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IS Honours Thesis
“Critical Success Factors for the Implementation of a GIS in
Developing Countries”
November 2004
Prepared by Peter Reinecke
Student no. 200434934
IS Honours Thesis27 CSF’s for GIS Implementations in Developing Countries------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
ABSTRACT
This research describes the critical success factors for implementing a Geographical
Information system or GIS in a government institution of a developing country. The
findings show how success depends on strong linkages to sound business principles and
political drivers, GIS data availability and a number of social or institutional factors and
technical factors. The research is based on issues and solutions for developing countries
and has particular relevance in a South African Context.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to thank Professor R. Roets, Associate Dean of Commerce and thesis supervisor, for her time and guidance throughout the duration of this research. I would also like to thank the following people who were interviewed and provided valuable perspectives and insight into this research:
Mr Craig Schwabe (Director GIS : Human Sciences Research Council)
Dr Liz Gavin (Deputy Director General : Statistics South Africa)
Mr Sam Osei (Acting Director : National Spatial Information
Framework)
Mr Nick Scheepers (Head GIS : Municipal Demarcation Board)
Mr Jacques Joubert (Associate GIS : Africon)
Mr Luca Fanici (IT Manager : Eastern Cape Office of the Premier)
I would also like to thank the following individuals who corresponded with me via email
and provided research material in electronic format for inclusion within the literature
study:
Brian Mennecke (Associate Professor : Iowa State University)
Jan Turska (Global Urban Observatory : UN-Habitat)
Zorica Nedovic-Budic (Associate Professor : University of North Carolina)
Finally, I would like to thank the following people who proof read this document:
Mr. Jan Reinecke
Mrs. Emily Rautenbach
Mr. Walter Smit
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
1 Introduction.............................................................................................................- 8 -
1.1 Background.....................................................................................................- 8 -
1.2 General area of research..................................................................................- 9 -
1.3 Statement of problem....................................................................................- 10 -
1.4 Statement of sub problems............................................................................- 10 -
1.5 Scope of research..........................................................................................- 10 -
1.6 Importance of study.......................................................................................- 10 -
1.7 Research methodology..................................................................................- 12 -
1.8 Definition of terms........................................................................................- 12 -
2 GIS - the context...................................................................................................- 13 -
3 Benefits of implementing a GIS............................................................................- 15 -
4 GIS – developing country considerations.............................................................- 20 -
5 GIS data.................................................................................................................- 23 -
5.1 Data needs of governments...........................................................................- 24 -
5.2 Data management and integration challenges...............................................- 26 -
5.3 Strategies to integrate and improve availability of GIS data........................- 27 -
6 Institutional factors associated with GIS...............................................................- 29 -
6.1 The softer Issues - broadening the boundaries of GIS..................................- 29 -
6.2 GIS diffusion considerations.........................................................................- 30 -
6.3 Organisational dynamics and strategies........................................................- 32 -
6.4 GIS - an inter organisational effort...............................................................- 35 -
7 GIS system development considerations..............................................................- 38 -
8 Model for successful GIS implementations in developing countries....................- 39 -
8.1 Rogers’ success factors for innovations........................................................- 39 -
8.2 Mennecke and West – propensity of developing countries to use GIS.........- 40 -
8.3 Model for success of GIS implementations in government institutions of
…….developing countries....................................................................................- 41 -
8.3.1 Government policy, business context and economics...........................- 42 -
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8.3.2 GIS data factors.....................................................................................- 43 -
8.3.3 Institutional, organisational and social factors......................................- 44 -
8.3.4 Technical factors...................................................................................- 45 -
8.3.5 Model relationships...............................................................................- 47 -
9 Conclusion.............................................................................................................- 48 -
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1 The Integrative Nature of GIS (Mennecke and West, 1997)
Figure 2 Cost versus Benefits of a GIS Implementation (After Deichmann, 1996)
Figure 3 Propensity of LDC’s to Use GIS for Decision Making
Figure 4 Success Factors for GIS implementations in Government Institutions of Developing Countries
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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
CSF Critical Success Factors
GI Geographic Information
GIS Geographical Information Systems
IT Information Technology
NEPAD New Partnership for Africa’s Development
RDP Reconstruction and Development Programme
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1 Introduction
This thesis sets out the findings of an extensive literature study into the success factors
for a Geographical Information System (GIS) implementation in a government institution
of a developing country. This chapter begins with a brief introduction to the research area
and outlines the research objectives, scope, importance and methodology. The remainder
of the report discusses the broader context for and benefits of implementing a GIS. Issues
unique to developing countries which complicate the implementation of a GIS are then
outlined. Finally, broader technical and institutional issues which complicate the
implementation of a GIS are discussed.
The research culminates in a model which contains the most important success factors
and, in essence, answers the research question in a diagram format. The report ends with
a conclusion.
1.1 Background
Despite the dilemmas and questions about its utility and value in environments with more
urgent development priorities, computerised technology and geographical information
systems (GIS) are being increasingly used in developing countries (Cavric, Ikgopoleng
and Nedovic-Budic, 2000). Information technology (IT) has become an important aspect
of the attempt by the so-called developing countries to achieve economic progress and the
relative success in this area of various Asian economies such as Singapore has been
intimately linked to IT (Walsham and Sahay, 1999).
What makes GIS unique is its ability to link otherwise disparate information based on a
spatial location (Mennecke and West, 1997). This natural integration mechanism is not
naturally available in conventional information systems. Integration of data from multiple
sources is a hallmark of executive-level decision making (Mennecke and West, 1997;
Turban, 1993) and GIS can therefore improve decision making on this level.
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Many decisions in government institutions require information which crosses functional
and departmental boundaries and have geographical or spatial components to them
(Mennecke and West, 1997). A Department of Health, for example, that is constructing
new clinics in rural areas would require spatial information on the existence and
condition of gravel access roads in an area in order to position new clinics appropriately.
The spatial data for the gravel road networks may be held by the Department of Roads
and would therefore need to be shared with the Department of Health in this instance. A
shared GIS between these two departments, therefore, could enable better planning and
decision making.
Despite the immense potential of Geographical Information Systems (GIS) for executive
level decision making, planning and many other diverse applications, they are largely
underutilized. GIS implementations are also considered complex and provide a number of
unique management challenges for a number of reasons (Mennecke and West, 2001).
The issues highlighted above and a number of other factors are discussed in detail within
the body of this report.
1.2 General area of research
The general area of research is Geographical Information Systems or GIS. A GIS is a
computer based information system that enables the capture, modeling, manipulation,
retrieval, analysis and presentation of geographically referenced data (Schwabe, 2001;
Worboys, 1995). GIS are specialised database management systems that allow for the
recording of both conventional attribute data and information about the spatial location of
each record in a relational table (Mennecke and West, 1997). The characteristics of GIS
are ‘the general focus on spatial entities and relationships, together with specific attention
to spatial analytical and modeling operations’ (Chan and Williamson, 1999; Maguire,
1991). In essence, any computerized system that provides an answer to the simple
question of “what is at location X” is a GIS (Chan and Williamson, 1999).
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1.3 Statement of problem
The main problem statement is “Identify the Critical Success Factors for Implementing a
GIS in Government Institutions of Developing Countries”.
1.4 Statement of sub problems
The main problem consists of three sub problems:
Sub Problem 1: What are the benefits of implementing a GIS?
Sub Problem 2: What issues unique to developing countries complicate the
implementation of a GIS?
Sub Problem 3: Identify the social, organisational and technical issues which complicate
the implementation of a GIS.
1.5 Scope of research
This research captures and summarises current issues identified by recognised researchers
in the field of GIS. Most of the literature reviewed focuses on GIS implementations in
government institutions of developing countries. Due to the fact that the author of this
thesis lives and works in South Africa, some of the content of the research reflects current
issues in South Africa.
1.6 Importance of study
According to Walsham and Sahay (1999), the study of IS in developing countries is a
neglected topic in mainstream IS literature. General research into this area is therefore
important.
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There is a casually quoted statistic that roughly half of all GIS implementations fail
(Burke, 1996). Research carried out by the Standish Group (1995) has shown that 31.1%
of IT projects will be cancelled before they ever get completed, 52.7% of projects will
cost 189% of their original estimates and 78.4% of software projects will be deployed
with at least 74.2% of their original features and functions.
Although these statistics are based on IT projects in developed countries, one could
argue that the situation is worse in developing countries where budgetary and human
capacity shortages further reduce the probability of IT and GIS projects being successful.
GIS is a technology which has the potential to improve and focus development
geographically. Because development is a critical focus for governments of developing
countries, it is essential that the full capabilities of this technology are understood and
used. GIS can and must be used to improve service delivery. It is a development tool that
can expedite developmental objectives and therefore be part of the solution to the
problem which all developing countries face; the problem where needs far exceed
available resources.
In the light of the above, it is important to understand the critical success factors in the
implementation of a GIS to ensure that money spent on GIS in developing countries is
not wasted and that governmental developmental objectives are met in the process.
Finally, the researcher is involved with a number of GIS initiatives and projects within
the Eastern Cape, South Africa in particular. This research will attempt to provide
specific insight into success factors for GIS implementation in this context. The author
hopes to, as a result of this research, be able to provide decision makers and service
providers in South Africa with greater insight into success factors for GIS
implementations in South Africa.
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1.7 Research methodology
The information within this report is based on an extensive literature survey. In an
attempt to provide insight into current issues in South Africa, experienced government
and private sector GIS professionals both locally and nationally were interviewed.
1.8 Definition of terms
In the context of this research, developing countries are not seen as countries as such but
rather as situations where data, human capacity and political and institutional stability
are considered to be weak (Turkstra, Amemiya and Murgia, 2003). Developing countries
are further defined as being characterised by a shortage of infrastructure, a shortage of
funds and as having high unemployed rates.
For the purposes of this research, a developing country is defined as having one or all of
the above mentioned characteristics.
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2 GIS - the context
GIS implementation in developing countries is typically linked with the implementation
of other policies or programmes (Ramasubramanian, 1999; Ramasubramanian, 1991,
Sahay and Walsham, 1996). GIS implementation should therefore be understood and
assessed within the context of the policies that necessitated the introduction of GIS in the
first instance (Ramasubramanian, 1999).
According to Schwabe (2001), a spatial information system for South Africa should be
developed within a policy and a framework. The policy must provide the framework
within which particular information will be gathered for the spatial information system
(Schwabe, 2001). In essence, this is the business context for the system. Referring to GIS
in Africa, Schwabe maintains that spatial information for Africa should be gathered
within a framework that is underpinned by a common goal, set out in some form of policy
or protocol by the leaders of the continent. This is required to ensure that the correct
information is collected and that the process remains sustainable (Schwabe, 2001).
In Africa’s context, Schwabe (2001) recommends that the New Partnership for Africa's
Development (NEPAD) be used as the policy framework for the development of spatial
information for Africa. The primary focus of NEPAD is to eradicate poverty, address the
underdevelopment on the continent, put Africa on a sustainable development path and
ensure that Africa is accepted as an integral part of the globalising world. It is
acknowledged that much work is required in the development of a spatial information
system to provide the necessary information for decision making to achieve the goals set
out by NEPAD (Schwabe, 2001).
In developing a framework and strategy for the development of spatial information for
Africa, Schwabe (2001) asserts that an understanding of socio-economic, political and
environmental characteristics is essential. He maintains that out of a thorough
understanding of these issues, information requirements will flow which must inform the
development of the spatial information system.
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In this context, Schwabe (2001) believes that there is a need to develop new economic
development theories that consider the unique socio-economic, political and
environmental character of Africa. He cautions against applying economic development
theories developed from first world perspectives that do not take into consideration the
distinctive features of economies in Africa.
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3 Benefits of implementing a GIS
The question has been raised regarding whether or not GIS is an appropriate technology
for developing countries (Mennecke and West, 1997). The definition of an appropriate
technology in this context is given as a technology which has a low cost, uses local
resources, creates jobs, is flexible and is capable of being easily understood by local
people (Mennecke and West, 1997; Darrow and Pam, 1978).
Although on the surface GIS may not appear to meet the criteria for an appropriate
technology, a compelling case can be made for its use in developing countries. GIS is an
appropriate technology because it reduces waste and inefficiencies by effectively
matching resources to users and needs in the context of their location (Mennecke and
West, 1997; Yapa, 1991). It can therefore be used to optimise a developing nation’s
efforts to deliver services to its citizens.
GIS has been described as the technology with the biggest impact on the thinking of
county managers in local governments in the United States (Robey and Sahay, 1996).
General awareness, however, about GIS, its benefits and potential, is low (Cavric et al.,
2000).
Policy and decision makers are often uninformed and unexposed to GIS and are therefore
slow to initiate GIS projects and install GIS facilities into their working environments
(Cavric et al., 2000). GIS is an underutilised technology that can be used to improve
decisions made by all levels of Government. In South Africa, there is a lack of awareness
within both national and provincial governments regarding what spatial information is
available and how the capabilities of GIS can be used to inform decision makers using
this spatial information (Schwabe, 1997)
One of the mandates of government is to facilitate economic development. According to
Schwabe (2001), international markets want to grow into Africa, but are unable to
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because of a lack of sufficient information. Potential investors need to establish the
viability of investments by looking at potential market sizes, income levels and existing
infrastructure for example. Information in a spatial context related to demographics, socio
economics and infrastructure is therefore required by potential investors.
There is widespread recognition internationally that geographical information is
fundamental to the information infrastructure of a country (Pollard, 2000) and
governments are generally the largest users of GIS (Ramasubramanian, 1999). Spatial
data is particularly valuable to governments in developing countries because it enables
planning and focuses development efforts geographically (Mennecke & West, 2001).
According to Cavric et al. (2000), GIS is a tool for sustainable development and can be
used to support political, economic, social and scientific decision making.
Planning and development often requires data on the economic distribution of resources
such as the location of services or infrastructure as well as the location of a country’s
population in relation to those services. Used in this context, GIS can inform decision
makers regarding the allocation of funds to geographic areas based on which areas are
most underdeveloped. International assistance in terms of development aid, for example,
can therefore be informed by GIS in this way (Schwabe, 2001).
GIS is an integrating technology (Kreizman, 2002) and its ability to integrate datasets
utilizing spatially referenced objects from diverse sources is what makes it an important
decision enabling tool within government (Pollard, 2000). This is probably one of the
most important functions of a spatial information system or GIS (Schwabe, 2001; Rich,
1993). The overlaying of different layers of spatial information enables people to gain an
understanding of the spatial relationship between features and enables information from
one layer to be integrated with another (Schwabe, 2001). An example of this is the
overlaying of census information with satellite imagery to show where areas of
environmental degradation occur in relation to where populations with different socio-
economic characteristics reside.
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GIS can join datasets based on common unique identifiers contained within separate
tables or databases as is common practice in conventional relational database
management systems (RDBMS). GIS can, however, also join datasets based on spatial
relationships or “geography” (Mennecke and West, 1997) without requiring common
unique identifiers which limit conventional RDBMS. Using spatial proximity operators to
create joins, a linkage can be made between any compatible spatial coverage. In this way,
decisions that require integration of datasets that otherwise could not be joined, can now
be merged using GIS. It is estimated that 80% of government data is spatial in nature and
a significant amount of government data can therefore be integrated on this basis
(Pollard, 2000).
Agency A Agency B Agency C
GIS
GIS
GIS
GIS
GIS
GIS
Figure 1 : The Integrative Nature of GIS (Mennecke and West, 1997)
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Figure 1 above depicts how three separate databases used by three different government
departments can be joined spatially on the basis of compatible spatial coverages within
each database.
As mentioned already, integrating data from multiple sources is a hallmark of executive
level decision making (Mennecke and West, 1997; Turban, 1993; Watson, Hugh, Rainer
and Koh 1991) and the process of integration is a key bottleneck in the operation of
executive support systems (Mennecke and West, 1997). GIS therefore has an important
role to play in this context.
One of the most useful functions of spatial information or GIS is the production of
thematic maps for decision making (Schwabe, 2001; Landis, 1993). South Africa has
seen a marked increase in the use of GIS to this end in the last few years. It started in
1994 when the Independent Electoral Commission (IEC) identified the need to use spatial
information to demarcate their voting districts and wards. GIS technology enabled them
to demarcate areas of sufficient population size for voting stations to handle over a short
period. GIS was also used to disseminate information to voters about the location of their
voting stations.
A further attribute of GIS, which makes it unique, is its ability to perform spatial queries
on entities within a RDBMS. Queries such as “intersects” and “are within <distance> of”
are possible (Mennecke and West, 1997). Queries such as “Display (map and report) all
houses within 500m of a nightclub that could be impacted by loud noise” or “show all
properties affected by planned maintenance on a bulk municipal water pipeline”, can be
made using GIS. The result of a spatial query can then be further analysed using standard
database query techniques. For example, once we have an ID on the “properties” affected
by routine maintenance, one could run a query to search for hospitals within the sub set
“properties”.
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In many cases, however, an investment in GIS does not lead to any tangible benefits until
many years after the initial investment has been made. The relationship between costs
and benefits is depicted in Figure 2 below (Mennecke and West, 1997; Deichmann,
1996). GIS implementations are characterized by heavy startup costs, high data
integration expenses and long payback periods (Kreizman, 2002). It is therefore essential
that an investment in GIS include the identification and implementation of short term
success projects in its roll out to ensure that short term benefits are demonstrated.
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Figure 2 : Cost versus Benefits of a GIS
Implementation (After Deichmann, 1996)
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4 GIS – developing country considerations
Current academic and professional discourse in developed countries tends to emphasize
the complexities associated with GIS use. Developing countries, on the other hand, are
still dealing with GIS implementation issues rather than utilization issues
(Ramasubramanian, 1999).
Political instability in developing countries can result in institutional instability in
government organisations. This environment can make discussions on complex projects
such as GIS implementations difficult (Turska et al., 2003).
According to Burke (1996), there is a lack of ongoing funding and institutional
commitment for GIS in developing countries. GIS installations are usually only funded
for the lifespan of the project (Burke, 1996). GIS implementation in developing countries
is often carried out using external funding (van der Vegt, 2001). GIS installations are
mostly stand alone projects (Turska et al., 2003) which are donor designed and driven and
implemented exclusively by consultants (Burke, 1996). Decision makers in developing
countries must be educated about the nature of spatial data and necessity and benefits of
continuity, so that they understand the need for long term support (Burke, 1996).
It is also important in this context that the GIS is developed in response to actual needs in
these country’s, rather than the perceived needs of the external funding agents. Donor
driven projects that are implemented without enough local consultation and user input
will not be sustainable. GIS projects and installations must be driven by the needs of local
agencies themselves (Burke, 1996). This in itself can determine the success or failure of a
GIS initiative (van der Vegt, 2001).
Most developing country’s do not have locally developed software and have to rely on
commercial software purchased from developed countries (Cavric et al., 2000). This is
both expensive and results in a heavy dependence on outside experts to operate the
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imported software. In addition to this, local people are also often left with insufficient
GIS knowledge and skills at the end of a project (Cavric et al., 2000). This impacts
negatively on the sustainability of a GIS.
According to Turska et al. (2003), GIS projects in developing countries often have a
limited impact because of a lack of institutional embedding i.e. no changes take place in
technical and organisational structures of organisations. GIS initiatives are therefore not
able to mature from the project stage to the institutional level.
The effective use of GIS information and technology in developing countries is a
challenge. Research has shown that very few people are able to use spatial information
for problem solving effectively. GIS specialists are therefore required to facilitate
decision making using GIS. This requires the development of this expertise in these
countries (Schwabe, 2001).
The development of local, context specific knowledge about the theory and practice of
GIS is vital to successful GIS implementation (Ramasubramanian, 1999; Beedasy, 1999).
The sustainability of GIS projects designed by outside experts will be limited if the local
workforce does not have a critical understanding of the concepts and principles
underlying the particular GIS when the experts leave. Furthermore, foreign investment
seldom supports end user training and follow up programmes (Ramasubramanian , 1999;
Beedasy, 1999). A commitment to capacity building requires an investment in a country’s
academic infrastructure and in the design of appropriate local training programmes
(Ramasubramanian , 1999; Beedasy, 1999).
Cavric et al. (2000) found that in Botswana, the shortage of a wide user base of trained
locals capable of understanding GIS adversely affected GIS diffusion within the country.
Training is not only expensive and time consuming, but also can result in retention
problems. Research has shown that when government employees acquire skills and
competence in GIS, they are likely to move to more lucrative non-government positions
(Mennecke and West, 2001; Leddy and Fuller, 1996).
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Van der Vegt (2001) identified underpaid and poorly motivated staff as well as general
organisational problems and inefficiencies, as significant institutional barriers to
governments of developing countries in the context of GIS implementations.
Many developing countries also have erratic power supplies which adversely affects the
up time of systems (Skov-Peterson, 1997). The local availability of technical support for
PC hardware repair and maintenance is generally poor (Skov-Peterson, 1997). There is
also the added challenge of a low level of PC literacy with end users of GIS systems
(Speer, 1997).
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5 GIS data
Mennecke and West (2001) maintain that the most significant impediment to a GIS is the
availability of suitable data. According to Pollard (2000), the lack of availability and high
cost of GIS data as well as the poor quality of existing GIS datasets are major inhibitors
to the development and use of GIS in government. It is the nature of spatial data which
makes collection efforts difficult (Mennecke and West, 2001) and, as a result, there is
often a shortage in the availability of spatially referenced data.
The sheer magnitude of data collection effort required to generate accurate detailed maps
for a country is an important consideration. The task of recording the entire geography of
a country at a useful resolution is daunting, but must be accomplished if the data is to be
useful for analysis (Mennecke and West, 1997). The typical approach used for generating
GIS data is to digitize existing paper maps. These maps, however, often contain errors,
inaccuracies and inconsistencies. Mapping activities required to verify the information
and, in some cases, generate new maps, is costly and a strain to most governments in
developing countries (Mennecke and West, 1997)
Developing countries usually have weak national data providers which, in developed
countries, are often substantial providers of useful data (Mennecke and West, 2001).
Substantial investments in good quality data are therefore necessary in developing
countries. Nevertheless these investments should be based on transparent and rational
economic principles (Turska et al., 2003). Data quality is relative and should be derived
from the need and (economic) possibilities (Turska et al., 2003). Unrealistically high
standards of data precision should be avoided as they will be unsustainable (Turska et al.,
2003).
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5.1 Data needs of governments
Spatial data of interest to government decision makers generally falls into three
categories: physical, political and socio economic (Mennecke and West, 2001).
Physical data includes features of the ground, land masses, bodies of water and
waterways, roads, railroads, forests, mountains etc. (Mennecke and West, 2001). This
data is costly to obtain and the process involved to verify and align data from different
maps and sources in this regard is a complicated process. On site data gathering and
verification is often required to acquire this data.
Political data relates to artificial designations that define an area as being part of a
political entity (Mennecke and West, 2001). Political data is problematic because political
boundaries such as municipality or ward boundaries must be recorded manually i.e. aerial
imagery cannot be used to detect these “man-made” divisions.
Political boundaries also change and therefore must be updated regularly. As boundaries
change, national and provincial co-ordination is essential to ensure that governments at
these levels modify their spatial datasets to reflect these boundary changes. Often this is
not the case and data sharing becomes problematic where datasets are no longer all
describing the same political area (Mennecke and West, 2001). A problem currently
being faced in South Africa is the proliferation of boundaries for education, health,
police, telecommunications and postal services with each being set differently (Schwabe,
1997).
The socio-economic data is perceived both locally and internationally to be the most
important data set for planning purposes and should be the first to be developed in a
country (Schwabe, 2001; Chlorey, 1998). Socio-economic data is about populations,
economics and social patterns (Mennecke and West, 2001). A thorough understanding of
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the population distribution of a country and other socio-economic characteristics (e.g. per
capita income, literacy, population density etc.) are imperative to address the needs of
communities (Schwabe, 1997). Governments are interested in their populations, but
people are notoriously difficult and expensive to count (Mennecke and West, 2001).
Recording detailed information about the population such as income, gender, ethnic
background and profession, for example is costly, complicated and resource intensive
(Mennecke and West, 2001).
In the context of the Reconstruction and Development Programme (RDP), a National
Government initiative started in South Africa during 1994, three core spatial datasets
were identified for the implementation of the programme. These were socio-economic,
service need and provision and development funding datasets (Schwabe, 1997). The
socio-economic data required corresponds with the definition provided above.
The service need and provision dataset refers to information on what services and
infrastructure people have access to. This is necessary in order to prioritise development
funding in areas which need it the most, as well as to provide a benchmark to monitor
progress in providing services to those high priority areas (Schwabe, 1997).
The development funding dataset (Schwabe, 2001) is required to consolidate information
on the extent of expenditure by various funding sources at different spatial levels in South
Africa. Development funding at national, provincial, line department and district
municipal levels is required at a project specific level of detail. This spatial information is
needed to ensure equitable and transparent distribution of funds between provinces and
prevent duplication of funding from different agencies in the same geographical areas.
The comparison of which types of projects are being funded in the context of where the
greatest service needs are, is also required to target under-developed areas effectively
(Schwabe, 1997). Funding comparisons between funds generated from internal revenue,
international agencies and investments by private companies by geographical location, is
also derived from this dataset (Schwabe, 2001).
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5.2 Data management and integration challenges
Physical, political, socio-economic, service need and provision and development funding
data in South Africa are collected by a number of different government departments. The
Municipal Demarcation Board, an independent constitutional entity partly funded through
the Department of Provincial and Local Government, maintains the political boundaries.
Statistics South Africa, an entity within the Department of Finance, conducts the national
census every 5 years. In addition to this, a number of government departments, namely
the Department of Water Affairs and Forestry, the Department of Roads and Public
Works, the Department of Housing and Local Government and large parastatals such as
Eskom and Telkom, use, develop and maintain large spatial datasets.
Because decision making at both a departmental level as well as at higher levels in
government often requires integration of this “cross departmental” data, data sharing is
essential. According to Pollard (2000) spatial data is central to information exchange
within government and many countries are now addressing the question of how to co-
ordinate data sharing. Data sharing issues such as data availability, pricing structures,
data transfer, data quality and developing national and international data standards are
critical to the use of geographical information (Pollard, 2000).
It is, however, difficult to share data among government departments because of
differences in classification systems which are used in organising geographic information
(Cavric et al., 2000). In particular, where differences exist in the measures and collection
methodologies used in different geographic areas, comparisons between areas will be
difficult or impossible (Mennecke and West, 2001; Walker & Young, 1997). Additional
difficulties in obtaining and using spatial information include information not being
current or sufficiently accurate as well as restricted access placed by organisations on
their datasets.
Issues such as missing positional data, use of different spatial units, different time
references for the data, presence of spatial data gaps and different levels of aggregation or
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resolution further complicate the challenge of spatial data integration (Mennecke and
West, 2001; Gerland, 1996). Maps that have been created at different scales and need to
be integrated also provide additional challenges (Mennecke and West, 2001; Clarke,
1995).
Duplication of data by different government departments is also a major barrier to
successful GIS implementation across societal sectors. Most government departments
collect data but only for their own purposes (Cavric et al., 2000). Duplication is often the
result of a lack of inter-organisational coordination in terms of data sharing. This is
compounded by the lack of inter-organisational data standards which further complicate
data sharing efforts in general.
Mennecke and West (1997) maintain that it is important to adopt common GIS
technology, file formats and projections throughout a country. Data standards,
dictionaries and national data catalogues must be developed (Burke, 1996). These
standards will provide a framework for collaboration and data sharing. Data standards
define the quality and format of GIS data. Data standards refer to file naming and coding,
file maintenance and editing, data projections and co ordinate systems, data formats and
data exchange formats, metadata and data documentation requirements as well as spatial
symbology.
5.3 Strategies to integrate and improve availability of GIS data
Walsham and Sahay (1999) recommend that issues of data sharing need to be addressed
at high political levels and Mennecke and West (2001) propose three strategies to
overcome the obstacles associated with GIS data availability, integration and high cost in
developing country’s. Firstly, governments should take steps to develop national-level
base maps to eliminate the need for each data producer to create their own base maps. A
high quality national set of base maps that is widely used would also automatically
impose national standards for projection, scale and resolution of additional data layered
on these maps.
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In this process of developing national-level base maps, national standards for attribute
data should be created. A national metadata repository and data dictionary of commonly
used data elements should be created. This will enable users to identify what data is
available, where it is located and in what format it is recorded. Data sharing and
integration will thus be facilitated and data collection redundancy or duplication reduced.
Secondly, global positioning systems (GPS) and remotely sensed data offer the potential
to provide vast quantities of useful data at relatively low costs. Staff performing field
activities as part of their duties can be trained in the use of GPS devices and collect GIS
data in the field. Remotely sensed data i.e. data created from aerial photographs and
satellite images, also provides a significantly less expensive alternative to using a ground
based approach. A variety of features such as roads, villages etc. can be identified in this
way (Mennecke and West, 2001; Wang, Treitz & Howarth, 1992).
Finally, when governments contract service providers for various projects, contracts
could include provisions requiring service providers to provide relevant datasets in agreed
national formats i.e. new roads or bulk water pipelines in a GIS format complete with
attributes such as material used, date constructed etc.
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6 Institutional factors associated with GIS
6.1 The softer Issues - broadening the boundaries of GIS
GIS implementation successes are influenced by a wide range of factors that have little or
nothing to do with the technology or technical considerations (Ramasubramanian, 1999;
Obermeyer and Pinto 1994; Campbell and Masser, 1995). Research on the introduction of
computer systems into a variety of private and public sector organisations has shown that
organisational factors are better predictors of success than technical factors are (Simpson
and Innes, 1993; Bikson, 1981).
GIS innovation results in a radical change in information flow within an organisation
(Burke, 1996). People are therefore forced to change the way they do things during a GIS
implementation. Extensive research in the social sciences has shown that in the
development of spatial information systems, an understanding of people’s opinions and
perceptions must be considered (Schwabe, 2001). An understanding of what people’s
concerns are and what would enable them to change their behaviour, is of critical
importance (Schwabe, 2001).
In this context, a GIS can be defined as an ‘institutional entity’, reflecting an
organisational structure that integrates technology with a database, expertise and
continuing financial support over time” (Chan and Williamson, 1999; Carter, 1989). This
is referred to as an organisational perspective of GIS (Chan and Williamson, 1999;
Maguire, 1991). This organisational perspective includes five components which are data,
information technology, standards, people with GIS expertise and the organisational
setting (Chan and Williamson, 1999).
Data, people and information technology are concepts which do not require an
explanation. Chan and Williamson (1999) define the organisational setting as all the
operating environments, technical, political or financial, which are created by the
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interaction among the stakeholders, within which GIS is to function. Standards are
defined as all agreed practices required to facilitate the sharing of the four other
components of a GIS (Chan and Williamson, 1999). This definition is significant in that it
emphasizes the organisational environment as an integral element of a GIS (Chan and
Williamson, 1999).
The discussion which follows looks at GIS in its organisational context as a technology
which crosses functional boundaries not only within (intra) but also between (inter)
organisations. The discussion starts, however, by looking in a broader context at how GIS
diffuses or spreads through an organisation or a country.
6.2 GIS diffusion considerations
Ramasubramanian (1999) provide a working definition of a GIS implementation as the
process through which communities of users within an organisational setting become
aware of, adopt and use GIS. The term implementation is similar to Rogers’ definition of
diffusion (Ramasubramanian, 1999; Rogers, 1983). GIS diffusion can be defined as the
process by which the innovation is communicated through certain channels over time
among the members of a social system (Chan and Williamson, 1999; Rogers, 1995). GIS
diffusion is affected by the nature of the GIS, the structure of the organisation, and the
interplay between the two (Chan and Williamson, 1999; Campbell, 1996).
In the context of GIS diffusion throughout government organisations and organisational
learning, Robey and Sahay (1996) linked the success of a GIS implementation to,
amongst other factors, an emphasis on the spread of conceptual knowledge rather than
merely procedural knowledge about GIS within the organisations.
Research carried out by Robey and Sahay (1996) also confirmed that a decentralized
management approach to GIS diffusion encouraged more widespread knowledge and
acceptance of GIS technology as opposed to a centralized management approach. Similar
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technologies were implemented in two county government organisations in the United
States using the two different management approaches.
Schwabe (1997) comments on GIS diffusion in South Africa and Africa and highlights
the importance of understanding local conditions. He asserts that to ensure growth in the
dissemination of spatial information and GIS to decision makers and the people of South
Africa, easy access to relevant information must be provided.
Unique challenges such as the existence of eleven official languages and the fact that
64% of the population are considered functionally illiterate must be overcome (Schwabe,
1997). Spatial decision support software is needed (Schwabe, 1997) which ensures that
the complexity and sophistication of a GIS runs in the background and is virtually
invisible (Schwabe, 1997; Campbell, 1994). An understanding of how decision makers
and communities interact with spatial information and the associated technology is
important (Schwabe, 1997; Chlorey, 1998). Strategies for the diffusion of GIS must take
these local issues into consideration.
Walsham and Sahay (1999) draw interesting conclusions regarding the diffusion of GIS
in India with regard to the importance of understanding local conditions and cultures.
They used actor network theory and contextualism to analyse whether or not GIS
technology had been successfully implemented for district level administration in India.
Actor network theory examines the motivations and actions of actors who form elements,
linked by associations, of heterogeneous networks of aligned interests. Actors are defined
as including humans and technology. The focus of the theory is to trace, understand and
explain processes whereby successful networks can be created and maintained.
Successful networks are defined as having aligned interests which translate into ways of
thinking and acting that maintain the network. GIS diffusion success depends on these
networks.
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They showed that implicit cultural assumptions embedded in the first world developed
GIS technology, such as rational decision making, a map based culture and co-ordinated
action, proved to be highly problematic when the technology was implemented in India.
Walsham and Sahay (1999) pointed out that most Indians rarely, if ever, used maps. GIS,
however, requires users to adopt a map-oriented approach to their work.
In western society, explicit data and rational decision making processes are legitimate
bases for planning and management. By contrast, in India, these are not widely accepted
norms where value is placed on intuitive approaches such as the maintenance of personal
relations. A dominant feature of Indian intellectual thinking has been the supremacy
accorded to non rational forms of thinking (Walsham and Sahay, 1999; Saha, 1992).
Furthermore, the multi-layered nature of GIS systems, where data on different
characteristics are brought together as overlays on the same map based system, assumes
that management issues will be addressed in an integrated and co-ordinated way.
However, it was found in India, that government agencies did not speak to each other, let
alone co-ordinate management issues together. In this sense, the management patterns
contrasted strongly with cultural attitudes to co-ordination that were inscribed in the GIS
technology.
The section which follows looks more closely at organisational cultures, change and
learning and how they relate to GIS diffusion.
6.3 Organisational dynamics and strategies
As mentioned already, GIS has the potential to consolidate the work of different
government departments that deal with different resources distributed in the same
geographical area (Robey and Sahay, 1996). By providing a common technical base for
spatial analysis, GIS has the ability to integrate tasks involving surveying, mapping,
designing, planning, and other related activities normally performed in separate
departments. GIS therefore reduces structural differentiation by cutting across existing
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organisational boundaries and creating new work procedures related to spatial analyses
(Robey and Sahay, 1996).
Because of this, GIS forces a stronger union between departments in government
organisations which can result in greater levels of interdependency between departments.
This can result in positive or negative outcomes because it necessitates a team effort for
the success or otherwise of each of the individual departments (Robey and Sahay, 1996).
For this reason, understanding the dynamics involved in organisational change is
important during GIS implementations.
In terms of evaluating GIS diffusion in organisations, Robey and Sahay (1996) link the
success of a GIS implementation to the capability of organisations to accept
organisational transformation and change. They also noted that the success of
technology-enabled organisational change depended on a number of technical and social
influences which were only partially controllable.
Research has shown that differences in organisational cultures were, amongst other
factors, responsible for divergent outcomes in the implementation of the same
information systems in different offices of a multi-national organisation (Robey and
Sahay, 1996; Robey and Rodiguez-Diaz, 1989). In several case studies it was reported
that political processes surrounding implementation were linked to failed attempts to
transform organisations using information technology (Robey and Sahay, 1996; Zuboff,
1998). In this way, technology can be viewed as an occasion for and not necessarily a
determinant of organisational change (Robey and Sahay, 1996; Barley, 1996).
GIS implementations often begin, not at an enterprise level, but from organisational
subunits that have recognized the value of GIS to that part of the organisations mission
(Kreizman, 2002). Successful GIS implementation is likely to occur only when
individuals and organisations creatively challenge existing norms, organisational
defensive routines and inefficient bureaucratic practices (Ramasubramanian, 1999). The
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implementation will rely on the capacity of empowered individuals and groups rather
than solely on organisational structures (Ramasubramanian, 1999).
Huxhold and Levinsohn (1995) point out that a reconstruction of attitudes, procedures,
power structures and responsibilities will result as an organisation progresses towards a
GIS implementation (Ramasubramanian, 1999; Huxhold and Levinsohn, 1995).
Identifying techniques and strategies to overcome these potential barriers is an important
part of the GIS implementation process (Ramasubramanian, 1999; Huxhold and
Levinsohn, 1995).
Information technology has the potential to change the power relationships between
organisational members, thereby providing motivation for members to take (political)
actions that secure or maintain power (Mennecke and West, 2001; Dazinger, Dutton,
Kling and Kraemer, 1982). Possession of information often assists those who possess it to
be more successful and therefore more powerful. In addition to this, since information
technology is often an important organisational resource for organisational members,
control over this provides the person wielding this control with significant power over
other organisational members. Finally, those who hold power over information
technology in an organisation may be perceived as technically sophisticated or advanced
(Mennecke and West, 2001; Dazinger, Dutton, Kling and Kraemer, 1982; Drory &
Romm, 1990).
Because the benefits of a GIS come from intra-organisational sharing of spatially
referenced data (Pollard, 2000), organisations should develop strategies for promoting
successful inter-organisational partnerships for sharing geographic data (Mennecke and
West, 2001; National Research Council, 1994). Genuine interest for intra-organisational
or cross functional co-operation will add much to the success of a GIS implementation
(Turkstra et al., 2002). Organisational policies should be developed that encourage the
sharing of responsibilities, commitment, benefits and control of GIS implementations
(Mennecke and West, 2001; National Research Council, 1994).
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6.4 GIS - an inter organisational effort
GIS not only requires co-operation within organisations but also between them. GIS
requires the collaboration of multiple agencies and stakeholder groups and the creation of
a stable network of these participants can be particularly problematic (Walsham and
Sahay, 1999). A critical approach to the examination of the ways that this technology and
its products reconfigure broader patterns of cultural, economic and political relations is
needed (Walsham and Sahay, 1999; Pickles, 1995).
According to Pollard (2000), the benefits of GIS come from intra- and inter-
organisational sharing of spatially referenced data. Studies of inter-organisational
linkages in the private sector, however, show that IT based innovations can involve
radical re-organisation of relations between organisations (Pollard, 2000). It is concluded
that spatial data sharing across organisational boundaries will be characterized by similar
dynamics. In order for a GIS initiative to succeed therefore, organisational networks must
be formed and must be capable of enabling information-mediated change.
Pollard (2000) illustrates how inter-organisational geographical information networks
have emerged in the United Kingdom (UK) and have been instrumental in developing
policy and co-ordinating activities across organisational boundaries. The Association for
Geographic Information (AGI) is a voluntary association of GIS users and suppliers in
the UK which provides a forum for the Geographic Information (GI) community to lobby
government on GI issues and co-ordinate development on GI standards, for example.
Inter-governmental forums also exist to co-ordinate GI efforts. These forums are
important elements in facilitating intra and inter-organisational collaboration and data
sharing, an essential component of an integrated GIS.
Pollard (2000) suggests that complex network arrangements co-exist alongside
hierarchical structures and market structures as alternative structures in the context of
GIS development and data sharing in a country. In a hierarchical structure, data sharing
could be driven with a top down approach. A market approach relies on market forces of
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supply and demand to fuel data sharing. A complex network arrangement view
acknowledges the informal dynamic at work between organisations where knowledge
about problems and solutions regarding GIS, is dispersed over many interactive
organisational actors.
Pollard (2000) believes that the role of the Government in this complex inter-
organisational network is to play a steering role in balancing the network. Pollard (2000)
also states that the network has a self organizing element which can make things happen.
It is important to be aware of hierarchical, market and complex network arrangements at
play in a country and within social networks. Identifying the influential actors in these
networks and aligning their interests for the common goal of implementing a GIS is an
important potential success factor.
In South Africa, Schwabe (1997) maintains that to use spatial information and GIS
effectively in line with the National Government’s Reconstruction and Development
Programme (RDP), a partnership between government, service providers and major
research councils in the country is necessary. This partnership is needed to co-ordinate
national data collection efforts and to provide expertise to perform the required spatial
analyses on the information gathered.
Schwabe (1997) believes that we need a central body for co-ordination and regulation of
GIS activities in South Africa. This body should assist in the development of policy and
play a leading role in defining the spatial information needs of government in line with
current development priorities, namely the RDP. It would also act as a forum for
discussion between government, service providers and institutions involved in the
development of spatial information to ensure that new spatial databases are developed in
a collaborative manner and can be integrated in future.
The body should also promote the use of GIS within the public and private sectors. The
body should include members from the major institutions that represent the GIS and
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spatial information industries in South Africa including government and research council
representatives. Schwabe (1997) suggests, however, that the central body remain
independent of government in order to maintain its legitimacy amongst all parties
involved.
Research by Cavric et al. (2000) confirms this. In Botswana, he identified the lack of a
systematic approach to the distribution, organisation and gathering of national GIS
capacities as a major reason for the low performance of GIS in the country over a 5 year
period.
Schwabe (2001) identifies two best practice models for the development of a spatial
information system for a country or continent. The first is the development of a spatial
information system by different agencies followed by the development of a framework in
which the efforts of government are co-ordinated and managed. This has been the
approach in South Africa until a few years ago when the National Spatial Information
Framework (NSIF) was formed and policies such as the Spatial Information Bill were
created to co-ordinate the spatial information industry in South Africa.
One of the problems with the first model is that it entrenches the idea that the information
collected by independent agencies belongs to them and they can therefore control access
to it through regulations and costing. Standardisation and integration also become
problematic with this approach. Advantages of this approach are that it usually goes
further than supplying only the minimum requirements, institutions usually display
ingenuity with this approach and implementation is quicker (Schwabe, 2001).
The second model is the development of the institutional framework in a country before
its spatial information needs are identified. This ensures a unified approach is taken by
institutions to spatial information collection. Schwabe (2001) concludes that this
approach can suffer from bureaucratic regulations and delays, but that spatial information
emanating from this approach usually meets the needs of decision makers better and is
much more standardized and therefore easier to integrate.
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7 GIS system development considerations
GIS has some unique characteristics which require specific attention during
implementations. Users need to be familiar with geographic and cartographic vocabulary
as well as statistics and percentages (Cheverie, 1995). They also need to be educated
about the possibilities of GIS, as the concepts used with this technology may be new to
them (Cheverie, 1995). The spatial information component of a GIS project must be an
integral part of overall project design from the beginning. Insertion of a GIS into a project
design as an afterthought or add-on will rarely be successful (Burke, 1996)
The implementation of a GIS is not a product but an incremental development process
that will only progress to the extent to which it is simple, cost effective, user friendly and
flexible with clear products (Turska et al., 2002). According to Walsham and Sahay
(1999), the most difficult part of GIS introduction in developing countries is getting
people to think spatially. An awareness of spatial data products and analysis capabilities
needs to be cultivated in users early on in a GIS project in order for these products to be
optimally used (Burke, 1996).
GIS is an information system and best practice principles of information system
development therefore apply to implementing a GIS. Establishing and documenting
accurate user requirements, defining clear, specific and measurable project deliverables
linked to timeframes, obtaining executive management support, identifying project
champions and linking overall project objectives to economic principles i.e. establishing a
sound business case for the initiative are some of the key principles that must be applied
during a GIS implementation.
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8 Model for successful GIS implementations in developing countries
The model developed and described below incorporates the critical issues highlighted in
this report and builds on the theoretical frameworks provide by Rogers and Scott (1997)
and Mennecke and West (2001).
8.1 Rogers’ success factors for innovations
Rogers and Scott (1997), building on research undertaken by Rogers (1983), define an
innovation as an idea, practice, or object that is perceived as new by an individual or
other unit of adoption. The characteristics of an innovation, as perceived by the members
of a social system, determine its rate of adoption. Rogers and Scott (1997) show that there
are slower and faster rates of adoption for different innovations and explain why certain
innovations spread more quickly than others. They assert that the attributes of an
innovation which determine its rate of adoption are simplicity, observability, relative
advantage, trialability and compatibility.
Innovations that are simpler to understand are adopted more rapidly than innovations that
are complex and require the development of new skills and understandings. Observability
is the degree to which the results of an innovation are visible. The easier it is for
individuals to see the results of an innovation, the more likely they are to adopt it.
Relative advantage is the degree to which an innovation is perceived as better than the
idea it supersedes. The degree of relative advantage may be measured in economic terms,
but social prestige, convenience, and satisfaction are also important factors. The degree of
objective advantage is therefore not as important as the individual’s perception of the
innovations advantage is. The greater the perceived relative advantage of an innovation,
the more rapid its rate of adoption will be.
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Trialability is the degree to which an innovation may be experimented with on a limited
basis. An innovation that is trialable represents less uncertainty to the individual who is
considering it for adoption as it allows them to learn by “doing”.
Compatibility is the degree to which an innovation is perceived as being consistent with
the existing values, past experiences, and needs of potential adopters. An idea that is
incompatible with the values and norms of a social system will not be adopted as rapidly
as an innovation that is compatible. The adoption of an incompatible innovation often
requires the prior adoption of a new value system, which is a relatively slow process.
Innovations that are perceived by members of a social system as having less complexity
and greater observability, relative advantage, trialability and compatibility will be
adopted more rapidly than other innovations.
8.2 Mennecke and West – propensity of developing countries to use GIS
Figure 3 : Propensity of LDC’s to Use GIS for Decision Making
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Mennecke and West (2001) provide a holistic framework of the variables which influence
the propensity of Less Developed Countries (LDC’s) to use GIS for decision making. The
three core components of their framework relate to access to GIS data, the organisational,
managerial and political environment and the relevance of a GIS to National, Agency and
individual level decision making.
To improve spatial data accessibility and quality, they recommend that LDC’s should use
satellite imagery, GPS technology and strive to form collaborative partnerships between
the private and public sectors.
They assert that a favorable managerial, organisational and political environment is
essential and can be cultivated by sharing responsibilities, commitment, benefits and
control of GIS initiatives. Specific responsibilities for all organisational participants who
are likely to be impacted by the GIS initiative should be defined and agreed in advance.
In terms of commitment, costs for the GIS initiative should be equitably distributed
amongst the beneficiaries if possible. In addition to this, benefits should be received by
organisational members in a manner that is consistent with their involvement and
commitment to the initiative. Control over the decision making process should also be
apportioned in a manner consistent to the commitment required of and benefits received
by each organisational member. Finally, suitably trained staff are another essential
element in developing a favorable environment for GIS.
8.3 Model for success of GIS implementations in government institutions of developing countries
The model consists of four building blocks and incorporates issues highlighted in the
theories provided by Rogers and Scott (1997) and Mennecke and West (2001). Each
block is significant in its own right but special attention is drawn to blocks one (1) and
three (3). These blocks are the most critical building blocks of any GIS initiative. The
model is described in more detail below:
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Government Policy - Business Context – Economics
DATA SOCIAL TECH
• Built on Policy – for example RDP (SA)
• Built around business and political “questions” or “drivers”
• Economically intelligent
• In context of socio economic, political and environmental characteristics of a ….country
Legislation
GPS/RSI
1
2 3 4
I nform Enable
Dictionary
Accessibility
Contracts
Enables
UseIdentify Short Term Success projectsRogers Success CharacteristicsIncrease awareness
IS/PM Best practices
Academic infrastructure
Successful GIS Implementations in Developing Countries
Results in
Central National GroupInter organisational PartnershipsOrganisational changeConsensus groupsShare costs, benefits, responsibilities, control
Conceptual Knowledge
Policy informed
Champions
Figure 4 : Success Factors for GIS implementations in Government Institutions of
Developing Countries
8.3.1 Government policy, business context and economics
The foundation or block one (1) of the model is based on research by Schwabe (2001)
and Ramasubramanian (1999). Schwabe (2001) asserts that a spatial information system
or GIS should be based on a policy framework such as the Reconstruction and
Development Programme (RDP) in South Africa for example. A GIS must be interpreted
and implemented within the context of the policies that necessitated the introduction of
the GIS in the first place (Ramasubramanian, 1999). When a technology becomes
detached from sound business logic and does not respond to business drivers or political
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objectives, it cannot be sustainable. GIS must therefore answer and be responsive to
critical business and political questions.
In addition to this, a GIS must be built on sound economic principles. Data collection
exercises, for example, which constitute the bulk of the cost of GIS’s, should be
economically based. Data quality is relative and should be derived from the need and
(economic) possibilities (Turska et al., 2003). Unrealistically high standards of data
precision should be avoided as they will be unsustainable (Turska et al., 2003).
Moreover, an understanding of the socio economic, political and environmental
characteristics of a country is important. These must inform the information requirements
for a GIS in a country. (Schwabe, 2001)
8.3.2 GIS data factors
The data building block draws on the framework provided by Mennecke and West
(2001). Emphasis is however placed on the need for co-ordination and collaboration on a
national level of GIS capabilities. Responsibilities for collection, provision and
maintenance of key spatial datasets must be defined for and legislated to national
government departments.
National GIS datasets (socio-economic, physical, political, service need and provision &
development funding) must be built on sound economic principles and be responsive to
government policies and objectives. These datasets, once developed, must be made
available on a web server to improve the accessibility of GIS datasets. To this end there is
also a need to develop a national data dictionary and metadata repository of all available
datasets. This should be made available on the internet to improve awareness about and
reduce duplication of existing datasets.
The use of GPS technology and satellite imagery or remotely sensed imagery is
recommended. Because a large percentage of governmental budgets is spent contracting
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in the services of consultants, contracts drawn up for these services should be
standardized nationally to facilitate the provision of GIS data on a project by project
basis.
8.3.3 Institutional, organisational and social factors
The people aspect of a GIS is undoubtedly the most critical, complex and least
controllable potential success factor in a GIS implementation. A number of issues are
worth highlighting in this regard and these are summarised below.
It is important that the inter-organisational aspects of GIS are appreciated. To this end, a
central group of key national GIS stakeholders must be established to co-ordinate, focus
and regulate GIS activities in a country. The central group should define information
requirements in line with Section 8.3.1 above, act as a discussion forum for all
stakeholders and facilitate the development of national spatial datasets in a collaborative
manner. In addition to this, strategic partnerships and inter-organisational networks
between government, research councils, professional service providers and academic
institutions must be formed to develop standards, facilitate data sharing, co-ordinate data
collection and facilitate GIS induced change.
Organisational change and new work procedures must be anticipated and addressed
during GIS implementations. It is important to develop an appreciation for and
understanding of the "softer" issues. One should acknowledge that social factors are more
critical to the success of a GIS initiative than technical factors are.
The success of technology-caused organisational change depends on a number of
organisational issues, some of which are only partially controllable. GIS requires co-
operation between departments and individuals that do not normally work together.
Because of this, it is critical to set up consensus building groups or steering committees.
Strategies and policies should be developed that encourage the sharing of costs, benefits,
responsibilities and control of GIS initiatives.
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Success depends on individuals rather than organisational structures. Influential people in
a social or organisational network must be identified and their interests aligned and
focused on the GIS initiative objectives. GIS is an integrative technology requiring
extensive data sharing. Project champions who have a genuine interest in intra-
organisational or cross functional co-operation should therefore be identified.
It is also important to develop local, context specific GIS knowledge and expertise in an
organisation and country. To this end, conceptual knowledge about GIS rather than only
procedural or operational knowledge should be imparted during GIS training and
implementations.
8.3.4 Technical factors
A GIS initiative must be implemented using information system development best
practices. User requirements should be elicited and documented, executive management
support obtained and project champions identified. Furthermore, planning and
implementation should be carried out incrementally where practical. In developing
countries, systems must be built on local user requirements and not the “perceived”
requirements of the development or donor funding institution. Spatial decision support
software for decision makers is also recommended to ensure that the complexity and
sophistication associated with GIS runs in the background.
GIS should also be implemented using project management best practices. Specific
project deliverables must be defined in advance and linked to fixed timeframes and
budgets. GIS is characterised by heavy startup costs and long payback periods and short
term success or pilot projects can be instrumental in demonstrating the value of a GIS in
the short term.
GIS innovations that are perceived by individuals, organisations or national governments
as having less complexity and greater observability, relative advantage, trialability and
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compatibility will be adopted most rapidly and have the greatest probability of being
successful (Rogers, 1997).
To reduce complexity it is essential to build a shared, simple meaning for a proposed GIS
implementation in its context as being technology which is in great part constructed
through social processes (Innes and Simpson, 1993; Bijker, Wiebe, Thomas, Hughs and
Pinch, 1990; Pinch and Bijker, 1990).
The value of GIS must be observable or visible. Beneficiaries must see what they are
getting and be able to assess what it is worth. Project managers and GIS champions must
be able to clearly demonstrate the value of GIS project outputs visually.
To ensure relative advantage, benefits should exceed costs and visible linkages between
benefits and costs must be shown. Situations where benefits and costs fall unevenly on
different participants in a GIS initiative should be avoided.
In terms of trialability, GIS technology should be introduced incrementally with benefits
accruing in the early stages. The flexibility to make “small trials” and reverse changes
should be built into GIS implementations where possible. Pilot implementations can be
appropriate to this end.
With regard to compatibility, GIS implementers must develop an appreciation for and
understanding of the culture, language, skills, practices, and organisational and social
structures of the community that is to use the GIS. Thorough requirements elicitation
processes can be instrumental in ensuring a closer “fit” between the technology and the
social system that is to use it.
Building and using GIS requires cooperation between agencies that do not normally work
together and may even be in conflict. Consensus building groups or steering committees
and working groups are a key element in the implementation of GIS (Innes and Simpson,
1993; Warnecke, 1992; Innes, 1992). These groups can speed up the process of socially
constructing the technology by addressing the compatibility issues through
communication, collaboration and modification of the technology where required.
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GIS awareness is low and “marketing” or training is therefore important. The ability of
GIS to inform important political decisions must be communicated and demonstrated to
decision makers. In this regard, benefits should exceed costs and both should be
distributed evenly between the relevant funders and beneficiaries. It is recommended that
the unique attributes of GIS, such as its ability to integrate datasets and perform spatial
queries, be communicated and demonstrated to decision makers. This will also secure
ongoing funding for GIS.
Finally, it is important that ongoing investment be made in the academic infrastructure of
a country to ensure adequate supply of and appropriate training for GIS professionals.
This is needed to address the shortage of GIS skills commonly experienced in developing
countries.
8.3.5 Model relationships
The model shows that successful GIS implementations in developing countries depend on
alignment with policy objectives as well as a number of data, people and technical issues.
The “social” or “people” block of the model is the most important component and factor
in determining the success or otherwise of a GIS initiative. People are required to work
together defining policies, co-coordinating data collection and sharing and implementing
GIS’s using best practice methodologies.
The foundation of a GIS initiative must be a policy objective or sound business case and
from this base, data collection must be guided. The blocks are therefore all related as
depicted graphically within Figure 4 above.
In conclusion, a GIS which incorporates all of the elements contained within the model
will be a success.
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9 Conclusion
Geographical information and GIS are fundamental to the information infrastructure of a
country. GIS is unique as a technology because it is able to perform spatial queries on
datasets which it can integrate using spatially referenced objects from diverse sources.
This makes it an important decision-enabling tool within government and is arguably the
most important and useful attribute of a spatial information system or GIS. Because
integrating data from a multiple sources is a hallmark of executive level decision making
and is often a key bottleneck in the operation of executive support systems, GIS has a
critical role to play in this context.
Planning and development within government institutions requires data on the economic
distribution of resources such as the location of services or infrastructure as well as the
location of a country’s population in relation to those services. Spatial data is therefore
particularly valuable to governments in developing countries because it optimises
planning and focuses development efforts geographically. GIS is therefore also a strategic
tool for development and can improve and support political decision making with regard
to the distribution of economic resources in a country.
Issues common to developing countries which complicate the implementation of a GIS,
however, include the lack of good quality data and a shortage of highly skilled people.
Political and institutional stability are also often weak. Underpaid and poorly motivated
staff, as well as general organisational inefficiencies frequently limit the effective use and
diffusion of GIS in developing countries.
A lack of ongoing funding and institutional commitment for GIS is common because GIS
installations in developing countries are usually donor funded on a project by project
basis. Decision makers in developing countries must be educated about the strategic value
of GIS so that they build institutional capacity within their organisations and allocate
ongoing funding to GIS.
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It is also important that GIS is developed in response to actual needs in developing
countries rather than the perceived needs of the external funding agents. Donor driven
projects that are implemented without enough local consultation and user input will not
be sustainable.
One of the most significant impediments to a GIS is the availability of suitable data. High
quality GIS datasets are costly because spatial data collection is both time consuming and
depends on highly skilled and costly resources.
Government decision makers are generally interested in physical, political and socio-
economic spatial data and because different government departments are involved in
collecting this data, differences in GIS classification systems abound. These differences
complicate the sharing of GIS data and duplication of data is also common due to a lack
of collaboration between government departments which collect the GIS data.
A unified approach to data collection and the development of national standards for GIS
are critical to the success of a GIS in a country. Common file formats, projections,
symbology and meta data standards can facilitate data sharing between government
departments if co-ordinated on a national scale.
GIS implementation successes depend on organizational factors and can be linked to the
capability of organizations to accept organizational transformation and change. GIS
innovation results in radical changes in information flows within organizations which not
only cut across existing organizational boundaries but also creates new work procedures
related to spatial analyses. Organizational transformation and change is therefore
inevitable for a successful GIS implementation and will depend on a network of people
with aligned interests which translate into ways of thinking and acting that maintain the
GIS. GIS diffusion success depends on these networks.
Because GIS forces a stronger union between departments in government organizations,
greater levels of interdependency become inevitable. This, in turn, necessitates a team
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effort for the success or otherwise of each of the individual departments. Specific
responsibilities for all organizational participants should therefore be defined and agreed
in advance and costs equitably distributed amongst the beneficiaries if possible. Benefits
received by organizational members should also be consistent with their involvement and
commitment to the GIS initiative where possible. In addition to this, control over the
decision making processes should be apportioned in a consistent manner to the
commitment required of and benefits received by each organizational member.
GIS is a technology which crosses functional boundaries not only within (intra) but also
between (inter) organisations. It is widely agreed that the benefits of GIS come from both
intra- and inter-organisational sharing of spatially referenced data. This can radically
reshape relations between organizations. In order for a GIS initiative to succeed therefore,
inter-organizational networks must be formed to facilitate data sharing and GIS mediated
change.
GIS requires the collaboration of multiple agencies and stakeholder groups including
government institutions, service providers and research councils and the creation of a
stable network of these participants can be problematic. This partnership is needed to co-
ordinate national data collection efforts, develop GIS standards and co-ordinate and
regulate GIS activities in general. Identifying the influential actors in these networks and
aligning their interests for the common goal of implementing a GIS is an important
potential success factor. An understanding of the ways that this technology and its
products reconfigure broader patterns of cultural, economic and political relations is also
needed.
Best practice principles of information system development must be applied during a GIS
implementation. Establishing and documenting accurate user requirements, defining
clear, specific and measurable project deliverables linked to timeframes, obtaining
executive management support, identifying project champions and linking overall project
objectives to sound economic principles are also critical success factors.
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In conclusion, the successful implementation of a GIS in a government institution of a
developing country depends on a number of diverse critical success factors. Although a
number of these success factors may be beyond the scope of a particular GIS
implementation, an understanding of these critical success factors will be instrumental in
improving the success of any GIS initiative.
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