CURRICULUM AND SOCIETY: A COMMUNITY LEADERS' PERSPECTIVE
by
NAMAYAMMU PATRICIA MOKGOSI
MINI-DISSERTATION
submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree
MAGISTER EDUCATIONIS
in
CURRICULUM STUDIES
in the
FACULTY OF EDUCATION AND NURSING
at the
RAND AFRIKAANS UNIVERSITY
SUPERVISOR: DR H C GEYSER CO-SUPERVISOR: MR H J DU TOIT
November 1996
DEDICATION
To my Grandmonther SEILANENG and my Dad KETLAMORENG and my Mom
for raising the banner of my education.
FOR TOE GREATER GLORY OF OM
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
SYNOPSIS ii
CHAPTER ONE: ORIENTATION AND STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
1.1 BACKGROUND .1
1.2 STATEMENT OF A PROBLEM 2
1.3 THE AIM OF THE STUDY 3
1.4 METHODOLOGY 3
1.5 CLARIFICATION OF CONCEPTS 5
1.5.1 SITUATIONAL ANALYSIS 5
1.5.2 COMMUNITY LEADER 5
1.6 SUMMARY 6
CHAPTER TWO: QUALITATIVE RESEARCH PARADIGM
2.1 THE AIM OF THE CHAPTER 7
2.2 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITA-
TIVE RESEARCH PARADIGMS 7
2.2.1 THE QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH 7
2.2.2 THE QUALITATIVE PARADIGM 8
2.3 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF QUALITATIVE
RESEARCH PARADIGM 9
2.3.1 ADVANTAGES OF QUALITATIVE PARADIGM 9
2.3.2 DISADVANTAGES OF QUALITATIVE PARADIGM 10
2.3.2.1 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY 10
- 2.3.3.1.1 RELIABILITY 11
2.3.3.1.2 VALIDITY 11
2.4 METHODS OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH 12
2.4.1 OBSERVATIONAL METHOD 12
2.4.2 INTERVIEWS 13
2.4.2.1 TYPES OF INTERVIEWS 13
2.4.3 FOCUS GROUP INTERVIEWS 15
2.4.4 PARTICIPANTS 15
2.4.5 FOCUS GROUP: LOCATION AND SIZE 16
2.4.6 FOCUS GROUP: INTERVIEW QUESTIONS 16
2.4.7 CONDUCTING FOCUS GROUP INTERVIEWS 17
2.5 DATA ANALYSIS 18
2.6 SUMMARY 19
CHAPTER THREE: DATA ANALYSIS
3.1 THE AIM OF THE CHAPTER 20
3.2 COMPILATION OF INTERVIEW SCHEDULES 20
3.2.1 PILOT INTERVIEW 20
3.2.2 INTERVIEW SCHEDULES 2, 3 AND 4 21
3.3 PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED WITH INTERVIEWS 21
3.4 DATA ANALYSIS 22
3.4.1 A REPORT ON DATA ANALYSIS 22
3.4.2
DISCUSSION OF MAIN CATEGORIES AND SUBCATEGORIES
24
3.4.2.1 MORALITY 24
3.4.2.2 CHANGE IN THE SCHOOL CURRICULUM 27
3.4.2.3 CULTURAL MIXING AT SCHOOL 31
3.5 ADDITIONAL NEEDS 32
3.5.1 TEACHER CONDUCT AND INSERVICE-TRAINING 33
3.5.2 COMMUNITY INVOLVEMENT 34
3.5 SUMMARY 35
CHAPTER FOUR: CURRICULUM DESIGN
4.1 THE AIM OF THE CHAPTER 36
4:2 CURRICULUM DEFINED 36
4.2.1 SUBJECT CENTERED CURRICULUM 36
4.2.2 LEARNER CENTERED CURRICULUM 38
4.2.3 THE SOCIETY CENTERED CURRICULUM 39
4.3 CURRICULUM DESIGN 40
4.3.1 CURRICULUM PARADIGMS 40
4.3.1.1 THE TECHNICAL-SCIENTIFIC PARADIGM 41
4.3.1.2 NONTECHNICAL - NONSCIENTIFIC PARADIGM 41
4.3.1.3 THE TECHNOLOGICAL PARADIGM 42
4.3.1.4 THE EXPERIENTIAL APPROACH 43
4.3.1.5 THE PRAGMATIC APPROACH 43
4.4 SUITABLE CURRICULUM MODELS 43
4.4.1 THE WALTERS MODEL 44
4.4.2 CAWOOD-CARL-BLACKENBERG MODEL 44
4.4.3 THE KRUGER MODEL - 44
4.5 PRINCIPLES OF CURRICULUM DESIGN 45
4.5.1 SITUATION ANALYSIS 45
4.5.1.1 THE NEEDS OF THE SOCIETY 47
4.5.1.2 VALUES OF THE SOCIETY 47
4.5.1.3 EXPECTATIONS OF THE LEARNER 48
4.5.1.4 DIDACTIC EXPECTATIONS 49
4.5.1.5 ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS 49
4.5.1.6 FUTURE EXPECTATIONS 49
4.5.1.7 , EXPLOITATION OF THE DISCIPLINES 50
4.5.2 AIMS, GOALS AND OBJECTIVES 50
4.5.2.1 TYPES OF GOALS, AIMS AND OBJECTIVES 51
4.5.3 SELECTION AND ORDERING OF CONTENT 52
4.5.3.1 CRITERIA FOR THE SELECTION OF LEARNING CON-
TENT 52
4.5.3.2 ORDERING OF LEARNING CONTENT 53
4.5.4 SELECTION LEARNING OPPORTUNITIES 54
4.5.5 SELECTION OF LEARNING EXPERIENCES 56
4.5.6 EVALUATION 56
4.5.6.1 FORMS OF EVALUATION 57
4.6 SUMMARY 59
CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSION, RECOMMENDATIONS AND GUIDELINES
5.1 THE AIM OF THE CHAPTER 60
5.2 RECOMMENDATIONS AND GUIDELINES 60
5.2.1 AIMS AND GOALS OF THE CURRICULUM 60
5.2.2 SELECTION OF CONTENT 63
5.2.3 LEARNING OPPORTUNITY AND LEARNING EXPERIENCE 64
5.2.4 EVALUATION 65
5.3 LIMITATIONS AND VALUE OF THIS STUDY 66
5.4 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH 67
5.5 CONCLUSION 67
BIBLIOGRAPHY 68
DOCUMENTS
APPENDIX A: INTERVIEW TRANSCRIPTION 71
APPENDIX B: LIST OF RELEVANT INFORMATION 78
APPENDIX C: LETTER TO COMMUNITY LEADERS 85
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
My heartfelt thanks to:
25 The ALMIGHTY GOD, my source of strength throughout the writing of this manuscript.
25 My supervisor Dr H C Geyser and co-supervisor Mr Du T_ oit for their support and guidance.
25 Mrs Davidson for her accurate typing of this manuscript.
25 My parents for their encouragement and support.
25 My parents-in-law for their support and sacrifices.
25 All my friends and colleagues who encourage me to complete this work.
25 ̀usi"Mma Jemina for being a mother to my kids while I was busy with my studies.
21 My loving husband Tihaole and my children Koketso, Ofentse, Rebaona and . Rorisang, who have been a source of inspiration throughout this study.
2 Rangwane Lasi for his encouragement, interest and support in everything I do.
25 Benedicta Oliphant for her interest and support in the writing of this study. .
ii
SINOPSIS
'n Aankondiging deur die Minister van Onderwys dat daar indringend gekyk sal
moet word na herkurrikulering in sowel die primere as die sekondere skoolfases,
het die onderhawige navorsingspoging geThisieer. Die Departement van,
Onderwys het die publiek uitgenooi om voorleggings te doen met die oog op die
wysiging van bestaande kurrikula.
Op grond van die uitnodiging van die Departement wat 'n versoek tot
verantwoordbare herkurrikulering geImpliseer het, is die besluit geneem om 1 n
situasie-analise van beperkte omvang op 'n wetenskaplike grondslag van die ter
sake samelewingsbehoeftes te doen. Die peiling van samelewingsbehoeftes is
gedoen na aanleiding van die persepsies van gemeenskapsleiers soos
geopenbaar in fokusgroeponderhoude. Hierdie kwalitatiewe navorsingstegniek
is as die mees toepaslike strategie vir die hantering van die navorsingsprobleem
beskou. Daar is uiteraard ook van Iiteratuurstudie gebruik gemaak in die
aanloop tot die kwalitatiewe empiriese werk. Oorkoepelend kan die metodologie
beskryf word as eksploratief, kontekstueel en kwalitatief.
Die doel met die navorsing was dus om 'n beperkte situasie-analise te doen met
die oog op die peiling van onderwysbehoeftes en om riglyne vir die ontwerp van
relevante kurrikula in die sekondere skoolfases daar te stel.
Die belangrikste bevindinge van die studie word vervolgens baie kortliks
saamgevat.
Dit blyk dat die vestiging van 'n sin vir moraliteit by leerders van
fundamentele belang is. 'n Moreel of sedelik verantwoordbare leefstyl
blyk deur gemeenskapsleiers as 'n belangrike aangeleentheid beskou te
word.
iii
In operasionele terme beteken dit dat die kurrikulum daarvoor voorsiening
moet maak dat leerders sosiaal en kognitief 'n greep moet kry op wat reg
en verkeerd is, om hulself en ander te respekteer, om verdraagsaam en
gedissiplineerd te wees en om standpunt in te neem teenoor anomiese
verskynsels soos kindermolestering.
`n Volgende belangrike oorweging ten opsigte van kurrikulering is om
beroepsorientering by die leerlinge te bevorder. Dit impliseer die
verwerwing van beroepsvaardighede, die bevordering van entrepreneur-
skap, die bekendstelling van verdere opleidingsmoontlikhede en die
aanvaarding van verantwoordelikhede.
Die harmoniering van kultuurinhoude wat in die skoolsituasie oorgedra
word met die kultuurinhoude wat in die samelewing 'n werklikheid is, is 'n
verdere belangrike oorweging in kurrikulering. Agting vir die eie kultuur
asook vir kulturele diversiteit moet in ag geneem word. Dit sluit respek vir
tale en religieuse oortuiging in.
Die implementering van hierdie riglyne kan bydra tot 'n meer effektiewe
kurrikulum in die senior sekondere fase.
1
CHAPTER ONE
ORIENTATION AND STATEMENT OF A PROBLEM
1.1 BACKGROUND
This study is a limited analysis of the needs of the society as perceived by
community leaders in Gauteng province with -regard to the secondary
school curriculum.
On the 23rd May 1994 the ministry of education advertised an open
invitation to all members of public, including parents, teachers, pupils and
educationists. They were all invited to submit comments and
recommendations on essential changes to be made in the short term to
syllabuses for the subjects taught in primary or secondary school (The
Star, 1994: 17). The above move was an attempted situation analysis to
perceive needs in society. Although an attempt to analyse the situation
has been done, the process was not properly scientific because it excluded
other factors or determinants of situation analysis.
According to Kruger (1980: 35) the determinants of situation analysis are
the needs of the society, requirements of the learner, 'didactic
requirements, cognitive development, economic and future expectations.
Marsh, (1992: 80) outlines the situation analysis determinants as external
factors to the school which includes changes and trends in the society,
expectations of the community, values, anticipated flow of resources in the
school, the changing nature of the subject discipline; and internal factors to
the school which includes values, abilities, attitudes, aptitudes of pupils
and teachers' knowledge, skills, attitudes, knowledge, school ethos and
2
political structure, material resources and felt problems in the existing
curriculum.
The move by the education department to invite comments and
recommendations from the public on essential changes to be made in the
interim curriculum was not a comprehensive situation analysis and was not
scientifically conducted. No clear indication was given by the ministry that
a situation analysis was conducted.
The above stated factors by Kruger (1980: 35) and Marsh (1992: 80) were
also not considered when situation analysis was conducted. The
researcher intends doing a limited situation analysis in this study.
Because a situation analysis is a broad concept because of the number of
determinants, the researcher will focus on the needs of the society. The
researcher also intends to focus on one section of the society. In this
regard community leaders in Gauteng province will be interviewed in order
to identify their perceptions with regard to the needs of society concerning
the secondary school curriculum.
1.2 STATEMENT OF A PROBLEM
This study is aimed at answering the following research questions:
What are the needs of the society as perceived by community leaders in
Gauteng that can be addressed in the secondary school curriculum?
How can curriculum guidelines for the secondary school in the Gauteng
prOvince be designed to suit the needs of the society?
3
1.3 AIM OF THE STUDY
A situation analysis has to be conducted in order to identify educational
needs and set priorities before embarking on any curriculum activity.
The purpose of this study is to identify the needs of the society as
perceived by community leaders with regard to the secondary school
curriculum, through focus group interviews.
To formulate guidelines for a relevant curriculum in the secondary school
based on the needs as perceived by community leaders.
1.4 METHODOLOGY
The study will be explorative, contextual and qualitative with regard to the
research goal, strategy and approach.
Mouton and Marais; (1993: 43) say that the goal which is persued in
exploratory studies is the exploration of a relatively unknown research
area. Contextual research strategy implies that the phenomena is studied
in terms of its own immediate context (Mouton and Marais, 1993: 49).
Qualitative approaches are those approaches in whiCh procedures are not
as strictly formalized, while the scope is more likely to be undefined, and a
more philosophical mode of operation is adopted (Mouton and Marais,
1993: 155).
The following steps are the outline or structure of the study:
4
Step 1
This step provides a design of this research. The problem is identified,
aims and methods are formulated and classification of concepts used in
.this study is furnished. These are reported in Chapter 1.
Step 2
This step involves a literature study on research paradigms, methods of
collecting data and data analysis. This will be reported on in Chapter 2.
Step 3
This step involves interviews with community leaders in the Gauteng
province and an analysis of the data. Findings will also be stated. This
will be reported on in Chapter 3.
Step '4
In this step literature on curriculum design will be consulted. Guidelines on
how curriculum should be designed will be given. This will be reported in
Chapter 4.
Step 5
In this step guidelines will be stated and recommendations made: This will
be reported in Chapter 5.
5
1.5 CLARIFICATION OF CONCEPTS
The concepts that need to be clarified are: situation analysis, community
leader and curriculum. A detailed definition of curriculum will be given in
Chapter 4.
1.5.1 SITUATION ANALYSIS
According to Marsh (1992: 79) situation analysis refers to an initial state in
which the learner finds himself/herself, the teacher should interprete the
situation in terms of curriculum planning. Situation analysis is also about
becoming aware of a school problem, identifying factors which bear upon
the problem, and making priorities to solve or limit the problem.
Kruger (1980: 35) says situation analysis comprises the whole view about
the terrain to be covered in a specific teaching sequence with intended
objectives. Situation analysis makes a thorough analysis of the existing
and attained situation. It asks the following questions:
What should be taught?
To whom should it be taught?
Why should it be taught?
When should it be taught?
How should it be taught?
1.5.2 COMMUNITY LEADER
According to Poplin (1972: 194), a concept community leader can be
defined in terms of three types of community leaderships, that is:
6
Institutional leader - who occupy a formal leadership position in the
community and he is elected or appointed to his position. Mayors,
councillors, ministers, etc. are the example of this category.
Grassroots leader - who has personal influence and ability to get other
people interested in the cause, e.g. - leader of campaign against water
fluoridation:
Power elite - whose basis of leadership is wealth, economic power and
personal influence.
The focus of this study will be on institutional leaders that is, mayors,
councillors and association leaders.
1.6 SUMMARY
In this chapter the problem was stated, aim of the study, method and
procedure of the study as well as definition of the concepts. In the next
chapter the qualitative research paradigm, methods of qualitative research,
validity and reliability and the data analysis will be discussed.
7
CHAPTER TWO
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH PARADIGM
2.1 THE AIM OF THE CHAPTER
This chapter is intended to discuss different research paradigms,
methods, procedures and data analysis. The aim is to give an indication
of what methods and procedures will be utilized to identify perceptions of
the community leaders in the Gauteng province with regard to the
secondary school curriculum.
2.2 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE
RESEARCH PARADIGMS
Kuhn, in Shulman (1990: 4) explains paradigm as an implicit and
persuasive commitment by a community of scholars to a conceptual
framework. Curriculum paradigm looks at how curriculum research is
conducted to obtain data as well as what questions are asked about the
curriculum (Hoppe, 1990: 5). In this study, qualitative and quantitative
paradigms are going to be discussed. A distinction between these two
paradigms will be made. It is imperative to make a distinction between
qualitative and quantitative paradigms because both are important to
educational research.
2.2.1 THE QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
Quantitative research emphasises measurement and analysis of casual
relationship between variables and not processes (Denzin and Lincoln,
1994: 4). Reality is viewed as objective, singular and independent of a
8
1994: 4). Reality is viewed as objective, singular and independent of a
researcher. Questionnaire or instruments are used in order to measure
objectively. Quantitative research is value-free, formal and unbiased and
this makes it possible for the researcher to report realities faithfully
(Ceesswell, 1994: 4).
While qualitative researchers make use of deductive methods,
quantitative researchers make use of inductive methods where theories
and hypotheses are chosen before the study begins and remain fixed
throughout the study (Cresswell, 1994:1). Quantitative studies are
carefully worked out procedures where rules for the research exist.
Collection and analysis of data involves a shorter period of time than that
required in qualitative designs (Creswell, 1994:8).
2.2.2 THE QUALITATIVE PARADIGM
In contrast to quantitative paradigm, qualitative paradigm places
emphasis on processes and meanings that are not examined or measured
in terms of quantity, amount, intensity or frequency. Qualitative research
emphasises the socially constructed nature of reality, the intimate
relationship between researcher and what is being studied and also the
situational constraints that shapes inquiry (Denzin & Lincoln, 1994: 4).
According to Rudestam and Newton, (1992: 8) this paradigm is useful in
the categories for understanding human phenomena. Qualitative data
cannot be readily converted to numerical values (Yin, 1993: 57).
It is important to realize that in qualitative studies rules and procedures
are- not fixed but open. Since researchers interact with the people they
study, a distance between a researcher and what is being researched is
9
minimised. Language used is personal, formal and it is based on
definitions that evolved during the study (Cresswell, 1994: 8). Qualitative
methods are useful in the categories for understanding human
phenomena and for investigation and interpretation of meaning which
people give to events (Rudestam & Newton, 1992: 8).
Qualitative research wil be used in this study because it is relevant to the
topic being researched. The problem under investigation is a human
phenomenon. The data that will be collected will be qualitative since the
researcher intends using interviews as a method of collecting data.
2.3 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
PARADIGM
2.3.1 ADVANTAGES OF QUALITATIVE PARADIGM
Keeves (1988: 573) points out that qualitative research is advantageous
because the researchers are able to develop their own personal
interpretations of the educational field in which they work. If data is
collected through interviews, the researcher is in control. Qualitative
designs are unique and flexible. Knowledge gained from qualitative
research enriches one's imagination.
Because of the above advantages, a qualitative paradigm will assist the
researcher to come up with possible solutions. It is the researcher's
intentions to use qualitative research when collecting data so as to be
able to get the necessary information.
10
2.3.2 DISADVANTAGES OF QUALITATIVE PARADIGM
The researcher has to address reality that is contradictory, illogical and
incoherent. The researcher is faced with a challenge since procedures
for organizing images are ill defined and rely on processes of influence,
insight, logic and luck (Morse, 1993: 1).
Qualitative data collection techniques are both time consuming and labOur
intensive, for example a long interview might take about one year to
develop, administer and analyze data. Participant observation also
requires prolonged period of intensive social interaction between the
researcher and subjects and can take more than a year to complete
(Crabtree and Miller, 1992: 235). If data is collected through interviews,
the presence of the researchers may lead to biased response from
subjects. This particularly refers to face to face interviews. Telephone
interviews may also have a negative impact since information is provided
in a restricted place and not in a national environment (Cresswell 1994:
151).
In this study, the researcher intends to avoid long interviews and
telephone interviews so that biased responses from participants may be
limited or controlled.
2.3.2.1 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY
Validity and reliability are also problems associated with
qualitative research. It is the researcher's aim to control the
problem of reliability and validity in this study.
1 1
2.3.3.1.1 RELIABILITY
Reliability is concerned with replication of the study under similar
circumstances. The investigator derives consistency through
coding the raw data in such a way that another person could
understand the themes and arrive at similar conclusions
(Rudestam and Newton, 1992: 67). The problem of reliability will
be addressed by the researcher in this study. For first reliability
check, transcriptions of interviews will be taken back to the
respondents to ascertain their contact and make additions if
possible. An independent decoder will be given raw data to
analyze for a second reliability check. The categories that the
independent decoder have identified, will be compared with the
researcher's.
2.3.3.1.2 VALIDITY
Validity is an extent to which information from the sources is
verified and made valid. According to Denzin and Lincoln (1994:
381), there are two forms of validity, internal and external validity.
Internal validity refers to validity of casual inferences. External
validity refers to the generalisability of the findings of the study.
Validity is a problem in the sense that at times analyzers and
observers are forced to rely on their own perceptions. They are
most susceptible to bias from their subjective interpretations.
Without subject quotes or cross-checking some observers have
found it difficult to legitimize their work to scholarly audiences
(Denzin and Lincoln, 1994: 38).
12
For validity check in this study, other literary sources will be
consulted. Comparisons between this study and other literary
sources concerning the imperical data and findings will be made.
2.4 METHODS OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
Observation, structured interview, semi-structural and unstructured
individual interview, telephone interview and focus groups interview are
important methods of qualitative research. A number of qualitative
research methods will be discussed in this chapter, in order to select the
suitable method for the study under investigation.
2.4.1 OBSERVATIONAL METHOD
The method of observation involves visual data gathered as well as the
engagement of all the senses such as smell, hearing, touch and taste.
Observations consists of gathering impressions of the surrounding world
through all relevant human faculties. This makes direct contact with
subjects of observation necessary (Denzin and Lincoln, 1994: 378).
Observational method is non-interventive. Observers do not manipulate
or stimulate their subjects. Research questions are asked and tasks are
also not given to subjects. Behaviour and interaction continue as they
would without the presence of a researcher (Denzin and Lincoln, 1994:
378).
Pre-knowledge about subjects in the observational research are likely to
bias perceptions. Observers need to be trained in order to be able to
collect reliable data. Training along with information and reliability of
13
observational data should be included in good observational studies and
should be looked for when research reports are received (Denzin &
Lincoln, 1994: 379).
In this study, the needs of the society as perceived by community leaders
cannot be effectively identified through observational method. Hence
observational methods will not be used in this study.
2.4.2 INTERVIEWS
An interview is a common method of collecting data and it involves verbal
interaction of individuals. Anderson (1990: 222) defines it as a
specialized form of communication between people for a specific purpose
associated with some agreed subject matter.
The purpose of interviewing is to find out what is in someone's mind. The
interviewer must provide a framework within which people can respond
comfortably, accurately and honestly to questions. The task of the
interviewer is to make it possible for the person being interviewed to bring
the interviewer into his or her world (Patton, 1982: 161).
2.4.2.1 TYPES OF INTERVIEWS
Interviews are of three types in terms of their content and organization:
structured, semi-structured or unstructured (McKernan, 1991: 130).
Structured interview is one where the precise questions are shown in the
form of the wording which is to be adopted. The interviewer does not
deviate from the wording of these questions. Questions are often fixed
response types (McKernan, 1991: 130).
14
A semi-structured interview is the one where the interviewer has certain
questions which he asks of all interviewees, but also allows the
respondent to raise issues and questions as the interview progresses.
(McKernan, 1991; 130).
An unstructured interview is where the issues and topics to be discussed
are left entirely to the interviewer. Once the interviewee has touched
upon an issue or topic the interviewer can ask him or her to explain or
expand (McKernan, 1991: 130).
Ary, Jacobs and Razavieh (1985: 26) identify face to face or individual
interviews and telephone interviews. Face to face or individual interviews
are structured and involve one respondent. They are usually conducted
in households. Telephone interviews are structured and involves an
individual through the telephone.
Krueger (1994: 6) identifies focus group interviews. He asserts that focus
group interviews are carefully planned discussions designed to obtain a
perception on a defined area of interest in a permissive non-threatening
environment._ study adopts focus group interview as a technique of
collecting data because the researcher will be able to probe issues during
the interviews. The focus group interview is relevant to the research
problem becaUse the researcher has to identify the needs of the society
as perceived by community leaders in Gauteng. To collect such data,
focus groups interview will be relevant.
15
2.4.3 FOCUS GROUP INTERVIEWS
Focus group interviews are conducted with approximately 7 to 10 people
by a skilled interviewer. The purpose is to obtain information of a
qualitative nature from a predetermined and limited number of people.
Focus group interviews also intend to promote self-disclosure among
participants. Focus group interview takes place in a natural real life
situation as opposed to controlled experimental situation (Krueger, 1994:
35).
Krueger (1994: 35) describes the advantages of focus group interviews as
the following:
It allows the interviewer to probe some questions during an interview;
The procedure is inexpensive and can also provide speedy results.
It is the researcher's intentions to probe some issues during the
interviews and also to reduce the expenses that will be incurred during
the investigation process.
2.4.4 PARTICIPANTS
Focus group participants are people who are reasonably homogeneous
and unfamiliar with each other. The similarity is determined by the
purpose of the study and is a basis for recruitment (Krueger, 1994: 14).
The participants in this study are also people who are similar to each
other, they will be community leaders in the Gauteng province. The
researcher intends to interview mayors, councillors, civic association
leaders and community police leaders.
16
2.4.5 FOCUS GROUP: LOCATION AND SIZE
The researchers intends to find a location room as Krueger (1994: 84)
puts it, that should be free of outside distractions, that will be easy to find
and neutral to avoid influences of responses.
Interviews will be conducted in the public service offices within the
Gauteng province. The interviewer will place chairs in a circular
arrangement for promotion of informality and interactions which is
essential for any group interview. A tape will be strategically placed in
order to capture the dialogue between the researcher and the respondens
(Kingry, Tiedje and Friedman, 1990: 124).
Focus group interviews are conducted with approximately 7 tot 10
participants. In this study the researcher aims at interviewing the group
with not less than seven participants. The number of the interviews
conducted will depend on the information the researcher gets from the
respondents. If the information collected from each interview is repeated
in the next series of interviews, the researcher will end his interviews.
2.4.6 FOCUS GROUP: INTERVIEW QUESTIONS
Focus group interviews use open ended questions rather than closed
questions. Open-ended questions are preferred because they permit free
responses from subjects rather than restricting a response to a choice
among stated alternatives. The respondent is free to respond from his
frame of reference. Open-ended questions are easy to answer and they
also reveal the depth of a person's knowledge (Anderson, 1990: 234).
17
This study adopts open-ended questions in order to identify the
perceptions of the community leaders with regard to the needs of the
society as addressed by the curriculum. The following question will be
asked by the researcher (interviewer):
"What are the needs of the society that can be addressed by the school?"
2.4.7 CONDUCTING FOCUS GROUP INTERVIEWS
According to Krueger (1994: 113) the first moments of the focus group
interview are critical. The interviewer must create a thoughtful,
permissive atmosphere, provide ground rules and set the tone for the
discussion.
The interview will begin with the researcher welcoming and thanking the
respondents for their part in the interview. The researcher will also
guarantee the participants confidentiality. A short overview of the topic
will be given by a researcher. The ground rules such as being aware that
the interview is tape-recorded, will be spelled out to participants.
The first question of the interview will be asked in order to engage all
participants in the interview. During the progression of the interview, the
researcher will ask probing questions in order to retrieve more information
from respondents.
During the interview, the researcher will be noting important facts from the
respondents. He will write down all the noted facts. Towards the end of
the interview, he will spell out the noted facts to the respondents to
ascertain if that is what they have said. He will ask them to add more
information if possible. It is imperative to realise that the transcription will
18
be done immediately after a focus group interview in order to prepare for
the analysis of data (Kingry, Tiedje and Friedman, 1990: 125).
The researcher will end the interview by thanking all participants. After
conducting interviews the researcher must analyze data. The process of
data analysis will be explained in the following headings:
2.5 DATA ANALYSIS
Data analysis is a process of bringing order, structure and meaning to a
mass collected data. The following protocol will be used to analyze data
in this study (Strauss and Corbin, 1992: 67).
The transcription is read once. All preconceived answers are ignored for
the highest form of reliability. _
Important words, sentences or phrases that are reflected are underlined in
order to identify information relevant to the study.
A distinction is made between relevant and irrelevant information.
Relevant information is tabulated in the form of a list.
Categories and subcategories are identified. The phenomenon .repre-
sented by a category is given a conceptual name.
The interview protocol and transcriptions are given to the independent
decoder for scrutiny and comparisons.
19
The researcher and the independent decoder discuss the results of the
analysis, here the interview document is compared with the one
previously coded. The researcher and the independent decoder reach
consensus.
The relationship between categories and sub-categories are cemented.
At this stage report on the findings and literature cheks are made.
2.6 SUMMARY
In this chapter the qualitative and quantitative research paradigms were
discussed. Qualitative research methods of collecting data and the
process of data analysis were also discussed. The above methods will be
used in collection and analysis of data which will be reported in Chapter
3.
20
CHAPTER THREE
DATA ANALYSIS
3.1 THE AIM OF THE CHAPTER
This chapter is intended to report on interviews that were conducted and
data that was collected through interviews. It also aims at analysing data
in order to. arrive at findings and reach conclusion about the needs of
society as perceived by community leaders in Gauteng province.
3.2 COMPILATION OF INTERVIEW SCHEDULES
The researcher compiled four different interview schedules. Interview 1
was a pilot interview and interviews 2, 3 and 4 were scheduled for
councillors and civic association leaders.
3.2.1 PILOT INTERVIEW
A data gathering instrument should be tried out on a group similar to the
one that would form the population of the study. For this reason a pilot
study was conducted. The participants were councillors in Western
Johannesburg. The skills of the researcher were refined through a proper
research workshop by the researcher's supervisor, after the pilot study
was conducted. Information gathered from the pilot interview was found
to be relevant and was recommended to be a part of the study.
21
3.2.2 INTERVIEW SCHEDULES 2, 3 AND 4
The three groups of respondents were selected through a random
sampling technique. Because of the vital role they play in the society
councillors and civic association leaders were included in the interview
because they are in the ideal position to know the problems of the
communities and to identify their needs.
3.3 PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED WITH INTERVIEWS
Problems are obstacles experienced during the research process were
the following:
Community leaders were difficult to get hold of because of their heavy
work schedule.
In some cases even though appointments had been made with community
leaders, they could not be interviewed because they had to attend to
serious cases or meetings.
Some felt that their positions will be threatened by the interview questions.
As the study was using focus group interview, it was difficult to assemble
leaders in one group at the same time.
The study was costly as the researcher had to travel from one point to the
other sometimes with unfruitful results.
22
3.4 DATA ANALYSIS
When analysing data from the interviews conducted, the researcher
intends following the data analysis protocol that was discussed in Chapter
2. The procedures of the whole data interpretation are discussed in the
following subheading.
3.4.1 A REPORT ON DATA ANALYSIS
The researcher made a conscious effort to ignore all pre-conceived ideas
about the study for the highest form of reliability when analysing data in
this study.
After the transcriptions were read important words and phrases were
underlined by the researcher in order to identify information relevant to
the study.
A distinction was made between relevant and irrelevant information.
Relevant information from all the transcriptions was tabled in a list (See
Appendix B).
Categories and subcategories were identified. The phenomenon
represented by a category was given a conceptual name. The following
list is the categories and subcategories that were identified by the
researcher:
1. MORAL EDUCATION
Crime
Discipline
Role models
23
TRAINING OF SKILLS
Practical skills
Communication skills
Enterprising skills
Thinking skills
RESOURCES
LEADERSHIP
CAREER GUIDANCE
CULTURAL EDUCATION
RELIGION
INSERVICE TRAINING
COMMUNITY INVOLVEMENT
After the researcher had identified the categories, the transcriptions and
the protocol were given to an independent decoder by the researcher for
comparisons.
In this step the researcher and the independent decoder discussed the
results of the data analysis and reached consensus. In this study the
researcher and the independent decoder discussed the results of the data
analysis. Both the researcher and the decoder found that the categories
that they identified were the same. The researcher and the independent
decoder reached consensus as far as the naming and tabling of
categories and subcategories were concerned. The following list is the
final list of categories and subcategories:
1. MORALITY
Crime prevention
Moral education
24
CHANGE IN THE SCHOOL CURRICULUM
Practical experience
Skills training
Subjects relevant for societal growth
Career guidance
Leadership training
CULTURAL MIXING AT SCHOOL
Religion , and tradition
Multicultural education
TEACHER CONDUCT AND INSERVICE TRAINING
COMMUNITY INVOLVEMENT
The above categories will be discussed in detail under the subheading to
follow (see paragraph 3.4.2).
At this stage the report on the findings and literature check are made.
Findings and literature check are integrated with the discussion of
categories in the heading to follow (see paragraph 3.4.2).
3.4.2 DISCUSSION OF MAIN CATEGORIES AND SUBCATEGORIES
3.4.2.1 MORALITY
Morality can be explained as moral principles or rules pertaining to
the goodness and badness of human character or with principles of
what is right and wrong in conduct (The Oxford Dictionary, 1986:
530).
25
The responses indicated that the basic need of our society is a
question of morality. "... the needs of the society that can be
addressed by the school are: discouraging crime and promoting of
good morals". There is a tremendous moral decay in our society
which is effecting everything. There is a lack of respect and the
concept of humanity is completely ignored by the people. The
respondents felt that the following two aspects must be enforced,
that is: crime prevention and moral education.
CRIME PREVENTION
Crime is an element of morality. It is a serious offence, one for
which there is punishment by law. Our society is overwhelmed by
lawlessness, vandalism and violent crime. This trend is most
apparent among the younger generation who are mostly school
going children. The respondents felt that the present curriculum is
inadequate in addressing crime and violence committed by the
students. "our education is failing ... to discourage crime made by
our students". The respondents suggested that crime should be
addressed directly by the school. "Parents and teachers should
work together in combating crime that is committed by our
children". They indicated that subjects taught at school should
have a moral dimension. Crime should be prevented from the
classroom level and subjects such as criminology should be
introduced in order to cater for that.
MORAL EDUCATION
This can be explained as the study of moral principles which
involves norms, values and moral obligation (Sugarman, 1973: 38).
26
In this subcategory a concern is raised that there is a lack of
respect. Children do not respect their elders and adults are not
positive role models for the growing children. Authority has been
eroded from the parents' hands by the children and the
respondents felt that moral education should be given to children at
school through the inculcation of norms and values. They also
indicated that discipline, respect and tolerance should be enforced
by the school.
"Children must be taught that in order to achieve, they must be
disciplined... should be taught respect and tolerance towards
school work and racial tolerance".
From the responses it was also indicated that for the other needs of
the society to be met, morality must be stressed and be a point of
departure. This should be addressed in the curriculum. The
respondents also indicated that teachers are not doing enough to
impart the right values to children and to ensure that their
behaviour is socially acceptable. "... there are teachers who still
fall in love with students".
Teachers are held responsible for the decline of moral standards in
the society. They also suggested that teachers should teach
children not only to be knowledgeable, but also to be good.
For a literature check, a source by Straughan, (1988: 1) was
consulted. Straughan also supports that morality is a basic need of
the society. He is of the opinion that modern society is becoming
increasingly more lawless, violent, undisciplined and permissive,
and this trend is more apparent among the young generation. A
27
moral vacuum has been created in the classroom and consequently
it is even more vital that children should be taught how to behave
inside and outside the school. The category of morality in this
study is similar to the one by Straughan because both emphasises
the fact that morality should be addressed by the curriculum.
Subjects taught at school should have a moral dimension and
values and norms should be inculcated through the school
curriculum.
3.4.2.2 CHANGE IN THE SCHOOL CURRICULUM
Curriculum can be explained as what is offered to a learner under
the guidance of a school (Wheeler, 1983:11). Respondents
indicated a serious concern regarding the school curriculum. They
expressed a need for the school curriculum to change in order to
meet the needs of the society. They expressed different concerns
about the school curriculum as indicated in the following
subcategories:
PRACTICAL EXPERIENCE
Practical experiences in the curriculum: The The Oxford Dictionary,
(1986: 633) explains the word practical as an involving activity as
distinct from study and theory. Experience implies actual
observation of facts or events, activity or practice in doing
something and skill and knowledge gained this way (The Oxford
Dictionary, 1986: 281). Practical experience is the knowledge
gained from an activity that is observed.
The respondents felt that what is done or taught at school should
be experienced practically by the learners. They suggested that
28
learners should betaken out to places of interests in order to learn.
According to the respondents educational excursions and tours
should be part of the programme included in the school curriculum.
SKILLS TRAINING
This subcategory emphasises the training of life skills as a need for
the society. The school should address the question of skills in the
curriculum. Skills such as vocational skills must be emphasised by
the school in order to prepare students for the job market. "The
school should teach employable skills such as electricity,
bricklaying and other skills related to work".
Emphasis was also placed on skills such as communication skills,
entrerpreneural skills and thinking skills to be part of the school
curriculum so that the preparation of students for the job market
should be enhanced. " Children should be taught the communi-
cation skills not the language raw as it is".
According to the respondents, training in various skills are vital for
the society for the equipment of the school leavers to earn a living
when they leave school.
RELEVANT SUBJECTS
A subject is a thing that is being discussed, described, represented
or studied (The Oxford Dictionary, 1986: 815). The respondents
emphasised the need for relevant subjects to be included in the
curriculum. They felt that subjects like computer science,
commerce and agriculture should be emphasised in the curriculum.
29
Relevant subjects in the curriculum will contribute to the basic
needs of the country. For instance they felt that subjects like
criminology (see 3.4.2.1 p 25) should be taught at school and by so
doing, crime will be addressed directly from school thus eliminating
criminal elements in our society. Sport should be in a form of
subjects where students learn theory and practice. According to
responses sport will help in bringing different cultures and races
together for harmony and peace. Learning of other cultures and
language will help foster peace and harmony. Languages such
as French and Arabic will do our country good ...".
Subjects emphasising the aesthetic aspects like music, art, dance,
chess and creative writing were identified as a need by
respondents. They also suggested that aesthetic subjects should
reflect the social views and needs. " ... arts and sport must reflect
societal views and needs".
LEADERSHIP TRAINING
The word lead means to guide, to influence actions or opinions or
be in control. Leader indicates a person that leads and leadership
means the ability to be a leader (The Oxford Dictionary, 1986: 461).
It was also the concern of the respondents that students should be
given lessons on leadership and management of their affairs in
order to avoid chaos that often happens in the schools. "Children
must be taught to be leaders". From school level, leadership
training will benefit the whole society in having responsible young
leaders for tomorrow.
30
CAREER GUIDANCE
Makinde in (Monyepao, 1991: 10) defines guidance as follows:
"At face value its meaning derives from its root word "guide"
Meaning to direct, lead, pilot, manage, steer, and, assist, lead and
inform. Career guidance is therefore seen as a process of helping
the individual discover and develop his educational and vocational
potentialities to achieve an optimal level of personal happiness and
social usefulness. In this study guidance has been stressed as a
need for orientating children and students in different careers in
order for them to make good choices. This is indicated by the
following quotation:
"Career guidance must be taught and stressed at school'.
The respondents proposed that career guidance should be
thoroughly done from the earliest years of secondary school and
should be goal-directed.
They indicated that the lack of career education at school often
lead students to make wrong decisions with regard to their future
careers.
This category is the same as the one Nketoe, (1996: 92) has
identified in her study. Nkotoe's study emphasizes that curriculum
should change and stress the multicultural education, but one
which is balanced by vocational concepts that enhance pupil's
ability to enter the economy. This study emphasises that
curriculum should change and stress relevant subjects in the
economy and the needs of the society as a whole. The
31
respondents in this study also make mention of the subjects that
need to be emphasised.
3.4.2.3 CULTURAL MIXING AT SCHOOL
The respondents emphasised cultural mixing at school as a need
for the society. Culture can be described as a community or
society's way of life including their knowledge, beliefs, art, morals,
laws and customs (Smith, 1988: 31). According to the responses
our country needs peace and cultural mixing at school will help to
lessen violence or ethnic violence. "... schools should address the
question of culture effectively to avoid chaos".
Respondents also felt that to avoid tensions between ethnic
groups, mother tongOe should not be a criteria for classifying
schools. All language groups must be included in one school to
eliminate the intolerance of cultures. Students of different
language groups should be encouraged to speak one another's
language in order to foster the spirit of cultural unity and respect for
other cultures.
They also stressed the importance of religion and multicultural
education as a need for forming a healthy society. Religion and
multicultural education are subcategories that have been identified
under this main category.
Religion can be explained as something which deals with the world
of the sacred. It is constituted by beliefs and rituals (Rose, 1980:
32
314). In this category the respondent felt that different religions
must be equally emphasised and accommodated at school.
The respondents also stressed the need for multicultural education.
According to Banks & Lynch in (Likotla, 1994: 3), multicultural
education is a broad concept of antiracist education. It consists of
educational reforms, the environment of the school so that many
different kinds of groups including ethnic groups will experience
educational equality and academic parity. This category
emphasises multicultural education and cultural unity. The
following quotation emphasises this general feeling by the
respondents.
" Curriculum should cater for the multicultural aspect, this will help
destroy racial tensions".
For literature check a source by Nkotoe (1996: 56-57) was
consulted. The researcher found that Nkotoe's findings included
"cultural mixing at school" as a category. This category is similar to
the one in this research in that both studies emphasises cultural
mixing at school in order to avoid racial and ethnic tensions. The
differences between the two studies are that: Nkotoe's study
emphasises constraints experienced as a result of schools
breaking with segregationists policy. This study emphasises the
intergration of different cultures in schools, accommodation of
different religions and the multicultural education as the need of the
society.
3.5 ADDITIONAL NEEDS
Although the whole research was basically focussed on the needs of the
society with regard to the secondary school curriculum, additional needs
33
like teacher inservice training and conduct and community involvement
were unexpectedly raised by the respondents. These needs will be
discussed in the following subheadings and will not form part of the
guidelines as they cannot be addressed in the school curriculum.
3.5.1 TEACHER CONDUCT AND INSERVICE-TRAINING
The teacher is someone who performs the act of education. He is
somebody who directs the child from childhood to responsible adulthood.
The respondents in this study raised concern over some teachers
behaviour as unacceptable to the society. They felt that teachers should
be good role models for the growing children. The teacher's behaviour
(good) is a need for the society because he/she is the one whom children
imitate, he/she is the one who instills knowledge, values and morals into
the growing mind. "teachers ... are not good role models".
They suggest that a code of conduct for teachers should_ be created and
enforced in a school curriculum.
Teacher-training was also emphasised as a need of the society.
Respondents stressed the training of teachers in order to produce useful
products for the society. If teachers are well trained the resources at their
disposal will be well-managed. "to ensure that personnel is well trained,
people have to be well trained, if the resources have to be well managed".
All responses indicated that teachers are not yet competent enough to
teach some subjects. They suggested that teachers should be trained
again in subjects such as computer literacy and career guidance. Nkotoe
(1996: 62) also have the same category in her findings. The differences
34
between this study and Nkotoe's research is that Nkotoe emphasises the
problem of teacher education and in-service training offered to teachers in
teaching mathematics. It also stressed the need for teacher education to
address prejudice reduction in multicultural mathematics education. In
this study emphasis is on the behaviour of teachers which is morally
unacceptable to the society and in-service training or teacher education
for the refinement of their instructional skills.
3.5.2 COMMUNITY INVOLVEMENT
Morris in (Baloyi, 1989: 57) explains community as a group of people with
common characteristics and interests, living together in a certain
environment and affecting one another in various ways. Response
indicated that community involvement is a great need for the society and
for the curriculum to be functional and relevant to the society as a whole,
there should be a line of communication between the community and the
school. Parents and community leaders should be practically involved in
schools and education as a whole in order for them to have accessibility
in discouraging immorality, crime and all forms of negative things that
happen schools which can be detrimental to the 'society. "As
community leaders we have to say no ... to all wrong things that happen in
schools and support teachers".
Community involvement should be catered for in the curriculum. Services
of centres like Small Business Development Corporation and the
Department of Manpower are required in schools for training of life-skills"
... Institutions like Small Business Development Corporation must deal
with schools to offer various skills for students for future employment".
35
In this study community involvement in the form of parents, community
leaders and community business structures are emphasised as a need in
transmitting moral values and norms and training of life skills to the
children. In Nkotoe's study (1996: 76) community involvement in the
involvement and the development of multicultural mathematics education
is emphasised. Parents and members of the community should be
involved in the education process through democratically elected
governmental structures such as the Parent Teacher Association (PTA) in
case of primary schools and Parent Teacher Student Association in
Secondary School. The similarity between these two studies is that both
emphasise the role of the community as a need in the development and
improvement of education. .
3.6 SUMMARY
In this chapter the content of interviews was reported, data was
interpreted and findings and literature check were also done. In the next
chapter (4) literature study on curriculum design will be done in order to
write theoretical guidelines on curriculum design, to come up with
recommendations in Chapter 5.
36
CHAPTER FOUR
CURRICULUM DESIGN
4.1 THE AIM OF THE CHAPTER
In this chapter the researcher aims to do literature review on curriculum
design,' in order to find theoretical guidelines on how to design the
curriculum to come up with recommendations in Chapter 5.
4.2 CURRICULUM DEFINED
A curriculum makes aspects of reality available to a child in a responsible
way. At present there is no consensus about the concept curriculum.
Curriculum has been designed variously according to the view of
education that prevailed that time (Hoppe, 1990: 1). Ornstein and
Hunkins, (1993: 10) are of the opinion that the definition creates
confusion and trivialize the field because curricularists cannot agree on
'what curriculum is. In this study, the researcher intends defining the
concept, curriculum in terms of groups or definitions, that is subject
centered, leaner centered and society centered.
4.2.1 SUBJECT CENTERED CURRICULUM
According to Ornstein and Hunkins (1993: 242), subject centered designs
are the kind of perspectives that accept knowledge and content as
integral parts of the curriculum. Harry Broudy in (Longstreet and Shane
(1993: 49), defines curriculum in terms of the subject centered
perspective. He sees curriculum as consisting of certain kinds of content
organized into categories. Curriculum can also be defined as all the
37
activities that are provided for the students by the school (Longstreet &
Shane, 1993: 49). Bestor in Longstreet and Shane (1993: 49) also
emphasises the subject-centered design in his definition of curriculum.
He defines curriculum as: "the economic, political and spiritual health of a
democratic society which requires every man and woman a variety of
complex skills which rest upon sound knowledge of science, history,
economics, philosophy and other fundamental disciplines.
The advantages of the subject centered curriculum are that, subjects are
a logical way to organize and interprete learning. Organization of subjects
makes it easier for people to remember information for future use.
Teachers are trained as subject matter specialists and text books and
other teaching materials are usually organized by subjects (Ornstein
1992: 404).
Disadvantages of the subject centered curriculum are that the design
prevents individualization of the program and de-emphasizes the notion of
the learner. The focus on the subject matter fails to foster social,
psychological and physical development and to some extent fosters a
scholarly elite, a ruling class based on knowledge. Another disadvantage
of this design is that learning tends to be compartmentalized and to stress
mnemonic skills. Content is emphasized by this design and students'
needs, interests and experiences are neglected. In the implementation of
this kind of curriculum teachers tend to foster in students a passivity for
learning (Ornstein and Hunkins, 1993: 243).
This study will not adopt a definition based on the subject-centered
curriculum because it is fragmented, the mass of facts and concepts are
learned in isolation. The needs and interests of students are not
adequately considered by this curriculum. The emphasis is on the
38
teaching of knowledge and the recall of facts thus the teacher is a
domineering figure in the classroom and student's input is limited.
4.2.2 LEARNER CENTERED CURRICULUM
The learner-centered curriculum places the students in the focus of its
program. Definitions from different scholars supporting the learner
centered curriculum, emphasises learner's needs and interests. For
instance, Wheeler (1983: 11) prioritize learner's interest and needs in his
definition of curriculum. He defines curriculum as- a planned experience
offered to the learner under the guidance of the school. This definition is
supported by Hass in Ornstein and Hunkins (1993: 11) who says that
"curriculum is all of the experiences that individuals have in a program of
education which is planned in terms of .... theory and research or past and
present professional practice". Taba says that a curriculum is for learning
therefore what is known about the learning process and the development
of an individual has a bearing on the shaping of a curriculum (Longstreet
and Shane, 1993: 49).
The learner-centered curriculum is advantageous because it emphasises
the learner's needs and interests. It also promotes intrinsic motivation
when needs and interests of the learner are incorporated in a curriculum.
Learning is more successful if learner's needs and interests are taken into
account (Ornstein, 1992: 406).
The learner-centered curriculum can be disadvantageous because
sometimes it overlooks important cognitive content. Schools where little
cognitive learning takes place lack discipline and order. Teaching can be
unstructured and incoherent.
39
Although the researcher acknowledges the important role of the learner,
this study will not adopt the definition categorized under learner-centered
curriculum because of the displaced emphasis on the subject matter and
the fact that some of the learner's needs are often overemphasized.
4.2.3 THE SOCIETY CENTERED CURRICULUM
The society centered curriculum place its emphasis on the social needs
as opposed to individual needs of the learner. The society centered
curriculum is advantageous by cutting across the separate subjects and
centering on to learn and apply problem solving procedures. The linking
of subject matter to real life situations increases the relevance of a
curriculum (Ornstein and Hunkins, 1993: 256).
The deficiency of this curriculum is that students do not learn much about
the subject matter. Students are not adequately exposed to their cultural
heritage. This perspective is supported by Tanner and Tanner in Long-
street and Shane (1993: 50) as they define curriculum as the planned and
guided learning experiences, formulated through systematic
reconstruction of knowledge and experience, under the auspices of the
school, for the learner's continuous and willful growth in personal-social
competence.
This study will not adopt the society-centered curriculum because it does
not emphasize the subject matter and the cognitive aspect of a learner.
The researcher acknowledges the needs of the learner, societal needs
and the subject based curriculum as equally important. Thus it is the
researcher's intention to adopt a balanced curriculum, a curriculum that
40
balances subject matter with learner's interests and needs, and the needs
of the society as well as other determinants of a situation analysis.
For the purpose of this study, consideration is given to Kruger's definition
of curriculum. He defines curriculum as a selection and ordering of
learning content which is planned as a programme in which there is a
functional interrelatedness between situation analysis, formulation of
aims, goals and objectives planned learning experiences, the
actualization of learning opportunities and evaluation (Kruger, 1980: 19).
KrOger's definition and approach to curriculum is seen as the balanced
approach. He emphasises all the three designs of curriculum, that is;
subject matter, society and learner-centered designs.
4.3 CURRICULUM DESIGN
4.3.1 CURRICULUM PARADIGMS
Different curriculum paradigms will be discussed in this chapter because
the researcher intends adopting a suitable paradigm for this study.
According to Hoppe (1990: 5), a paradigm indicates a certain way of
thinking within a specific framework. A group of educationalists
subscribes to the same scientific view of education and this forms the
educational paradigm. A curriculum has a certain content, meaning,
value and relevance only within a certain paradigm. In this chapter the
following paradigms will be discussed that is; technical scientific
paradigm, nontechnical - non-scientific paradigm, the technological
paradigm, the experimental paradigm and the pragmatic paradigm in
order to select a suitable paradigm for this study from them.
41
4.3.1.1 THE TECHNICAL-SCIENTIFIC PARADIGM
The technical-scientific paradigm suggests that the process of
curriculum development has a high degree of objectivity,
universality and logic. It works on an assumption that reality can
be defined and be represented in a symbolic form. Aims of
education can be made known, stated precisely and can be
addressed in a linear fashion (Ornstein and Hunkins, 1993: 272).
The advantages of the technical-scientific paradigm are that, they
can enable individuals to comprehend curriculum from a meso or
broadview and to understand it as a complex unity of parts
organized to serve common function. The technical-scientific view
is a way of planning curricular activities to optimize students'
learning and to allow them to increase their output. It allows the
individuals to have a plan in mind.
Despite the above stated advantages, the technical-scientific
paradigm will not be adopted by this study because it relies more
heavily on the view of experts and the demands of subject matter
and society for determining student needs. The teacher and the
learner do not have roles in planning the curriculum. A curriculum
designed from this perspective is linear in fashion and advocates
no interrelatedness among the stages of curriculum process.
4.3.1.2 NONTECHNICAL - NONSCIENTIFIC PARADIGM
The nontechnical-nonscientific paradigm stress the subjective,
personal, aesthetic, heuristic and transactional. They stress not
42
the outputs of production but the learner, through activity oriented
approaches to teaching and learning. This paradigm considers
that the curriculum evolves rather than being planned precisely
(Ornstein and Hunkins, 1993: 273).
Despite the fact that the curriculum addressed by this paradigm
allows for interrelatedness between the phases of curriculum
process, it will not be adopted by this study. The teacher and the
learner's roles in the planning of the curriculum will not be
accommodated by this study.
4.3.1.3 THE TECHNOLOGICAL PARADIGM
The technological approach is analytical and regards instruction
planning in terms of systems management and production. Its aim
is to enhance educational effectiveness by applying the scientific
management and production principle from industry to the teaching
situation. This approach declares that the knowledge worth arising
is the one that prepares the learner for the functions of life and that
these' functions be reduced to their distinguishable component
parts; that the learning process comprises a change in behaviour,
and that behaviour is demonstrable and that learning outcomes are
perceptibly and quantitatively measurable (Carl, 1995: 53). Curri-
culum designs based on this approach are computer assisted
programmes for both teachers and learners.
This approach is also rejected in this study because since South
Africa is a developing country, there is no way that we can design a .
curriculum on the technological approach.
43
4.3.1.4 THE EXPERIENTIAL APPROACH
The experiential paradigm is subjective and personal. It makes use
of unstructured and personalized instruction programmes at
individual paces. Personal feelings, inclinations, values and
experiences are regarded as necessary curriculum content and the
active involvement of the pupil is regarded as necessary in order to
obtain maximal learning outcomes (Car1,1995: 51). The psy-
chological, social, cultural characteristics and the needs of the
learner are regarded as the most important sources of goals and
also regard them as substantive syllabus content (Carl, 1995: 52).
This approach will also not be adopted in this study because it
overlooks the needs of the society and the cognitive aspects of the
learner. It considers the affective social needs of the learner only.
4.3.1.5 THE PRAGMATIC APPROACH
In this approach curriculum design is not viewed as a systematic
scientific procedure. It is viewed as the outcome of a long and
dynamically complex process of involvement and interaction. This
approach will be adopted in this study because it gives a
researcher a choice to intergrate different models into one
framework.
4.4 SUITABLE CURRICULUM MODELS
The suitable curriculum models that will be discussed in this study are the
models by Walters, Cawood-Carl-Blackenberg and Kruger.
44
4.4.1 THE WALTERS MODEL
The curriculum model as suggested by Walters has the following phases:
initial evaluation, in which situations are analyzed, selection of goals,
selection of content, classification and organization and outcome
evaluation. This model is suitable because it shows a dynamic interaction
between the components and also a close relationship and flexibility
between phases (Carl, 1995: 93). Although the model is suitable, it will
not be adopted as a whole in this study. Some of the components from
this model will be integrated with other models. This model does not
include the learning experiences as one of its components and cannot be
utilized at all levels.
4.4.2 CAWOOD-CARL-BLACKENBERG MODEL
The Cawood-Carl-Blackenberg model for curriculum design has the
following phases: situation analysis, selection of goals, selection and
classification of learning experiences, planning and application of the
instructional learning situation and pupil evaluation (Carl 1995: 93). This
model is advantageous because it can be utilized at any curriculum level.
The ultimate relatedness between phases is also stressed. There is also
a continuous evaluation taking place within the phases. This model will
also not be completely adopted by this study because it places more
emphasis on systematic design which may limit the designer's flexibility of
going from one component to the other.
4.4.3 THE KROGER MODEL
Kr0ger's (1980:35) model of curriculum design rests on six principles.
They are: situation analysis, aims, goals and objectives, selection and
45
ordering of content, selection of learning opportunities, selection of
learning experiences and evaluation. These principles are arranged in a
cyclical pattern with bi-directional arrows between them, the main point
being that there is no fixed pattern in the design, rather one can move
from one principle to the next in random order as circumstances dictate.
The other reason why the Kruger model is advantageous is that if
something changes in the sphere, then it will affect all other spheres as
well, which gives rise to an evaluation and revision of a curriculum (Noel,
1994: 15).
The Kruger model embraces both the components of the discussed
models in this study. It will be adopted because it intergrates aspects
from the two models.
4.5 PRINCIPLES OF CURRICULUM DESIGN
The principles of curriculum design by Kruger, which have been
previously stated will be discussed individually in the sub-headings to
follow.
4.5.1 SITUATION ANALYSIS
Kruger (1980: 35) says situation analysis comprises'the whole view about
the terrain to be covered in a specific teaching sequence with intended
objectives. Carl (1995: 97) says the process of situation analysis is a
method of 'evaluation comprising the collecting and interpretation of all
information which may influence curriculum design. The following
questions could be asked during situation analysis (Kruger, 1980: 35):
46
What should be taught?
To whom should it be taught?
Why should it be taught?
When should it be taught?
How should it be taught?
According to Marsh (1992: 80) situation analysis determinants can be
categorized into external factors to the school and internal factors to the
school. External factors to the school includes the following aspects or
factors: Changes and trends in the society, expectations and
requirements of parents and employers, community assumptions and
values, the changing nature of the subject's discipline, the potential
contribution of teacher support system and the actual and anticipated flow
of resources into the school. Internal factors to the school includes
pupils; their attitudes, abilities, aptitudes, values and educational needs,
teacher's values, ethics, skills, knowledge, attitudes, experiences,
strengths and weaknesses; school ethos and political structures,
assumptions, expectations and traditions; material resources and
perceived and felt problems and shortcomings in existing curriculum.
Situation analysis determinants according to Kruger, (1980: 35-47) are
the following: values of the society, expectations of the learner, didactic
requirements, economic considerations, future expectations and
exploitation of the disciplines. These determinants will be individually
discussed in the following sub-headings.
47
4.5.1.1 THE NEEDS OF THE SOCIETY
According to Kruger (1980:41) "Die kurrikulum vervul 'n direkte
behoefte in die samelewing. Inderdaad kom kurrikula juis tot stand
vanwee samelewingbehoeftes waarin voorsien moet word". The
curriculum should address the needs of the society. The
curriculum planner should survey and interprete the nature of his
own society, its basic stable values and the areas which it is
changing when he designs a curriculum (Wheeler, 1983: 12).
The needs of the society as the determinant of situation analysis is
important because it is the focus of this study. During the
interviews, respondents came up with various needs of the society
that should be addressed in the curriculum (see 3.4.2).
4.5.1.2 VALUES OF THE SOCIETY
Kruger (1980: 36) says that curriculum can influence the
transmitting of values in the society. "Verde!' is dit belangrik vir
sover dit hierdie waardes betref, om te besef dat die sosiale
veranderinge nie net in 'n kurrikulum weerspieel word nie, maar dat
die kurrikulum self 'n invloed is om waardes te vestig en om
veranderinge in die hand te werk".
The aim of the curriculum should be to bring a pupil to the
acknowledgement and acceptance of values. For a pupil to
experience acceptable values, the content or subject matter
presented must be acceptable. Value interpretation must be
directed to the future because education is future-directed.
48
In the preceding chapter (see 3.4.2) the respondents also stressed
the transmission of values in society as an essential need that can
be influenced by the curriculum.
4.5.1.3 EXPECTATIONS OF THE LEARNER
The school provides learning experiences to the individual student
so that his expectations, motives and aspirations will be actualized.
The ultimate aim for the individual student is to find an own life
style with signs of maturity. The highest recognition lies in the
community allowing the child the chance to develop his own,
unique possibilities at his own pace, which he can use to his own
benefit (Kruger, 1980: 44).
The expectations of the learner further culminates through
development in play, imagination and the original experience of
personal freedom. Individual expression or fantasy are associated
with play and can allow the learner to use his own imagination
(Kruger, 1980: 44).
Another expectation of a learner is cognitive development. The
knowledge that a child acquire becomes' a driving force for
cognitive development. The student is dependent on the adult for
the disclosure of these contents for his cognitive development
(Kruger, 1980: 44).
49
4.5.1.4 DIDACTIC EXPECTATIONS
In the situation-analysis it is important to take didactibility of the
contents for the specific learner into account. The following
aspects are important: formulative content, categorical forming, the
essentiality of principles. The learner must be open for the
contents to be explained to him. The contents must be suitable for
the child and the child must be ready to receive content. (Kruger,
1980: 47).
4.5.1.5 ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS
Logistic provisioning (moving and fixed) entails logistic research,
curriculum evaluation and curriculum implementation. On micro
level the compilation of curricula are determined by the amount of
students/teachers, the sophistication or primitiveness of the training
rooms and the availability of technological media (Kruger, 1980:
46).
4.5.1.6 FUTURE EXPECTATIONS
According to Geyser (1992: 57) the determinants of the present
situation and future-analysis are needed in order to design an
adequate curriculum. Future expectations give curriculum planners
a chance to anticipate changes in the society and development of
the subjects when curriculum is designed. Future expectations in
the curriculum also create a relationship or interaction between the
present and the past and the future in the didactic situation.
50
4.5.1.7 EXPLOITATION OF THE DISCIPLINES
Curriculum is not centralized on culture but based on it. It should
fulfill the didactic criteria not the culture criteria. Language and
culture are the same. Language is a medium on which values are
transmitted. In the evaluation of syllabuses, values identified
should be evaluated according to the didactic-pedagogic criteria.
Curriculum is also based on general and specific knowledge. The
disciplines are the source of a specific, selected, ordered and
evaluated learning content. School subjects are not criteria for the
selection of disciplines, criteria for that should be found. Content,
that is based on languages should fulfill the didactic requirements
and future expectations that are expected of learning content.
Learning content also have its origin from a life-view of a person,
but before it can be a didactic content, it must fulfill certain norms
to determine its value (Geyser, 1992: 58).
In this study situation analysis is important. All the determinants of
situation analysis are acknowledged by the researchers but the
researcher's focus is on the needs of the society. This situation
analysis is done in order to formulate theoretical guidelines which
will be found in Chapter 5.
4.5.2 AIMS, GOALS AND OBJECTIVES
According to Carl, (1995: 100) education is goal directed and curriculum
designers must have a knowledge and understanding of educational and
teaching goals of the particular subject. The value of goals, aims and
objectives are that they give direction and they determine the designs of
51
programmes as well as the evaluation. Goals, aims and objectives may
be formulated on the macro, meso and micro level.
Marsh (1992: 85) says aims are broadly phrased statements. They are
long term and generally apply to systems rather than individual schools.
Carl (1995: 103), calls them general goals. Goals are more precise
statements of curriculum intent, they are medium to long-term and are
directed to student achievement (Marsh, 1992: 85). Objectives are
specific statements,' they are short term and are usually expressed in
terms of a learner'S behaviour.
4.5.2.1 TYPES OF GOALS, AIMS AND OBJECTIVES
Carl (1995: 105) classify goals and aims as process and product
goals or aims. Product goals are these goals or aims directed
towards the meso, introduction and control of the body of
knowledge and the proficiencies and skills of a particular subject.
Process goals or aims are those aimed at introducing and
promoting the typical working strategies of a subject and thought
processes which may be served through the particular subject.
Wheeler (1983: 31) classify goals as mediate, ultimate and
proximate. Ultimate goals are the expected end-products of an
education carried out over time. They are the kind of behaviour the
educator hopes students will exhibit as a result of education they
have received. Medium goals are patterns of expected behaviour
at given stages over the educational period. As children proceed
through stages, in their schooling, these medium goals help to
identify expected behaviour from children at given stages.
52
Objectives can be classified as behavioural objectives which
concerns student behaviour, expressive objectives which are open-
ended statements about the consequences of curriculum activities,
and instructional objectives which describes the desired learning
outcomes in terms of student activities or behaviour (Marsh, 1992:
88).
Aims, goals and objectives are discussed in this chapter because
they have to provide for direction or framework when theoretical
guidelines are written in Chapter 5.
4.5.3 SELECTION AND ORDERING OF CONTENT
The learning content of the curriculum answers the question of what
should be taught. Learning content is not selected at random. All related
issues are taken into account when it is decided on what learning content
is most suitable for a particular teaching situation. When content is
selected, various criteria are used. These criteria will be discussed in the
following heading.
4.5.3.1 CRITERIA FOR THE SELECTION OF LEARNING CONTENT
Content should meet the criterion of validity and significance.
Some items of content available to learners are likely to be of little
worth because they are trivial and such items should be ruled out
when content is selected (Wheeler, 1983: 219).
Content is valid if it promotes the outcomes that it is intended to
promote. Learning should be moved towards curriculum objectives.
Validity of content also concerns itself with authenticity which is the
53
extent to which the subject is true. Content should have
significance to the learner' and also register meaning to the pupils.
Needs and interest of learner are also suggested as criteria for
selection of the learning content (Wheeler, 1983: 222).
Content should also satisfy the criteria of learnability. Content
chosen should have continuity, that is to foster concept growth and
link areas of knowledge. It must also allow variety multiple learning
and alternative presentations (Brennan, . 1985: 101).
4.5.3.2 ORDERING OF LEARNING CONTENT
Many curriculum designers consider ordering of content as a matter
of systematization. Accidental or casual factors have no place on
ordering. The nature of the subject is taken into account when
ordering is done. Researchers are of the opinion 'that criteria for
ordering should be carefully selected. Marsh (1992: 99), says that
because of the rapidly changing world, the choice of content is
important when ordered with the reality which the learners find
themselves in.
According to Marsh (1992: 99) content can be ordered according to
the sequence and horizontal organization. Sequence includes the
following:
From simple to complex (e.g. foreign language)
From whole to parts (e.g. Geography)
Chronological ordering of events (e.g. History)
Concentric movement, spiraling of concepts
Movement from concrete experiences to concepts
54
Horizontal organization includes the following approaches:
* Organization by subjects - especially selected, important subjects
are taught separately * Organization by activity - student's own experience is the starting
point of planning
Organization by core - organize on basis of school subjects *
Organization by correlation - subject areas are correlated and
interrelated
Organization in broad fields - subject areas are correlated and
fused into broad fields of study * Organizing around persistent life forms - content is organized into
major societal problems.
Selection of learning content is important to be discussed in this
chapter because it will give a basis for theoretical guidelines in
Chapter 5.
4.5.4 SELECTION OF LEARNING OPPORTUNITIES
Learning opportunities are inculcated to the learners through the
school. They can be seen as a medium whereby learners acquire
learning experiences. Learning opportunities can also be
understood as the organization and integration of learning
experience and content (Kruger, 1980: 79).
According to Wheeler (1983: 42) learning opportunities are
concerned with sequences of selected experiences with content,
planned to produce certain behaviours within the general areas of
55
understanding. Sensitivity, feelings, attitudes and skills-learning
opportunities are didactical - it is a means by which a learner
interacts with the learning content.
According to Carl (1995: 114) in the planning of learning
opportunities where pupil activity have to take place, the following
principles should be borne in mind:
Learning is an active process in which pupils must be involved;
Learning takes place more effectively if the pupil is involved and
understand what must be learnt;
Learning is strongly influenced by the individual's objectives,
values and motives;
Regular repetition is of cardinal importance in acquiring skills;
Immediate reinforcement promotes learning. Cognitive feedback is
more effective if time-lapse is limited;
The greater variety of learning experiences offered to the pupil, the
greater the chance that the latter will be able to generalize and
discriminate;
Learning is to a large extent determined by the pupil's observations
and impressions;
Similar situations may bring out different reactions from different
pupils;
Agreements as well as differences between situations should be
illustrated with a view to promoting comparison;
The learning result and the measure of satisfaction drawn from it, is
determined by the group atmosphere;
Individual differences influences learning;
56
All learning is multi-purpose by nature. Although the focus is
placed on specific outcomes, other learning may take place
simultaneously.
This principle is discussed in this chapter because it will give a
basis for theoretical guidelines in Chapter 5.
4.5.5 SELECTION OF LEARNING EXPERIENCES
Learning experiences are psychological. They are a means of instilling or
changing behaviour. Learning experiences have to be selected properly
in order to bring out the desired behaviour from the student. In this phase
the problem is to select adequate learning experiences in order to achieve
the goals set up in the proceeding phase (Wheeler, 1983: 35). The
interrelatedness between ^ selection of learning experiences and phase 2
which are: aims, goals and objectives can further be seen when ultimate
goals require indication of learning experiences in order to lead to a
certain behaviour. Learning experiences are intended to contribute to
behavioural outcomes (Wheeler, 1983: 35).
4.5.6 EVALUATION
Evaluation is regarded as synonymous to measurements. It aims to
determine to what extent learning has taken place with pupils or how
successful the design was (Carl, 1995: 118). Evaluation is pupil-orien-
tated and curriculum-orientated. Pupil-orientated evaluation is mainly
adapted to determine the extent to which pupils have made progress on
the road to goal-realization, series of lessons or the annual programme.
Curriculum-orientated evaluation seeks to determine the extent to which
57
the objectives of the curriculum have been achieved (Carl, 1995: 119).
The curriculum-orientated evaluation is not applicable to this study.
4.5.6.1 FORMS OF EVALUATION
Forms of evaluation that can be identified are the following:
summative, formative, norm-orientated, criterion-orientated,
illuminative and pre-evaluation (Carl, 1995: 121-123).
Summative evaluation is concerned with evaluation at the end of
the process. Summative evaluation is done by external evaluators
so that it may be objective. It serves consumers by providing them
with independent assessment that compare the costs, merits and
works of completing programs (Kelly, 1989: 92). The limitations of
this evaluation are that external evaluations may be subjective
when evaluating. Competition may be encouraged since results
are made public.
Formative evaluation is concerned with evaluating something in its
beginning or as it is developing. It provides continual feedback to
the planning and then providing some objectives. It is done to help
staff improve whatever they are operating or developing. It
provides the opportunity for the evaluator to modify or reject the
program (Kelly, 1989: 90).
In norm-orientated evaluation, the learner's achievement is
compared with the average achievement of the group or class.
This type of evaluation will naturally influence the teacher's choice
of questions. He will want a normal spread in regard to the degree
of . difficulty. This form of evaluation encourages evaluators to
58
choose in their examination papers items of varying degrees of
difficulty to offer to both the intelligent and the weaker pupils a
reasonable opportunity in so far as answering is concerned. This
type of evaluation may also encourage pupils to greater
competition (Carl, 1995: 122).
In criterion-orientated evaluation, the pupil is compared with one or
other objective orientation and not with the class average.
Emphasis is on total mastery of the subject and high pass level.
The pupil does not have a great say in the determination of goals, it
is the evaluator who determines the relevant abilities (Carl, 1995:
122).
Illuminative evaluation is a form of process during which change or
renewal of a programme as a whole is intensively studied.
Evaluation is done on rationale, development, progress, success
and the problems encountered. Interviews, questionnaires,
observation and analysis of documents form part of this whole
process. The aim of this evaluation is to indicate the progress of
the renewal programme and all the influences thereon, how those
involved deal with renewal and what the outstanding characteristics
are (Carl, 1995: 123).
Pre-evaluation determines the pre-knowledge and skills which the
learner already possess. It may give indication of learner's
potential, interest, etc. and the necessary planning can be made
accordingly (Carl, 1995: 123). Guidelines on evaluation in this
study, will be provided in Chapter 5.
59
4.6 SUMMARY
In this chapter a definition of curriculum was provided, different curriculum
paradigms were discussed, curriculum approaches and models were
discussed and the principles of curriculum design were also discussed. In
the next chapter theoretical guidelines on curriculum design (based on the
needs of the society) recommendations and conclusion will be written.
60
CHAPTER FIVE
CONCLUSION, RECOMMENDATIONS AND GUIDELINES
5.1 THE AIM OF THE CHAPTER
The aim of the chapter is to provide conclusion regarding the whole study,
to offer guidelines by integrating empirical guidelines in Chapter 3 and
theoretical guidelines in Chapter 4. Recommendations will be written as
guidelines in this study. In conclusion the strengths and weaknesses of
the study will be considered.
5.2 RECOMMENDATIONS AND GUIDELINES
The researcher has undertaken a limited situation analysis by examining
the needs of the society. This is a broad curriculum, and not a syllabus
or subject curriculum. The following guidelines should form the basis for
a curriculum design.
5.2.1 AIMS AND GOALS OF THE CURRICULUM
Aims and goals give direction and determine the focus of a design of the
curriculum for the society. In the previous chapter (see 4.5.2) aims, goals
and objectives were discussed. In this chapter the researcher intend
setting aims and goals for the curriculum, based on the needs of the
society as perceived by community leaders.
The ultimate aim of the curriculum according to the perceptions of the
community leaders is to develop a sense of morality in a learner, that
would be reflected in a morally acceptable way of life (see 3.4.2.1). The
61
goals that have to be taken into account when the curriculum is designed
are to:
teach students to distinguish between right and wrong in life;
to develop values that would enable students to judge what is worthy;
to teach them to respect themselves and others tolerance towards others
and themselves, to be disciplined and well mannered;
to teach them to obey authority;
to teach students that crime and child abuse are immoral behaviour and
they have negative consequences;
to teach students to identify social problems such as child abuse and how
to avoid them and where to seek help if you are affected by them.
The aim of the curriculum should also be to develop vocational skills,
enterprising skills, leadership skills, communication skills and career education
skills (see 3.4.2.2). The goals in relation to this aim of the curriculum should be
the following:
to teach learners vocational skills in order to be independent;
to teach students employable skills;
to teach them job related subjects;
62
to teach them career education in order to be aware of various career
options and teaching opportunities;
to teach students to be responsible in their jobs as well as in their private
lives.
Another aim of the curriculum should be the development of cultural unity inside
and outside the school (see 3.4.2.3). The goals that should have taken into
account when a curriculum is designed are the following:
to teach students to appreciate their cultural heritage balanced with
respect for cultural diversity;
to develop cultural beliefs and customs that would teach them to have
tolerance towards other cultures and races;
to teach students to be familiar with others' languages;
to teach students to acknowledge and appreciate others' religious beliefs.
In conclusion aims, goals and objectives are interrelated with other principles of
curriculum design. In the preceding paragraphs aims and goals were set in
exclusion of objectives because they are not relevant to the findings of the study.
The curriculum designers should recognise guidelines shown in the preceding
paragraphs on aims and goals when the curriculum is planned.
63
5.2.2 SELECTION OF CONTENT
Selection of content is of major importance in any curriculum design
process. The content that should be selected should be based on the
needs of the society as perceived by the community leaders. (see 4.5.3)
In addressing morality as a need of the society, moral education is
necessary. The following guidelines would be considered when content
related to moral education is selected:
Select a number of everyday events in a teenager's life that would require
him to distinguish between right and wrong. For example, they should be
taught the value of things in life, like life, property, environment, jobs,
personal hygiene, etiquette and family life.
The content should illustrate the meaning and value of discipline in
everyday life inside and outside the school. For instance learners can be
taught to do right things even if they don't enjoy it. They can also be
taught reasons why discipline is needed.
Learners should also be taught the meaning of respect towards self. For
example they can be taught personal hygiene, not to use vulgar language
and proper dress code.
• Teach them respect towards others such as, to be kind and helpful to
others.
64
Teach them what is meant by child abuse and crime. Teach them what is
wrong with child abuse and crime and what the implications are and how
to avoid them.
They should also be taught different kinds of supports available when
they are effected by these social problems.
When content is selected for the training of various skills, selection of
skills should be in accordance with the student's abilities and the skills
needed to be taught to students are vocational skills like bricklaying, panel
beating, electricity and tiling. Content that would teach students to be
leaders, to be managers and business people is recommended to be
taught.
Content that would teach students to appreciate and respect their culture
and cultural diversity should be selected. Students should be taught the
meaning of tolerance and the value of cultural beliefs and customs in
everyday life. Selection of content that would teach students the value of
knowing their mother tongue and other languages is recommended. They
should also be taught the content that will teach them the meaning of
religion and its value in their lives.
Sequencing or ordering is limited in this research because it is not
possible to identify sequence based on the needs of the society. More
research is necessary in this regard.
5.2.3 LEARNING OPPORTUNITY AND LEARNING EXPERIENCE
Learning opportunities and learning experiences should be created in the
curriculum whereby learners will experience ways and means of
65
understanding content based on the identified needs of the society (see
4.5.4 and 4.5.5).
The learning opportunities and experiences should be established in the
curriculum whereby learners are equipped with various skills and
experience which will meet the needs of the society. Content addressing
the training of skills should be experienced practically and theoretically by
students. Learning opportunities and experiences should be created in
the curriculum whereby cognitive skills are developed. Deductive
methods and inductive methods should be part of the learning
opportunities.
The provision of learning opportunity and learning experiences should
. aim at training experience that will enable students to contribute positively
to the society. The relationship with other principles of curriculum design
should also be borne in mind when dealing with selection of learning
opportunity and learning experience.
5.2.4 EVALUATION
The final step in all curriculum design is to determine ways and means of
evaluation. The guidelines for the approach to evaluation as a principle
of design would be to take cognisance of the findirigs of the study. (see
4.5.6).
In designing curriculum based on the needs of the society, ways and
means of evaluation should get high priority. The curriculum should be
designed so that all aspects of evaluation (process and product,
summative and formative) are clearly dealt with.
66
In the design of the curriculum based on the needs of the society,
provision should be made for evaluating learner's knowledge on morality,
student's ability to deal with different cultures and religions, and mastery
of different skills proposed in the curriculum should also be evaluated.
In the design of the curriculum based on the needs of society as
perceived by community leaders, the consideration of evaluation both
formative and summative should be included. Evaluation should also be
done at periodic intervals in order that the curriculum keeps abreast with
the latest developments and trends, and the necessary innovations be
made when required.
A close interrelatedness exists between evaluation as a principle of
design and all other principles as discussed in the preceding paragraphs.
Evaluation has to be conducted in relation to the guidelines offered by the
aims and goals, selection of content and selection of learning
opportunities and expertise.
5.3 LIMITATIONS AND VALUE OF THIS STUDY
The researcher acknowledges the fact that proper steps were taken when
interviews were conducted and also the fact that enough interviews were
conducted. However this study was also limited in terms of time, space
and finance.
This study is part of a group project of which seven researchers looked at
the needs of the society from different perspectives, that is: from parents,
employers, religious leaders, teachers, subject advisors, university
letturerers and community leaders. The value lies in the fact that it has
identified existing needs and interpreted the needs in terms of the
67
guidelines like, selection of content, setting of goals and aims, learning
opportunity and learning experience and evaluation.
5.4 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH .
In the group project, outcome based curriculum was not discussed. A set
of further guidelines should be developed on outcome based curriculum.
A further research is also needed on learning theories and child
psychology in order to come up with guidelines for the organization of
content.
5.5 CONCLUSION
To revise that which has been highlighted earlier in this research, the
needs of the society are not being addressed properly in the existing
curriculum and the ministry of education in trying to address the problem,
failed to conduct proper and intensive situation analysis to identify these
needs and their solution.
This research did bring to light definite categories and most needs such
as morality, change of curricular subjects, cultural mixing and community
involvement and teacher in service training. The researcher has complied
with research directives that were decided on in Chapter 1.
This study also brought to light the guidelines which will lead to the
improvement in the curriculum in addressing the needs of the society. If
these guidelines are implemented a better curriculum based on societal
needs will be designed. This curriculum will enable solution of key future
problems in this society.
68
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DENZIN, N.K. and LINCOLN, Y.S. 1994: Handbook of qualitative research. London: Sage.
GEYSER, H.C. 1992: Evaluering van eerstetaalsillabusse en -vraestelle: 'n Pragmatiese perspektief. Johannesburg: Randse Afrikaanse Universiteit.
HOPPE, A. 1990: Implementation of the curriculum for French in the Senior Secondary Phase. Johannesburg: Rand Afrikaans University.
KEEVES, J.P. 1988: Educational methodology and measurement. First edition. New York: Pergamon Press.
KELLY, A.V. 1989: The curriculum: Theory and practice. London: Paul Chapman.
KINGRY, M.J. TIEDJE, L.B. and FRIEDMAN, L.L. 1990: Focus groups: A research technique for nursing. Nursing research. Volume 29. March/April 124/125.
KRUEGER, R. 1994: Focus Groups, Second edition. London: Sage.
69
KRUGER. R.A. 1980: Beginsels en kriteria vir kurrikulumontwerp. Johannesburg: Randse Afrikaanse Universiteit.
LIKOTLA, D.N. 1994: The teaching of Afrikaans literature in high schools for Black pupils. Johannesburg: Rand Afrikaans University.
LONGSTREET, W.S. and SHANE, H.G. 1993: A curriculum for a new millennium. London: Allyn and Bacon.
MARSH, C.J. 1992: Key concepts for understanding curriculum. London: The Falmer Press.
McKERNAN, J. 1991: Curriculum action research. London: Kogan Page Limited.
MONYEPAO, N.J. 1991: A school guidance system for secondary schools in Lebowa. Johannesburg: Rand Afrikaans University.
MORSE, J.M. 1993: Critical issues in qualitative research. London: Sage.
MOUTON, J. and MARAIS H.C. 1993: Basic concepts in the methodology of the social sciences. Pretoria: Human Science Research Council.
NKOTOE, T.C. 1996: Prejudice reduction in multicultural mathematics education. Johannesburg: Rand Afrikaans University.
NOEL, H.C. 1994: The curriculum of model C schools: An evaluation by parents of Black pupils. Johannesburg: Rand Afrikaans University.
ORNSTEIN, A.C. and HUNKINS S.P. 1993: Curriculum foundations, principles and issues. Second edition. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
ORNSTEIN, A.C. 1992: Curriculum contrasts: A historical overview. Phi Delta Kappan, Volume 63, no 6, 404/406.
PATTON, M.Q. 1982: Practical evaluation. London: Sage.
POPLIN, D.E. 1972: Communities: A survey of theories and methods of research. New York: The MacMillian Company.
ROSE, J.D. 1980: An introduction to sociology. New York: State University College.
RUDESTAM, K.E. and NEWTON, R.R. 1992: Surviving your dissertation - A comprehensive guide to content and process. London: Sage.
70
SHULMAN, L.S. 1990; Paradigm and program project of the American Educational Research Association: London: Collie & MacMillan.
SMITH, L. 1988: Conceptual dictionary. Durban: University of Natal.
STRAUGHAN, R. 1988: Can we teach children to be good? Basic issues in moral, personal and social education. Philadephia: Open University Press.
STRAUSS, A. and CORBIN, J. 1990: Basics of qualitative research. Grounded theory procedures and techniques. Fifth Edition. London: Sage.
SUGARMAN, B. 1973: The school and moral development. London: Groom Helm.
THE OXFORD ENGLISH DICTIONARY. 1986: Second Edition, Volume XII . Oxford: Claredon Press.
THE STAR. 23 May 1994: The Department of Education: Public comment is invited on essential alterations to school syllabuses.
WHEELER, D.K. 1983: Curriculum process. Hodder and Stoughton.
YIN, R.K. 1993: Application of case study research: Design and methods. London: Sage.
71
AIDIDEINUIX A
NTEI?VIEW WITH CIVIC ASSCCIATICIN I_TAI)EUS
72
INTERVIEW WITH CIVIC ASSOCIATION LEADERS
INTERVIEW NO 2
Researcher: Thank you gentlemen for honouring this appointment. Before we
begin I would like to guarantee you again that this will remain confidential and as
we will be talking I will be taperecording the interview. So be rest assured that
safety and confidentiality are guaranteed. Okay let's begin.
"What are the needs of the society that can be addressed by the school"?
Resp/I: kespect! Children must be taught respect. They should also respect
their teachers.
Resp/2: I feel schools are there to provide pupils with skills. A school is a
structure to ensure avoidance of chaose. Yeah... sure!
Researcher: What do you mean could you please explain.
Resp/2: Chaos! I mean if people cannot acquire skills they can easily revolt if
they don't have means to find for themselves.
Researcher: What are the skills that can be provided by the school?
Resp/2: All in all. Doctors, teaching, nursing are skills ... !
Researcher: So do you mean the school should provide for these skills?
73
Resp/2: Sure... sure but not only those but with morality. Any way charity
begins at home but at school you also learn you don't become
stagnant.
Researcher: Do you think respect and morality are there in our society?
Resp/3: No well in some of us.
Researcher: What should schools do in order to ensure that respect is there?
Resp/2: Parents must influence their children and inculcate norms and values
to them when they are still young. Teachers will take it from there.
Resp/4: I have been listening to everything but ... ah ... What about teachers?
They demoralise and demotivate students by calling them names.
This is not helpful since children would loose respect.
Resp/2: Yes, definitely! Teachers even fall in love with school children.
Where are their morals?
Researcher: In other words what I have gathered from you is that the school
should address the question of respect and morality.
Resp/4: Yeah ... respect, morality and illiteracy.
Researcher: What else can you say about the needs of society?
Resp/3: A school is a unitary idea, you see. Unitary in the sense that it
develops a person in "toto".
74
Researcher: Could you please elaborate?
Resp/3: In "toto" I mean the school must develop an individually, socially,
politically and economically. Children must be taught communication
skills and not language raw as it is. The child in school can memorize
but the social practicalities need application and not memorisation.
Researcher: How can the school address the aspect of economy?
Resp/4: The school should be practical.
Resp/3: Children must be taught entrepreneur skills and practically visit JSE
so as to see and view reality. Business skills must be initiated.
Resp/4: Thinking skills must be taught. Curriculum that would help children to
make deduction would be helpful.
Researcher: Coming to that part what do you suggest for the curriculum?
Resp/4: Psychologists and guidance teachers must be provided. To be
intelligent you have to we wise. Know purpose and functions of
things. You grasp and reproduce.
Resp/3: Teachers need to be effectively trained for effectiveness. To
exchange their originality to pupils, curriculum should cater for the
multicultural aspect too. This will help destroy racial tensions -
cultures must be respected. Creativity must be enforced by the
school.
75
Researcher: Elaborate on creativity - please.
Resp/3: Creative, inventive writing and originality.
Resp/4: And introduction of projects to stimulate the mind.
Researcher: What kind of projects.
Resp/4: Projects like inventive willing when coming to speech.
Resp/3: With respect to economics pupils must be given raw graphs to
interprete.
Resp/1: Sports must take various forms as a career.
Researcher: What do you want to be done with sports?
Resp/1: Variety of sports must be introduced - sports creates unity and
understanding within races.
Resp/2: I feel sports must fuse with arts. Draught and chess be emphasised.
Arts and sports must reflect societal views and needs.
Researcher: Other views concering needs and the school please.
Resp/2: Career guidance must be taught and emphasised in schools. We
want to know more about courses or careers for self improvement.
Resp/4: Skills need to be emphasised to alleviate unemployment.
76
Researcher: What skills please?
Resp/4: Schools must offer trade and technical skills like bricklaying, ceramic
tiling, woodwork and carpentry. SBDC and manpower centres are
also helpful.
Resp/2: The government must analyse the needs of the country so that
placement of people in different careers ... relevant careers must be
ensured.
Researcher: Anything else?
Resp/4: Okay ... role models are posivitive and negative. The positive ones
should be periodically invited to give morality to students.
Resp/3: The situation is changing and everyone must change and adapt.
Policemen and teachers can be role models too.
Resp/4: Our education must teach students to set goals.
Researcher: How?
Resp/2: Guidance must teach pupils about goals whilst there is still enough
time. Alternative be stressed. Role models and practical experience
are needed.
Resp/4: You cannot set a goal if you don't have options. Discipline is an
essence of goal formulation.
77
Resp/3: TO add on discipline part of it. Children must be taught that in order to
achieve one must be disciplined.
Resp/4: Children must also be taught to be leaders. The other thing for the
benefit of the society is tolerance. Tolerance towards school work
and racial tolerance.
Researcher: Any more aspects?
Resp/4: Okay ... eh ... the belief system. This involves religion and tradition -
having faith in something makes one to succeed. . Meditation and
fasting also gives inner peace.
Researcher: How can these be addressed by the school?
Resp/4: Different religions must be stressed because it is a need. (pause).
Researcher: Any more views? (silence). Thanks gentlemen let us consider
this to be the end of our interview - all the best in your undertaking.
78
AIDIVENUIX U
IJSI Cr IREIJEVAINT !wor ►Airlosi ruck* 11RANSCUIVICINS
INT
ER
VIE
W 4
IN
TER
VIE
W
co a)
O C
.o
ques
tion
of c
ultu
re e
ffect
ivel
y to
crite
ria fo
r cla
ssify
ing
scho
ols"
.
"Mo t
her t
ong
ue s
hou l
d
avoi
d ch
aos "
.
clud
ed,
in o
ne s
choo
l to
elim
inat
e
"All l
ang
uage
gro
ups
mu
st be
in-
the
into
lera
nce
of c
ultu
res"
.
"Diff
eren
t lan
gua
ge
addr
esse
d as
na
tura
l nee
ds, l
ike
p eac
e, s
helte
r, an
edu
catio
n".
Com
mer
ce
scie
nces
an
d
must b
e em
pha
sise
d".
C O
co)
INTE
RV
IEW
with
his/
her
own
mo
ther
den t
s to
cho
ose
righ
t su
bjec
ts f
or
"Em
phas
is s
houl
d be
pla
ced
on
care
er g
uida
nce"
.
thei
r pro
spec
tive
care
ers°
.
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bjec
ts s
uch
as v
erna
cula
r mu
st
TrI
C)
8 C
0
0 .c
12 a) 0 co a) th
ink di
ffere
nt r
elig
ions
mu
st
tong
ue".
Com
pu t
er s
cien
ce s
houl
d
sans
like
bric
klay
ers"
.
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cou
n try
nee
ds d
iffer
ent a
rti-
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phas
is sh
ould
not
be
in s
ocia
l
co .0
0
subj
ects
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ve
C a) 0
I NTE
RV
IEW
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oved
and
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rst p
riorit
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c CO
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scho
ol c
hild
ren.
Wh
ere
are
the
ir
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p ect
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ldre
n m
us t be
taug
ht
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ents
mu
st in
fluen
ce t
heir
chil-
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nd
dem
oral
ise
and
dem
otiv
ate
stu
-
teac
hers
will
con
tinue
" W
hat a
bout
teac
hers
? Th
ey
v alu
es to
the
m w
hen
they
ar e
stil
l
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cher
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ven
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ve w
ith
This
is n
ot he
lpfu
l sin
ce c
hild
ren Vl
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C
E
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vide
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ils w
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".
wou
ld lo
ose
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ect"
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the
nee
ds o
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ciet
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ime
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our
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que
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lture
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still a)
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ng w
ay t
o
a) co .c
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with
sch
ool c
hild
ren"
.
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e su
bjec
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plet
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ll co
mm
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nd
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IEW
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TE
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IEW
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. to .0 E
"Car
eer
gui
danc
e m
ust
able
... i
t mu
st b
e do
ne
wit h
in t
he
clas
sroo
m b
y te
ache
rs".
dren
to a
ppre
ciat
e be
auty
".
"I t
hink
she
lter c
an b
e a
ddre
ssed
from
the
su
bjec
ts ta
ught
at s
choo
l.
If w
e ha
ve a
n e
duca
ted
soc i
ety,
subj
ects
su
ch a
s cr
imin
olog
y an
d
0
O
8 •
NC
▪
I) .(7) Ca
o.
E a)
a)
E
O
.o
2 from
cla
s sro
om le
vel".
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hink
crim
e is
, ov
erw
helm
ing
in
.0
Cu .c
O O
tv)
INT
ER
VIE
W
shou
ld s
e rve
as
role
mo
dels
- w
e
can
have
a h
ealth
y so
c iet
y w
ithou
t
crim
e an
d di
sres
pect
".
"I th
ink
also
par
ents
an
d te
ache
rs
Cs1
INT
ER
VIE
W
be r
esp e
cted
an
d
also
be
enfo
rce d
by th
e sc
hool
".
°Spo
rts m
ust t
ake
var
ious
form
s
as a
car
eer°
.
a) .0
E
t O n.
0
a) CO
? duce
d - s
ports
cre
ates
var
iety
an
d
unde
rsta
ndin
g w
ithin
race
s".
thin
k sp
orts
mu
st fu
se w
ith a
rts.
Che
ss m
ust be
em
pha
sise
d. A
rts
and
sp
ort
mu
st
Cu 1- 5
0 N
view
s an
d ne
eds"
.
°Car
eer
gui
danc
e m
ust be
taug
ht
and
emph
asis
ed in
sch
ools
".
"Ski
lls n
eed
to b
e em
pha
sise
d to
alle
viat
e u
nem
ploy
men
t".
"Ski
lls m
ust
offe
r tr
ade
and
tech
-
nica
l ski
lls li
ke b
rickl
ayin
g,
INTE
RV
I EW
4 IN
TE
RV
IEW
ty a
nd t
he s
choo
l".
X.0
e•I 00
INT
ER
VIE
W 4
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= o
cs •-
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cn Cu 711. t 9, .0
A.
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-o r- c.) -o a)
INT
ER
VIE
W 3
IN
TE
RV
IEW
2
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. 0 .= .
Ijd C.O ....•
8 0 75
40 -o '0 • 0 0.) au)
0 t- =1 .....
0 C > C
3 a) c 0 -
oi .
c e ti
= 0 >+
...= > 0
cf it-7 >,,
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co o_ o co
,... -c 8 (1) E
C.9 • • CL
.c C.) CO a)
.-• N = E - aw
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1 2 o =1 —
a) en 0
L c
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cn -I, C a •
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AIDIDEINDIX C
IXT-111E1) TO COMMUNITY ILAIDEUS
RAND AFRIKAANS UNIVERSITY
P.O. Box 524
Auckland Park
Johannesburg
Republic of South Africa
,2006
RAND AFRIKAANS UNIVERSITY Telegraphic address Rauniv Telex 424526 SA
Telephone (011) 489-2911 + 27-11-489-2911
Fax (011) 489-2191 + 27-11-489-2191
DEPARTMENT OF CURRICULUM STUDIES 23 July 1996 Telephone: (011) 489-2704
TO WHOM IT MAY CONCERN
Ms PN Mokgosi is a registered M.Ed. student at RAU doing research in Curriculum Studies.
It would be appreciated if she could interview community leaders in Gauteng during July/August 1996.
Yours faithfully
DR HC GEYSER SUPERVISOR
