Data Collection Aima

8/10/2019 Data Collection Aima

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Dr. Amit Gupta

[email protected]


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METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION

While deciding about the method of data collection to be

used for the study, the researcher should keep in mind twotypes of data viz., primary and secondary.

The primary data are those which are collected afresh and

for the first time, and thus happen to be original in

character.

The secondary data are that which have already been

collected by someone else and which already has been

passed through statistical processes.

The researcher would have to decide which sort of data he

would be using (thus collecting) for his study andaccordingly he will have to select one or the other method

of data collection.


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Comparison between primary data and secondary data

PRIMARY DATA SECONDARY DATA

1. These are first-hand original

data collected by researchthrough various methods.

These are second-hand ready-made

datacollected by some other agencybut notby the researcher.

2. Collection is time and costconsuming. It is complicatedtoo.

Easy and quick collection at lesscost.

3.

Sources of primary data are thesampling units chosen. Sources could be internal orexternalrecords.

4. Primary data are reliable andaccurate when properlycollected.

Supplementary to primary data.

5. Primary data affect the researchdirectly.

They provide secondaryinformation.

6. Primary data are latest usefulfor current problems.

Secondary data are historical.


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COLLECTION OF SECONDARY DATA

Secondary data is data that has been collected by othersfor another purpose. It is important to us because it can

save considerable time and effort in solving the

research problem at hand. Researchers should always

conduct a thorough data search in the development andexecution of any research programme.


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USES OF SECONDARY DATA

The uses of secondary data can be conveniently arrangedinto the following four categories:

Problem recognition: A constant monitoring of secondarydata can provide the impetus for problem recognition.Moreover, exploratory studies maybe initiated to identify

future opportunities or weaknesses in the firm's currentoperations.

Problem clari f ication: Secondary data can also frui tful ly beused to help clarify the specific problem that we may be

facing. Here, clarification usually means making thedecision problem more reachable by delineating thecomponents of the situation. Another related use ofsecondary data is that they can help plan the study designand provide information to write the research proposal.


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Formulation of feasible alternatives: Alternatives must exist

before decision-making can take place. Secondary data are

very useful in generating viable alternatives to solve

problems. The multiplicity of data sources, research

approaches and managerial styles usually lead to a number

of possibilities which should be examined by the

researcher.

Problem solution: Not only are secondary data helpful in

the definition and development of a problem, they are

often sufficient in and of themselves, to generate a

problem's solution.


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ADVANTAGES OF SECONDARY DATA

The major advantage of secondary data is economy. As the

data are already available, they can be obtained at arelatively low cost.

The secondary data can be obtained quickly.

The secondary data enable the researchers to identify the

deficiencies in the data and make primary data collection

specific.

They are useful in the case of exploratory researches as they

provide increased understanding of the problem.

They act as a basis for comparison after primary data are

collected.

They provide for data which cannot obtained by the

typical organization like census reports.


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LIMITATIONS OF SECONDARY DATA

The available data may not suit the current purpose of

research, due to incompleteness, generalities and soon.

Information may be outdated or obsolete.

The methodology used in collecting the data such as

the sample size, date of the research, etc., may beunknown.

All the findings of a research study may not be made

public.

Conf l icting data may exist. It may be difficult to determine the accuracy of the

secondary data.


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EVALUATING SECONDARY DATA

The researcher before using any secondary data has to

satisfy himself as to their accuracy and reliability. He has

to evaluate secondary data on the following considerations:

Availability: At times, one may find that secondary data

are just not available on the problem at hand. The

secondary data must be available for use.

Relevance: Relevance means that the data available must

fit the requirements of that problem. This would cover

several aspects. First, the unit of measurement should bethe same as that in the marketing problem. Second, the

concepts should be the same as are envisaged in the

problem. Also, the data should not be obsolete.


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Accuracy: In this regard, one should consult the

original source. This would not only give

comprehensive information but would also indicatethe context in which data have been collected, the

procedure followed and the extent of care exercised

in their collection.

Sufficiency:Finally, the data should be sufficient. Ifthe data are inadequate, then compliance with the

preceding requirements will be in vain.


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Sources of Secondary Data

Internal

Internal sources can be classified under four broadcategories-

Accounting records,

Sales force reports,

Miscellaneous reports and

Internal experts.


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Accounting records:

These generate a good deal of data. As profits are

based on sales, sales invoice is a good source.

Such information can be extremely useful in

undertaking a detailed analysis of sales by

product, customer, industry, geographic area,

sales territory and sales representative.

Compared with corresponding data on costs, it

can indicate the level of profits (or loss) for each

product.


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Sales force reports:

This source can provide very useful marketinginformation but somehow it has remained largelyuntapped.

This is because sales persons may not be givingdetailed reports. In order to ensure that this source ismore useful, it is necessary to organize the system

properly. It should be a simple process of reporting the

information.

Sales persons may be encouraged to provide accurate

and comprehensive information. Some incentive maybe given to those who report accurately andadequately.


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Miscel laneous reports:

Any studies done earlier on marketing problems ofthe company, special audit, etc. come in this category.

Such reports on varying subjects should be properlymaintained and easily accessible when required.

Experts: Experts working in the company can also be a good

source of internal data. However, this source is least tapped. A limitation of

this source is that information is in the expertsmindand not on paper.

The experts can provide useful information or ideason a given marketing problem whenever a seriousdiscussion is held in a meeting.


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External Sources

The external secondary data do not originate in

the firm and are obtained from outside sources. It may be noted that secondary data can be

collected from the originating sources or from,secondary sources.

For example, the Office of the Economic Adviser,Government of India, is the originating source forthe data on wholesale prices.

In contrast, a publication such as the Reserve

Bank of I ndia Bul letin containing some parts ofthe series of wholesale prices is a secondarysource.


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Government Publications: A large bulk of secondarydata useful to a marketing researcher is found invarious government publications. The data relate to

various characteristic such as the break-up ofpopulation by sex, rural urban residence, age,education and occupation. While it is true that thesestatistics are available only decennially, they are the

most authentic and are often used as the basis forprojection for future years.

The Central Statistical Organization (CSO)

The Director General of Commercial I ntel l igence, The Wholesale Price I ndex numbers

Al l-I ndia Consumer Price I ndex numbers


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Some other official publications includethe:

Basic Statistics relating to the Indian Economy,

Reserve Bank of India Bulletin,

Currency Finance Report,

The Economic Survey, Agricultural Situation in India,

The Indian Labour Journal,

The Indian Labour Year Book,

State Statistical Abstracts and District StatisticalHandbooks,

National Sample Survey (NSS),


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Non-government Publications:

National Council of Applied Economic Research(NCAER),

TheMarketing Whitebookpublished by Business

World.

TheR.K Swamy BBDO Guide to Urban Markets

Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce and

Industry (FICCI)


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Collection of Primary Data

Observation

Observation is one of the methods of collectingdata. I t is used to get both past and currentinformation. For example, instead of askingrespondents about their current behaviour, wemay observe it and record our observations.

Although it is not possible to observe pastbehaviour, we may observe the results of suchbehaviour. In a way, secondary data reflect theresults of the past behaviour of people as also of

past occurrences. In marketing research, the observational method

is not used frequently.


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Advantages of observation

Subjective bias is eliminated, if observation is done

accurately. It enables a researcher to record behaviour as it occurs.

The information obtained is not complicated by eitherthe past behaviour or future intentions or attitudes.

It can be used regardless of whether the respondent iswilling to report or not. In a field survey, if anenumerator comes across an unwilling and hostilerespondent, he cannot collect the desired information.But, this problem does not arise at all in the case of

direct observation. It can be used even when it pertains to those who are

unable to respond such as infants and animals.


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Limitations of observation

The information provided by this method is verylimited.

The current behaviour of a person or a group of personscan only be observed. One is not able to observe the

past behaviour nor can one observe a persons futurebehaviour because the act of observation takes place in

the present. Sometimes unforeseen factors may interfere with the

observational task. For example, inaccessibility ofpeople to be observed.

The method is very slow and expensive. As such, whena large number of persons are to be contacted, it

becomes unsuitable.


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Methods of Observation

Structured-unstructured Observation

Structured observation is used when the research problemhas been formulated precisely and the observers have beentold specifically what is to be observed. They may be givena simple form to record their observations. They are

considered appropriate in descriptive studies.

Unstructured observation implies that observers are free toobserve whatever they think is relevant and important.

While structured observations are free from subjective bias,unstructured observations are subject to this limitation. Theextent of the bias may vary to the extent an observation isunstructured.


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Participant-non participant observation

When the observer observes the group by becoming a

part of the group so that he can experience what the

members of the group experience, the observation is

called participant observation.

In non-participant observation, the observer observes asa detached emissary without any attempt on his part to

experience through participation what others feel.


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Controlled-uncontrolled Observation

Observations in field studies are in their naturalsetting and are, therefore, called controlledobservation. The major aim of this type ofobservation is to get a spontaneous picture of lifeand persons.

Uncontrolled observations are observations in alaboratory setting, on the other hand, enables theobserver to control extraneous variables whichinfluence the behaviour of people. Observational

studies in laboratory settings enable the collection ofdata promptly and economically and in addition,permit the use of more objective measurements.


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Direct-I ndirect Observation

In the case of direct observation, the event or the

behaviour of a person is observed as it occurs. In contrast, indirect observation implies that some

record of past behaviour is observed.

In other words, the behaviour itself is not observed,

rather its effects are observed. An observer engagedin indirect observation generally looks for physical

traces of behaviour or occurrence of an event.

It may be noted that the success of an indirect

observation largely depends on how best the

observer is able to identify physical traces of the

problem under study.


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INTERVIEW METHOD

The interview method of collecting data involvespresentation of oral-verbal stimuli and reply in terms of

oral-verbal responses.

This method can be used through personal interviews

(like depth interviews),

focus group interviews and,

if possible, through telephone interviews.


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Personal interviews

Personal interview method requires a person known as

the interviewer asking questions generally in a face-to-face contact to the other person or persons.

The method of collecting information through personalinterviews is usually carried out in a structured way

.


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Structured interviews.

Such interviews involve the use of a set of

predetermined questions and of highly standardizedtechniques of recording.

Thus, the interviewer in a structured interview

follows a rigid procedure laid down, asking

questions in a form and order prescribed.


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Unstructured I nterviews

characterized by a flexibility of approach to

questioning. Unstructured interviews do not follow a system of pre-

determined questions and standardized techniques of

recording information.

Ina non-structured interview, the interviewer isallowed much greater freedom to ask, in case of need,

supplementary questions or at times he may omit

certain questions if the situation so requires.

He may even change the sequence of questions.


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Depth interviews

When a researcher is interested in in-depth investigation ofperceptions, attitudes or motivations of the respondents, anunstructured interview called Depth Interview is conducted. On

account of their flexibility, such interviews helpa researcher inasking probing questions to secure as much information aspossible. A procedure similar to that used by a psychiatrist isfollowed. The researcher asks such questions as are appropriatewithout any formal questionnaire with him.

For example:

What make of Electric Scooter did you buy? Did you compare different scooters before buying a Lohia?

What has been your experience with it?

Is it easy to maintain?

Is it reliable on busy roads?

Are you satisfied with its performance? Thus, the researcher will continue asking questions till he is

satisfied.


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Focus-Group interviews

In this method, the interviewer collects a small number

(say about 8 people) of representative consumers fordiscussion on a particular subject. A group smaller than

this proves to be insufficient for a focus group. A

group, say 10-12 people, is regarded as too large as the

people have to wait for long for their turn to come.


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Major advantages of personal interviews are as follows:

More information and that too in greater depth can be

obtained.

Interviewer by his own skill can overcome the

resistance, if any, of the respondents.

There is greater flexibility under this method as the

opportunity to restructure questions is always there,

especially in case of unstructured interviews.

Observation method can as well be applied to recording

verbal answers to various questions.

Personal information can as well be obtained easily

under this method.


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Weaknesses of personal interview method are as

follows:

It is a very expensive method, especially when largeand widely spread geographical sample is taken.

There remains the possibility of the bias of

interviewer as well as that of the respondent; there

also remains the headache of supervision andcontrol of interviewers.

Certain types of respondents such as important

officials or executives or people in high income

groups may not be easily approachable under thismethod and to that extent the data may prove

inadequate.


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This method is relatively more-time-consuming,especially when the sample is large.

The presence of the interviewer on the spot mayover-stimulate the respondent, sometimes even tothe extent that he may give imaginary informationjust to make the interview interesting.

Under the interview method the organizationrequired for selecting, training and supervising thefield-staff is more complex with formidableproblems.

Effective interview presupposes proper rapport with

respondents that would facilitate free and frankresponses. This is often a very difficult requirement.


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For successful implementation of a personal interview:

the interviewers should be carefully selected, trainedand briefed. They should be honest, sincere,hardworking, and impartial and must possess thetechnical competence and necessary practicalexperience.

occasional field checks should be made to ensure thatinterviewers are neither cheating, nor deviating frominstructions given to them for performing their jobefficiently.

some provision should also be made in advance so thatappropriate action may be taken if some of the selectedrespondents refuse to cooperate or are not availablewhen an interviewer calls upon them.


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effort should be made to create friendly atmosphere of

trust and confidence, so that respondents may feel at

ease while talking to and discussing with the interviewer. the interviewer must ask questions properly and

intelligently and must record the responses accurately

and completely. At the same time, the interviewer

must answer legitimate question(s), if any, asked by therespondent and must clear any doubt that the latter has.

The interviewers approach must be friendly, courteous,

conversational and unbiased.

the interviewer must keep the direction of interview inhis own hand, discouraging irrelevant conversation and

must make all possible effort to keep the respondent on

the track.


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Telephone interviews

This method of collecting information consists in contactingrespondents on telephone itself. It is not a very widely used method,but plays important part in industrial surveys, particularly in

developed regions. The chief merits of such a system are:

It is more flexible in comparison to mailing method.

It is faster than other methods i.e., a quick way of obtaininginformation.

It is cheaper than personal interviewing method; here the cost per

response is relatively low. Recall is easy; callbacks are simple and economical.

There is a higher rate of response than what we have in mailingmethod; the non-response is generally very low.

Replies can be recorded without causing embarrassment torespondents.

At times, access can be gained to respondents who otherwise cannot becontacted for one reason or the other.

No field staff is required.

Representative and wider distribution of sample is possible.


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Demerits of telephonic interviews are as follows:

Little time is given to respondents for considered

answers; interview period is not likely to exceed five

minutes in most cases.

Surveys are restricted to respondents who have

telephone facilities.

Extensive geographical coverage may get restricted bycost considerations.

It is not suitable for intensive surveys where

comprehensive answers are required to various

questions. Questions have to be short and to the point; probes are

difficult to handle.


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SCHEDULES

This method of data collection is very much like the collection of datathrough questionnaire, with little difference which lies in the fact that

schedules (proforma containing a set of questions) are being filled in bythe enumerators who are specially appointed for the purpose. Theseenumerators along with schedules go to respondents, put to them thequestions from the proforma in the order the questions are listed andrecord the replies in the space meant for the same in the proforma.

Enumerators explain the aims and objects of the investigation and alsoremove the difficulties which any respondent may feel in understandingthe implications of a particular question or the definition or concept ofdifficult terms. The enumerators should be trained to perform their jobwell. Enumerators should be intelligent and must possess the capacityof cross examination in order to find out the truth. Above all, they

should be honest, sincere, and hardworking and should have patienceand perseverance.

C i b t ti i d h d l


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Comparison between questionnaires and schedulesQUESTIONNAIRES SCHEDULES

1. The questionnaire is generally sent through mailto the informants.

They are generally filled out by the research worker or theenumerator.

2. To collect data through questionnaire is relativelycheap and economical.

To collect data through schedules is relatively moreexpensive since considerable amount of money has to bespent in appointing enumerators and in imparting training

to them.

3. Non-response is usually high in case ofquestionnaire as many people do not respond andmany return the questionnaire without answeringall questions.

Non-response is generally very low in case of schedulesbecause these are filled by enumerators who are able to getanswers to all questions.

4. Bias due to non-response often remainsindeterminate.

Danger of interviewer bias and cheating is always there.

5. Identity of respondent is unknown. Identity of respondent is known.

6. Its likely to be very slow since many respondentsdo not returnthe questionnaire in time despite severalreminders.

Information is collected well in time as they are filled in byenumerators.

7. Personal contact with respondents is generally notpossible.

Direct personal contact is established with respondents.

8. Can be used only when respondents are literateand cooperative.

Information can be gathered even when the respondentshappen to be illiterate.

9. Wider and more representative distribution ofsample is possible.

Difficulty in sending enumerators over a relatively widerarea.

10. Risk of collecting incomplete and wronginformation is relatively more.

Information collected is generally complete and accurate asenumeratorscan remove the difficulties, if any, faced by respondents incorrectly understanding the questions.

11. The success of questionnaire method lies more onthe quality of the questionnaire itself.

The success of schedules depends upon the honesty andcompetence of enumerators.

12 Ob bl h Al h h d l b h d l b

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