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Public Relations and Corporate SocialResponsibility: Some Issues Arising Jacquie L T~tang

ABSTRACT. The paper questions current assumptionsabou t the benefits of corporate social responsibility and theclaims that corporations make o n behalf of their corporatesocial responsibility programmes. In particular, the papersuggests that the use o f corporate social responsibility forpublic relations ends raises moral problems over the m otiva-tion of corporations. The paper cautions that the justifica-tions whic h corporations employ may either be im moral orinaccurate with regard to the empirical evidence gainedfro m a small-scale qualitative study carried out i , the UK ata time when the practice of corporate social responsibilitywas expanding quickly (1989). It is noticeable, in retrospect,that great emphasis is placed upon environmental ratherthan social responsibility. This implies that organisations areprimarily reactive in their development of corporate socialresponsibility"programmes and that they respond to externalpressures rather than working out the nature of their cor-porate responsibilities. It might suggest that corporationsonly take such actions whe n they feel compelled to do so byconsumerist and environmentalist lobbies. The paper arguesthat corporations do need to find moral justifications fortheir moral activities and to ensure that corporate socialresponsibility practice lives up to the claims made by publicrelations practitioners. The paper ex plores the nature ofpublic relations and illustrates how its responsibility forcorporate social responsibility extends beyond truthfulnessin publicity.

In t roduct i on

The purpose of this paper is to examine the l inks

Jacq uie L' Eta ng has postgraduate degrees in histor); pub lic relations,and social justice. She is a lecturer in pub lic relations at theUniversi ty of &irl ing, &otland, teaching on the M.Sc. in Pub licRelations ful l- t im e and dis tance learning courses . She teachesdesign an d editorial ma nagem ent, communications, an d businessethics. H er reseair'ch interests are in corporate social responsibilit)~and the history of public relations.

between corporate social responsibility and publicrelations from an ethical perspective, and to questioncurrent assumptions. In America, corporate sociaIresponsibility has long been seen as a practice whichbenefits both society and business and, increasingly,this view is predominating in the UK where themajority of corporate social responsibility- pro-grammes were begun in the 1980s. Because of thisperception of benefi t to society through mutuallybeneficial programmes initiated by business, little, ifany at tention has been paid to the ethical under-pinning of such corporate social responsibil i ty pro-grammes. This paper takes up that challenge andoffers a Kantian cri t ique of the current practiceof corporate social responsibility and, particularly,of the role that public relat ions plays in i ts imple-menta t ion .

The paper begins by discussing definitions andthe role and scope of public relat ions and then goeson to discuss in some detail its relationship withcorporate social responsibility. The premiss of thepaper is that public relations and corporate socialresponsibility are not separate activities whichshould be evaluated separately but that al l too oftenthe two activities are interconnected in such a waythat corporate social responsibility becomes a toolfor public relations. Once one is clear about thisrelationship, it is possible to analyse the moralimplications entailed.

Small-scale empirical research was carried out inthe UK in 1989 to review existing practice. Twelvemajor companies in the consumer and indust r ia lsectors known to be act ive in the field were ap-proached individually for information about theiractivities in the field. Questions were not structuredas a formal quest ionnaire because many of thecompanies approached had part icipated at a recentconference at the Universi ty of Stirl ing and so in

Journat o f Bus ines s E th ic s 13:1 t 1--123, 1994. 1994 KIuwe rAcadem icPublish ers . Printed in the Netherlands.

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112 Jacqu ie L 'E tangm a n y c as es t h e r e s e a rc h e r a lr e a d y h a d s o m e k n o w l -e d g e o f c o m p a n i e s ' a c t iv i t ie s i n t h e f i e l d a n d t h ep u r p o s e o f t h e q u e s ti o n s w a s t o p r o b e a n d s e e kd e e p e r e v a l u a t i v e i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t p a r t i c u l a ra s p e c ts o f p r o g r a m m e s . S t a t is t ic a l ly t h e s a m p l e w a sb o t h s m a l l a n d u n r e p r e s e n t a t i v e - o n l y c o m p a n i e sk n o w n t o b e a c t i v e i n t h e f i e l d w e r e a p p r o a c h e d .S o m e s u p p l e m e n t a r y t e l e p h o n e i n t e r v i e w s w e r e a l s oc o n d u c t e d . T h e f o l l o w i n g is a r e p r e se n t a t iv e s a m p l eo f q u e s t i o n s a s k e d :

H o w a n d w h y d i d th e c o m p a n y d e v e lo p ac o r p o r a t e s o c ia l r e s p o n si b i li ty p r o g r a m m e ?

H o w d o es t h e c o m p a n y d e ci d e h o w m u c h t og i v e a n d h o w d o e s it d e c i d e w h e t h e r t o g i v e i nc a s h o r k i n d ?

I s t h e c o r p o r a t e s o c i a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y p r o -g r a m m e c l o se l y r e l a te d t o o t h e r p u b l i c r e l a -t ions po l i c i e s?

T o w h a t e x t e n t is t h e c o r p o r a t e so c ia l r e s p o n -s ib il it y p r o g r a m m e d e t e r m i n e d b y j u d g e m e n t sa b o u t w h i c h p o l i c y w i l l a c h i e v e m a x i m u mg o o d w i l l a s o p p o s e d t o j u d g e m e n t s r e g a r d i n gt h e b e n e f i t f o r th e r e c i p i e n t ?

H o w d o y o u d e c id e b e t w e e n c o m p e t i n g r e c ip -i en t s?

H o w d o e s t h e c o m p a n y e v a lu a t e i ts p r o -g r a m m e ? W h a t s o rt o f p u b l i ci ty h a s t h e c o m p a n yr e c e iv e d a n d h o w h a s i t a c h i e v e d t hi s?

H o w m u c h p u b l i ci ty d o e s t h e p r o g r a m m erece ive?

H o w i m p o r t a n t i s m e d i a c o v e r a g e t o th ei n t e r n a l j u s t i fi c a t i o n o f th e p r o g r a m m e ?

T h e q u e s t io n s w e r e d e s i g n e d to e l i c it i n f o r m a t i o na b o u t t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n ' s r a t i o n a l e i n u n d e r t a k i n gc o r p o r a t e s o c i a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y , i t s c o m m i t m e n t a n de v a l u a t i o n p r o c e d u r e s . It w a s h o p e d t h a t t h e r e p li e sw o u l d g i v e a n i n d i c a t i o n o f t h e m o r a l s e n si b il it y o ft h e o r g a n i z a t i o n a s j u d g e d b y t h e n a t u r e a n d e x t e n to f th e c o m m u n i c a t o n a b o u t m o r a l is su es t h a t to o kp l a c e w i t h i n t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n . A f u r t h e r s o u r c e o fu s e f u l i n f o r m a t i o n w a s t h e v a r i o u s p r o m o t i o n a lb r o c h u r e s a n d l e a fl e ts p r o d u c e d b y c o m p a n i e s a b o u tt h e i r s o c i a l p r o g r a m m e s : T h e s e w e r e s u b s e q u e n t l ym o n i t o r e d f o r c h a n g e s a n d a d d i t i o n s . I t w a s f r o mt h e s e th a t a n u m b e r o f t h e m e s e m e r g e d f o r a na ly sis ,s o m e o f w h i c h a r e d i s c u ss e d i n th i s p a p e r. W h i l e t h e

r e s e a r c h r e s u l t s a r e n o t r e p o r t e d d i r e c t l y , t h e f i n d -i n g s i n f o r m e d t h e s c o p e a n d d i r e c t i o n o f th i s p a p er .

T h e r o l e o f p u b l i c r e l a t i o n s : d e f i n i t i o n s a n dd e b a t e sT h e r e a r e l i te r a ll y h u n d r e d s o f d e f i n i ti o n s o f p u b l i cr e l a t io n s , p e r h a p s b e c a u s e t h e r o l e o f p u b l i c r e l a t i o n sh a s e v o l v e d s o r a p i d l y i n r e c e n t h i s t o r y . I t i s n o wi n c r e a s i n g l y b e c o m i n g , a n d b e i n g s e e n a s , a m a n -a g e m e n t f u n c t i o n . D e f i n it i o n s o f p u b l i c r e l a t io n ss u m m a r i s e t h e a c t i v i t y a s p l a n n e d , d e l i b e r a t e c o m -m u n i c a t i o n d i r e c t e d t o w a r d s t a r g e t p u b l i c s w i t h t h ep u r p o s e o f a c h i e v i n g a n ' u n d e r s t a n d i n g ' . T h e n o t i o no f m u t u a l i t y a n d t h e r o l e o f t h e p u b l i c r e la t io n sp r a c t i t i o n e r a s c o n d u i t f o r e f f e c t i v e c o m m u n i c a t i o na r e k e y , si n c e t h e y c h a l l e n g e t h e p e r c e p t i o n o f p u b l i cr e l a t i o n s a s a m a n i p u l a t i v e o p e r a t i o n . M o s t d e f i n i -t i o n s l o c a t e p u b l i c r e l a t i o n s p r a c t i t i o n e r s i n t h es e r v i c e o f m a n a g e m e n t i n o r g a n i s a t i o n s b u t a l s ob e a r i n g w i d e r r e s p o n s ib i l it i e s,

. . . The wor ld needs a group of communica tors andinterpreters . . . wh o can explain the goals and m ethodsof organisat ions, individuals and governments m othersin a socially responsible ma nne r. Equal ly, these inter-preters m ust provide their employers with knowledge ofwhat others are thinking, to guide them in set t ing theirpol ic i es wise ly for the comm on goo d. Thi s two-wayresponsibility is a cha llenging aspect of the p ublic rela-t ions pract it ioner's ro le . . )

S u c h a d e f i n i t i o n i m p l i e s a c l o s e r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t hs e n i o r m a n a g e m e n t i n w h i c h t h e p u b l i c r e l a t i o n sp r a c t i t io n e r c o u n s e l s m a n a g e m e n t w i t h r e g a r d t o t h ee x t e r n a l p e r c e p t i o n s o f t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n . T h e s ep e r c e p t i o n s c a n b e c l a s s i f i e d i n t o k e y i s s u e s a n d' p u b l i c s ' a n d p r i o r i t i z e d a c c o r d i n g t o t h e i r i m p o r -t a n c e t o t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n . T h e t e r m ' p u b l i c ' i n t h i sc o n t e x t d e f i n e s a h o m o g e n o u s g r o u p w i t h i n ah e t e r o g e n o u s s o c ie t y w h i c h h a s s o m e t h i n g i n c o m -m o n s u c h a s th e i r i n v o l v e m e n t w i t h , o r s e n si ti v it yt o , a p a r t i c u l a r i ss u e. 2 T h e r o l e o f p u b l i c r e l a t io n s i st o i d e n t i f y s u c h g r o u p s a n d t h e n a t u r e o f th e r e l a -t io n s h i p s t h e o r g a n i s a t io n h a s w i t h t h e m .

T h e p u b l i c r e l a t i o n s p r a c t i t i o n e r m u s t s c a n e x -t e r n a l a n d i n t e r n a l e n v i r o n m e n t s t o d e t e r m i n e t h ec o n n e c t i o n s h i s o r h e r o r g a n i z a t i o n m a k e s a n d t h e n

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Pu bl ic Re lat ion s and Corporate Social Responsibi l it y 1 ! 3h a s a l so t o d e t e r m i n e w a y s o f a n a l y s in g h ow " t h eo r g a n i z a t i o n i s p e r c e i v e d t h r o u g h t h e s e c o n n e c t i o n s U n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e v ie w s a n d o r i e n t a t i o n o f a p o t e n -t ia l ' r e c e i v e r ' o f i n f o r m a t i o n i s c e n t r a l t o p e r s u a s i v ec o m m u n i c a t i o n . B y p e r f o r m i n g s u c h a n a n a l y t i c a lr o l e t h e p u b l i c r e l a t i o n s p r a c t i t i o n e r b e c o m e s v a l u -a b le to s e n i o r m a n a g e m e n t a n d t h u s m o v e s i n to t h e' c o u n s e l l i n g ' r o l e m o s t c l o s e l y as s o c i a te d w i t h t h ep u b l i c a f f ai r s f u n c t i o n . I n t h i s w a y p u b l i c r e l a t io n s i sp e r f o r m i n g a v e ry d i f f e re n t ro l e to t h e c o m m o n l yp e r c e i v e d n o t i o n o f t h e m e d i a r e la t io n s p r a c t i t io n e rw h o s i m p l y d i s t ri b u te s i n f o r m a t i o n a f t e r a d e c i s io nh a s b e e n t a k e n a t a h i g h e r l ev e l . H o w e v e r , t h ei n c r e a s e d s t a tu s a n d i n f l u e n c e o f p u b l i c r e l a ti o n sd o e s i m p l y i n c r e a s e d r e s p o n s i b i l i t y b e c a u s e o f t h eg r e a t e r c h a n c e t o i n f l u e n c e a n d s h a p e c o m m u n i c a -t i o n s a n d , i n d e e d , p o l i c y .

S u c h d e v e l o p m e n t s h a v e a l r e a d y b e e n a c k n o w l -e d g e d a n d s o m e d e f i n i t i o n s d o s u g g e s t a s p ec i f ice t h i c a l r e s p o n s i b i l it y f o r t h e r o l e o f p u b l i c r e l a ti o n st o w a r d s s o c i e t y . F o r e x a m p l e , t h e P u b l i c R e l a t i o n sS o c i e ty o f A m e r i c a ' s ( P R S A ) T a s k F o r c e o n t h eS t a t ur e a n d R o l e o f P u b l i c R e l a ti o n s f o r m u l a t i o ne m p h a s i s e d c o n c e p t s o f m u t u a l i t y a n d s o ci al o b l ig a -t i o n i n t h e f o l l o w i n g w o r d s :

. ~Public relations is a means for the public to have itsdesires and interests felt by the insti tutions in o ur society-.I t in te rpre ts and speak s for the publ ic to o therwiseunresponsive organizations, as wetl as speaking for thoseorganisations to the public . . . . Publ ic re la t ions i s a mean s to achieve m utua l ad just -m ent b e twee n inst itu tions and groups estab l ish ingsm oother re lat ionships tha t benef i t the publ ic . .. . . Publ ic rela tions personne l can he lp ac t iva te theorganiza t ion 's soc ia l con sc ie nc e . . .3

O t h e r d e f i n i t io n s a r e m o r e d e m a n d i n g a n d e x p l ic i tr e g a r d i n g p u b l i c r e l a t i o n s ' m o r a l o b l i g a t i o n t o s o c ie t y ,f o r i n s t a n c e ,

. . . Publ ic re la t ions . . . de f ines and emphasises theresponsib il i ty of ma nage me nt to se rve the publ ic in te rest

4

S u c h a d e f i n i t i o n i m p l i e s a s u b s t a n t i a l e t h i c a l r o l eb e y o n d t h a t o f a d v o c a te o r r e p r e s en t a t iv e f o r ap a r t i c u l a r o r g a n i z a t i o n . I t i m p l i e s a n o b j e c t i v e s t a n c ea n d a d h e r e n c e t o a p r o f es s i o n a l s e t o f e th i c s d e s i g n e d

t o m a x i m i s e t h e p u b l i c g o o d . O n e o f t h e w a y s i tm i g h t b e a r g u e d t h a t p u b l i c r e l a t i o n s p r a c t i t i o n e r sm e e t t h e s e o b l i g a t i o n s i s t h r o u g h p r o g r a m m e s o fc o r p o r a t e s o c i a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y ' . H e n c e , i t i s v i r a l f o rm y p u r p o s e i n t h is p a p e r t o f o c u s o n t h e i n t e r f a c eb e t w e e n p u b l i c r e l a t i o n s a n d c o r p o r a t e s o c i a l r e s p o n -s i b il i ty a n d t o e s t ab l is h w h e t h e r a d i s t i n c t i o n c a n , i nf a c t, b e d r a w n b e t w e e n t h e m : i f t h is i s n o t f e a s ib l et h e n i t m a y w e l l b e t h e c a s e t h a t c r i ti c i sm o f t h em o r a l i t y o f o n e v e n t u r e i n v a r i a b ly i m p l i c a t es t h eo t h e r .

I t m a y b e a r g u e d t h a t c o r p o r a t e s o c i a l r e s p o n s i -b i l i t y a n d p u b l i c r e l a t i o n s a r e t w o s e p a r a t e a c t i o n sw h i c h s h o u l d b e e v a l u a te d i n d e p e n d e n t l y . F o r e x a m -p l e , o n e m a j o r f i n a n c i a l i n s t i t u t i o n s e p a r a t e s t h ef u n c t i o n s i n t h a t i t h a s c h a r i t a b l e f o u n d a t i o n s t ow h i c h i t co n t r i b u t e s b u t t h e w o r k o f t h e se is n o tm a n a g e d o r p u b l i ci s e d b y t h e i n s t it u ti o n . H o w e v e r ,t h i s i s t h e e x c e p t i o n r a t h e r t h a n t h e r u l e . C o r p o r a t es o c i a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y i s o f t e n m a n a g e d b y p u b l i cr e l a t io n s p r a c t i t i o n e r s f o r p u b l i c r e l a t i o n s e n d s a n dt h e r e f o r e c o r p o r a t e s o c i a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y " i s s e e n a sp a r t o f t h e p u b l i c r e l a t i o n s p o r t f o l i o a n d a t e c h n i q u et o e s t a b l i s h r e l a t i o n s w i t h p a r t i c u l a r g r o u p s ( f o re x a m p l e i n t h e l o c a l c o m m u n i t y ) a n d t o s i g n a lm e s s a g e s t o o t h e r g r o u p s i n s o c i e t y . F o r e x a m p l e ,o n e m a j o r o i l c o m p a n y c o n t a c t e d s t at e d t h at ,

. . med ia coverage is no t impo rtan t - we pre fe r to makesure tha t th e r igh t people i .e . those of in f luenc e in thec o m m u n i t y k n o w o f o u r a c t i v i t i e s . .. sA n o t h e r o i l c o m p a n y , w r i t i n g a b o u t i ts o w n

a c t i v i t i e s r e p o r t e d t h a t ,. . . x eva lua tes i ts corpora te soc ia l responsib il i ty p ro-granmaes by sett ing clear criteria for each projeci: . . .c r i te r ia inc lude ta rge t audience , a ims of scheme, t imeschedule and v is ib i li ty for X . . .6

A r e p r e s e n t a ti v e o f K i n g f is h e r , t h e U K h o l d i n gc o m p a n y h a s w r i t t e n o f t h e i r a c t iv i ti e s t h at ,

. . w e a re v e ry c l ea r a b o u t t h e t a rg et a u d i e n ce w e a ret ry ing to reach throu gh our soc ia l responsib il i ty poJiciesa n d p ro g ra m m e s . . . w e fo c u s v e ry cl e a rly o n a n u m b e rof" i ssues to ensure th a t we mak e an im pac t ra ther thant ry ing to cover the whole f ie ld . .~ in our corpora tep ro g ra m m e a n d o u r d i f f e re n t o p e ra t in g c o m p a n ie s w ea t tempt to bui ld up a leadersh ip posi t ion in par t icu la r

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114 Jacquie L 'Etangareas which amount to a 'competitive edge' with targetaudiences . .7

Consequently, public relations practitioners may beresponsible for proposing corporate social responsi-bility activities and identifying the relevant 'publics'.In other words public relations practit ioners may bedirectly involved in policy formulation and thereforepartially responsible for corporate social responsi-bility programmes. It is not, therefore a question ofthe corporate management choosing a policy ofcorporate social responsibility (say of communityactivities) and then the public relations personcommunicating the policy or actions. This wouldassume a definition of public relations as a set ofcommunications techniques. However, the latterperception of the public relations role is quitecommon and is dependent on a particular viewabout the role and nature of public relations. I shallnow explore the reasons for this view and put i t inhistorical context before going on to argue that it isan outdated concept which also allows public rela-tions to escape from its responsibilifes. I shall thengo on to pursue in detail the role o f public relationsin corporate social responsibility and explain why Ithin k ethical problems arise.

flow. O f particular significance to corporate socialresponsibility, however, is what the models implyabout the nature and purpose of the comm unica tionprocess both in directional terms and also in terms ofverity.The press-agentry/publicity role is defined inGrunig and Hunt 's typology as being one-waycommunication which serves a propaganda functionrelying on half- truths and exaggeration to propagatea particular belief. Examples of the results of thistype of public relations appear in tabloid newspapersin the UK and are often achieved by publicists in theUK for would-be 'stars'. Such publicity can rightlybe called 'puffery'. Grunig and Hunt categorise thisrole as propaganda since complete truth is notregarded as essential by those who practise this formof public relations.

The purpose of the public information model isto disseminate information in the way that govern-ment or non-profit organizations might about theiractivities. In this mod el truthfu lness is of impo rtanc ebut the f low of information is one-way.

The two-way asymmetric model is so-calledbecause it attempts to incorporate concepts of feed-back into i ts framework so that the source can adaptits message more appropriately to the receiver(s). AsGrunig and Hunt point out, while,

The nature o f publ ic re lat ionsOn e of the ke y issues in public relations is that o f thedirection of the communication and the extent towhi ch this informs, shapes or manipulates those wh oreceive the communication. In order to distinguishpublic relations from propaganda some w riters 8 havefocused on the concept of two-way comm unicat ionas that which distinguishes public relations frompropaganda. This theoretical concept expresses boththe role of public relations and also its state ofhistorical development not only in different organi-zations but in different actions/campaigns.

Grunig and Hu nt 9 have developed a typologywhich explains different models of public relationsin terms of the historical developm ent o f the function.These are press agentry/publicity, public informa-tion, two-way asymmetric and two-way symmetric.The last two definitions express the relationshipbetween an organization and its publics entirely interms of the type and di rect ion of communicat ion

. . . practitioners of this model claim to advocate thepublic's view inside the organization, generally the onlyway they do that is by telling management what thepublic will accept They do not tell management how tochange to please the p ublic...10The two-way symmetric model is characterised bydialogue between an organization and its publics inan attempt to achieve mutual understanding. I timplies change both in the organization and in i tspublicJ 1Public relations can be seen to be a dy namic func -tion and this quality is illustrated in the followingdefinition:

. . Public relations is a distinctive managem ent functionwhich helps establish and m aintain mutual lines of com-munication, understanding, acceptance and co-operationbetween an organization and its publics; involves themanagem ent of problems or issues; helps management tokeep informed on and responsive to public opi ni on ...helps management to keep abreast of and effectively

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Pub lic Rela tions and Corporate Social Respon sibility 115utilize change, serving as an early warning system to helpantic ipate trends; and uses research and ethical com-mu nication techniq ues as its principal tools. . .12

T h e c o n c e p t o f f lu i d i t y h a s b e e n i m p o r t a n t t o p u b l i cr e l a t i o n s t h e o r y s in c e sy s t e m s th e o r y h a s b e e na p p l i e d t o t h e f u n c t i o n a s a f u n d a m e n t a l c o n c e p t .A sy s t e m s p e r sp e c t i v e s e e s t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n i n t e r -r e l at i n g w i t h a n u m b e r o f d i f f e re n t i n t er r e la t e d a n di n t e r a c ti n g e n v i r o n m e n t s ( a n d p u b li c s) t o w h i c h t h eo r g a n i z a ti o n m u s t a d a p t a n d a c c o m m o d a t e to m a i n -t a in h o m e o s t a s i s . F o r e x a m p le , c o r p o r a t e so c i a lr e sp o n s ib i l i t y ca n b e s e e n a s a r e su l t o f o r g a n i z a t io n sr e sp o n d in g t o c r i t i c i sm s o f c o r p o r a t i o n s i n t h e l a t e'60s a nd ear ly '70s. 13

I n sy s t e m s t e r m in o lo g y , p u b l i c r e l a t i o n s c a n b ese e n a s a n a d a p t iv e su b sy s t e m w i th in t h e o r g a n i z a -t i o n f u n c t i o n i n g as c o m m u n i c a t o r b e t w e e n t h e e n v i -r o n m e n t a n d t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n a n d h e l p i n g t h eo r g a n i z a t i o n t o a d ju s t a n d a d a p t t o i t s e n v i r o n -m e n t . TM T h i s c o n c e p t o f p u b l i c r e l a t i o n s h i g h l i g h t sth e t e n s io n i n t h e p u b l i c r e l a t io n s r o l e b e c a u se a g a ini t d o e s su g g e s t t h a t t h e p u b l i c r e l a t i o n s f u n c t i o nm u s t s e r v e t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n f i r s t a n d n o t ' t h e p u b l i cg o o d ' . H o w e v e r , i t g o e s so m e w a y to e x p l a in ( a) w h yd i f f e re n t m o d e l s o f t h e p u b l i c r e l at io n s f u n c t i o n c a nb e i d e n t i f i e d a n d ( b ) t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s e n t a i l e d i ne s t a b l i sh in g c o n c e p t s o f e th i c a l p r a c t i c e i n p u b l i cr d a t i o n s .

C orporat e soc i a l re spons i b i l i t y and pub l i cre lat ionsC o r p o r a t e so c i a l r e sp o n s ib i l i t y h a s b e c o m e im p o r -t a n t t o p u b l i c r e l a t i o n s b e c a u se su c h p r o g r a m m e so f f e r t h e o p p o r t u n i t y t o b u i l d g o o d w i l l b y p r o -m o t i n g t h e b e n e f i t s o f t h e c o m p a n y t o i t s s t a k e -h o l d e rs . I n a d d i t i o n t o i t s a d v is o r y m a n a g e m e n t r o l ep u b l i c r e l a t i o n s a l so p r o v id e s t h e t e c h n iq u e s t oc o m m u n ic a t e t h e se a c t i v i t i e s t o t a r g e t p u b l i c s w h ic hm a y i n c l u d e t h e m e d i a a n d i n d i v i d u a l s s e e n t o b eo f i n f lu e n c e t o t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n . C o r p o r a t e so c ia lr e sp o n s ib i l i t y f a l l s w i th in t h e p u b l i c r e l a t i o n s p o r t -f o l i o b e c a u se i t a f f e c t s a c o m p a n y ' s im a g e a n dr e p u ta t i o n a n d p u b l i c r e l a t i o n s p r a c t i t i o n e r s w i l lw a n t t o c a p i t al i z e o n t h e o p p o r tu n i ty b e c a u se i t te l lsp u b l i c s e x a c t l y w h a t s o r t o f c o m p a n y t h e y a r ed e a l i n g w i t h .

I t c a n b e a r g u e d t h a t c o r p o r a t e so c i a l r e sp o n s i -b i l i t y i s a g o o d e x a m p le o f b u s in e s s r e sp o n d in g t osoc ie ty ' s needs . Publ ic r e la t ions fac i l i ta te s bo th thea c t i v i t y a n d t h e p r o c e s s o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n a n du n d e r s t a n d i n g t o t h e b e n e f i t o f a l l T h e d e f i n i t i o n sd i s c u s s e d a b o v e e m p h a s i z e t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t w o -w a y c o m m u n i c a t i o n an d t h e r e q u i r e m e n t t o s er vet h e p u b l i c i n t e r e s t w h i l e c o u n s e l l in g m a n a g e m e n t . Iw o u l d s u g g e s t th a t t h e s e o b li g a ti o n s to m a n a g e m e n ta n d so c i e ty m u s t so m e t im e s c o n f l i c t a n d c r e a t e a ni n t e r n a l t e n s i o n a n d i n c o m p a t i b i l i t y fo r p u b l i c r e l a -t i o n s a n d t h a t s o m e o f t h e c o n t r a d i c t i o n s i n c o r -p o r a t e so c i a l r e sp o n s ib i l i t y p r o g r a m m e s i l l u s t r a t eth i s t e n s io n .

F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e r o l e s d e f i n e d b y G r u n i g a n dH u n t su g g e s t d i f f e r e n t a n d p o t e n t i a l l y c o n f l i c t i n gr e l a t i o n sh ip s f o r t h e p u b l i c r e l a t i o n s p r a c t i t i o n e rw h e n d e a l i n g w i th v a r i e d p u b l i c s i n so c i e ty . F o rG r u n i g a n d H u n t d o n o t s u g g e s t t h a t o r g a n i z a t i o n sn e c e s sa ri l y f a ll i n to o n e c a t e g o r y o r a n o th e r - w h a tt h e y s u g g e s t i s t h a t s o m e c o m m u n i c a t i o n s e m a n a t -i n g f r o m a n o r g a n i z a t i o n w i l l f a l l i n to o n e c a t e g o r y ,so m e in to a n o th e r . My a r g u m e n t h e r e su g g e s t s t h a ta t p r e se n t c o m m u n ic a t i o n s a b o u t c o r p o r a t e so c i a ir e sp o n s ib i l i t y d o n o t o f t e n f a l l i n to t h e i d e a l 1 . ' w o -w a y s y m m e t r ic m o d e l .

W h i l e t h e i n i t i a l c o r p o r a t e soc ia l r e sp o n s ib i l it yp r o g r a m m e s u c h a s a n e n v i r o n m e n t a l p r o g r a m m e i nt h e c o m m u n i t y , m a y b e s y m m e t r i c a l i n r e l a t i o n t oi t s r ece ive r , subsequent publici ty m a y b e d i r e c t e d a to t h e r i n f l u e n t i a l pu b l ic s f o r t h e p u r p o s e o f i m a g ee n h a n c e m e n t . T h i s w a s c e r t a in ly t h e c a se w i th t h eo i l c o m p a n y c i t e d e a r l i e r w h i c h w a s c a r r y i n g o u tp r o g r a m m e s w i t h o n e p u b l i c w i t h a v i e w t o i m -p r e s s in g a n o th e r . T h e r e a r e s e v er a l e th i c a l p r o b l e m sw h i c h a r i s e f r o m t h i s a p p r o a c h . O n e w o n d e r s w h a tw i l l h a p p e n t o t h e p r o g r a m m e o n c e i t b e c o m e s n olo n g e r n e c e ssa r y t o a p p r o a c h t h e s e c o n d p u b l i c ( o r i ft h e a c t i o n d o e s n o t h a v e t h e d e s i r e d e f f e c t - s a y , f o re x a m p l e i n h e l p i n g a p l a n n i n g o r d e v e l o p m e n tp r o j e c t t h r o u g h th e l o c a l p o l i t i c a l a r e n a ) . I n o th e rw o r d s, t h e c o m m i t m e n t o f t h e c o m p a n y m a y b ec o n t in g e n t o n f a c to r s o th e r t h a n t h e p r im a r y , r e l a -t i o n s h ip b e t w e e n d o n o r a n d r e c ip i e n t.

I f t h e p r o g r a m m e w e r e c h o s e n b y p u b l i c r e la t io n sp r a c t i t i o n e r s t o a p p e a l i n t h e f i r s t i n s t a n c e t o so m ep u b l i c o t h e r t h a n t h e r e c i p i e n t t h e n b o t h t h e m o t i -v a t i o n o f t h e c o m p a n y w i t h r e g a r d t o i t s s t a t e di n t e n t i o n a n d i ts c o m m i t m e n t t o t h e p ro j e c t m u s t b e

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1 1 6 J a c q u i e L ' E t a n gq u e s t i o n e d . T h i s i s at t h e c r u x o f t h e m o r a l p r o b l e mw h i c h l ie s a t t h e c e n t r e o f c o r p o r a t e so c i al r e sp o n s i -b i l it y . C o r p o r a t e so c i al r e sp o n s i b i l i t y i t s e l f i s p o t e n -t i al l y a n e x a m p l e o f s y m m e t r i c a l p u b l i c r e l a t io n s b u tw h e n c o m m u n i c a t e d t o a t h i r d p a r t y i t b e c o m e sp u b l i ci t y o r p u b l ic i n f o r m a t i o n i n G r u n i g a n dH u n t ' s t e r m s . I n a ca s e w h e r e a c o m p a n y a c k n o w l -e d g e s a n d c o m m u n i c a t e s i t s s e l f - i n t e r e s t t h e p u b l i cr e l a t i o n s i s b e i n g t r u t h f u l ( a n d c o u l d b e d e f i n e d a st h e p u b l i c i n f o r m a t i o n m o d e l ) b u t i t i s n o t s y m -m e t r i c a l i n t h a t i t i s n o t r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e v i e w s o fp u b l i c s / r e c i p i e n t s t o m a n a g e m e n t i n a w a y t h a t w i l le n c o u r a g e m a n a g e m e n t / t h e o r g a n i z at i o n to c h a n g e.T h i s i s n o t t o a c c e p t t h a t c o r p o r a t e so c i a l r e sp o n s i -b i l i t y a n d p u b l i c r e l a t i o n s a r e t w o d i f f e r e n t a c ti o n s ;i t is s i m p l y a r g u i n g t h a t t w o d i f f e r e n t t y p e s o f p u b li cr e l a t io n s a r e t a k i n g p l a c e.

E v a l u a t i n g c o r p o r a t e s o c i a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y

C o r p o r a t e s o c i a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y c a n a n d d o e s b r i n gm a r k e t i n g - t y p e b e n e f i t s t o b u s i n e s s b y d e l i v e r i n gt a r g e t p u b l i c s t o t h e c o r p o r a t i o n C o r p o r a t e so c i a lr e s p o n s i b i l i t y m a y b e s e e n a s a n i n v e s t m e n t a g a i n s tt h e d a y w h e n a c r is is o c c u r s a n d t h e c o m p a n y n e e d sa l l t h e g o o d w i l l i t c a n m u s t e r . A c o m p a n y t h a t i ss e e n a s h a v i n g a g e n u i n e , l o n g - t e r m r e l a t i o n s h i pw i t h i ts s t ak e h o l d e r s a n d t h e c o m m u n i t y i s l es sl i k e ly t o b e r e g a r d e d a s s im p l y i n d u l g i n g i n ' t h eh y p o c r i s y o f p u b l i c r e l at i o n s '? s

T h e s m a l l - s c a l e r e s e a r c h w h i c h I u n d e r t o o k s u g -g e s t e d a v a r i e d r a t i o n a l e f o r u n d e r t a k i n g p r o -g r a m m e s o f c o r p o r a t e s o c ia l re s p o n s ib i li ty . S o m ee x a m p l e s a r e c i t e d b e n e a t h ,

. . . Sainsbury's [a leading fo od retailer] is responding tothe gathering mo me ntum of public concern about theenvi ronment . . .16 . . As public consciousness of o ur ph ysical enviro nm enthas risen, as concern for the you ng and disadvantaged hasgrown and as the need to maintain our cultural heritagehas been m ore w idely felt , so has Shell UK's involvementin the co m mu nity increased . .17. . . The formal izat ion of the programme was in somesenses a self-defence mechanism - i t was to prove thatwe had already been active and were n ot simply reactingto government pressure . . . However, some of the pro-grammes which were developed were very definitely

influenced by government, particularly our early em-phasis on job creation schem es for ?;oung people in themid-1980s. . .18. . . Ther e res ts on all companies, particularly largeorganizations like, ours, a respo nsibility to assist thr ou ghdonations an d help, the charities and agencies wh ich existin the com mun i ty . . . The cont r ibu tion tha t t hi s canmake to the community as a whole is substant ia l andprovides a lead for other s . .19. . . because indust ry is intr insical ly part of the com -mu nity, i ts every action will affect the wider co m mu nity. . . our co mm unity affai rs programme is based uponenlightened self-interest and a recognition of the inter-dependence of t he company and the co mm uni ty . . .20'Partnership' is something which we in BP accept asfundamen tal to the way we go about our business. I tfeatures strongly in the statement of values recentlycirculated throughout the BP group to remind ourselvesof issues whic h can too easily be tak en for granted. Thesevalues recognise o ur responsibili ties to' all who have astake in o ur affairs - employees, customers, shareholdersand the com mu nity wherever we operate . . .21 . . C om pa ni es . . . can a t least take thei r place a longsidethe m any other organizat ions working to improve condi-t ions in the w ide r com m un i ty . . , t he process i s pa rt o fbusiness' l icence to o per ate.. .2 2

C o m p a n i e s g e n e r a l l y d i d n o t p u b l i c i z e o r e x p l a i nw h a t t h e y t h i n k t h e n a t u r e o f th e i r m o r a l o b l i g a ti o ni s o r h o w i t r e la t e d t o t h e i r p r o g r a m m e s o f c o r p o r a teso c i a l r e sp o n s i b i l i t y . S a i n sb u r y ' s i s f a i r l y u n u su a l i nl i n k i n g r a t h e r g e n e r a l i z e d p h r a se s t o sp e c i f i c i s su e sa s t h e y d o i n t h e i r c o m p a n y o b j e c t i v e s p u b l i s h e d i nt h e i r a n n u a l r e p o r t ,

. . To discharge the responsibili ty as leaders in our tradeby acting with complete integrity, by carrying out ourwork to the highest standards and by contributing to thepubl ic good and to the quali ty o f li fe in the com mu nity . . In o ur stores, to achieve the h ighest leve l of cleanli-ness. . .23

A g o o d e x a m p l e o f a r a t h e r m o r e s e l f -i n t e re s t e dm o t i v a t i o n f o l l o w s i n t h e s t a t e m e n t m a d e b y t h eC h a i r m a n o f B P,

. . . Clearly i t i s our funct ion to conduct our businessprofitably, efficiently and responding to m eet ou r obliga-tions to shareholders, employees, customers and sup-pliers. As well as creating w ealth fro m th e supply o f ourproducts and offering s kills, training and centres o f

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Publ ic Relat ions and Corporate Social Responsibi l i t y 117excellence, the 2 bil l ion w e have paid in taxes in the lasttwo y ears represents a substantial con tributio n to theeconomic wel t-be ing of the U K.However we acknowledge tha t th is i s not enough. Ourpolicy of contributing in o ther way s to society is based onthe recognit ion tha t the long-term interests of a com panydepend on a prosperous and peaceful com mu ni ty . O urcommuni ty affa i rs programme is based on enl ightenedself-interest and an understanding of the need for closere la t ionships be tween the com pany and the comm uni tiesin wh ich we l ive and work.24

B u s i n e s s ' j u s t i f i c a ti o n o f c o r p o r a t e s o c ia l r e s p o n -s i b i l i t y p r o g r a m m e s i s n o t u s u a l l y f u l l y a r g u e d i nt h e i r p r o m o t i o n a l l i t e r a t u r e b u t a s i n t h e e x a m p l e sg i v e n a b o v e l i m i t e d t o p h r a s e s s u c h a s ' w e h a v e a no b l i g a t i o n t o t h e c o m m u n i t y ' , ' s o c i a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y i sg o o d b u s i n e s s b e c a u s e i t e n s u r e s a s o u n d e c o n o m i cb a s e a n d a g o o d i m a g e ' ; ' b e c a u s e e v e r y o n e i s b e t t e ro f f ' . T h e f i r s t o f t h e s e j u s t i f i c a t i o n s s u g g e s t s t h a tc o r p o r a t i o n s m u s t r e c o g n i z e s p e c i f i c o b l i g a t i o n s t ot h e c o m m u n i t y ; th a t a c o m m u n i t y h a s ri g h ts a n d t h ec o r p o r a t i o n h a s d u t i e s . T h e o t h e r s a r e u t i l i t a r i a n i ns t r u c t u r e a n d e m p h a s i z e t h a t c o r p o r a t e s o c ia l r e s p o n -s i b i li t y s h o u l d b e j u d g e d b y i t s b e n e f i c ia l e f f e ct si n soc i e ty : i n t he se c a se s , i t i s t he e nds wh ic h a rei m p o r t a n t , n o t t h e m e a n s . 2s T h e p u b l i c r e l a ti o n sa c a d e m i c l i t e r a t u r e h a s t e n d e d t o f o l l o w t h e s a m el i n e o f j u s t if i c a t io n , a n d t o s u g g e s t t h a t c o r p o r a t i o n sm i g h t b e n e f i t e v e n m o r e f r o m t h e i r c o r p o r a t e s o c i a lr e s p o n s i b il i ty p r o g r a m m e s t h a n t h e y d o a t p r e s e n ta n d w a y s i n w h i c h t h is m i g h t b e a c h ie v e d .26

T h e r e i s a l s o s o m e t e r m i n o l o g i c a l c o n f u s i o n i ns o m e o f t h e l it e r at u r e . ' C o r p o r a t e p h i l a n t h r o p y ' ,' c o r p o r a t e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y ' , a n d ' c o r p o r a t e s o c i a l r e -s p o n s i b i l i t y ' a r e o f t e n u s e d i n t e r c h a n g e a b l y . H o w -e v e r , th e s e p h r a s e s i m p l y d i f f e r e n t t y p e s o f ac t iv i t y .T h e t e r m s ' c o r p o r a t e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y ' a n d ' c o r p o r a t esoc i a l r e spons ib i l i t y ' sugge s t t ha t t he se a re a c t i v i t i e s ac o m p a W o u g h t t o c a rr y o u t f r o m a s en s e o f d u t y o ro b l i g a t i o n . C o r p o r a t e p h i l a n t h r o p y , h o w e v e r , s u g -g e s ts a v o l u n t a r y a c t i o n d o n e o u t o f g e n e r o s i t y a n db e n e f i c e n c e , a c h a r i t a b l e a c t . C h a r i t y s h o u l d n o t b ec o n f u s e d w i t h c o r p o r a t e s o c i a l r e s p o n s i b i l it y . C h a r i t yc a n n o t b e d e m a n d e d , t h o u g h t h e r e c i p i e n t m a y b ev e r y g r a t e f u l f o r i t b e c a u s e t h e r e c a n n o t b e a r i g h t t oc h a r i t y w h i c h , t h o u g h p r a i s e w o r t h y , d e p e n d s u p o nb e n e v o l e n c e a n d a l t r u i s m . C h a r i t y o r c o r p o r a t ep h i l a n t h r o p y a n d c o r p o r a t e s o c i a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y

s h a r e s o m e f e a t u r e s , f o r e x a m p l e , t h e y b o t h c r e a t er e la t io n s o f d e p e n d e n c e b e t w e e n d o n o r a n d r e c i p ie n t .

G e t t i n g v a l u e f o r m o n e y f r o m c o r p o r a t e s o c i a lr e sp o n s ib i li ty p r o g r a m m e s is b e c o m i n g a n i m p o r t a n tb u s i n e s s o b j e c t i v e a n d , i n c r e a s i n g l y ,

. . . public relations practi t ioners and marketers are tak-ing an active role in corporate contributions, designingpublicity campaigns and promotions around programs ofcharitable giving. 7I n c r e a s i n g l y , t o o , j u s t i f i c a t i o n s a r e e c o n o m i c a n ds e l f - i n t e r e s t e d :

W hatever i ts mor e altruistic ro le, proactive corporatesocial responsibil ity, and m ore particularly, the successfulgeneration o f public aw areness and appreciation o f it , isgoo d for business. a

F o r e x a m p l e , o n e b o o k w r i t t e n f o r a b u s i n e s s a u d i -e n c e r e c o m m e n d s :

. . Endow ing a u niversity chair is an expensive business,but can be valuable. Apart from the public relationsbenefits, i t may mean that research can be directed intoan are a which interests you at less cost than establishingyou r ow n facil it ies.. .29

W h a t I w a n t t o s u g g e s t h e r e is t h a t t h is a p p r o a c h ise t h i c a l l y u n s o u n d a n d , i n d e e d , c a n n u l l i f y t h e a p -p a r e n t g o o d t h a t c o r p o r a t i o n s d o . T h i s i s n o t t o d e n yt h a t t h e i r a c t io n s m a y r e s u l t i n g o o d e n d s , j u d g e du p o n u t i l i t a r i a n c r i t e r i a , b u t I w o u l d s u g g e s t t h a tc o m p a n i e s s h o u l d b e c a u t i o u s a b o u t t h e a m o u n t o fg o o d t h e y c l a i m t h e y d o t h r o u g h t h e s e a c t i o n s ( a )b e c a u s e t h e t h e o r e t i c a l u t i l i t a r i a n j u s t i f i c a t i o n i t s e l fi s o p e n t o c r i t i c i s m a n d ( b ) b e c a u s e a u t i l i t a r i a na p p r o a c h r e q u i r e s a c e r t a i n t y p e o f p r a c ti c a l e v a l u a -t i o n t o t a k e p l a c e .

G i v e n t h a t s o m e c o r p o r a t i o n s a t t e m p t t o j u s t i f yc o r p o r a t e s o c i a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y i n e c o n o m i c t e r m s ,t h i s s e e m s t o s u g g e s t t h a t c o r p o r a t i o n s s u c h a s B P( c i t e d a b o v e ) f e e l t h e y n e e d n o t e n g a g e i n m o r a ld i s c o u r s e a b o u t a c t i v i t i e s t h e y s i m u l t a n e o u s l y c l a i ma s b e i n g o f m o r a l b e n e f it . H o w e v e r , e c o n o m i ca c t i v i t y i s n o t s e p a r a t e f r o m m o r a l a c t i v i t y . I n d e e d i th a s b e e n p o i n t e d o u t e l s e w h e r e t h e f l e e m a r k e ti n s t i t u t i o n i t s e lf is a p r o d u c t o f c o n v i c t io n s a b o u t t h en a t u r e o f a g o o d s o c i e t y a n d w h a t c o n s t i t u t e s a f a i rd i s t r i b u t i o n o f g o o d s a n d s e r v i ce s .3 E c o n o m i c g o a lsare s o c i a l a n d p o l i t i c a l g o a l s . T o m e a s u r e c o r p o r a t es o c i a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o n l y i n t e r m s o f it s p o t e n t i a l

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1 18 J a c q u ie L ' E t a n gc o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h e b o t t o m l i n e i s a v e r y l i m i t e df o r m o f e v a lu a t i o n . I n c r e a s in g ly , a s sh o w n in t h ee a r l i e r e x a m p le s , c o m p a n ie s p r o m o te t h e m se lv e s b yp u b l i c i z in g t h e i r c o r p o r a t e c o n t r i b u t io n t o so c i e ty .T h e e f f e c t o f g r e a t e r a w a r e n e s s o f c o r p o r a t e so c i a lr e sp o n s ib i l i ty a n d c o r p o r a t e o b l ig a t i o n t o so c i e ty h ash a d t h e e f f e ct o f e n t an g l i n g c o r p o r at i o n s i n a w e b o fm o r a l d i s c o u r s e w h i c h t h e y c a n n o t t h e n e i t h e re sc a p e o r d e n y . Me a su r in g t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o fc o r p o r a t e so c i a l r e sp o n s ib i l i t y i n t e r m s o f t h ea m o u n t o f p u b l i c i t y re c e iv e d su g g es ts ( t h o u g h d o e sn o t n e c e s sa ri l y p r o v e ) a s e l f - i n t e r e s t e d m o t iv a t i o n . I ti s th is poss ib i l i ty w hic h ra ises e th ica l que s t ions .

A l t e r n a t i v e j u s t i f ic a t i o n s o f c o r p o r a t e s o c ia lr e s p o n s i b i l i t yA c o m m o n l y - u s e d p h r a se i n c o r p o r a te j u s t i fi c a t io no f c o r p o r a t e so ci al r e sp o n s ib i l it y i s ' e n l i g h t e n e d s e l f-i n t e re s t ' i m p l y i n g t h a t b o t h t h e c o r p o r a t i o n a n d t h ec o m m u n i t y b e n e f i t fr o m c o r p o r a te s oc ia l r e sp o n s i -b i l i t y i n a c c o r d a n c e w i th c r u d e u f l i t a r i a n p r in c ip l e so f ' t h e g r e a t e s t g o o d o f t h e g r e a t e s t n u m b e r ' . T h i sjus t i f ic a t ion sugges ts the rec ip ien t ' s bene f i t i s seen asb e i n g o f e q u a l v a l u e t o t h e b e n e f i t a c c r u i n g t o t h ec o m p a n y e i t h e r t h r o u g h e n s u r i n g a h e a l t h i e r e c o -n o m i c e n v i r o n m e n t in w h i c h t h e c o m p a n y o p e ra te so r i n t e r m s o f i m p r o v e d i m a g e a n d c o m p e t i t i v e e d g ef o r t h e c o m p a n y . H o w e v e r , i t m i g h t b e a r g u e d t h a tt h e p h r a se ' m u tu a l s e l f - i n t e r e s t ' im p l i e s a f a r m o r ee q u a l r e l a t i o n sh ip b a se d o n e q u a l e x c h a n g e t h a n i susua l ly the case in corpora te soc ia l r e spons ib i l i ty inth e U K . F o r e x a m p le , d o n o r s c h o o se b e n e f i c i a r i e s ,a c t iv i t ie s a n d t h e a m o u n t o f m o n e y , r e so u r c es a n dl e n g t h o f c o m m i t m e n t so t h a t t h e r e c i p i e n t h as l i tt l er o l e t o p l a y i n t h e d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g p ro c e ss w h i c hd e t e r m i n e s t h e n a t u r e o f t h e p r o g r a m m e i . e . t h e i ra u t o n o m y m a y n o t b e r e a l i z e d . C o r p o r a t e s o c i a lr e s p o n si b i li ty p r o g r a m m e s m a y t h u s b e j u s t i f ie d o ng r o u n d s o f m u t u a l b e n e f i t w h i l e l a r g e l y m o t i v a t e dby se l f - in te res t .T h e c o r p o r a t io n m o t i v a t e d b y s e lf - in t e r e st isu n l ik e ly t o g iv e f u l l c o n s id e r a t i o n t o t h e n e e d s a n din t e r e s ts o f a r e c ip i e n t. T h e c o m p a n y ' s p e r c e p t io n o fth e se n e e d s i s l i k e ly t o b e d i s to r t e d b y i t s p r im a r i l yse l f - i n t e r e s t e d m o t iv a t i o n . I n su c h c ase s t h e r e l a t i o n -sh ip w i th t h e r e c ip i e n t i s t h u s e x p lo i t a t i v e b e c a u sew h a t i s i m p o r t a n t f o r t h e c o r p o r a t i o n i s w h a t t h e

r e c ip i e n t c a n d o f o r t h e c o r p o r a t i o n ( i n t e r m s o fc o n t r i b u t in g t o t h e i r c o r p o r a t e so c i a l r e sp o n s ib i l i t yp r o f i l e /p o r t f o l i o , p r o m o t io n a l b r o c h u r e s a n d p r e s sr e l e a se s ) n o t w h a t t h e c o m p a n y c a n d o f o r t h er e c ip i e n t a s d e f in e d a n d e v a lu a t e d b y t h e r e c ip i e n t . Itm i g h t b e a r g u e d t h a t l a c k o f c o n c e r n f o r t h er e c ip i e n t a n d f a i l u r e t o t a k e a c c o u n t o f t h e i r e v a lu a -t i o n i s n o t o f s i g n i f i c an c e i f t h e r e c ip i e n t s b e n e f i t e dat a l l , t h o u g h I w o u l d s t i l l a r g u e t h a t t h e c o m p a n yw i l l n o t h a v e a n a c c u ra t e i m p r e s s i o n o f t h e v a l u e o fth e b e n e f i t u n l e s s t h e y c o n su l t t h e r e c ip i e n t s . T h ec o m p a n ie s I s tu d i e d d id n o t e v a lu a t e t h e i r c o r p o r a t eso c i a l r e sp o n s ib i l i t y p r o g r a m m e s b y t a k in g a c c o u n to f t h e v i e w s o f f o r m e r r e c ip i e n t s.

T h e c o n c e p t o f s e l f- i n te r e st e d n e ss is w o r t h e x -p lo r in g i n t h e c o n t e x t o f c o r p o r a t e so ci al r e sp o n s i -b i l i ty because , whi le i t i s a qua l i ty c r i t ic ized bym o r a l i s t s ( a s o p p o se d t o m o r a l p h i l o so p h e r s ) , i t i sa lso r e g a r d e d a s a n e s se n t ia l p a r t o f h u m a n m a k e - u pto e n su r e su r viva l. T h e e c o n o m ic a r g u m e n t s e e ks t ope rsu ade us tha t because a ll people a re na tura l ly se l f -i n t e r e s t e d o n ly s e l f - i n t e r e s t e d a c t i o n s c a n p r o d u c esoc ia l bene f i t s and on ly se l f - in te res t i s jus t i f ied . Su cha r g u m e n t s f o l l o w A d a m S m i t h a n d M i l t o n F r i e d -m a n . S m i th a r g u e d t h a t,

. . the pursu it of individual self-gain n the market placewould lead to econom ic comm on good because he greedof sellers wo uld be constrained by the greed of their rivalsand of bu yers. Com peting greed would operate as an'invisible hand' to force all traders to p roduce an d sell atthe low est price and thereby utilise resources mo st effi-ciently.31La issez - fa i re capi ta l i sm is jus t i f ie d by u t i l i ta r ian

a r g u m e n t s t h a t o n l y u n d e r t h i s s y s t e m i s t h e c o m -m o n g o o d g i v e n s u f f i c i e n t w e i g h t a n d c a n g o o d t oso c i e ty b e m a x im i se d . T h e c a p i t a l i s t u t i l i ta r i a n c o n -c e p t i o n o f t h e c o m m o n g o o d i s o f a n i n d i v i d u a li s ts o c i e t y w h e r e f r e e d o m i s m a x i m i s e d t h r o u g h t h ei n d e p e n d e n t a c c u m u l a t i o n o f i n d i v i d u a l s a ti s fa c ti o na n d g o v e r n m e n t ( a n d g o v e r n m e n t r e g u l a t i o n ) i sm i n i m i z e d . A k e y w o r k i n t h i s f i el d r e m a i n s F r i ed -m a n 32 w h o w a s r e sp o n s ib l e f o r sp a r k in g o f f t h edeba te about corpora te soc ia l r e spons ib i l i ty . F r ied-man a rgues tha t bus iness i s soc ia l ly r e spons ib le in i t sp r o f i t - m a k in g f u n c t io n a n d h e s e e s a l t r u i s t i c a c t sc a r r i e d o u t o n b e h a l f o f b u s in e s s a s a v io l a t i o n o fb u s in e s s ' f u n c t i o n a n d o b l ig a t i o n s ( w h ic h a r e p u r e lye c o n o m i c ) . F r i e d m a n d o e s n o t s e e m t o t h i n k t h a t

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Pub lic Relations and Corporate Social Responsibility 1 1 9c o r p o r a t e s o c i al re s p o n s i b i l i t y c a n b e j u s t i f i e d o ng r o u n d s o t h e r t h a n s e l f - in t e r e s t , e v e n i f i t i s i n t h ec o r p o r a t i o n ' s l o n g - t e r m i n t e r e s t . F r i e d m a n ' s a r g u -m e n t i s a b i t c o n fu s i n g . O n t h e o n e h a n d h e a r g u e st h a t a c t io n s d o n e i n t h e l o n g - t e r m i n t e re s t o f t h ec o m p a n y s h o u l d n o t b e ra t i o n a li z e d a s c o r p o r a t es o c ia l r e s p o n s i b i li t y b u t s i m p l y j u s ti f i e d f o r w h a tt h e y a r e - a c t io n s w h i c h p r o m o t e t h e c o m p a n y ' si n t e re s t s . Y e t h e a l s o a r g u e s t h a t i f i t is in t h e l o n g -t e r m i n t e re s t o f c o m p a n i e s t o c l o a k th e i r i n t e n t i o n si n t h i s w a y t o f u r t h e r t h e i r s e l f - i n t e r e s t t h e n t h a t i sa l s o a c c e p t a b l e .

. . To i l lus tra te , i t may well be in the long- run in te res to f a c o r p o r a t io n th a t i s a ma jo r e mp lo y e r in a s ma l lcommunity to devote resources to provid ing amenit ies toth a t c o mmu n i ty o r to imp r o v in g i t s g o v e r n me n t . T h a tmay make i t eas ie r to a t t r ac t des irab le employees , i t mayreduce the w age b i l l , o r lessen losses f rom pi l fe rage ands a bo tag e o r h av e o th e r wo r th wh i le e f f e c t s . . . . . I t wo uld be incons is ten t o f me to ca l l on corpo ra teexecut ives to re f ra in f rom th is hypocr i t ica l window-dressing because i t harms the found a t ions of a f reesoc ie ty . Tha t would be to ca l l on them to exerc ise ' soc ia lresponsibility '. I f ou r institutions, and th e attitude s of thepubl ic m ake i t in the ir se lf- in te rest to c loak the ir ac t ionsin th i s wa y , I c a n n o t s u mmo n mu c h in d ig n a t io n todenounce them. At the same t ime , I can express admira-t ion for those . . , who d isda in such tac t ics as approachingf r a u d . . . 3 3H i r s h l e i f e r a ls o ta k e s a S m i t h i a n l i n e w h e n h e

a r g u e s t h a t t h e e t h i c al v a l u e o f f re e - m a r k e t c a p i -t a l i s m l ie s i n it s a b i l it y , t h r o u g h e n g e n d e r i n g c o m -p e t i t i o n , t o ' g i v e t h e p u b l i c w h a t i t w a n t s a t t h el o w e s t a t t a i n a b l e p r i c e 34 a n d t h a t , ' t h e t r u e p r i n c i p l ei s t o a s s o c i a te s e l f - i n t e r e s t w i t h p u b l i c i n t e r e s t' . 3sB e c a u s e o f t h i s t r a d i t i o n a l v i e w , b u s i n e s s e s h a v es o u g h t t o j u s t i f y c o r p o r a t e s o c i a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y i nt e r m s o f s e lf - in t e r e st a n d d o s o i n o n e o f t w o w a y s .E i t h e r t h e y w i l l a r g u e t h a t c o n t r i b u t i n g t o t h e ir l o c alc o m m u n i t y e n s u re s t ha t th e c o m m u n i t y t h ri v es a n dt h e r e f o r e w i l l r e t a i n t h e a b i l i t y t o p a y f o r th ec o r p o r a t i o n ' s g o o d s / s e r v i c e s o r t h a t c o r p o r a t e s o c i a lr e s p o n s ib i l i ty w i l l c r e a t e s u c h a g o o d i m p r e s s i o n t h a ta r es o u r c e o f g o o d w i l l w i ll b e e s t a b li s h e d w h i c h c a nb e d r a w n o n s h o u l d t h e c o r p o r a t i o n s u f f e r a cr is is o rn e e d t o lo b b y . R e c e n t r e s e a rc h d o n e i n t h e U Kw h i c h s u r v e y e d o v e r 8 0 0 c o m p a n i e s f o u n d t h a t t h em a i n r e a s o n c o m p a n i e s w e r e u n d e r t a k i n g c o r p o r a t e

s o c i a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y w a s , ' . . . t h e n e e d m p r e s e l w et h e c o r p o r a t e i m a g e . '3~ T h e d i r e c t o r o f t h e r e s e a rc h ,D r . D a v i d C l u t t e r b u c k t h e n w e n t o n t o sa y t h a t h et h o u g h t t h a t t h is j u s t i f ic a t i o n w a s ' . . . n o t q u i t e s os e l f - s e rv i n g a s o n e m i g h t h a v e e x p e c t e d . 37 I t i sp o s s i b le t o a r g u e t h a t t h e m o r a l i t y o f t h is s o r t o fm o t i v a t i o n i s q u e s t io n a b l e .

H i r s h l e i f e r a r g u e s t h a t a ll h u m a n s a r e n e c e s s a r il ys e lf is h t h o u g h i t i s n o t c l e a r w h e t h e r h e m e a n sp s y c h o l o g i c a l l y o r p h i l o s o p h i c a l l y e g o i s t i c . T h e r e i s ad i s t i n c ti o n t o b e m a d e b e t w e e n t h e s e t w o t y p e s o fj u s t i f i c a t i o n w h i c h i s t h a t p h i l o s o p h i c a l o r e t h i c a le g o i s m c o n s t i tu t e s a m o r a l j u s t i f ic a t i o n w h e r e a sp s y c h o l o g i c a l e g o i s m i s a n e x p l a n a t i o n o f h u m a nb e h a v i o u r . E t h i c a l e g o i s m a r g u e s t h a t t h e a g e n t oughtt o b e s e l f i sh a n d t h a t a l t r u i s m i s o n l y j u s t i f i e d i f i tu l t i m a t e l y s e r v e s t h e a g e n t ' s e n d s i .e . a l t r u i s m i si m m o r a l u n l e s s i t i s i n t h e ag e n t ' s l o n g - t e r m i n t e r e st .T h i s i s t h e p o s i t i o n t a k e n b y s o m e o f t h o s e w h o t a k ep a r t i n c o r p o r a t e s o c i a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y p o l i c i e s . F o re x a m p l e , a r e p r e s e n ta t i v e f r o m t h e p u b l i c r e l a t io n sc o m p a n y P i e l l e , t a k i n g p a r t i n a c o n f e r e n c e o nc o r p o r a t e s o ci a l r e s p o n s ib i l i ty c o m m e n t e d ,

. . . Le t m e express a l i t t le persona l concern a t some th ingy o u sa id jus t now. Yo u were surpr ised tha t there hadbeen little discussion about social responsibility actionstha t b rou ght n o bene f i t to the company. I f e l t no co :acernor surpr ise a t tha t because any company has under law aresponsibility to its shareholders to act in the bestinterests of the business and its pr ivate shareholders . I fy o u a re ju s t g iv in g th in g s a w a y f o r th e s a k e o f a wa r mfee l ing , I am sure the shareholders would send you to ah o t b a th a s a q u ic k e r a n d mo r e c o mf o r ta b le wa y o fge t t ing i t ) 8P s y c h o l o g i c a l e g o i s m a r g u e s t h a t a g e n t s c a n n o t

h e l p b e i n g s e l f i sh , i. e. i t is i n t r i n s i c t o t h e n a t u r e o fp e r s o n h o o d . T h i s r a i s e s q u e s t i o n s o v e r t h e e x t e n t o ff l e e w i l l w h i c h i n d i v i d u a l s m a y e x e r t t o o v e r . -r i d ep r e - d e t e r m i n e d b i o l o gi c a l i n c l in a t i o n s a n d d r i v es .P s y c h o l o g i c a l e g o i s m m i g h t s u g g e s t t h a t a l t ru i s m f o rt h e b e n e f i t o f o t h e r a g e n t s i s o u t o f t h e o r d i n a r ya n d c a n b e e x p la i n ed b y s o m e h i d d e n m o t i v e o fs e l f -i n t e r e s t. T h i s d i s t i n c t i o n c l a ri f ie s w h e t h e r t h em o t i v a t i o n b e h i n d a n a c t io n is b e h a v i o u r a l ( p s y c h o -l o g i c al ) o r m o r a l ( p h i l o s o p h i c a l ) a n d i t i s i m p o r t a n tt o t h is p a p e r b e c a u s e i t i s a r g u e d t h a t t h e m o t i v a t i o nb e h i n d c o r p o r a t e s o c ia l r e s p o n s i b il i t y w i ll b e s h o w nt o b e o f t h e g r e a t e s t s i g n i f ic a n c e i n d e t e r m i n i n g i ts

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120 J ac qu ie L 'E tangm o r a l w o r t h F r i e d m a n ' s p o s i t i o n o n t h is p o i n t is n o te n t i r e l y c l e a r b e c a u s e h e s e e m s t o c o n f l a t e j u s t i f i c a -t i o n s s o t h a t h e a p p e a r s t o s a y t h a t e g o i s m i s b o t hn a t u r a l a n d m o r a l l y j u s t if i a b l e I t l o o k s a s t h o u g hF r i e d m a n ' s a r g u m e n t i s b a s e d o n p r i n c i p l e s o fe t h i c a l e g o i s m a n d h e d o e s s u g g e s t t h a t f o r ac o m p a n y t o a c t c o n t r a r y t o i ts e c o n o m i c s e l f - i n te r e s ti s i m m o r a l

A s t h e e x a m p l e s c i t e d e a r l i e r s h o w e d , a c o m m o nj u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r c o r p o r a t e s o c i a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y i sb r o a d l y u t i l i t a r ia n i n s t r u c t u r e U t i l i t a r ia n s j u d g ea c t io n s b y t h e i r c o n s e q u e n c e s a n d t h e i r c o n t r i b u t i o nt o t h e g e n e r a l h a p p i n e s s T h e u t i l i ta r i a n c a p i t a l is tw i l l a rg u e t h a t e v e r y o n e w i ll b e b e t t e r o f f i n t h e l o n gr u n , i f ; i n t h e s h o r t t e r m , c a p i t a l i s t s a r e a l l o w e d t oa c c u m u l a t e c a p i ta l f o r f u t u r e r e - i n v e s t m e n t . I t c o u l db e a r g u e d t h a t p r o g r a m m e s o f c o r p o r a te s o c ia lr e s p o n s i b i l i t y a re a n e x a m p l e o f s u c h a b e n e f i t , s i n c et h r i v i n g c a p i t a l i s t s m a y f e e l m o r e i n c l i n e d t o a f f o r ds u c h p r o g r a m m e s . I f c o r p o ra t io n s d o n o t c o n s u l tf o r m e r b e n e f i c i a r i e s i t w i l l b e h a r d f o r a c o m p a n ya p p a r e n t l y i n s p i r e d b y t h e u t i l i t a r i a n p h i l o s o p h y t op r o v e t h e i r c l a i m s a n d c a l c u l a t e t h e b e n e f i t s . S u c h ac o m p a n y w i l l b e p r o c e e d i n g o n t h e b a sis o f a s s u m p -t i o n s , n o t f a c t . I t i s t h e r e f o r e s u g g e s t e d t h a t au t i l i t a r i a n j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r c o r p o r a t e s o c i a l r e s p o n -s i b i l i t y f a i l s i f t h e u t i l i t a r i a n d o e s n o t a t t e m p t t oe v a l u at e t h e e f fe c ts o f p r o g r a m m e s i n s o c ie t y, f o re x a m p l e b y s e e k i n g t h e v i e w s o f r e c i p ie n t s A u t i l i -t a r i a n a p p r o a c h t o c o r p o r a t e s o c i a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t yd o e s n o t r e c o g n i z e t h e r i g h t s a n d r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e so f c o m p a n i e s e x c e p t i n s o f a r as t h e y m a x i m i z eh a p p i n e s s A u t i l i t a r i a n a p p r o a c h is n o t f o c u s e d o nc o n c e p t s o f j u s t r e l a ti o n s h i p s w i t h p a r t i c u la r s t a k e -h o l d e r s a n d t h e i r r i g ht s . U t i l it a r ia n s m a y a r g u e t h a tm o t i v a t i o n i s i r r e l e v a n t a n d t h a t d o i n g r i g h t a c t s i ss u f f i c i e n t a n d s e t s a g o o d e x a m p l e i n i t s el f . T h i s v i e wm a y b e c h a l l e n g e d o n t h e g r o u n d s t h a t p e o p l e w h oa r e w e l l m o t i v a t e d a r e m o r e l i k e l y t o a c t m o r a l l y ,w h e r e a s t h o s e w h o a re f o c u s e d o n c o n s e q u e n c e s m a yo n l y d o w h a t i s r i g h t b e c a u s e i t f it s i n w i t h t h e i r o w ne n d s a t t h e t i m e . A n a l te r n a t iv e a p p r o a c h d e f i n esg o o d n e s s a s i n t r i n s i c t o a n a c t. T h i s s o r t o f a p p r o a c hi s d e r i v e d f r o m K a n t w h o h e l d t h a t t h e o n l y g o o dt h i n g t h a t i s g o o d w i t h o u t q u a l i fi c a ti o n o r r e s t r i c ti o ni s a g o o d w i l l. T h e m o r a l w o r t h o f a n a c t is j u d g e db y a s k i n g w h e t h e r t h e i n d i v i d u a l i s w i l l i n g f o r t h ea c t t o b e c o m e a u n i v e r s a l l aw . K a n t ' s v i e w w a s t h a tg o o d n e s s i s p r a i s e w o r t h y a n d t h a t a r i g h t a c t i s t h a t

d o n e b y a n a g e n t b e ca u s e h e o r s h e o u g h t t o , r e c o g -n i z e s i t as a u n i v e r s a l la w a n d d o e s i t o u t o f d u t y a n dc o n f o r m i t y t o t h e u n i v e r s a l l aw .

A K a n t i a n a p p r o a c h t o c o r p o r a t e s o c i a l r e s p o n s i -b i l i t y w i l l b e c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e i n t r i n s i c n a t u r e o ft h e a c t a n d t h e m o t i v a t i o n f o r t h e a c t i o n , i . e .w h e t h e r i t is d o n e o u t o f a se n se o f d u t y o r p r u d e n -r a l l y , f o r r e a s o n s o f s e l f -i n t e r e s t. O n K a n t i a ng r o u n d s m a n y c o r p o r a t e s o c i al r e sp o n s i b i li ty p r o -g r a m m e s w o u l d b e j u d g e d a s l a ck i n g i n m o r a l w o r t hb e c a u s e t h e y a re d o n e f o r s e l f - in t e r e s te d o r p r u d e n -t i a l r e a sons .

. . . A human ac t ion i s mora l ly good, not because i t i sdon e from im mediate inclination - st i l l less because i t isdone f ro m se l f -in terest - but because i t is done f rom thesake of du ty . . 39

K a n t d i s t i n g u i s h e d b e t w e e n g e n e r o u s a c t i o n s d o n et h r o u g h a n i m p u l s e o f s y m p a t h y a n d t h o se d o n e o u to f d u ty . H e a t t r ib u t e d t h e a c t i o n d o n e o u t o f d u t yw i t h m o r a l w o r t h b e c a u s e t h e a c t i o n a r o s e f r o m ar a t i o n a l p r o c e s s a n d i n c l u d e d a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g o fo b l i g a t i o n a n d d u t y . K a n t s ti ll r e c o g n i z e d t h e m o r a lb e n e f i t o f g e n e r o u s i n c l i n a t i o n s a s s u p p o r t i v e i nd o i n g g o o d a c t i o n s b u t a r g u e d t h a t t h e y m u s t b ec o n s c i o u s l y c u l t iv a t e d F r o m t h i s h e d e r i v e d h i sf o r m a l p r i n c i p l e o f d u t y t h a t ,

. . . An a c t ion done f rom du ty has it s mora l wor th no tfrom the resul t i t a t ta ins or seeks to a t ta in , but f rom aformal principle or maxim - the principle of doing one'sduty whatever tha t may be . . .4 0

T h i s i s c o n s i s te n t w i t h a n a p p r o a c h w h i c h r e c o g n i z e st h e r i g h t s o f c e r ta i n s t a k e h o l d e r g r o u p s i n r e l a ti o n t ot h e a c t iv i ti e s o f a n o r g a n i z a t io n a n d i t s c o n c o m i t a n tr e spons ib i l i t i e s .

A n o t h e r p a r t o f K a n t' s p h i l o s o p h y w h i c h i sp a r t i c u l a r l y r e l e v a n t t o m o r a l i s s u e s i n c o r p o r a t es o c i a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y r e l a t e s t o m o r a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n sw i t h i n t h e c o n t e x t o f h u m a n r e la t io n s h i p s . H i s k e yp r i n c i p l e o r i m p e r a t i v e h e r e w a s c a l l e d ' T h e F o r -m u l a o f t h e E n d i n I ts el fl ,

. . Act in such a w ay tha t you a lways t rea t humani ty ,whether in your own person or in the person of anyother, never simply as a means, but always at the sam et ime s as a n e n d . . .