some specific application on the receiving computer. There is enhanced list of UDP protocol




numbers correspond to a certain application. In the way to destination operating systems have its

own identification mechanism that does not know protocol port numbers so every machine that

uses UDP provides a mapping between a protocol number and its own specific identification

mechanism.


What are Phyiscal addree, PREFIX, TCP/IP

In a system, there are two types of addresses: logical and physical. Hardware addresses are used

in LAN whereas IP addresses are used in WAN. MAC address gives a unique identification to

the hardware interface of network, whereas the IP Address gives a unique identification to the

software interface of the Network. Furthermore, if the assignment of address is considered, MAC

addresses are assigned permanently to adapters and cannot be changed as they are Physical

addresses. In contrast, IP addresses, either static or dynamic, can be modified depending on the

requirements as they are logical entities or addresses. IP addresses use 32 or 128 bits long

addresses while MAC addresses use a 48 bits long address.

Each IP address is divided into a prefix and a suffix.

The network ID/network Prefix, also known as a network address, identifies a single network

segment within a larger TCP/IP network. His ID is also used to uniquely identify each network

within the larger internetwork. This is also sometimes called the network prefix or even just the

prefix.

The host ID/network suffix, also known as a host address, identifies a TCP/IP node (a

workstation, server, router, or other TCP/IP device) within each network. The host ID for each

device identifies a single system uniquely within its own network. This is also sometimes called

the network Suffix or even just the Suffix.

TCP/IP is the communication protocol for communication between computers on the Internet.

TCP/IP defines how electronic devices (like computers) should be connected to the Internet, and

how data should be transmitted between them. IP and TCP are two protocols that work together

in reliable delivery of data over the networks, especially Internet. While IP defines rules that




deliver the data from one host to another, TCP defines rules that make sure delivered data is

without any loss or corruption and is delivered in an orderly manner.

What are subnet mask and address mask?

Subnet mask is a 32-bit number that masks an IP address, and divides the IP address into

network address and host address. Subnet Mask is made by setting network bits to all "1"s and

setting host bits to all "0"s. Both have same meanings.


What is virtual connection?

In telecommunications and computer networks, a virtual circuit (VC), synonymous with virtual

connection and virtual channel, is a connection oriented communication service that is delivered

by means of packet mode communication. After a connection or virtual circuit is established

between two nodes or application processes, a bit stream or byte stream may be delivered

between the nodes; a virtual circuit protocol allows higher level protocols to avoid dealing with

the division of data into segments, packets, or frames.

What is MTU

Packet size, often referred to as MTU (Maximum Transmission Unit) is the greatest amount of

data that can be transferred in one physical frame on the system. For Ethernet, the MTU is 1500

bytes, for pppoe 1492, dial-up connections often use 576.

Each transmission unit consists of header and actual data. The actual data is referred to as MSS

(Maximum Segment Size), which defines the largest segment of TCP data that can be

transmitted. Essentially,

MTU=MSS + TCP & IP headers.




Why organization doesn,t use single router?

If only one router is on the subnet and that router fails, the computer can't talk to other network

subnets or the Internet. To provide fault tolerance, you need two or more routers on each subnet.

However, this type of configuration requires the computer to support multiple default gateways

(i.e., the computer must be able to detect the availability of the default gateway). If the default

router fails, the computer must fail over to an available router. IETF Request for Comments

(RFC) 816 describes how the host detects a dead gateway and switches to another gateway.

How receive knows incoming frame is id data gram?

Receiver knows incoming frame because the sender and receiver agree on the value used in the

frame type field.

If there is no signal how server come to know there is connection arrived?

The networking stack in the operating system kernel, reads each incoming IP packet, classifies

the packet according to its TCP/IP header fields. The arrival of IP packet on wire is serviced as

an interrupt by an Ethernet driver and from there onwards kernel mode TCP/IP stack takes over.


What is the matric of routing table?

The Metric field indicates the cost of a route. If multiple routes exist to a given destination

network ID, the metric is used to decide which route is to be taken. The route with the lowest

metric is the preferred route. Some routing algorithms only store a single route to any Network

ID in the routing table even when multiple routes exist. In this case, the metric is used by the

router to decide which route to store in the routing table. Hop Count, Delay, Throughput,

Reliability metrics can indicate different ways of expressing a route preference.

Arbitary computer to join multicast group?

.An arbitrary computer can join to a multicast group at any time and begin receiving packets sent

to the group. To join a group, a host informs a nearby router.If multiple applications on the same




host decide to join a group the host receives one copy of each datagram sent to the group and

makes a local copy for each application.A host periodically sends group membership messages

to the local router.

CRC detect what kind of errors?

There are two types transmission errors where a CRC can detect more errors than a checksum,

the first situation is where a specific set or pattern of bits in the data is changed. The two

examples used in the checksum section that showed how the checksum could not detect vertical

errors will produce different CRC numbers. CRC is very successful in detecting vertical errors.

The second type of errors where CRC is very effective are burst errors, burst errors usually occur

on a small set of bits near the same location in the string of transmitted bits

UDP and Reliable Transport Service

Transmission Control Protocol and User Datagram Protocol is a transportation protocol that is

one of the core protocols of the Internet protocol suite. Both TCP and UDP work at transport

layer TCP/IP model.TCP is connection-oriented protocol. When a file or message send it will get

delivered unless connections fails. If connection lost, the server will request the lost part. There

is no corruption while transferring a message.UDP is connectionless protocol. When you send a

data or message, you don't know if it'll get there, it could get lost on the way. There may be

corruption while transferring a message


54Mbps Wireless Router

54Mbps Wireless Router means that this router supports up to 54Mbps data rate.

Proxy server

Proxy server is a server (a computer system) that acts as an intermediate computer for clients to

request the resources which are attached to other servers. A client connects to the proxy server,

requesting some service, such as a file or other resource available from a different server. The




proxy server evaluates the request according to its filtering rules. If the request is validated, the

proxy provides the resource by connecting the client to the relevant server


What is Point-to-point Connection?

Point-to-point connection is limited to two devices, where else more than two devices share a

single link in multipoint connection. Multipoint connection can be used for fail-over and

reliability.

What is A metropolitan area network (MAN

A metropolitan area network (MAN) is a large computer network that usually spans a city or a

large campus. A MAN usually interconnects a number of local area networks (lans) using a high-

capacity backbone technology, such as fiber-optical links, and provides up-link services to wide

area networks and the Internet. However, to build a MAN you have to build lans. It depends on

your requirements that whic devices would you need in MAN's implementation. So describe

your requirements and complete structructure of the area where do you need metropolitan area

network implementation.

What is Router

A router is a device that forwards data packets along networks. A router is connected to at least

two networks, commonly two lans or wans and its ISP's network. Routers are located at

gateways, the places where two or more networks connect, and are the critical device that keeps

data flowing between networks and keeps the networks connected to the internet.basically the

designers of internet routing system did not dictate the exact size.

What is DATAGRAM




A datagram is a basic transfer unit associated with a packet-switched network in which the

delivery, arrival time, and order are not guaranteed. A datagram consists of header and data

areas, where the header contains information sufficient for routing from the originating

equipment to the destination without relying on prior exchanges between the equipment and the

network. The source and destination addresses as well as a type field are found in the header of a

datagram.


Universal service

Universal service is an economic, legal and business term used mostly in regulated industries,

referring to the practice of providing a baseline level of services to every resident of a country. It

is promote the availability of quality services at just, reasonable, and affordable rates, increase

access to advanced telecommunications services throughout the Nation, advance availability of

such services to all consumers, including those in low income, rural, and high cost areas at rates

that are reasonably comparable to those charged in urban areas.

Classful addressing scheme

Classful addressing scheme based on a simple hierarchy, Class of address determined by the first

few bits of the address. Uses the dotted decimal notation system. Ad dressing‟s purpose was to

allow IP to communicate between hosts on a network or on an internet. Classful IP addresses

identify both a particular node and a network number where the particular node resides on an

internet.

UDP (User Datagram Protocol)

UDP (User Datagram Protocol) is a communications protocol that offers a limited amount of

service when messages are exchanged between computers in a network that uses the Internet

Protocol (IP). UDP is an alternative to the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and, together

with IP, is sometimes referred to as UDP/IP. Like the Transmission Control Protocol, UDP uses

the Internet Protocol to actually get a data unit (called a datagram) from one computer to another.




How many computers can be connected to a single router.

You are able to define the number of computers you would like to support with the subnet mask.

With the default net mask is 255.255.255.0; it supports 253 computers connecting to the router to

share the connection. It can be modified to support more computers. For example, if the net mask

is changed to 255.255.0.0, more than 60,000 computers can share the connection through the

router.

Which type of routing is used when we connect to the internet through our dial up or DSL.

DSL refers to a class of technology used to obtain more bandwidth over existing copper

telephone cabling running between a customer's premises and a Telco's Central Office. DSL

allows simultaneous voice and high-speed data services such as super fast Internet access over a

single pair of copper telephone wires.


What is NAT

Twice NAT allows a site to run servers. It requires the DNS to interact with the NAT device.

Twice NAT fails if an application uses the IP addresses instead of Domain Name. Remember,

NAT is used in conjunction with network masquerading (or IP masquerading) which is a

technique that hides an entire IP address space, usually consisting of private network IP

addresses behind a single IP address in another, often public address space. NAT mechanisms do

not concern with the presence of computers on the internet. When a computer in the site

communicates to the internet, the NAT device translates its private address in the site to the

global IP address and vice versa.




What is ipv6 protocol

New header format ,Large address space ,Efficient and hierarchical addressing and routing

infrastructure ,

Stateless and stateful address configuration ,Built-in security ,Better support for quality of

service ,New protocol for neighboring node interaction ,Extensibility

What is Dynamic Routing

Dynamic routing protocols are supported by software applications running on the routing device

(the router) which dynamically learn network destinations and how to get to them and also

advertise those destinations to other routers. This advertisement function allows all the routers to

learn about all the destination networks that exist and how to those networks.

What is Static Routing

Static routing is not really a routing protocol. Static routing is simply the process of manually

entering routes into a device's routing table via a configuration file that is loaded when the

routing device starts up.


What is The IP address 192.168.0.1

The IP address 192.168.0.1 is the default for certain home broadband routers, principally various

D-Link and Netgear models. This address is set by the manufacturer at the factory, but you can

change it at any time using the network router's administrative console. 192.168.0.1 is a private




ipv4 network address. Home routers can use it to establish the default gateway. On such routers,

you can access its administrative console by pointing a Web browser to this IP address. Any

brand of router, or any computer on a local network for that matter, can be set to use this address

or a comparable private ipv4 address. As with any IP address, only one device on the network

should use 192.168.0.1 to avoid address conflicts.

What is Autonomous System (AS)

Within the Internet, an Autonomous System (AS) is a collection of connected Internet Protocol

(IP) routing prefixes under the control of one or more network operators that presents a common,

clearly defined routing policy to the Internet.

Prefix and Suffix

Each 32-bit IP address is divided into two parts:

• PREFIX: It identifies the physical network to which the computers are attached.

• SUFFIX: It identifies an individual computer on the network.

The physical network in an Internet is assigned a unique value known as a network number. No

two networks can be assigned the same network number and no two computers on the same

network can be assigned the same suffix. A suffix value can be used on more than one network.

The IP address hierarchy guarantees two important principles: 1. Each computer is assigned a

unique address. 2. Although network number assignment must be coordinated globally, suffixes

can be assigned locally





Unicast: A transmission to a single computer.

Multicast: A transmission to a group of computers on the network.

Broadcast: A transmission to all computers on the network.

Passive RIP

Active routers advertise their routes to others where as passive routers listen and update their

routes based on advertisements, but do not advertise. Typically, routers run RIP in active mode,

while hosts use passive mode

Border Gateway Protocol (BGP

Border Gateway Protocol is a protocol for exchanging routing information between gateway

hosts in a network of autonomous systems. BGP is often the protocol used between gateway

hosts on the Internet. The routing table contains a list of known routers, the addresses they can

reach, and a cost metric associated with the path to each router so that the best available route is

chosen.

What text will be in a display of a successfull ping command.

This text is displayed

Z:\>ping 192.168.53.100

Pinging 192.168.53.100 with 32 bytes of data:

Reply from 192.168.53.100: bytes=32 time<1ms TTL=128







Ping statistics for 192.168.53.100:

Packets: Sent = 4, Received = 4, Lost = 0 (0% loss),

Approximate round trip times in milli-seconds:

Minimum = 0ms, Maximum = 0ms, Average = 0ms

The ipv6 header fields are as follows:

Version (4 bit): The 4-bit version field contains the number 6. It indicates the version of the ipv6

protocol. This field is the same size as the ipv4 version field that contains the number 4.

Traffic class (8 bits): This field is subsequently used by the originating node and the routers to

identify the data packets that belong to the same traffic class and distinguish between packets

with different priorities.

Flow label (20 bit): The 20-bit flow label field in the ipv6 header can be used by a source to label

a set of packets belonging to the same flow. The ipv6 routers must handle the packets belonging

to the same flow in a similar fashion.

Payload length (16 bit): The 16-bit payload length field contains the length of the data field in

octets/bits following the ipv6 packet header.

Next header (8 bit): The 8-bit Next Header field identifies the type of header immediately

following the ipv6 header and located at the beginning of the data field (payload) of the ipv6

packet.

Hop limit (8 bit): The 8-bit Hop Limit field is decremented by one, by each node (typically a

router) that forwards a packet. If the Hop Limit field is decremented to zero, the packet is

discarded. The main function of this field is to identify and to discard packets that are stuck in an

indefinite loop due to any routing information errors.




MULTICAST and ANY CAST

Anycast addresses are a new, unique type of address that is new to IP in ipv6; the ipv6

implementation is based on the material in RFC 1546, Host Anycasting Service. Anycast

addresses can be considered a conceptual cross between unicast and multicast addressing. Where

unicast says “send to this one address” and multicast says “send to every member of this group”,

anycast says “send to any one member of this group”. Naturally, in choosing which member to

send to, we would for efficiency reasons normally send to the closest one—closest in routing

terms. So we can normally also consider anycast to mean “send to the closest member of this

group”.

The idea behind anycast is to enable functionality that was previously difficult to implement in

TCP/IP. Anycast was specifically intended to provide flexibility in situations where we need a

service that is provided by a number of different servers or routers but don't really care which

one provides it. In routing, anycast allows datagrams to be sent to whichever router in a group of

equivalent routers is closest, to allow load sharing amongst routers and dynamic flexibility if

certain routers go out of service. Datagrams sent to the anycast address will automatically be

delivered to the device that is easiest to reach.


Bandwidth

Bandwidth is generally the amount of data that can be carried from one point to another in a

given time period. OR

Bandwidth is a measure of the amount of data passing through a network at a given time




Booting

Booting is a process in which bridge gets initialized and operating system of the bridge starts to

synchtonize all attached hardwares.

Preferred DNS and alternate DNS

Some machines have a Dynamic DNS client, to perform Dynamic DNS Update transactions,

registering the machines' names and IP addresses. Some machines run a DNS server, to publish

DNS data, to service DNS lookup requests from DNS lookup clients, and to service DNS update

requests from DNS update clients.

With the DNS Client service running: Fallback to the alternative DNS servers happens globally.

If the preferred DNS server fails to answer, all subsequent communication is with the alternative

DNS servers.

Without the DNS Client service running: Any fallback to the alternative DNS servers happen

locally, within each individual process that is making DNS queries. Different processes may be

in different states, some talking to the preferred DNS server and some talking to alternative DNS

servers.

Ip address and protocol address

IP address is a shorter way of saying “Internet Protocol address.” IP addresses are the numbers

assigned to computer network interfaces. Although we use names to refer to the things we seek

on the internet, such aswww.example.org, computers translate these names into numerical

addresses so they can send data to the right location. So when you send an email, visit a web site,

or participate in a video conference, your computer sends data packets to the IP address of the

other end of the connection and receives packets destined for its own IP address.

3G technology

3G or 3rd generation mobile telecommunications is a generation of standards for mobile phones

and mobile telecommunication services fulfilling the International Mobile Telecommunications-

2000 (IMT-2000) specifications by the International Telecommunication Union Application

services include wide-area wireless voice telephone, mobile Internet access, video calls and

mobile TV, all in a mobile environment.




Difference between IPV4 and the future IPV6

The most understandable difference between the two protocols is the length of their source and

destination addresses. The whole point of making the switch to ipv6 is to compensate for a

global shortage of IP addresses. It only makes sense that the ipv6 protocol has a larger address

space than the ipv4 protocol does. Each device on the Internet, such as a computer, must be

assigned an IP address in order to communicate. With the exploding number of new computers

and mobile devices being connected to the internet, there is a need for more addresses than the

current addressing scheme (ipv4) can accommodate. Ipv6 uses 128-bit addresses, allowing for

2128, or approximately 3.4×1038 (a number with 37 zeros) addresses. Ipv4, in comparison, uses

32-bit addresses, allowing for only 4,294,967,296 addresses.

Fragmentation

Fragmentation is the process of breaking a packet into smaller pieces so that they will fit into the

frames of the underlying network. The receiving system reassembles the pieces into the original

packets. The term MTU (maximum transmission unit) refers to the maximum amount of data

that can travel in a frame. Different networks have different MTU sizes, so packets may need to

be fragmented in order to fit within the frames of the network that they transit. When a datagram

is larger than the MTU of the network over which it must be sent, it is divided into smaller

fragments which are each sent separately.

To fragment a datagram, a host or router uses the MTU and the datagram header size to calculate

how many fragments are required


Hub and Switch

A hub is the simplest of these devices. Any data packet coming from one port is sent to all other

ports. It is then up to the receiving computer to decide if the packet is for it. Imagine packets

going through a hub as messages going into a mailing list. The mail is sent out to everyone and it




is up to the receiving party to decide if it is of interest. The biggest problem with hubs is their

simplicity. Since every packet is sent out to every computer on the network, there is a lot of

wasted transmission. This means that the network can easily become bogged down. Hubs are

typically used on small networks where the amount of data going across the network is never

very high.

Where as the switch is a network device that has replaced both hubs and bridges in lans. A

switch uses an internal address table to route incoming data frames via the port associated with

their destination MAC address. A switch steps up on a bridge in that it has multiple ports. When

a packet comes through a switch it is read to determine which computer to send the data to. This

leads to increased efficiency in that packets are not going to computers that do not require them.

Now the email analogy has multiple people able to send email to multiple users. The switch can

decide where to send the mail based on the address. Most large networks use switches rather than

hubs to connect computers within the same subnet.

Bridges and switch

Bridges can be used to connect two or more LAN segments of the same type (e.g. Ethernet to

Ethernet, or Token-Ring to Token-Ring). Like repeaters, bridges can extend the length of a

network, but unlike repeaters they can also extend the capacity of a network, since each port on a

bridge has its own MAC address. A bridge goes one step up on a hub in that it looks at the

destination of the packet before sending. If the destination address is not on the other side of the

bridge it will not transmit the data. A bridge only has one incoming and one outgoing port.

Where as a switch steps up on a bridge in that it has multiple ports. When a packet comes

through a switch it is read to determine which computer to send the data to. This leads to

increased efficiency in that packets are not going to computers that do not require them. Now the

email analogy has multiple people able to send email to multiple users. The switch can decide

where to send the mail based on the address. Most large networks use switches rather than hubs

to connect computers within the same subnet.

Distance to destination

Time for acknowledgement to arrive depends on Distance to destination, let me explain you with

an example, if one system is communicating with other country system via satellites, the time for




packet to go and the acknowledgement to come back will take more time and in other scenario if

both systems are communicating on one LAN packet traveling time and acknowledgement time

will be so less as compare to satellites communication. That‟s why Distance factor affects in

choosing the timer for retransmission.

Graceful connection shutdown

Graceful connection shutdown means that TCP guarantees that all data have successfully

transferred before termination of connection for example Application program will create

reliable connation firstly then it will send all data that have to send then it will send a request for

termination of connection in this situation TCP will ensure that all data have sent reliable and

successfully before shutdown the connection, TCP also ensures that there is no any loss or

delayed packets before shutdown the connection.


Reliable connection startup

TCP is connection oriented protocol always establish reliable connection before start

communication, for example if both applications want to communication with each other first

they will establish a connection and they must be agree on this connection before establish it if

both application will not be agree then connection will not reliable . TCP provide reliability

that‟s why it ensures that duplication packet of previous connection will not interfere with new

connection, when it starts a connection it totally distinguishes between packet and messages that

are present in the current connection as compare to the duplicated and delayed messages of the

last connection to save from interferences of messages.

The purpose of sceudo header

Instead of calculating the checksum over just the fields in the UDP datagram itself, the UDP

software first constructs a “fake” additional header that contains the following fields:




The IP Source Address field.

The IP Destination Address field.

The IP Protocol field.

The UDP Length field.

The total length of this “pseudo header” is 11 bytes. It is padded to 12 bytes with a byte of zeroes

and then prepended to the real UDP message. The checksum is then computed over the

combination of the pseudo header and the real UDP message, and the value is placed into the

Checksum field. The pseudo header is used only for this calculation and is then discarded; it is

not actually transmitted.

IGMP

IGMP is a protocol used to maintain the recode of a Group to whom a message is to be multicast

from this statement it means that a system informs the immediate router or local router attached

to it when it leave that group. The IP tunneling or VPN is as secure as a leased line and is hard to

hack.

Which protocols use for MULTICAST

A standard protocol exists that allows a host to inform a nearby router whenever the host needs

to join or leave a particular multicast group. Known as the Internet Group Multicast Protocol

(IGMP), the protocol is used only on the network between a host and a router. Furthermore, the

protocol defines the host, not the application, to be a group member, and specifies nothing about

applications. If multiple applications on a given host join a multicast group, the host must make




copies of each datagram it receives for local applications. When the last application on a host

leaves a group, the host uses IGMP to inform the local router that it is no longer a member of the

group.


Routing

Routing means finding a suitable path for a packet from sender to destination, routing refers to

deciding the route of the packet from one system (a computer) to another system (a computer). It

involves many intermediate routers and routing table knowledge. Forwarding is the process of

sending the packet toward the destination based on routing information; forwarding is a rather

simple process of passing a packet from one port/interface to another port interface. It generally

involves one of the routers and routers forwarding table information

How LAN Hardware uses Addresses to Filter Packets

In networking, a distinction is made between broadcasting and multicasting. Broadcasting sends

a message to everyone on the network the example is the terrestrial network of PTV or any cable

TV network everyone is receiving the signals of all the channels and cable operator is

broadcasting all the channels over the cable network.

Multicasting sends a message to a select list of recipients. Like in IP TV or PTCL smart TV they

are offering total 200 channels some of their customers but not all want to see Geo Supper

channel than PTCL will be multicasting the Geo Supper to particular group or you can say

multicast group which need a common channel but it is not being sent to all smart TV customers.

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