Data collection

Data analysis in the research process

Observed events and objects

Constructs,variables

Concepts

Method

Theories

Epistemology

Values, world view

Records

Findings

Results

Interpretationsexplanations

Knowledge claims

Value claims

Research review

Research design

Datacollection

Dataanalysis

Discussion

Internal validity

External validity

Investi-gativelens

Episte-mologicallens

Researchquestion

2

Data collection

Modality• Interviews• Focus groups• Observations• Meetings• Training

Tools• Tape recording

– Transcribing

• Interview reports– Interview guide

• Diary• Field notes• Taking pictutures

– Documenting– Remembering– Illustrating

Interview design

• Planning • Recruit according to what you want to find out

– Stakeholders– Snowballing

• Interview guide– You get answers as you ask them– Open and closed questions– Probing

Conducting interviews

Structured interviews

• Ensuring comparability

Semi-structured interviews

• In-depth interviews

• Buddy – interviews

• Focus group discussions

Informal interviews

• Explorative• Ad hoc

The venue is important

Documenting interviews

Tape recording and filming

• Allows word for word transcription

• Allows to concentrate on what is said

• May be considered intrusive

• May draw attention away from the interview

Taking notes during interview

• Less accurate• May disturb the flow• Less intrusive• Team: one

interviewer and one note taker

Transcribing tapes and notes

• Is word for word necessary?

• From notes: transcribe as soon as possible

• Describe context of the interview

Sharing and validation

• Can fieldnotes be shared?– Context is needed– Sharing in a team

• Fieldnotes versus empirical descriptions– Context, structure and interpretation

• Validation of data produced by participant observation? – Rich descriptions– Be clear about the context(s) of data production– Be clear about your role and be present in the text

Registrers

Activity plan

ANM diary

Mother & Child registrers

Engaged discussion

Training

The saw their own data

Letter on terms and conditions for the distributed SIM’s

Note that in this letter ANM is provided with150 rupees per month in contrary to what is communicated to the ANMs today(100 rupees).

Participant observation

• Balancing distance and closeness– Participating and observing– Paying attention to what is taken for granted– The time aspect

• Interaction data– How people interact gives information about social structures

and values – Enable us to study what cannot be articulated by the informants

• What people say vs. what they do– A gap between what people say and do often points to

something important

The role of the researcher

• Producing data together with the informants– Mutual influence

• The researcher’s status and personality influence– gender, civil status, class, conduct – Dressing

• Which role to take? – Ethics

• Learning from your mistakes• Use informants to discuss interpretations• Participant observation in one’s own culture

– How much is shared? – Active distancing – try to see things with fresh eyes

Writing fieldnotes

Scratch notes• Notes taken ”in action”• Taking a break to take notes• Pen and paper• Recorder/mobile• Cool quickly!

Field notes • Notes ”after action”• Write ”everything” – you never

know what may turn out important

• Remember the context • Remember yourself• Include reflections and

interpretations, but keep them separate from the observations

References • Ellen, R.F. 1984: Ch.8: Producing Data” in Ellen, R.F. Ethnographic

Research. Academia Press• Hume, L. and Mulcock, J. 2004: Anthropologists in the field. Cases

in Participant Observation. Columbia University Press• Narayan, K. 1993: ”How Native is a Native Anthropologist?” in

American Anthropologist: Journal of the American Anthropological Association, nr. 5 1993

• Sanjek, R. 1990: ”A vocabulary for Fieldnotes” in Sanjek, R. (ed): Fieldnotes. The Makings of Anthropology. Cornell University Press

• Spradley, J. P. 1980: Participant observation. Harcourt Brace Jovanovich College Publishers

Explorative interview tools

Photo interviews Modelling, drawing