D.A. Chart, Unskilled Labour in Dublin, 1914

8/6/2019 D.A. Chart, Unskilled Labour in Dublin, 1914

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160 Unskilled Labour in Dublin. [Part 94,

UNSKILLED LABOUR IN DUBLIN.

IT S HOUSING AND LIVING CONDITIONS.By D. A. CHART, M.R.I.A.

[Read, 6th March, 1914.]Perhaps the greatest difficulty in the way of the socialreformer is his lack of adequate information. H e perceives,as all, who are not blind or deaf, must perceive, that all isnot well with the commonwealth, that large numbers ofthe population live starved and stunted lives, that, despiteour triumphs in science, our increased power to controlthe forces of nature, this old world still contains a greateramount of human suffering and squalor than seems con-sistent with the general development of the twentieth cen-tury. The Lusitania and the slum, the aeroplane and thetenement house, the boy scout and the street arab,contrasts such as these are to be met with on every side.

.Glaring social evils stare us in the face, yet the problemsconnected with them must be approached very warily, lestthe effort to do good may bring about a greater harm . Ifwe are to play the surgeon, we must study the anatomy ofthe body politic. The paper to be read this evening willillustrate a phase of life in the city of Dublin, the life ofthe class generally described as unskilled labour.It is an extraordinarily num erous body. In fact it maybe stated that at least a quarter of the adult male popula-tion of Dublin earn their subsistence by unskilled manuallabour. The city is one of great commerce, bu t few manu-factures. I t is the chief port of entry for the great cross-channel trade between England and Ireland. It containsthe termini of four great railways and possesses many largeshops and business establishments. I t is the receiving anddistributing centre for the greater part of Ireland. T helabour required in its docks, stations, and warehouses islargely of an unskilled or semi-skilled characterportere,labourers, carters, messengers, and the like. There areabout 90,000 adult males in the city of Dublin, and of these


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I0.I4-1 By D. A. Chart, Esq. 16117,223 are described in the Census of 1911 as "generallabourers/' 3,081 as "carters, draymen, etc./' 4,604.as" messengers, porters, etc." Adding these figures togetherit becomes evident that 24,000 men, more than a quarterof the adult male population, are engaged in unskilledlabour. It may, therefore, be seen how large a part thisform of employment plays in our civic economy.As regards wages, naturally/ unskilled labour occupiesan unfavourable position. The occupation requiring nopreliminary training pr experience, little more, in fact,than physical strength and fitness, the supply of hands atany time is usually considerably in excess of the demand.The ranks of unskilled labour are recruited not only fromthe families of the older labourers, who, in many cases,bring up their sons to follow their own occupation, but alsofrom the flotsam and jetsam of other walks in life. Forinstance, the countryman, who drifts into the city, findinghis agricultural knowledge useless, generally turns to un-skilled labour. Skilled workmen, too, when on the down-ward grade and unable to obtain work in their particulartrades, are often forced by sheer starvation to adopt thesame course. These two influences, the excess of supplyand absence of education or training, act together, in de-pressing the wages of unskilled labour. In Dublin theaverage wage paid is about 18/- a week, and even so low afigure as 15/- or 16/- has been recorded. Where wages areapparently higher than this iSf- figure, it will usually befound that some new factor has entered into the problem, -for instance, the question of trust or responsibility, or againirregularity of employment due to various causes. .Thusbuilder's labourers are paid 20/10 per week, but in badweather they suffer continually from " broken time/' whichreduces their wages, on the average, to a figure ratherbelow than above the 18/- level. On the whole, it seemsfair to take 18/- as the usual remuneration, and to describethe conditions as they exist on that basis, rememberingalways that the description must be -taken as applying toat least a quarter of our total population.We must begin the study by assuming that marriage isthe normal state of man, and that, once youth is passed,celibacy will be the exception rather than the rule. Itwould immensely simplify social problems if we could, likethe ants and the bees, evolve a class of sexless celibateworkers, but, human nature being what it is, we must takeinto account the probable existence, in the majority ofcases, ,pf a wife and children to be supported out of the 1$/-a week. Nor is it usually found that members of ;thlabouring classes defer their marriages from prudeniialconsiderations, as is so often the practice in other ranks of


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162. Unskilled Labour in Dublin. [Part 94,life. They marry young, often before they are well intothe twenties, and are usually very prolific. The girl ofthe working-class districts in the centre of Dublin is themother of a household at an age when the girl of thesuburbs is engaged in nothing more serious than tennis orterm examinations. Excluding from our consideration thesingle men, who are not a very numerous body in this walkof life, we may devote our attention to the family life ofthe Dublin unskilled labourer receiving an average weeklywage of-18/-.In the first place it will be seen that not much can beset aside from, the domestic budget for the item of housingexpenses. The receiver of 18/- a week cannot. afford topay more than 2/6 to 3/- a week for the rent of his dwell-ing. Now the plain fact of the matter is that decentaccommodation fit for the inhabitation of a family cannotbe commercially supplied for this figure. Architects havebent their best powers to the task of devising a cheap buthealthy house for the working class, but so far, I believe,it has not been found possible to erect a dwelling of thiskind for less than ^150, and if the builder is to be recoupedfor,his outlay, he cannot accept so low a rent as 3/-, whichwould no more than pay interest on the prime cost, leavingno allowance for rates, repairs, insurance, bad debts, etc.The labouring man, therefore, in Dublin is driven to adoptthe same policy with housing as with other neces-sities of life, the adaptation to his own use of the second--hand possessions discarded by his richer fellow-citizens.The great mansions of the eighteenth century aristocracy,forsaken by the class which designed them, have beenoccupied in quite a different manner by quite a different,class of people. Instead of one family occupy ing. a ten-roomed house, there is a family in every room, each payingfrom: 2/r to 3/- a week for its accommodation. By thekindness of the Housing and Town Planning Associationof Ireland, which is conducting a detailed inquiry into thehousing conditions of- Dublin city, I have been permitted,to exhibit on subsequent pages typical specimens of theconditions found by their inquirers:


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164 Unskilled Labour in Dublin. [Part 94, .

HOUSE

No.ofcase.

252627

2 8

29

3031

Situationofroom.

Two-pairfront.Two-pairback.

Frontdrawing-room.

Backdrawing-room.

Frontparlour.Backparlour.Frontkitchen.

Numberof roomsheld byfamily.

111

1

1

11

Number of family(resident membersonly, includinglodgers).

3 (2 adults, 1 child)47 (2 adults, 5 chil-

dren).

2 (husband andwife).

3 (widow, daughterand another child)4 (2 adu lts, 2 chil-dren).i (2 adu lts, 2 chil-dren).

Occupation ofhead offamily.

SailorMother a shirt -maker.Labourer or Taxi-

man (on strike,also broken arm ).

Tram yardman ...

CharwomanLabourerLabourer onstrike).

Ten rooms in house (back kitchen vacant, no information receivedseem poorer tha n those in N os. 5 or 6. The house generally was in aou t of order and was being repaired. The drain which ran from it underbadly . Four people were living in the kitchen at the time, and I sawinformation is incomplete.Rooms investigated, 7.Families resident, 7.


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1914.] By D. A. Chart, Esq. tffi

No. 7 (left-hand house in illustration).

Occupation ofany other working(resident) memberof family.

Total weeklyearnings offamily.

16s. when inwork.

18s. 8d. in fullwage, butnot regular.12s.

16s.Man, 16s;Girls' earningsnot known.

Rentperweek.

s.323

2

3

22

d.060

6

0

60

Remarks (presenceof sickness, state, of room, &c.)

Young girl learningtailoring, 5s. aweek.

2 girls at Jacob'sbiscuit factory.

Clean and tidy.

Tenant out.

These were most res-pectable people, andtheir room was wellfurnished. Childrenat school. 11 yearsin room.

These people seemedstrangely out ofplace in such ahouse.Untidy room, butnice woman.

This kitchen was darkand smelt verybadly.

for front and back attic). People in the house, with two exceptions,worse condition, though not tumble-down. Yard clean, but lavatory wasthe kitchen floor was open, and the whole of the lower story smeltfood on the table. The people of the attic did not reply to knocks, soInhabitants recorded, 27.Total weekly rental, 18s. 6d


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166 Unskilled Labour in Dublin. [Part 94,HOUSE

No.ofCase.

32

33

34

35

3G

37

38

39

Situationofroom.

Top front

Top back*

Two-pair front

Two-pair back

Frontdrawingroom.

Backdrawingroom.

Front and backparlours.

Front kitchen

Numberof roomsheld byfamily.

1

1

1

1

1

1

2

1

Number of family(resident membersonly, includinglodgers).

3 (no lodgers) ...

4

4 (widow, son, 2daughters).

3

6 (one lodger) ...

3

6 (no lodgers)

6

Occupationof head offamily.

Charwoman ...

Labourer (out ofwork owingto strike).Casual workwhen able toget it.

Works in Bar-rington's soapfactory.

Charwoman ...

labourer(locked out).

Electrician

Labourer

10 rooms in house (back kitchen vacant). In every case accom modationinadeq uate for number in house, sole water ta p being in yard , only oneRooms investigated, 9.Families resident, 8.


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igi4-] By D. A. Chart, Esq.No. 8 (right-hand house in illustration).

167

Occupation ofanother working(resident?) membersof family.

Son, bookbindingapprentice. Onegirl in Jacob's,7s. to 11s. a week(now 2s. 6d.strike pay).Other girl, laundry,4s." The girl, Is. 6d."

"

Mother " charing "

Total weeklyearnings offamfly.

6s. to 7s. ...

16s. to 19s.when working.

11s. to 15s.

Man, 22s. to28s. per week

8s. to 11s. ...

16s. to 19s.

30s. to 40s.

Rentperweek.

s. d.2 0

1 9

3 0

2 0

3 0

2 0

5 0

2 6

Remarks (presence ofsickness, state ofroom, &c).

Occupier out, henceinformation scanty.Walls and ceiling ingood order.

Papers and ceiling ingood order. Infor-mation scanty, asthe mother was out.

Walls and- ceiling ingood order.

Walls and ceiling ingood order. Roomvery clean, butpoorly furnished.Man drinks.Walls and ceiling ingood order. Roomclean and well fur-nished.Walls and ceiling ingood order. Roomclean, but verypoorly furnished.Everything pawned.Decent man.Walls and ceiling ingood order. Welland completely fur-nished.Not admitted ; fur-ther informationrefused by daughteracting on mother'sorder/3.

not in proportion to rent, while Water and sanitary arrangement quitelavatory. Yf>rd very well kept, stairs rather dirty.Inhabitants recorded, 35.Total weekly rental, 21s. 3d.


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168 Un skilled Labou r in Du blin. [Part 94,Of th e 15 families resid en t in the se tw o


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1914.] . By D. A. Chart, Esq. 169many other evils. Can it be wondered then, consideringthat at least a quarter of our population live in dwellings ofthe type illustrated, that of all the cities of the UnitedKingdom, Dublin, year after year, has the highest' averagedeath-rate.So much then for environment, that potent factor whichparticularly a#ffects the young. Next arises the questionof maintenance. What is the usual dietary of a family de-pending on the wages of unskilled labour? The recentresearches of social inquirers supply us with a read answerto the question. The labouring family, in a word, subsistschiefly on bread and tea. There are three meals in the daybreakfast, dinner, and tea (or supper). For the first andlast meal tea and bread (with or without butter, dripping,or margarine, according to the state of the family finances)are the almost invariable bill of fare. Dinner shows greatervariety, and is usually the only meal in which flesh foodappears on the table. Meat, like butter, disappears fromthe dietary under financial stress, though even in the worsttimes an effort is made to give the breadwinner a sustain-ing meal in the middle of the day, even if wife and childrencan only have bread and tea. The dinner will sometimesconsist of American bacon boiled with cabbage, or of friedherrings, or the cheaper parts of foreign meat, accompaniedby boiled potatoes. Seldom are' any other vegetables thanpotatoes, cabbage, and onions to be seen on xhe table.There is little scope for housewifely contrivance in theplanning of the meals, .which succeed one another for themost part with wearisome iteration. This is partly due tothe fact that the grate of the tenement room is almostalways of the "open" type familiar in sittingrooms orbedrooms of a better class house. Consequently it containsno oven ; baking is impossible, and boiling and frying arethe only culinary operations that can be performed. Thusthe housekeeper is limited by the nature of her equipment.Porridge is little used; puddings and fruit, the joys of* childhood, are almost unknown. Hence the daily fare ofthe labouring classes is characterised by extreme monotony,and this circumstance alone goes far to account for thedrinking habits of some of our people. A squalid environ-ment and poor nourishment depress thei individual so muchthat he or she seeks the excitement arid momentary cheer-fulness that is provided so lavishly at every corner.The chief criticism, indeed, that medical men pass on thedietary outlined above is that, even under the most favour-able circumstances, it is only> just sufficient for the main-tenance of life and that it does not. make for stamina orsturdiness of constitution; It is lacking in variety and p-vides no margin for emergencies. Those who live on sticfa


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170 Unskilled Labour in Dub lin,. [Part 94,a diet as this and in such homes as most of the Dublinlabouring population inhabit, are certain to be a sickly class.Hale old age is seldom met with and infantile mortality ishigher than it should be, seeing that it is the universalcustom to bring up infants on the breast. Indeed the effectsof inadequate nourishment and unwholesome surroundingsare nowhere more noticeable than in the appearance of thepoor children of all ages in our city.Having dealt with housing and dietary* we may now pro-ceed to t)ther necessary or. desirable features of human life.However, it must be premised that the labouring house-hold must as a rule content itself with the provision of thebarest necessities. Indeed, when the rent has been paidand the four or five hungry mouths fed for the week, thereis little over to provide clothes, furniture, fuel and the like.The way of spending the money varies, of course, withdifferent individuals, but a typical budget would perhapsbe as follows :

Rent,Fue l and I^ight, .Bread,Tea, .Sugar,Milk (usually condensed), .Butter (dripping, margarine),Potatoes or other vegetables,Meat, Fish, Bacon, etc.,Total, . . . .Balance, . . . .Wages for week,

s.. 22 4. o

. 0

. 0

. II

. 2'

. 14. 3

. 18

d.6oo986600

i i .i0

By the kindness of Rev. R. M. Gwynn, F.T.C.D., Ihave been enabled to check this budget by comparing itwith those actuallymrecorded in labouring households. Itsubstantially agrees, except that at present prices the itemof fuel and light would probably be considerably higher.As there are no facilities for storing fuel in the tenementroom, even supposing that the labourer could spare themoney to purchase in quantity, coal has to be bought insmall amounts, the bag of 1% cwt., or even the stone of14 lbs . The place of deposit for coal, oil, etc., is usuallyunder the bed.It will be seen from the typical budget quoted that thereis only a balance of three shillings and one penny for pro-vision or renewal of clothes, furniture, insurance, amuse-ments, etc. It is a standing wonder that this scanty and


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I9I4-] By D. A. Chart, Esq. 171precarious balance can be made to provide for the innumer-able small needs of a household. Clothes are a continuallyrecurring item, and the usual practice is that already men-tioned in connection with, housing, the adaptation to thelabouring class of the discarded possessions of the well-to-do. Husband and wife probably wear secondhand clothespurchased in Iyittle Mary Street or elsewhere for a fewshillings. The children go hatless and barefoot, and arefrequently dressed in the worn-out clothes of their parents,,ractely. -gut, >down to fit, thus producing that characteristicDublin figure, the street child with its tousled head, itsbare legs and the quaintly fluttering rags of its wardrobe.

Furniture, too, is usually bought secondhand- and isconfined to the barest necessities. Bedsteads, bedclothes,tables and chairs will be found in these households, butmay be dispensed with at need. Boxes may be substitutedfor tables and chairs. If there is no bedstead or bedclothesthe family may have to huddle in a corner and cover them-selves with their united wardrobes. In some tenementrooms the bedstead is not to be seen in its usual place inthe corner, but in its stead there is spread on the floor amysterious arid repellent assortment of rags, which few in-quirers have had the hardihood to investigate and which isbelieved to serve as a bed. When hard times come, thefurniture goes, and probably most ,of the clothes. CaseNo. 37 in the detailed account of typical tenement housesalready given, shows a household thus depleted under stressof circumstance. *" Hard times >J are unfortunately of frequent occurrence,

and are usually caused by sickness or unemployment. Sick-ness, as has been said, is an inevitable result of the con-ditions of life, and periods of unemployment are character-istic of the life of the unskilled labourer. Quayside labour,for instance, which employs thousands in Dublin, is in itsvery nature, casual and irregular. Carting varies fromtime to time according as the volume. of trade swells ordiminishes. The Trades Unionism which has flourishedhitherto among the Labourers of Dublin is rather of themilitant than the provident type, and little, or. no provisionis made by the men themselves.,to guard against sicknessor unemployment. If the breadwinner has to enter ahospital or is unable to get work, the wifeigroes out "chaf-ing," or obtains outdoor relief, or,.mo'reprofeably, assist-ance, from some charity or other. The clothes and furni-ture are pawned, the rent falls into arrears, and the finan-cial equilibrium, always unstable, is completely disturbed.Furthermore, the evil effects-of^periods of destitution arenot always removed w*hen comparative prosperity is re-stored. Debts have been, contracted, possessions, which


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172 Un skilled Labo ur in Du blin. [Part 94,have been sold, or pawn ed m ust be replace d, and b y thetime all this has been done the wolf may be prowlingaroun d the door again. T he housekeeper on 1 8 /- a weekis engaged in a never-ceasing hand-to-hand struggle withind igen ce. As a resu lt she is obliged to have recoursehabitua lly to me asures w hich should only b e, a last des-perate resort . M any househo lds in this ci ty have, as aregular feature of their weekly routine, an extensive pawn-ing, on M onday and redem ption on Sa turd ay. Needless tosay, there is no room in the labouring family for the prac-tice of any expensive vice by any of its members.Drunkenness or gambling on the part of husband or wifemust mean privation for al l .Fro m th e con tinual f inancial s tress, wh ich tu rn s th elaughing girls of the poorer Dublin streets into the weary-eyed women of the tenement houses, no real relief comesunti l the children begin to grow up and contribute somepa rt of the ir earn ing s to th e family" ex che qu er. By t hetime the boys and girls are fourteen or fifteen they are oldenou gh to go out and earn a few shillings. Case N o. 31shows an instance of a lab ou rer 's wag es being sup plem entedby the earnings of gir ls working at Jacob's biscuit factory.However, later on, when the boys and girls grow up andm arry , the pare nts, now grow ing old, -are throw n on theirown resources and, th ou gh the y have no one bu t them -selves to clothe and feed, sometimes pass through a periodof considerable penury before the Old Age Pension, " God'sbounty," as some of the poor call i t , descends on them atthe age of 70. I t m ust be remem bered th at an unskil ledlab ou rer at 50 or 60 is w or th 116 m ore to h is emp loye r, b utpro bab ly less, th an at 20 or 30. A lso, if by any ch ance h eloses his employment when he is beginning to have theapp eara nce of an old ma n, h e is no t likely to find an othe rplace easily.Such, then, in some of its main outlines, is the life ofa quarter of our city population, badly housed, ill feji ,un he alth y, indig ent, s trug glin g, hopeless. T he adjectivesare not too strong, nor has the picture been painted in toogloomy colours. T he re are rel ieving features, no dou bt,but their very presence heightens the general sombrenessan d squ alor of the scene . , T h e Dub lin labo urin g class pos-sesses seve ral fine "qualities. I t. is deep ly re ligio us, as isshow n by m an y indications. I t l ives, as a rule, a m uc hmore moral and respectable life than could be expectedconsidering i ts surr ou nd ings . I t exh ibits in a m arked de-gree th e social v irtues of kin dn ess, cheerfulness, an dcourtes y. T h e inquirers of the H ou sing and T ow n Plan-,nin g A ssociation, thou gh they wen t in to hu nd re ds . ofdw ellings du ring a grea t strike and asked a nu m be r of very:


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1914.] By D. A. Chart, Esq. 173po in ted , and delicate questions, rarely encountered sus-picion or incivility.- - Mentally and morally this class isprobably on a higher level than the labouring classes ofmost cities. It is on the physical and economic sides thatDublin falls so far behind.

What, then, can be done to improve the position of thelabourer and to rescue him from the Slough of Despond inwhiG-h he lies ? In the first place an increase of wages, or,at all events, a levelling up of wages to the figures nowpaid only by model employers, seems inevitable. Unlessit is intended to enforce celibacy on the labouring popula-tion, the average weekly wage must be sufficient to sup-port a family consisting of husband, wife, and children.Look at Cases No. 27 and 30, families of seven and four,each living on 16/- a week. It can only mean " starvationrations/1 The prisoners in the cells, the paupers in theworkhouse, are better housed, fed and looked after thanmany of the honest and self-supporting poorer citizens ofDublin. I know economic objections will be raised toadvocacy of increased wages. It will be said that if wagesrise the price of commodities will rise proportionately, andthe new wage will buy no more than the old. To this Iwould answer that the articles of the labouring man's con-sumption are not produced in Dublin, and therefore theirprices, except so far as concerns cost of handling anddelivery after arrival in the city, are not affected by varia-tions in Dublin wages. The price of coal depends mainlyon the circumstances prevailing in Great Britain, the priceof bread, meat, butter, bacon, and potatoes on the agricul-tural condition of Ireland, Denmark, America, the Argen-tine, and other countries ; and so through all the items ofthe budget already given.

The increase necessary to bring the remuneration of un-skilled labour to a proper living wage need not and shouldnot involve more than a trifling increase in the price of thecommodity. For instance, take the extreme case of a coalcarter, whose wages are increased from 16/- to 20/- a week,a rise of 4/-. A carter working 50 or 60 hours a week, prob-ably delivers at least 35 tons of coal. Delivery, therefore,under the new rate will cost about ijid. per ton more thanformerly. Of course, under such circumstances the Dublincoal merchants would, with singular unanimity, put up theprice by one shilling per ton, if not two, and would try tomake the public believe that the increased price was entirelydue to the rise in wages. And even if o\ir coal were to cost usthe full shilling more, many of us would rather pay it thanpay a shilling less and be troubled with the thought of thecarter's miserable home and half-nourished children. If


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174 Unskilled Labour in Dublin. [Part 94,the only solution of the problem is to pay moreA in Heaven?sname let us do so and be done with it. Cheapness is ~toodearly bought if it involves human suffering and degrada-tion.The same considerations really lie at the base of thehousing trouble. The Dublin labourer cannot pay the rentof a proper hygienic dwelling, nor, if he could, are there20,000 hygienic dwellings in Dublin at moderate rentsready for his occupation. These must be provided, andtheir provision will be a long, difficult, and expensive busi-ness. Still it must be faced, and, if no financial help orassistance can be obtained, we must meet the bill ourselves.The one-room tenement system must be attacked in everyway, by stringent bye-laws, by refusal of rebates of taxa-tion, by the offer of better accommodation at-the same priceelsewhere and under other conditions. The worst of thelarge tenement houses and all the wretched airless courtsand alleys must be pulled down and a new working-classdistrict, well provided with parks and public playgrounds,erected on their site. The better sort of tenement housemay probably be converted into sets of self-contained two-room or three-room flats. Whole districts must be re-built,and the city to a large extent re-planned. There was afine civic spirit at work many years ago when Westmore-land Street, D'Olier Street, College Green, O'ConnellBridge, and Sackville Street were designed. These charac-teristic and beautiful features of our city occupy the placeof eighteenth-century slums and rookeries. Cannot weput something finer and better in the place of Cork Street,Church Street, and all their purlieus ? May we not hopethat His Excellency's generous offer of a prize of ^500 forthe best plan for the reconstruction of Dublin will provokesome such brilliant outburst of talent and civic spirit ashistory records in the not too remote past.

It will be said, doubtless, that the blame for the state ofthe slums lies with the slum-dwellers themselves, that thetenant of insanitary habits makes the house noisome, and soon, and that such people, if admitted to a palace, wouldsoon turn it into a pigsty. We all know the stories of thebathroom used as a coal cellar and the water closetturned into a fowl-house. Undoubtedly there is a longeducative process before those who would try to raise thestandard of life of the Dublin labourer. " His worst fault ishis too easy acquiescence in a shameful and degrading posi-tion. He accepts tne one-room tenement, with all that theone-room tenement implies, as- his natural lot and oftendoes not seem to think of, or try for anything better. Ifhe had felt any real resentment against that system, hewould not have elected9 so many owners of tenement


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1914J By D. A. Chart, Esq. '175houses as members of the Corporation. Still, I think, heis beginning to awaken. And furthermore, if the betterideal is set constantly before him and if he finds more andmore opportunities of putting that ideal into practice, hewill probably readjust his standards of housing as readilyas his brother the Irish rural labourer has done within re-cent memory. T,he old mud cabin was every degree asslipshod, as overcrowded, as insanitary, and dirty as the one- room tenement. The rural "labourer's cottage " is mani-festly the dwelling of a man who feels that his home is ahome and is worth a little care and attention. Who couldfeel much pride in the possession of a " two-pair back " ?There are other points which might be touched on, butwhich would require almost a separate paper for their dis-cussion, for instance, the decasualising of quay labour,which has been put into practice in Iyiverpool, thus remov-ing one great cause of unemployment. There is also thehope of turning an unskilled into a partially-skilled popu-lation by means of technical education; the creation ofmanufacturing industries in the city (that connected withdressed meat, for instance) as a means of removing its over-dependence on unskilled workers; the part played by sub-sidiary employments suited for young people, such, forinstance, as the Dublin biscuit industry, which employshundreds of girls and thereby lightens the burden of hun-dreds of labouring families.It is a many-sided subject and could nowhere be morefittingly discussed than before the distinguished visitorswho have so kindly promised to honour the StatisticalSociety with their presence this evening. We can assureTheir Excellencies that we fully appreciate the complimentthey have paid us by their interest in the subject selectedfor this evening's paper, and we believe that discussion ofsuch a topic before workers for the public good so greatand so successful as the Earl and Countess of Aberdeencannot but be productive of advantage for the city ingeneral and its labouring population in particular,

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D.A. Chart, Unskilled Labour in Dublin, 1914

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