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The views expressed are purely those of the writers and may not, in any circumstances, be regarded as stating anofficial position of the European Commission
EUFIRELAB
EVR1-CT-2002-40028
D-09-01http://www.eufirelab.org
EUFIRELAB:
Euro-Mediterranean Wildland Fire Laboratory,
a wall-less Laboratoryfor Wildland Fire Sciences and Technologies
in the Euro-Mediterranean Region
Deliverable D-09-01
Wildland Fire Suppression Management and Planning:
a State of the Art
Sophie SAUVAGNARGUES-LESAGE,
Claude PICARD, Frdrique GIROUD, Nicolas RAFFALLI,
Gavriil XANTHOPOULOS, Domingos-Xavier VIEGAS,
Anibal OLLERO, Begona ARRUE,
Francisco RODRIGUEZ Y SILVA, Timo HEIKKILA
February 2004
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SUMMARY
Summary............................................................................................................................................................... 1
Glossary ................................................................................................................................................................ 1
List of associated documents ................................................................................................................................. 1
1 Description of the institutions and responsible administrative organisations .................................................. 2
1.1 In France ................................................................................................................................................ 21.1.1 Introduction........................................................................................................................................ 21.1.2 Fire prevention................................................................................................................................... 21.1.3 Fire prevision ..................................................................................................................................... 31.1.4 Fire fighting organisation.................................................................................................................... 4
1.2 In Greece................................................................................................................................................ 51.2.1 Introduction........................................................................................................................................ 51.2.2 Fire prevention................................................................................................................................... 51.2.3 Fire detection..................................................................................................................................... 61.2.4 Fire prevision ..................................................................................................................................... 61.2.5 Fire fighting organisation.................................................................................................................... 8
1.3 In Portugal ............................................................................................................................................ 101.3.1 Introduction...................................................................................................................................... 10
1.3.2 Fire prevention................................................................................................................................. 101.3.3 Fire prevision ................................................................................................................................... 101.3.4 Fire detection................................................................................................................................... 101.3.5 Fire fighting activities........................................................................................................................ 11
1.4 In Spain ................................................................................................................................................ 121.4.1 Introduction...................................................................................................................................... 121.4.2 INFOCA Plan in Andalusia ............................................................................................................... 131.4.3 Emergency management system in the INFOCA Plan. ..................................................................... 14
1.5 In Finland.............................................................................................................................................. 151.5.1 Basic information of Finland.............................................................................................................. 151.5.2 Responsibilities of the main forest fire authorities in Finland.............................................................. 151.5.3 Legislation and role of civilians ......................................................................................................... 151.5.4 Forest fire detection and monitoring.................................................................................................. 151.5.5 Fire risk assessment support in web-sites. ....................................................................................... 161.5.6 Summary ......................................................................................................................................... 16
2 Review of the different types of resources used for the control and suppression of forest fires.................... 182.1 In France .............................................................................................................................................. 18
2.1.1 The trucks ........................................................................................................................................ 182.1.2 The planes ....................................................................................................................................... 192.1.3 The helicopters ................................................................................................................................ 19
2.2 In Greece.............................................................................................................................................. 202.2.1 The trucks ........................................................................................................................................ 202.2.2 Aerial fire fighting means .................................................................................................................. 20
3 Review of the different fire fighting tactics................................................................................................... 213.1 IN France.............................................................................................................................................. 21
3.1.1 Introduction...................................................................................................................................... 213.1.2 Offensive Manuvre........................................................................................................................ 213.1.3 Defensives Manoeuvres................................................................................................................... 25
4 Review of fire fighter training programs....................................................................................................... 284.1 In France .............................................................................................................................................. 28
4.1.1 Introduction...................................................................................................................................... 284.1.2 Standard1 : FDF1 (Forest fires)........................................................................................................ 294.1.3 Standard2 : FDF2 ............................................................................................................................ 294.1.4 Standard3 : FDF3 ............................................................................................................................ 294.1.5 Standard4 :FDF4 ............................................................................................................................. 294.1.6 Standard5 : FDF5 ............................................................................................................................ 29
4.2 In Greece.............................................................................................................................................. 29
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SUMMARY
This document presents the institutions in charge of the forest fire management in France, in Greece, inPortugal, in Spain and in Finland. Organisations are described with some general information, fire preventionaspects, fire detection aspects, fire prevision aspects and firefighting organisation.
In a second part, the document present the main resources used for fire suppression, mainly in France. Somefire suppression plans in force in the different Mediterranean member states are summarised.
This first state of the art will be improve in the next months.
GLOSSARY
None
LIST OF ASSOCIATED DOCUMENTS
None
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1 DESCRIPTION OF THE INSTITUTIONS AND RESPONSIBLE ADMINISTRATIVE ORGANISATIONS
1.1 IN FRANCE
1.1.1 Introduction
The forest fire prevention policy has been set up by
the Ministry of agriculture, the ministry of the Interior,territorial collectivities and forest owners. This policycontains four types of actions:
1.1.1.1 To know the risk and the fire causes
Set up of strengthened meteorological observationnetworks by the regular evaluation of fuel moisturecontent.
Researches are conducted in order to identify thefire causes, allowing a daily prevention and fightingmeans deployment more efficient
1.1.1.2 To keep watch on the forest in order todetect any fire start
During the high fire risk season, the forestobservation combines ground fixed lookout, or mobilewith different kind of patrols
1.1.1.3 To supervise the forest fire equipment
Protection plan integrate prevention management(sylviculture, agriculture, clearing) and sometimes high-tech surveillance equipment. They are completed by acartography system.
1.1.1.4 To inform and increase the publicawareness
-
Education in the academic environment- professional training- information to the public (vacationers, land
owners,)- information exchange between the whole actors
concerned by the forest fires.
Three different Ministries are concerned with theforest fire management activities:- Ministry of the Interior through the French Civil
Security: the DDSC is in charge of the preventionpart in collaboration with the Ministry of Agricultureand of the operational part through severaloperational centres
- Ministry of Agriculture which is in charge of theprevention and forest management.
- Ministry of Territorial Management and Environment:participates in the rural area and forest managementpolicy
The main tasks of the French Civil Security are:- Prevention of all type of risks (civil, natural,
technological)- Person protection- Protection of property and equipment- Environment protection (forest fires, pollution.)
The French Civil Security is represented at threelevels through operational centres- National level: Ministry of the Interior- Civil Defence
and Security Department : the oper-ational centre ofthis Department is the COGIC
- Zonal level: Prefecture of the Zone Civil Defenceand Security Headquarters : the operational centreat this level is the COZ.
- Departmental level: the operational centre at thislevel is the CODIS
The Director of the Civil Defence and Security is ahigh ranking official, Prefect, appointed by the Ministryof the Interior.
To fill his mission, the Director has constituted anoperational centre, the COGIC, the nationalheadquarter of the Civil Security.
This operational centre is in direct relation with theseven zonal headquarters: the operational centre of thezonal headquarters are the COZ. Each COZ ismanaged by a headquarter chief (professional fireman)who is under the zonal sub-prefect and prefect. Thezonal prefect is the Sate representative at the zonallevel and entrusts the sub-prefect the defence and civilsecurity mission. The zonal headquarter is the interfacebetween the departments of each zone and thedirection of the Civil Defence and Security.
Each department has a departmental directionmanaged by a fireman officer, the operational centre of
this direction being the CODIS.Ministry of Agriculture :
- Represented at the national level by ONF- Represented at the regional level by the DRAF- Represented at the departmental level by the DDAF
and the departmental or inter departmental agencies
1.1.2 Fire prevention
In France, prevention is managed by foresters ONF(National Forest Office), INRA (National Institute ofAgriculture Research depending from Ministry ofagriculture) and CODIS (civil protection headquarter /Ministry of the Interior).
ONF is a public establishment, under the Ministry ofAgriculture authority. It is composed of a generaldirection, 10 territorial directions, 67 departmentalagencies and 500 operational units.
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In the frame of the fire prevention, the missions ofthe ONF are :- Forest protection: elaboration of prevention plan.
The aim of this work is the determination of the firerisk maps. More accurately, ONF applies differentmethodologies in order to evaluate the fire riskignition and fire risk propagation.
- Elaboration of vegetation cover maps: those maps
are realised with the collaboration of DDAF. Theyare mainly elaborated thanks to aerial photo andmainly by data collection in situ. Those maps areupdated every 10 years. Some methodologies areactually tested with satellite photos.
- Forest management; ONF realises the fire breaks, inorder to reduce the fire risk ignition and the firepropagation. They propose the number of watertanks that have to be in a given forested area for thefire fighting.
- Public information- Repression: if people dont respect the instructions
given in the forested areas.
The prevention plans are conducted at the forest massif scale (PIDAF) or at the communal scale(PPRIF). PIDAF is a contractual management planwhich aims at preventing fire by defining the forestmanagement and areas to clear in order to prevent fireoutbreaks and propagation. The PPRIF is a regulationplan which defines the risk level and implies safety rulesand obligations to the new buildings for example.
1.1.3 Fire prevision
Daily risk index prevision is made by theMeteorological cell Elaboration of risk maps for thewhole forest fire zone
This map is sent to the whole CODIS of the forestfire zone (15 departments)
According to the risk map, national means (aircraft,military and gendarmerie) are sent for the high risk zonesurvey
On the CODIS demand, national means are sent(aircraft, helicopters, reinforcement troops)
Concerning the fire outbreaks detection, there is anetwork of lookout towers (set up by the CODIS) orautomatic detection system in some strategic placesand patrols that criss-cross the massifs during fireseason (with horses, motorbikes or vehicles).
After the Departmental Direction fire organisationconsultation and by prefect delegation, DDAF candecide , for prevention purposes, the closing of sometracks or ways in forested areas of the department.
DDAF set up watching persons in the forestedmassifs. They transmit their observations and if any thealert by the radio network to the double patrolsDDAF/DDSIS
DDAF set up protection patrols DDAF/ConseilGnral, composed of two foresters on specific firetrucks vehicles equipped with a water tank: thosepatrols survey, detect and fight nascent fires.
Figure 1-1: Daily map of wildland fire risk in France
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1.1.4 Fire fighting organisation
Fire fighting is managed by the French civil security(ministry of the Interior) which is organised at Frenchdepartment geographic scale.
The French Civil Security is represented at threelevels through operational centres
National level: Ministry of the Interior- Civil Defenceand Security Department : the operational centre of thisDepartment is the COGIC- Zonal level: Prefecture of the Zone Civil Defence
and Security Headquarters : the operational centreat this level is the COZ.
- Departmental level: the operational centre at thislevel is the CODIS
The Director of the Civil Defence and Security is ahigh ranking official, Prefect, appointed by the Ministryof the Interior.
To fill his mission, the Director has constituted anoperational centre, the COGIC, the nationalheadquarter of the Civil Security.
This operational centre is in direct relation with theseven zonal headquarters: the operational centre of thezonal headquarters are the COZ. Each COZ ismanaged by a headquarter chief (professional fireman)who is under the zonal sub-prefect and prefect. Thezonal prefect is the Sate representative at the zonallevel and entrusts the sub-prefect the defence and civilsecurity mission. The zonal headquarter is the interfacebetween the departments of each zone and thedirection of the Civil Defence and Security.
According to the operational situation, thisoperational centre
Deals with the national means management andcontrols their dispatching- Asks the CODIS to give the alarm, and to assign
means located out of the forest fire zone- Involves reinforcement, as needed- Requisitions the necessary means located within
geographical scope- Reports the operational situation to the COGIC and
to the Prefect of the ZoneEach department has a departmental direction
managed by a fireman officer, the operational center ofthis direction being the CODIS.
The CODIS mission is to develop fighting plansrelated to the main risks, and to supervise theirapplication. It gives information to the Prefect andothers concerned authorities according to theimportance of the situation. It makes easier, during theincident, the activities of the departmental public utilities(French Electric Board). To perform all those tasks,the CODIS employs permanent personnel in a variablenumber according to the risk period. Those operationalcentres can be contacted 24 hour a day.
CODIS provides the fire fighting plan co-ordination- To verify the right use of the transmission network- To be informed of the alerts and of the evolution of
the different events- To inform the operational responsible of the different
departments- Operational means management- Look for the complementary means required- Activate the available means required by the COZ
for extra departmental reinforcement
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1.2 IN GREECE
1.2.1 Introduction
The organisation responsible for forest firessuppression and management in Greece until 1997 wasthe Forest Service. Then, in May 1998, a new law gaveresponsibility for forest fire fighting to the Greek FireService (GFS) (alternatively called Greek Fire Corps),which until then was responsible for municipal fires butalso contributed to forest fire fighting. Most aspects offire prevention remained with the Forest Service.However, the Forest Service was weakenedsignificantly as approximately one fourth of itspersonnel as well as all the firefighting equipment(vehicles, radios etc) were moved to the Fire Service.
Another state organisation that is involved in forestfires is the General Secretariat for Civil Protection(GSCP). It was established by law in 1995 and wasgradually organised in the late 1990s. It is part of theMinistry of Interior, Public Administration and
Decentralisation (MIPAD) and has a co-ordinating rolefor all types of disasters, including forest fires. In thisarea it provides support to the Fire Service from localauthorities (Regions, Prefectures, Municipalities) inregard to equipment (water trucks, dozers, etc.) andauxiliary personnel. Its planning includes, among otherthings, co-ordination for evacuations.
The Armed Forces generally support fire-fightingactivities upon request. On high fire danger days Armyand Navy units provide personnel and off-road vehiclesfor patrols in forests. During difficult periods soldiersundertake the task of surveillance and mop-up of firesthat have been brought under control, reducing thenumber of fire fighters needed to remain on site for thistask. The Army also offers heavy equipment such asdozers and trucks upon request.
The Air-Force has a much heavier contribution toforest firefighting. It operates the fleet of Canadair waterbombers on behalf of the Fire Service, takingadvantage of its know-how, its infrastructure and itsresources.
The Police is also involved in forest fire relatedactivities. They provide traffic control and, whenneeded, coordinate the evacuation of villages, camps,
etc. They also cooperate with the Fire Service in arsoninvestigations. The Police often undertakes surveillanceof suspects in order to catch them in the act of arson.
1.2.2 Fire prevention
Fire prevention activities are mainly in theresponsibility of the Forest Service. However, there issome overlap with the GSCP, with the Fire Service andwith local authorities.
The structure of the Greek Forest Service has beenaltered decisively after the mid-1990s. Its previous top-down structure was broken down into the central officesin Athens, and the Regional Directions at the regionalcapitals. The central offices, belong to the Ministry ofAgriculture, forming its General Direction for theDevelopment and Protection of Forests and NaturalEnvironment (GDDPFNE). This General Directionsupports policy decisions at the Ministry. The RegionalDirections, however, belong to the MIPAD. ThePrefecture level Directions of Forests at the capitals ofthe 52 prefectures in the country, report to theircorresponding regional direction, having very little to do,officially, with the GDDPFNE. In larger prefectures, or inprefecture where forests are plentiful and/or important,there is a further subdivision, the local forest serviceoffice called dasarheio. In those prefectures there are2-4 dasarheio per Direction of Forest. In that case theDirection plays a co-ordinating role and has fewresources, while the production part is carried-out atthe dasarheio level.
Given this structure, and mainly the fact that thelocal level forest service offices are not linked directlywith the GDDPFNE, the role of the GSCP, in fireprevention is quite important. This is because theGSCP belongs to the MIPAD, to which report all theregions, and all the forest service units other than the
General Direction in Athens. Furthermore, all localauthorities are also under the MIPAD and by law, haveto respond to the directions of the GSCP.
The fire prevention tasks then, are broken down asfollows:
The Forest Service is responsible for preparinginfrastructures in the forest (e.g. water tanks, helispots,maintenance of forest roads, firebreaks) and ofmaintaining forest vegetation in good condition, workingon fuel reduction in parallel to the other forestmanagement/silviculture activities. Furthermore, theForest Service has the responsibility of maintaining
contacts with the local people in order to know its areaand identify potential problems. The General Direction,also tries to work on publications and organise activitiesthat help inform people about forest fires and makethem love and respect the environment.
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During the fire season, on days of high fire danger,the forest guards patrol the forest in order to stopactivities in the forest that may result in fire ignitions, toscare potential arsonists, and to detect probable fires asearly as possible. Unfortunately, the funding availableto the Forest Service is very small and has beendecreasing continuously in favour of fire suppression.The total personnel is less than 3000 people including
officers (foresters and assistant foresters), forest guardsand clerical staff. With the available funds it isimpossible even to maintain the existing infrastructure,such as the forest roads, in good condition.Furthermore, active forest management is mainlyfocused on productive forests in the mountains. As aresult the most flammable pine (Pinus halepensis andPinus brutia) forests and maquis vegetation at the lowerelevations are left without serious management (verylittle timber production). Also, there has been nosolution towards subsidising resin collectors who were athriving working force in the pine forest twenty or moreyears ago, being simultaneously cultivators andguardians of these forests. The lack of demand for theirproduct (resin) and the resulting poor financial revenueshave left only a few older people in this profession andthe Forest Service has no resources to change thissituation.
The GSCP since 2001 is quite active in the field offorest fire prevention. More specifically:- It issues general prevention orders that also include
specifications and directions for the development ofpresuppression plans at the local level.
- It prepares TV spots, radio messages andnewspaper advertisements that are
transmitted/published throughout the fire season.The production is done in co-operation withprofessional advertising companies. The content isdecided with the help of Forest Service and FireService representatives, based on creative ideas ofthe advertising professionals.
- It monitors specific actions of fire prevention. Oneexample is the effort to reduce the number of illegalgarbage dumps and to make those still operating firesafe.
- Since 2001 it caries the responsibility for the dailyproduction of the fire danger map for the countryduring the fire season.
The Fire Service also has a role in fire preventionthrough the patrolling of its trucks in the forest on daysof high fire danger. After a fire, it also assignsspecifically trained officers to investigate the firecauses, which also acts as a deterrent for future arsons.
1.2.3 Fire detection
Fire detection is mainly the responsibility of the FireService. It operates, throughout the summer, a networkof lookouts on many important mountain tops and otheradvantageous locations. The lookouts are manned withtemporary personnel. The permanent lookouts areaugmented by crews on fire trucks located at critical
points in the forest. Firefighters on motorcycles are alsoused for patrols.
The Forest Service contributes to fire detection withforest guard patrols on high fire danger days. On suchdays, and for a number of hours prescribed in individualpresuppression plans that are prepared in advance ofthe fire season for each Prefecture, there are also aerialpatrols operated by the Air-Force. Aerial patrols aremainly done using small GRUMMAN agriculturalairplanes and PZL- M18 Dromader one-engine planesthat carry about 1,9 tn of water. Under extremeconditions, even Canadair water bombers are addedduring the critical hours of the day.
Until now, there are no operational automatic firedetection systems in the country so all the work is doneby visual observation. However, the high populationdensity, especially in the areas with most fires (lowelevation, near the coast) results in many phone callsby the public, to report starting fires. There is a uniquenumber for this purpose (199) that rings to the Centralcoordination office in Attica or to the local coordinationcenter of the Fire Service in the other prefectures. Thelarge number of mobile phones in Greece in the last fewyears (11.000.000 numbers available currently) havemade the public a valuable and effective source of fire
detection information.Finally, airplane pilots, at least of domestic
companies, flying over Greek territory, are required bylaw to report any fires that they can detect.
1.2.4 Fire prevision
As said earlier, the GSCP is responsible for the dailyprediction of fire danger in the country. A fire dangermap with predictions for each local Forest Service officeterritory (dasarheio), is issued daily about 12:00 noon,during the official fire season (May 1st to October 30). Ateam of specialised scientists carries the responsibility
for the task. The map is valid for the 24-hour period ofthe next day, starting at 00:00 and reaching 24:00hours. As soon as it is prepared it is faxed to a numberof pre-specified co-ordination centres (Fire Service,Army, Air-Force, etc.). They are responsible for furtherimmediate dissemination to their units involved infirefighting. When high fire danger is predicted for anarea, that prefecture is included in the recipients. Themap is also uploaded on the GSCP web site about13:00 hours (Figure 1-2), and from there it isdisseminated to the mass media and directly to thepublic. When high fire danger is predicted for specificareas, a special press release is also issued and
communicated to the mass media. They, in turn, haveto broadcast it including warnings and advise to thepublic on measures to be taken.
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Figure 1-2: Daily map of wildland fire risk in Greece
An example of the fire danger prediction map for the country, as it appears on the web-site of the GeneralSecretariat for Civil Protection (http://www.civilprotection.gr/dailyfire.htm) during the fire season. The specificexample was issued at 12:30 on 19/09/2003 and was valid for 20/09/2003.
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There are five levels of fire danger. Level 1corresponds to Low fire danger, Level 2 is Medium(usual for the summer season), Level 3 is High, Level 4is Very High, and finally Level 5 corresponds toExtreme or else red flag alert. Each rating is the resultof evaluating the probability of ignition (itself the resultof environmental conditions, historic probabilities and
specific human activities such as suspicion for arson,special celebrations, extended weekends, etc.) and thedifficulty of control. The matrix used for determining thefinal fire danger level is shown below.
Table 1. Fire Danger rating (1-5) as a function ofprobability of ignition (fire risk) and difficulty of control.
Difficulty of control
Fire risk Low Medium High Very high
Low 1 2 3 4
Medium 2 2 3 4High 2 3 4 5
1.2.5 Fire fighting organisation
As mentioned above, the (GFS) is responsible forforest firefighting. This Service is under the auspices ofthe Greek Ministry of Public Order and together with theGreek Police they constitute the Security Forces.
The GFS has a top-down structure, one of the fewstate organisations that have not been broken downinto a regionalized structure in the 1990s. This is asignificant advantage for the task of firefighting as it
allows easy mobility of resources between regions andgood central co-ordination. On the other hand, themilitary-like structure of the Fire Service that includesArmy-equivalent ranks often results in fire fighting beingco-ordinated not by the best-qualified people but bythose of the highest rank.
The GFS is managed by the Fire CorpsHeadquarters in Athens and is under the command ofthe Fire Service Chief, who holds the rank of LieutenantGeneral. Other than the Headquarters a number ofother offices and Services exist. They are:- The Regional Administrations of the Fire Service for
the 13 regions in the country.- The Prefecture level Administrations of the Fire
Service at the capitals of the 52 Prefectures.- The local Fire Stations that are ranked in classes A,
B, G and D, depending on the population size andthe disaster potential (risks and dangers) of theirarea of responsibility.
- The Special Units of the Fire Service (E.M.A.K.) thatare Units with specially trained personnel in order todeal with serious and demanding incidents, such asearthquake rescue, industrial, technological,environmental accidents etc.
- Other support Services such as the Firefighting
Academy, Firefighting Garages, etc..- Fire Stations of Volunteers.
- The Operational Coordination Center on forest firefighting (SKED) in Athens. It operates 24 hours perday, receives calls for any incident (emergencynumber 199), and mobilises the firefighting forces. Ithas direct responsibility for the region of Attica, whileit offers help around the country when incidentsexceed local capacity. It has the main responsibilityfor all the aerial firefighting means in the country.
Apart from Fire Service officers, in the Centre thereare representatives of the Forest Service, the ArmedForces and the Police.
The ground forces of the Greek Fire Corps havegrown significantly in the last few years. Currently, thereare more than 10000 officers and permanentfirefighters, assisted by 5000 seasonal firefighters in thesummer. The number of firetrucks has exceeded 1100units of various types. Furthermore, the Greek FireCorps has acquired experience and its organisation hasimproved significantly.
The basic elements that the GFS considers asimportant for successful forest fire suppression are asfollows:- Analysis and evaluation of the characteristics of all
important past fires at Regional level, to identifyproblems or special conditions that have come upduring operations.
- Good management of available human personneland firefighting means.
- Collaboration with other authorities that are alsoinvolved in such operations.
The GFS acts immediately and independently forforest fire suppression. The co-ordination centre of the
GSCP, which is responsible for co-ordinating responsesfor all disasters, is kept informed for all major fireoutbreaks, but not for minor events and thecorresponding dispatching procedures. The same istrue for the Forest Service. The local offices areinformed when fire events start becoming significant.Otherwise they are informed after the fact for all firesthat burned some area, to go and make a report of thefire that includes a map. The law requires this map inorder to declare the burned area under protection(under reforestation) for the next 10-20 years.
As the lookouts, the firetrucks and the calls to 199
inform the local (prefecture level administration) FireServices, they are the ones responsible for firstintervention. The officer on duty mobilises the fire trucksclosest to the event, informing simultaneously thecommander of that administration. If there are localaerial firefighting resources available, they are also sentimmediately if there is any fear that the ground forcesmay not be enough. If there are no local aerialresources, until now, it is common practice toimmediately inform the SKED in Athens and to ask foraerial support if there is any suspicion that the fire mightescape initial attack. As a rule, aerial support is thendispatched immediately if it is available.
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The commanding officer of ground forces in a fireevent is responsible for co-ordination of the aerialmeans that participate in firefighting operations. Thiscommanding officer may be an officer assigned by thecommander of the local administration, or if an eventcontinues for some time or appears serious from thestart, may be the commander himself. If the firecontinues to grow, it is common that the regional
commander may take-up co-ordination of the fire. Invery serious events (generally burning more than 200ha) one of the deputy chiefs of the GFS or even theChief himself with a support group of experiencedofficers, may come and undertake responsibility andcommand. It is common that the latter arrive with a co-ordinating helicopter. In that case co-ordination may beperformed from the air.
The co-ordinator of the fleet of aerial means must:- Be in continuous communication with the
commander of the ground forces.- Take directions and must be informed by the
commander of the ground forces and must theninforms the crews of the other aerial firefightingmeans about the general situation of fire and theobjectives of their mission.
- Maintain communication with all forces in theterritory, in order for the operations to be effectiveand safe.
- Provide information on the development of fire, aswell as confidential information to the commander ofthe firefighting forces, as well as to the GFS Chief.
- To acts and command so that all the firefightingoperations are safe.
The priorities on which decisions are based are:- Fast and direct attack of fire.- Direct attack/control whenever possible.- Protection priorities: life of citizens, their properties,
natural environment.
The GFS has given a very important role to aerialfirefighting. The table below summarises the role of the
various aerial means as perceived in the GFSoperations philosophy:
In regard to preparedness levels, the GFS during thesummer maintains three levels of readiness:
At the 1st stage some firetrucks are positioned in theforest while a significant number remains at thestations. This stage corresponds to levels 1 and 2 ofpredicted fire danger rating.
The 2nd stage includes positioning of more firetrucksin the forests (24-hour basis), continuous patrols andhigh alert. This stage correspond to level 3 of predictedfire danger rating.
The 3rd stage includes the additional measures to betaken, when the meteorological conditions are verydangerous (predicted fire danger rating is 4 or 5). Thesemeasures are:- The personnel is placed in general alert- Operational officers patrol constantly in their region
of responsibility- The air patrols/monitoring becomes more intensive
and longer in terms of time duration.- Fire patrols in the forest become more intensive.- Certain forest roads may be closed or firetrucks
positioned at critical points (entrances to the forest)
record
Type of aerial means Role
Amphibious Firefighting planes CL-415, CL-215 Initial attack and mass attack to the fire front
Heavy type helicopters (MI-26, Erickson S-64, KAMOV-32) Initial attack and mass attack to the fire front
Co-ordination Helicopters Immediate transport of the GFS Chief or DeputyChiefs and commissioned staff, undertaking co-ordination of large fires
C-130 plane with MAFFS system Retardant drops
Transport Helicopters Transport of firefighting forces
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1.3 IN PORTUGAL
1.3.1 Introduction
The Summer of 2003 turned to be one of the worstfire seasons in Portugal both in terms of burned area,with a total of 450 000 hectares and in terms of
accidents with a total of 20
persons that died amongcivilians and fire fighters. As a consequence of theseevents the fire management structure is beingreformulated and it is very difficult at present to give acorrect picture of the attributes of each entity involved.In face of this situation we will consider the FireManagement Structure that was implemented in the lastyears.
1.3.2 Fire prevention
In Portugal fire prevention activities are aresponsibility of the Forestry Service (DGF- DirecoGeral das Florestas - General Direction of Forestry).
This entity depends from the Ministry of Agriculture.The General Direction of Forestry is organised by
Agricultural Regions that manage the public forest (5%of the total) and supervise all forest activities in theCountry.
Other institutions involved in fire prevention activitiesare:- - The National Association of Municipalities
(Associao Nacional de Municipios Portugueses)that coordinates the activities of the Mayors and areresponsible for promoting the infra-structures for fireprevention (roads, fire-breaks, water sources, watch-
towers) and to support the logistics of firesuppression activities in their areas.- - The Cellulose and Paper Pulp Industries that
globally own 10% of the National afforested area.
Until the last year the prevention activities werecoordinated by a National Committee - The NationalSpecialised Commission in Forest Fires (CNEFF-Comisso Nacional Especializada em IncndiosFlorestais) - Where representatives of the differentinstitutions involved and the forest owners werepresent. CNEFF attributions were namely:- The implementation of national, regional or
municipal integrated plans of fire prevention linkingthe efforts of the different organisms.
- These plans could involve the total area of a councilor even two or more councils.
- Consisted mainly in the creation of a network offorest roads and water sources, fuelbreaks and fuelreduction specially near the roads and settlements,the creation of a network of airfields, landing spotsfor helicopter operation and infrastructures tosupport these aerial means.
- The implementation of national preventioncampaigns for the general population through themass media such as television, radio, newspapers,fire prevention posters and education campaigns forthe students residents in rural areas.
- Support to the Fire Research through the NationalScience Foundation (FCT) and also directly.
In a recent change (May 2003) CNEFF wassubstituted by a Forest Protection Nucleus, but its roleand activity is not yet established.
1.3.3 Fire prevision
1.3.3.1 Fire danger estimation
The Portuguese Meteorological Institute (IM) is
the Institution in charge of the Fire Danger evaluation.This entity depends from the Ministry of Science andHigher Education.
The information provided by the IM through itsAnalysis and weather forecast Centre (Centro deAnlise e previso do tempo) includes the followingdaily general information:- Meteorological observations from the national
station network- Weather charts- National and regional weather forecast bulletins- Satellite imagery-
Wind field forecast for the next 24 hours with 3 hoursintervals.
As specific information, the IM computes anddelivers:- The forest fire danger index for about 60
meteorological stations. Since 1998, the IMinformation related with fire danger indices has beenbased on the Canadian Forest Fire Weather IndexSystem, computed between 15th May and 15th
October. From Autumn 2002 on, the FWI index isbeing computed along the whole year.
- Charts with forest fire risk classes by regions. Theseclasses are computed as a function of FWI and also
take in consideration the number of fires and burnedareas in each region in last years.
- Charts with the forecast of forest fire danger indicestendency
- Weather bulletin for 48 hours forecast, specific forfire prevention (on a daily routine basis from June toSeptember).
The IM is in permanent contact with the SNBPCthrough a daily briefing by Video Conference with theOperational Centre. During the summer months atechnician from the IM is appointed to work in theSNBPC at full time.
1.3.4 Fire detection
The general direction of forestry (dgf) is the maininstitution responsible for the fire detection. The firedetection system comprehends a network of manualoperated fire detection towers that are incommunication with the operational centre of the SNBC(fire brigade national service and civil protection). DGFalso has terrestrial mobile patrols acting 24 hours perday.
For the last three years DGF supported a pilotprogram with automatic detection systems in Coimbradistrict in co-operation with the fire brigade service andADAI.
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Other entities involved in fire detection are:- the nature conservation institute (ICN),- the national association of portuguese municipalities
(ANMP) and- cellulose and paper pulp industries.
These entities have their own network ofwatchtowers and they also have terrestrial and helitransported mobile patrols. The icn has automaticdetection systems in some protected areas.
The activity of forest fire detection that until now wasaffected to the forestry service is now one of themissions of the recently created nucleus for theprotection of forestry that belongs to the fire brigadeand civil protection national service.
1.3.5 Fire fighting activities
Fire fighting activities are a responsibility of theServio Nacional de Bombeiros e Proteco Civil(SNBPC) [National Service of Fire Brigade and CivilProtection] that depends from the Ministry of Internal
Administration (MAI).This Service was modified recently and it is the
result of the merging of two different Services (CivilProtection Service and Fire Brigade Service) that hadcomplementary roles in the management of risksnamely forest fires.
The previously referred CNEFF - NationalCommission Specialised on Forest Fires Activities(Comisso Nacional Especializada de Fogos Florestaiswas replaced by a Forest Protection Nucleus, but itsrole and activity is not yet established.
In each district there is an Emergency Operation Co-ordination Centre, directed by a District Co-ordinator.These Centres work in connection with a NationalOperations Co-ordination Centre based near Lisbon.
Fire suppression activities are carried out by FireBrigade Corporations. The large majority of theseCorporations are composed by volunteers. Almost allcities have their Fire Brigade Unit that is sponsored by aprivate association that is supported by the populationand by the Government through the SNBPC. Firefighters are not paid but their employers arecompensated by the loss of work power when they areengaged in action. During Summer each Corporationhas at least one unit on permanent duty for immediateintervention. The personnel involved in these Groupsreceive a payment for the time they dedicate to thisduty.
There are also some Professional Fire fightersCorporations. These exist normally in the Districtcapitals. They are generally sponsored by therespective municipality. Although they are equippedmainly for urban fires they have great experience infighting forest fires as well.
In the SNBPC there are the following Divisions at aNational level with the corresponding functions:
1.3.5.1 Vigilance and Alert Division
Creation of a system that will enhance a prompt alertand warning to the populations integrating the differentrisk detection services.
Requirements assessment and promotion ofapermanent dialog between operational and scientific
institutions with the main goal of obtaining databaseinformation, prediction products and accompaniment ofall situations.
Promotion of the permanent accompaniment andprediction of all risk situations. Surveillancereinforcement of critical situations.
1.3.5.2 Emergency Planning Division
Elaboration of National emergency plans with thenecessary intervention actions scheduling.
Support to the municipalities and districtsSpecialised Committees for Forest Fires (CEFFs -
Comisses Especializadas de Fogos Florestais) in theelaboration of the emergency plans, promoting the co-operation between those geographically adjacents.
Analyse districtal and municipal CEFFs proposals ofemergency plans for approval.
Plans elaboration and incorporating elementsregarding the compatibility of all actions and availablemeans in order to decrease the number of forest firesand burned area without prejudice of specificcompetencies of involved departments.
Guarantee the connection between the differententities with responsibilities on forest fires domain.
Increase the scientific investigation directed to forestfires and their consequences, supporting with availablemeans the programs they approved.
Elaborate contingency plans of forest fires with a setof rules to adopt in order to minimise their impacts.
Support the initiatives and efforts that aim to forestfires prevention and suppression.
The DSPP has the responsibility to fully support theother Divisions.
1.3.5.3 Fire Safety Division
This Division is in charge of proposing legislativerules, perform studies, issue statements, analysecriteria, establish and elaborate inspection plans on thescope of fire safety. It must also issue statements aboutrules and legislation on fire safety subject.
Define, in articulation with the CNOS analysiscriteria for the studies, projects and security plansagainst fires, to disseminate by the fire brigadeassociations, districtal co-ordination centres andmunicipalities.
Promote the elaboration of technical notes and other
type of documents for application on study case,projects and security plans making their actualisationwhenever necessary.
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Propose a decision following the statements issuedby the distrital co-ordinators whenever they aresuperiorly requested.
Pronounce about studies, projects and securityplans against fires on different types of facilities.
Support the elaboration of security inspection plans
against fires.Propose legislative rules and formulate regulation
proposals in the scope of security and preventionagainst fires.
1.3.5.4 Prevention and Protection Service
This Division elaborates and promote studies onnatural and technologic risks and in this way try toidentify when possible accidents may occur andanticipate their consequences.
The following Institutions are all prepared for theinitial attack:-
General Direction of Forestry (DGF)NatureConservation Institute (ICN)National Association ofMunicipalities, and
- the Cellulose and Paper Pulp Industries In theirrespective areas of competency they have vehicles withbrigades equipped for an initial attack.The ArmedForces , in some special conditions can collaborate withthe fire brigades in the fire fighting actions.
1.4 IN SPAIN
1.4.1 Introduction
Spain is divided in 17 Administrative Autonomiesand the Regional authorities are in charge of forest fireprotection in their territories since 1985, supported bythe Ministerio de Medio Ambiente, Direccin General de
Conservacin de la Naturaleza (MMA-DGCONA),through special agreements at regional level.
The responsibilities of the DGCONA are themanagement of airborne resources (airplanes andhelicopters), normalisation of equipment and material inall Spain, and functions related to insurances.
The DGCONA shares responsibilities with theregional Governments on the coordination of forest firefighting means, particularly airborne andcommunications means, statistics, and coordination offunding.
Furthermore, it is in charge of forest fire evaluation
in close relation with the prevention and fightingactivities. Currently, GPS equipment is used for fast andprecise evaluation and quantification of surfacesaffected by heavy fires. The obtained data are dumpedto data base computer systems and incorporated to theGIS (Arc Info System).
The DGCONA also manages National Parks andother special sites. The national office also hassignificant responsibilities on the restoration funding thePlans of the Regional Governments.
The civil protection Spanish Plan for forest fireemergency, defines a set of procedures and rules forforest fire emergency response when the nationalinterest is involved and to reinforce the Plans of theRegional Governments. This plan defines: theorganisation of the information systems (national database, national risk maps, meteorological and riskpredictions, information on potential risks, resourcesdata bases), the national structure for forest fire fighting,the allocation of national resources to regional or localplans, and the operational plan depending on the forestfire risk levels.
However, the structures of the forest fire fightingplans in the Spanish regions are different. The Regional
Governments have now the main responsibilities inforest fire fighting in Spain. More than 20.000 peopleare involved in prevention and suppression activities inall Spain. Furthermore significant resources are beingdevoted to theses activities. From the point of view ofthe structure of the information system, the reportconcentrates in Andalusia. This region has about the18% of the total surface in Spain and the 20% ofpopulation.
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The Regional Government of Andalusia has theINFOCA (INcendios FOrestales en la ComunidadAutnoma de Andaluca) Plan. The office which has themain responsibility is the Servicio de Prevencin deIncendios y Restauracin Forestal of the DireccinGeneral del Medio Ambiente. However, the localauthorities are also involved under the co-ordination ofthis office.
The INFOCA Plan is co-ordinated from the RegionalOperation Centre (COR) in the highest level of theRegional Structure. This Plan is based on theadministrative organisation of Andalusia. Thus, thereare also 8 Province Operation Centre (COP). One ofthem is embedded in the COR. These centres form thesecond level in the structure hierarchy.
The third level is configured by the Forest Centres(CEDEFO). There are 17 Centres. The responsibilitiesof the CEDEFOs are: Forest fire surveillance, detectionand suppression; accommodation of personnel and
equipment, forest fire evaluation, personnel training,volunteers co-ordination, co-ordination of localauthorities and dissemination activities.
In addition the Plan INFOCA counted with theparticipation of the Autonomic Police, as well as theLocal Authorities, Civil Guard and the citizens, ingeneral, who can warn of a fire through theemergencies telephone number.It should be noted that according to this plan defined bythe Regional Andalusia Government, the co-ordinationof the local authorities for forest fire fighting correspondto the forest fire management persons leading theINFOCA. That is different from other Spanish regions.
The suppression system defines the following elements:- Meeting points. These points are used for personnel
transportation using helicopters.- Advanced Command Post. The field office defines
an operation plan by using communications, andmeteorological information.
- Waiting Areas with forest fire resources- Camps for long duration fires- Operation Execution Section consisting of waiting
areas control unit, terrestrial operation unit, andaerial operation unit.
- Planning Section. This section consists ofResources unit, Supervision unit, Specialist unit(meteo, fire predictions, terrain analysis).
- Logistic Section. The section includes services(radio communications) and general support(supplies, camps management, emergency groups).
Furthermore, the INFOCA Plan considersEmergency Action Groups related to risk situationsfor people or non forest goods. These groups are:- Surveillance, detection and suppression groups.- Security forces: Coordinated by the COP director.- Sanitary groups.- Logistic groups.
1.4.2 INFOCA Plan in Andalusia
In the following, several characteristics and data ofthe INFOCA Plan in Andalusia are summarised:
There is a network of 231 monitoring fixed positions.The terrestrial monitoring becomes from permanentobservation posts, located in high points where a large
forest area can be observed and therefore to detectpossible fires in that area. In general all surveillanceand monitoring positions are operative from 1st June to15th October and depending on the fire risk, somesettings can be operative outside this period.
The Automatic fire detection and monitoring is madeby the BOSQUE system by means of the use of infraredand visual cameras being supervised the operationfrom a remote or Monitoring centre, that is connectedvia radio with the different observatories. In the consoleof the monitoring centre there is a digitized map of thezone with the relevant data of the area covered by thesystem. The system can detect a fire of 10 m in an
area of approximately 190,800 hectares. In Andalusiathere are six "BOSQUE" systems installed. Four ofthem consist of 2 observatories and other two have 3and 5 observatories respectively. This surveillance iscompleted with the one made by the human meansestablished for this aim.
The ground mobile surveillance and monitoring iscarried out by a patrol of 2/4 people, following routespreviously established in the forest areas. In incipientfires, they should react very quickly to avoid the firepropagation.
The aerial monitoring is made from a surveillanceco-ordination airplane, in which in addition to the pilotthere is a technician of air operations. This technicianshould have experience on the terrain underconsideration, on the vegetation and fuel models, aswell as on the prediction of the fire behaviour. Theairplane should be equipped with: GPS, a radiofrequency link, and cartographic information.
The INFOCA Plan has a radio communicationnetwork. The frequencies that are used are of the VHFtype, in low band (68/88 Mhz.), to avoid interferences inthe communications. There are base stations, mobileequipment, portable equipment, fixed and mobile
repeaters, and radio frequency link equipments.The aerial communication bands are used for the
communication and management of aerial means.These bands are, exclusively, used for the coordinationof the aerial means during fires. There are 5frequencies to this aim. Andalusia is divided, in relationto the frequencies, in two zones, Eastern (Almeria,Granada, Jan and Malaga) and the western one(Cadiz, Cordova, Huelva and Seville). In each zonethere exist two frequencies, a main and secondary one,and there is a common emergency frequency to bothzones.
The coordination airplanes have two transmitters ofaerial bands plus a portable one for emergency in caseof failure of communications of the airplane.
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Therefore, there is a communication network thatfacilitates the fast transmission of the informationbetween the different Operative Centres and Centres ofForest Defence with the elements that compose thesystem of monitoring and detection, as well as with thedifferent terrestrial and aerial means that participate inthe extinction.
1.4.3 Emergency management system in theINFOCA Plan.
The Plan considers the following fire categories
A: Incipient Fire.Lineal Intensity of Fire front (I)< 40 Kcal/m/sec.Flames height (h) < 0.5 m.
B: Low danger forest fire.40
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1.5 IN FINLAND
1.5.1 Basic information of Finland
Total area of Finland is 338,145 km2. Forest covers68 % of total area, i.e. 26 million hectares.
Finland belongs to Boreal forest area. About 62 %of forest land is privately owned, 25 % by the state, 8 %
by the companies and 5 % by the others.Finland is a sparsely populated country , with a total
number of inhabitants of 5,2 million people, i.e. 17inhabitants per km2 of land.
Fire season is in average 3 4 months long . Themain Forest Fire season is from June to August.Usually fires start in May and they may continuesometimes up to September.
1.5.2 Responsibilities of the main forest fireauthorities in Finland
Municipal fire brigades are responsible for forest fire
suppression in their own area. There are 446municipalities in Finland and only 60 of them haveprofessional fire brigade. All the rest have volunteer orpart time fire brigade. Forest fires forms approximately2 3 % of all the accidents where the fire brigades arealarmed annually.
The State Provincial Office (5 provinces) isresponsible for arranging efficient forest-fire lookout inscarcely populated areas.
The Finnish Meteorological Institute counts so calledforest fire index in different regions every day. Thescale of index is from 1,0 to 6,0. When the forest fireindex reach the value 4,0 Meteorological Instituteensures that forest fire warning is given to a particularregion. People are informed about the forest firewarning through media i.e. TV, radio, internet,newspapers an so on.
The Forest and Park Service is liable to provide therescue authorities with expert assistance in the fightingof forest fires and to make, at its own initiative,preparations for the prevention and fighting of forestfires on State land in its management in co-operationwith the rescue authorities
1.5.3 Legislation and role of civilians
A campfire or another open fire may not be made ina forest or in its vicinity if the circumstances due to a dryspell, wind or another reason are such that the dangerof a forest fire is evident especially during the forest firewarning. An open fire may not be made on the land ofanother without permission unless there is a compellingneed thereto. Controlled burning may take place onforest land even during a dry spell by observing specialcare under the supervision of a forestry professional.
In the Rescue Act there is so called everymans dutyto act which means that anyone who notices or learnsthat a fire has broken out or another accident hasoccurred or is threatening and who cannot immediatelyextinguish the fire or prevent the danger is liable withoutdelay to notify those in danger thereof, make anemergency call (i.e. call to 112) and start rescueactivities within his abilities.
(After 2 years there will be 14 new emergencyresponse centres in operational use in Finland withmodern technology. These centres will be combinedcentres that will take care of rescue, police, ambulanceand social emergency calls)
If it is necessary to save a human life or to preventanother accident, the leader of rescue activities havethe right to order any person who is at the scene of thefire or accident or in its vicinity and is capable of workand not hindered by a valid cause, to assist in therescue activities. If the situation cannot be controlled inanother manner, the rescue authority, in a
corresponding situation, have the right to order peoplewho are capable of work and are staying in themunicipality to arrive at the scene of the fire or accidentwithout delay and to assist in the rescue activities. Thetask may be refused only for a valid reason. A personordered to assist in rescue activities may not leave thescene of the fire or accident before the leader of therescue activities has given him permission thereto.
1.5.4 Forest fire detection and monitoring
Until 1970s the main system for forest firemonitoring in Finland was lookout towers. There wereapproximately 150 towers in use at that time. In
the1970s air patrolling was taken into use and in theend of 1970s the whole Finland was covered. It isobvious that lookout towers were not necessary anymore.
1.5.4.1 Air patrolling
Air patrolling is the main forest fire monitoringmethod in Finland. The provincial governments areresponsible for organising air patrolling according toinstructions by the Ministry of the Interior. Today thereare altogether 26 air patrolling routes in Finland.Provincial governments make agreements on patrollingflights with local air clubs or air companies. Air patrollingstarts when the forest fire warning is issued orwhenever it seems to be necessary e.g. after thunderstorms. Patrolling aircrafts are equipped with radios sothat they can report fires either emergency responsecentre or directly to the local fire chief.
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Fires are located using co-ordinates or map names.In addition fire patrolling aircrafts evaluate how large thefire is and guide the response units to the site. Exactfire location, quick evaluation of the fire size andguidance of the response units to the detected fireensure that the burned area remains small. About 10 -15 percent of forest fires are detected from airplanes. Inaddition to fire detection all detected smokes arereported to the emergency response centres. Hundredsof smokes are reported every year and most of themare ignited without a permit (agriculture, litter or someother reason). This is why air patrolling also have a veryimportant preventive effect in Finland. Today more andmore fire brigades as well as emergency responsecentres use the GIS-based systems in Finland. In thenear future in the whole Finland fires will be located byusing GIS-based systems.
1.5.4.2 Satellite monitoring
Ministry of the Interior, VTT (The Technical
Research Centre of Finland) and The FinnishMeteorological Institute have developed the High-resolution ( NOAA-AVHRR ) satellite-based system forforest fire monitoring. This system is the only system inthe world that is near real time detection system. Thissystem can detect a forest fire less than 30 minutesafter satellite image. It also actually works in Finnishconditions because the temperature of the surface isnot as hot as in the Mediterranean countries i.e. thefalse alarm rates can be kept low. The system coverswhole Scandinavia, Russian Karelia and Baltic region.After the observation the system sends automaticallyfax alert to the closest emergency response centre
according the co-ordinates of the satellite image.Theoretical minimum detectable fire size is in optimalcircumstances 0,1 hectares. However, in practice thesystem detects fires that are larger than 3 hectares.Location accuracy is about 1 kilometre and the falsealarm rate is less than 10 %. Satellite MonitoringSystems is used as one part of monitoring system thatdetects fires also in the night time. It also gives usefulinformation about fires behind our national borders. Thissystem was introduced in 1993 for the first time and itwas developed further in the project (FFOPERAT)which was funded by ESA in 1998-2000.
1.5.4.3 Detection cameras
As an experiment there is one visual camera in usefor forest fire monitoring in South-West Finland. Thecamera can detect approximately 30 km around. Theinformation of this camera is delivered to a local firebrigade.
1.5.4.4 Civilians70 80 percent of the fires are detected and
reported by individual people. It is quite logical becausehumans cause most of the forest fires themselves.Usually these fires are not set on purpose but becauseof negligence so that people dont realise that a forestfire might occur. Number of reports are given also bycivil- and military aircrafts.
1.5.5 Fire risk assessment support in web-sites.
Online Forest Fire Risk assessment is available onweb-site of the Finnish Meteorological Institute. It isupdated regularly. Web-side can be used by rescue and
other authorities. This application gives output asfollows:- - Forest fire index by counties. ( actual and + , - 24
hours )- - Lighting ( - 6 hours )- - Detected fires by satellite ( actual 12 hours, and
two weeks )- - Heavy rains falls ( radar imagine )- - Forecast ( rain, temperature, wind + 24 hours )- - Relative humidity
1.5.6 Summary
Even though legislation is quite strict humans cause60 to 70 % of the forest fires. A number of fire chiefsagree that air patrolling have been effective tool toreduce the damage caused by forest fires in the lastdecades in Finland. Last six years there have beenapproximately 1020 forest fires, where have burned480 hectares annually in Finland. Average burned areawas in the 1950s 11 hectares, in the 1960s 3 hectaresand in the 1970s about 1,3 hectares. In the 1980sonwards average burned area could have been keptunder 1,0 hectare per fire annually and actually in the1990s it has been only 0,6 hectares.
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Figure 1-3: Forest Fire warning in TV,(North slippery, snow and South part forest fire warning)
Figure 1-4: Air patrolling routes in Finland
Figure 1-5: Forest fire prevention Strategy in Finland
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2 REVIEW OF THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF RESOURCESUSED FOR THE CONTROL AND SUPPRESSION OF FOREST FIRES
2.1 IN FRANCE
2.1.1 The trucks
VLRTT: All-roads Liaison Vehicle- 4*4 Vehicle of 5 places- equiped with two leakage masks- GPS
CCFL : Forest fire light tanker- 600 litre water capacity
CCFM : Forest fire medium tanker- Water capacity : 3500 litres- Wetting agent capacity : 100 litres- Self-protection, roll-over bar, respirable air, excess
pressure
CCFS : S forest fire tanker- Water tank : 10 000 litres- Wetting agent tank : 400 litres- Emulsion tank : 600 litres- Cannon 3000 litres / minute- Respirable air, self-protection
CCGC : High capacity tanker :- Water tank : 14 000 litres- Resupplying vehicle only-
No heavy attack equipment (cannon)- Limited off-road capacity , no self-protectionequipment
PCMTT : all-roads mobile command post- 4x4 van- Sector CP on important intervention- Has to intervene systematically if a field CP is
positioned on scene
DATT : All-road vehicle reel :- 110 mm rated diameter capacity : 1600 m up to
1800 m- 70 mm rated diameter capacity : 800 m-
1 water or foam cannonHydraulic equipment of the CCF vehicles are :
Figure 2-1: Hydraulic equipment
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2.1.2 The planes
2.1.2.1 Surveillance planes
Surveillance planes are in charge of :- surveillance,- planes guidance,- planes co-ordination.
2.1.2.2 Water bombers
Water bombers are in charge of :- patrols,- water patrols,- fire fighting.
Canadairs CL 415- Capacity:6130 litres in 4 water tanks.- Number of Drops: 1,2 or 4 times.- Average speed: 168 knot.- Scooping duration: 12 seconds on a minimum water
surface of 1200 meters
- Dropping height:
30 meters.- Dropping width: 60 meters.- Type of attack: direct.
Tracker CF 2S- Capacity:3500 litres in 4 water tanks.- Average speed: 163 knot.- Type of filling: on the ground.- Dropping height: 45 meters.- Dropping width: 50 meters.- Type of attack: indirect.
Fokker F 27- Capacity:6400 litres in 8 water tanks
- Average speed: 217 knot.- Type of filling: on the ground.- Dropping height: 30 meters.- Dropping width: 70 meters.- Type of attack: indirect.
2.1.2.3 Planes integration into the fighting tactics- Integration into aerial/ground radio frequency
(channel 18, 23 or 35)- Define the dropping objectives in collaboration with
the crew- Announce dangers on the area- Give planes permission to drop after ensuring the
security of fire fighters- !Priority to the planes!
2.1.3 The helicopters
Commands helicopters missions are :- Reconnaissance.- Guidance of the ground fighting means- Transport fire fighters and equipment.- Security ensuring- Objectives marking for the planes
Water bombers helicopters missions are :- Growing fires attack- Non accessible (or with difficulty) fires attack- Vulnerable areas protection- Drowning of the edges and fire resumptions
How to choose a dropping area- Area with a minimum diameter of 30 meters- Homogeneous flat and hard surface- Maximum banking of 10%- Non dusty ground or sprayed- No obstacle- No object which could fly
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2.2 IN GREECE
2.2.1 The trucks
As mentioned earlier there is a fleet of more than1100 firetrucks in the hands of the GFS today. Some ofthem (UNIMOG with 5 person cabin and 1300 litreswater payload) belong to the first firetrucks bought by
the Greek Forest Service in the beginning of the 1970s.Two hundred light 4WD semi-trucks (Dodge Dakota)were bought for the first time in 1993. One hundredmore Nissan 4WD semi-trucks were added in thebeginning of the 2000s.
Types of forest fire trucks WaterCapacity
Iveco Ff135 E23 Wr 2 500Renault Camiva Ccf 4000 Type 3 000Steyr 2 500Steyr 10 000Steyr 12 000
Magirus Deutz 12 000Unimog Mercedes 4wd 1 000Unimog Mercedes 4wd 1 300Unimog Mercedes 4wd U1750l 1 750Unimog Mercedes 4wd U2150l 2 500Iveco Tlf 24/120-5 12 000Mercedes tego 1 500Dodge Dakota 4WD 600Nissan Terrano 4WD 600
2.2.2 Aerial fire fighting means
Greece uses both public (national) and private aerialmeans. By 1992, the aerial means included about 13Canadair CL-215 amphibious water bombers, 3 MAFFSsystems loaded on Air-Force C-130 transport planes fordelivery of fire retardants, and 24 PZL-M18 Dromadersingle-engine planes with a payload of 1500 litres. All of
them were operated by the Air-Force on behalf of theMinistry of Agriculture.
In the summer of 1993, for the first time ten privatehelicopters were contracted. This was the firstintroduction of helicopters for crew transport andfirefighting. In the following years political decisionsforced the Forest Service to work with a small numberof Army helicopters including 4 CHINOOK CH-47D and6 Bell UH-1H Huey. The number of CL-215 reached15 in 1997, after loss of one and purchase of threesecond-hand planes.
At the end of the disastrous 1998, with the GFS
having the responsibility of forest firefighting, the fundsdevoted to aerial firefighting started increasing sharply.First, ten new Canadair CL-415 were orderedimmediately. Second, contracted helicopter use waspermitted. In the following years, the ten new Canadairswere gradually delivered and the number and capacitiesof contracted helicopters kept increasing. In 2003, theaerial fleet consisted of:
Type Category Number OwnershipCanadair CL-
415
Amphibian water bomber with 6130 litre capacity 10 Public
Canadair CL-215
Amphibian water bomber with 5500 litre capacity 14 Public
PZL-M-18Dromader
Agricultural, single engine, fixed-wing air-tanker.Recently upgraded to about 2000 litre capacity.
20 Public
C-130 withMAFFS
Military transport plane with dedicated 12000 litrefirefighting system for retardant delivery
Up to 3 can be madeavailable
(3 MAFFS systems)
Public
GRUMMAN Agricultural bi-plane with 700 liter payload 6 PublicErickson S-64AirCrane
Firefighting helicopter with 9000 liter capacity 3 Contracted
MIL MI-26 Transport helicopter used for firefighting, with 15000
litre capacity
4 Contracted
MIL MI-14 Transport helicopter tested for firefighting for the firsttime in Greece
1 Contracted
Kamov Ka-32 T Transport helicopter used for firefighting, with 15000litre capacity
3 Contracted
BK 117 Twin-engine helicopter used for reconnaissance 2 Public
The main base of the Canadair water bombers is atthe Elefsis military airport near Athens. The PZL aircraftare based at the smaller airport of Tatoi, also nearAthens. During the fire season these and the contractedaerial means are dispersed at bases around Greece,
including the islands of the Aegean and Ionian seas, inorder to minimise intervention time.
The aerial means in the country have becomeamong the strongest in the world when compared to thesize of the country. This is justified, in part, by thetopography and the distribution of the country, andespecially the large number of islands. It is not possible
to maintain a very strong ground firefighting force oneach of the islands, while there is very high fire potentialon those islands that are covered by pine forests.
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3 REVIEW OF THE DIFFERENT FIRE FIGHTING TACTICS
3.1 IN FRANCE
3.1.1 Introduction
According to the fire evolution, the difficulties encountered, there are various possible tactics. These tactics can
be classified in two categories : offensives tactics and defensives tactics.Offensives tactics
- Front Attack- Attack on the flank- Breakthrough on the flank- Long distance fire hose set up
Defensives Tactics- Vulnerable areas protection- Self-protection- Fire stopping line
3.1.2 Offensive Manuvre
Four LDV 250 fire hoses set upTwo LDV 250 fire hoses set upLong distance fire hose set upOne LDV 250 fire hose set up over 200 metres, 20/7 fire hose support by lining
3.1.2.1 Four LDV 250 fire hoses set up
This type of manoeuvre is used for growing fires attack.
Done simultaneously with four Fire vehicles, It allows to make a massive attack. Two tactics are possible:- Attack by lining. The covered distance is about 350 meters.- Front attack for small fires. The covered distance is about 100 meters.
Figure 3-1
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3.1.2.2 Two LDV 250 fire hoses set up
This type of manoeuvre is used for growing fires attack. Two Fire vehicles set up the two LDV 250 fire hosesand two other Fire vehicle supply the previous one with water.
Then it is possible to:- Attack by lining- Drowning of the edges
Figure 3-2
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3.1.2.3 Long distance fire hose set up (from 200 to 700 metres)
Used for small fires or stilled ones, in uneven or inaccessible areas, this manoeuvre requires a long time to bedone. It must be compatible with the estimated fire behaviour.
The main conditions are:- Fire hoses set up less than 700 meters- The difference in height must be 150 meters maximum-
Set up of two 20/7 fire hoses or one LDV 250 fire hose
Figure 3-3
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3.1.2.4 One LDV 250 fire hose set up over 200 metres, 20/7 fire hoses support by liningUsed for growing fires, rising from the rear of the fire to the fire front, this manoeuvre allows a quick advance of
the fire fighters, and use :- one LDV 250 fire hose to reduce the flames- 20/7 fire hoses to perfect the extinction of the fire, the drowning of the edges, and protect the rear
It can also be use for :- Attack on the flank with protection of the fire hose set up- Breakthrough the flank- Drowning of the edges
However, the manoeuvre requires a long time to be done and remain until the complete extinction of the edges.
Figure 3-4
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3.1.3 Defensives Manoeuvres- Vulnerable areas protection- Self-protection- Fire stopping line set up- Fire stopping line set up with large capacity vehicles
3.1.3.1 Vulnerable areas protection
The group leader adapts the manoeuvre according to the type of vulnerable area (houses, radio relay station,gas station, industry, etc ), and according to the situation.
Nevertheless, there are actions to do, whatever the vulnerable area is :- partial or complete evacuation of people- confinement in a safe place- check of the floors, and roofs condition- doors and shutter closing- search for places with risks, sources of energy- available water places
3.1.3.2 Self-protection
Particularly risky, this manoeuvre is done only if the fallback is impossible, roads are cut off, vehicles areimmobilised.
The principle is based on a packed parking of the vehicles, in a precise way, and a specific hydraulic system.The objective is to set up fire hoses (two peacock hoses making water curtains, and one water cannon) facing upto the fire front and self-protecting the vehicles.
Figure 3-5
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3.1.3.3 Fire stopping line set up
This manoeuvre is done facing up to the fire front. It must be done in an open area in order to allow animmediate evacuation of the vehicles in case of failure. According to the fire extent, there are one or more groupsof vehicles.
The fire stopping line set up is :- vehicles are on the same side of the track-
they are parked every 20 meters- each Fire vehicle set up a LDV 250 fire hose, fire front side- fire hoses set up are less than 40 meters- each Fire vehicle set up a LDT fire hose on the other side, for self protection- the fire hoses opens order is given by the group leader
According to the situation, the group leader keep the initiative of the manoeuvre adaptation.
Figure 3-6
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3.1.3.4 Fire stopping line set up with large capacity vehicles
This is the same manoeuvre as previously, but with largest capacity of water.
The fire stopping line set up with large capacity vehicles is :- vehicles are on the same side of the track- they are parked every 50 meters- each Fire vehicle set up a water cannon (1000 litres per minutes), fire front side-
the fire hoses opens order is given by the group leader
Figure 3-7
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4 REVIEW OF FIRE FIGHTER TRAINING PROGRAMS
4.1 IN FRANCE
4.1.1 Introduction
The French fire fighter training program comprises 5 levels related to a position and a responsibility on thescene :
The fire fighters can apply for these training courses, as far as they have pass the fire fighter initial trainingduring which they got practice of how to use the whole equipment available in the SDIS (fire and relief localservices) such as hoses, radios, fire-hose nozzle, trucks. The training covers a period of 120 hours for thevolunteers and 4 months for the professionals.
Fire Fighter Ranking Table
Low ranking Non-commissioned Officer Officer Field Officer
Corporal Chief warrant Captain Colonel
Corporal Warrant Lt-Major Lt-Colonel
FF first class Staff sergeant Sergeant-major Commandant
FF second class Sergeant
Figure 4-1: Distribution of the Professional Fire fighters and the Volunteersamong the 15 departments of the Entente :
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4.1.2 Standard1 : FDF1 (Forest fires)
It is the first training course for the forest fire specialfield. It is organised by the fire fighter home department.
Any person involved in a forest fire fighting should,at least, had passed this course. It represents a 40 hourtraining (theory and practice). At the closing of the
training course, the personnel is able to utilise all theequipment available for forest fire suppression purpose,able to ensure his own safety and the others safety. Hehas also got notions of topography (being able to read amap, to locate on a map, to maintain safety zone closeat hand, to identify the fire prevention management).He obtains so the title of team member during the forestfires. The second class fire fighters can apply for thistraining course.
4.1.3 Standard2 : FDF2
It represents a 40 hour training (theory and practice).It is organised by the fire fighter home department. It is
open to everyone starting form the corporal rank. At theclosing of the training, the personnel is able to lead theteam of a forest fire truck, to use the radios, to assignwork task to the aerial resources on scene Thus, heobtains the title of chief of equipment.
4.1.4 Standard3 : FDF3
This training is provided only at the CIFSC inValabre (Civil Security Interregional Training Centre). Itrepresents a two week training, one week for the theoryat the Valabre centre, and one week for practising in adepartment. It is open to everyone starting from thesergeant rank. At the closing of the training course, thepersonnel is able to lead a forest fire group (4 trucks).Thus, he obtains the title of chief of group.
4.1.5 Standard4 :FDF4
This training is provided only at the CIFSC inValabre (Civil Security Interregional Training Centre). Itrepresents a two week training. It is open to everyonestarting from the first officer rank (major).
At the closing of the training course, the personnel isable to lead a column (4 groups). Thus, he obtains thetitle of head of sector.
4.1.6 Standard5 : FDF5
This training is provided only at the CIFSC inValabre (Civil Security Interregional Training Centre). Itrepresents a two week theoretical training. It is open toeveryone starting from the high rank officer(commandant).
At the closing of the training course, the personnel isable to lead a site (chief of site). Thus, he obtains thetitle of chief of site. He is the relief commandant duringlarge scale fires.
4.2 IN GREECE
As the GFS is relatively new in the forest firefightingworld, it has not developed yet a good and solid forestfirefighting training program. In the 1999-2001 period allits officers had a one-week long introductory course onforest fires, including such topics as fire behaviour, firedanger rating, fire meteorology, firefighting tactics, and
safety. Also many additional seminars have beenorganised on specific topics, forest fire causeinvestigation being one of them. These seminars areattended by a limited number of officers (30-40 peopleeach).
Currently, the program of the Fire Academy, whereofficers are educated, includes only one course underthe name Forest fire suppression in which apart frombasic knowledge on forest ecology and fire behaviour,extensive review of forest fire legislation is been taught.
At the firefighting station level, the only trainingprogram that has to do with forest fire suppression is a
number of days during which the personnel of eachstation has to attend short lectures from a stationofficer. In the last summer seasons (2003) monthlytraining program, there were four relevant topics thathad to do with forest fires.
The topics were as follows:- Main causes of forest fires.- Safety rules for personnel and equipment during fire
suppression.- Use of fire trucks equipment in forest fires.- Fire truck maintenance.
