Data Collection Methods ppt

8/13/2019 Data Collection Methods ppt

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Methods of Data Collection

There are essentially two types:

1. Primary dataare those which are

collected for the first time and areoriginal in character

2. Secondary dataare those which

have already been collected bysomeone else and which have been

subjected to some statistical analysis


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Collection of Primary Data

Primary data may be collected thru:

1. Observation Method

2. Survey Method

3. Thru Questionnaires/Schedules

4. Personal Interview


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Primary Sourcesof Data:

Observation


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Overview

Introduction

Meaning

DefinitionWhy to observe ?

Characteristics

Types of observation

Advantages and disadvantages

Observation Tools And Recording Devices


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IntroductionThe observation method is the most commonly used method

specially in studies relating to behavioural science. In a way we all

observe thing around us, but this sort of observation is not scientific

observation. Observation becomes a scientific tool and the method

of data collection for the researcher, when it serves a formulated

research purpose, is systematically planned and recorded and is

subjected to checks and controls on validity and reliability. It is also

a process of recording the behavior patterns of people, objects, and

occurrences, on a real time basis and in a 'natural setting.


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Meaning

Observation means viewing or seeing. We go on observing

some thing or other while we are awake. Most of such

observations are just casual and have no specific purpose.

But observation as a method of data collection is different from

such casual viewing.


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Definition

Langley, P OBSERVATION involves looking and listening very

carefully. We all watch other people sometimes, but we don't usually

watch them in order to discover particular information about their

behavior. This is what observation in social science involves

Gorman and Clayton define observation studies as those thatinvolve the systematic recording of observable phenomena or

behaviour in a natural setting


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Why to observe ?

Observation allows the researcher to study people in their 'natural setting'

without their behaviour being influenced by the presence of a researcher.

Observational data usually consists of detailed information about

particular groups or situations. This kind of data can 'fill out' and provide

a deeper, richer, understanding than survey work which tends to produce

less detailed information about a larger number of people.

Some methods only allow for the study of one individual at a time.

Observation enables the research to study groups of people together, that

is, it allows for the study of interaction between the members of a group.


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Characteristics of observation research

Observation as a method of data collection has certain characteristics.

1. It is both a physical and a mental activity. The observation eye

catchesmany things which are sighted, but attention is focussed on data

that are pertinent to the given study.

2. Observation is selective. A researcher does not observe anything

and everything, but select the range of things to be observed on the basis of

the nature, scope and objectives of his study.

3. Observation is purposive and not casual. It is made for the

specific purpose of nothing things relevant to the study.

4. It captures the natural social context in whichpersonsbehaviour

occurs.


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Types of observation

Participant Observation

Non-participant Observation

Direct Observation

Indirect Observation

Controlled Observation

Uncontrolled Observation


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Participant Observation : In this observation, the observer is a

part of the phenomenon or group which is observed and he acts as both an

observer and a participant.

Example, a study of tribal customs by an anthropologist by taking part in

tribal activities like folk dance. The persons who are observed should not

be aware of the researchers purpose. Only then their behaviour will be

natural.


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Non - Participant Observation : In this method, the observer

stands apart and does not participate in the phenomenon observed.

Naturally, there is no emotional involvement on the part of the observer.

This method calls for skill in recording observations in an unnoticed

manner.

It may involve use of recording devices to capture the details of how people

talk, behave and interact.


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Direct Observation : This means observation of an event personally

by the observer when it takes place. This method is flexible and allows the

observer to see and record subtle aspects of events and behaviour as they

occur. He is also free to shift places, change the focus of the observation.

Example: Observer is physically present to monitor

Indirect Observation : This does not involve the physical presence

of the observer, and the recording is done by mechanical, photographic or

electronic devices.

Example : Recording customer and employee movements by a special

motion picture camera mounted in a department of large store.


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Controlled Observation : Controlled observation is carried out

either in the laboratory or in the field. It is typified by clear and explicit

decisions on what, how, and when to observe. It is primarily used for

inferring causality, and testing casual hypothesis.

Uncontrolled Observation : This does not involve structured

observation. It is primarily used for descriptive research. Participant

observation is a typically uncontrolled one.


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cont.

The observation setting, the subjects to be observed, the timing and

mode of observation, recording procedure, recording instruments to be

used, and other details of the task should be determined.

Observation should be selected and trained. The persons to be selected

must have sufficient concentration powers, strong memory power and

unobtrusive nature. Selected persons should be imparted both

theoretical and practical training


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Advantages of observationmethod

They permit measurement of actual behavior rather than reports of

intended or preferred behavior.

There is no reporting bias, and potential bias caused by the interviewer and

the interviewing process is eliminated or reduced.

Certain types of data can be collected only by observation.

If the observed phenomenon occurs frequently or is of short duration,

observational methods may be cheaper and faster than survey methods.


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Disadvantages of observation method

The reasons for the observed behavior may not be determined since little is

known about the underlying motives, beliefs, attitudes, and preferences.

Selective perception (bias in the researcher's perception) can bias the data.

In some cases, the use of observational methods may be unethical, as in

observing people without their knowledge or consent.


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Observation tools and recording devices

Observation guides

Recording sheets or checklist

Schedule

Field observation log

Mechanical devices


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Observation guides: These are printed forms that provide spacefor recording observations. They are particularly useful when

several observers are involved or when you wish to obtain

comparable information from several sites/ observation points or

observations of many people. The more structured the guide, the

easier it will be to tally the results.

Recording sheets or checklist: These forms are used to recordobservations as in YES/NO option (present not present) or on a

rating scale to indicate extent or quality of something. Checklists are

used when there are specific, observable items, actions or attributes

to be observed.


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Schedule : The data requirements are identified by analyzing the core of the

problem, the objectives of the study, the investigative questions, hypothesis and

the operational definition of concepts and out of the data requirements, items ofdata to be collected through observation are identified. A schedule is then

constructed, covering those items of data.

Field observation log : This may take the form of a diary or cards. Each item of

observation is recorded under appropriate subheading.

At the time of observation , rough noting may be made, and at the end of the

day, fully log may be made. The card system is flexible and facilitatesarrangement and re-arrangement of items in any desired order.


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Mechanical devices : These may include cameras, tape recorders,

videotape and electronic devices. Still, motion , sound, colour and

time lapse cameras give a permanent record of events. Microscopic

and telescopic lens may be used in cameras. Eye cameras are

common in advertising and package research. The camera makes a

record that can be analyzed later and may be used to illustrate your

evaluation report.


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Conclusion

Under the observation method, the information is sought by way of investigators

own direct observation without asking from the respondent. For instance, in a study

relating to consumer behavior, the investigator instead of asking the brand of wrist

watch used by the respondent, may himself look at the watch. The main advantage

of this method is that subjective bias is eliminated, as such is relatively less

demanding of active cooperation on the part of respondents as happens to be the

case in the interview or the questionnaire method. This method is particularly

suitable in studies (i.e. respondents) who are not capable of giving verbal reports of

their feelings for one reason or the other.


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SURVEYInformation Obtained

by Questioning Respondents


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Survey Methods

Telephone Personal Electronic

Traditional

Telephone

Computer-Assisted

Telephone Interviewing

Mall Intercept

In-Home

E-Mail

InternetComputer-Assisted

Personal Interviewing

Mail

Mail Panel

Mail/Fax

Interview

Classi f icat ion of Survey Method s


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The Survey Method

The survey method of obtaining information

is based on questioning respondents.

Perhaps the biggest issue researchers face ishow to motivate respondents to candidly

answer their questions.

Questions regarding behavior, intentions,attitudes, awareness, motivations, and

demographic and lifestyle characteristics all

lend themselves to survey research.


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Advantages of Survey Research Ease: Questionnaires are relatively easy to

administer.

Reliability: Using fixed-response (multiple-choice)

questions reduces variability in the results that

may be caused by differences in interviewers and

enhances reliability of the responses.

Simplicity: It also simplifies coding, analysis, and

interpretation of data.


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Disadvantages of Survey Research

Respondents may be unable or unwilling to

provide the desired information.

Structured data collection involving a

questionnaire with fixed-response choices

may result in loss of validity for certain

types of data, such as beliefs and feelings.

Properly wording questions is not easy.


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Traditional Telephone Interviews

Involve phoning a sample of respondents and

asking them a series of questions.

The interviewer uses a paper questionnaire

and records the responses with a pencil.

Telephone interviews are generally conductedfrom centrally located research facilities.


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Field service supervisors can closely monitor the

telephone conversations.

Data quality is also enhanced with on-the-spot

review of completed questionnaires.


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Computer-Assisted Telephone

Interviewing

Uses a computerized questionnaire administeredto respondents over the telephone.

The interviewer sits in front of a computer screenand wears a mini-headset.

Upon command, the computer dials the telephonenumber to be called.

When contact is made, the interviewer reads thequestions posed on the CRT screen and recordsthe respondent's answers directly into thecomputer.


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Interim and update reports can be compiled

instantaneously, as the data are being collected. CATI software has built-in logic, which also

enhances data accuracy.

The program will personalize questions andcontrol for logically incorrect answers, such aspercentage answers that do not add up to 100percent.

The software has built-in branching logic, whichwill skip questions that are not applicable or willprobe for more detail when warranted.


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Survey Methods


Traditional

Telephone

Computer-Assisted


Mall Intercept

In-Home

E-Mail



Mail

Mail Panel

Mail/Fax

Interview

Classi f icat ion of Survey Method s


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Personal In-Home Interviews

Respondents are interviewed face-to-face in

their homes.

The interviewer's task is to contact the

respondents, ask the questions, and record

the responses.

In recent years, the use of personal in-home

interviews has declined.


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Mall-Intercept Personal Interviews

Respondents are intercepted in shopping in

malls.

The process involves stopping the shoppers,

screening them for appropriateness, and eitheradministering the survey on the spot or inviting

them to a research facility located in the mall to

complete the interview.

While not representative of the population in

general, shopping mall customers do constitute

a major share of the market for many products.


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Computer-Assisted Personal

Interviewing (CAPI)

The respondent sits in front of a computer

terminal and answers a questionnaire on the

screen by using the keyboard or a mouse.

Help screens and courteous error messages

are provided.

The colorful screens and on- and off-screen

stimuli add to the respondent's interest and

involvement in the task.


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This method has been classified as a personalinterview technique since an interviewer is

usually present to serve as a host and to guide

the respondent as needed.

This approach is used in shopping malls,preceded by the intercept and screening process

described earlier.

It is also used to conduct business-to-businessresearch at trade shows or conventions.

Fi 7 4 Cl i f i t i f S M th d


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Survey Methods


Traditional

Telephone

Computer-Assisted


Mall Intercept

In-Home

E-Mail



Mail

Mail Panel

Mail/Fax

Interview

Figu re 7.4 Class i f icat ion of Survey Methods


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Mail Interviews

A typical mail interview package consists of

the outgoing envelope, cover letter,

questionnaire, postage-paid return envelope,

and possibly an incentive.

Those individuals motivated to do so complete

and return the questionnaire through the mail.

There is no verbal interaction between the

researcher and the respondent.


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Individuals are selected for cold surveys through

mailing lists the client maintains internally or has

purchased commercially.

The type of envelope, the cover letter, the length

of the questionnaire, and the incentive (if one is

offered) all affect response rates.

TABLE 7 2


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TABLE 7.2

Some Decisions Related to the

Mail Interview Package

__________________________________________________

Outgoing Envelope

Outgoing Envelope: size, color, return address

Postage

Method of Addressing

Cover Letter

Sponsorship Signature

Personalization Postscript

Type of appeal

Quetionnaire

Length Layout

Content Color

Size FormatReproduction Respondent anonymity

Return Envelope

Type of envelope

Postage

Incentives

Monetary vs. nonmonetary

Prepaid vs. promised amount


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Email Surveys

If the addresses are known, the survey can

simply be mailed electronically to respondents

included in the sample.

Respondents key in their answers and send an e-

mail reply.

Typically, a computer program is used to prepare

the questionnaire and email address list, and to

prepare the data for analysis.


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Respondent anonymity is difficult to maintainbecause a reply to an email message includes the

senders address.

Email surveys are especially suited to projectswhere the email lists are readily available, such

as surveys of employees, institutional buyers,

and consumers who frequently contact the

organization via email (e.g., frequent fliers of an

airline).


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Internet Surveys

An Internet survey is a questionnaire posted

on a Web site that is self administered by the

respondent.

The questions are displayed on the screen and

the respondents provide answers by clicking

an icon, keying in an answer, or highlighting a

phrase.

Web survey systems are available for

constructing and posting Internet surveys.


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The researcher can obtain at any time survey

completion statistics, descriptive statistics of theresponses, and graphical display of the data.

As compared to email surveys, Internet surveys

offer more flexibility, greater interactivity,personalization, automatic skip patterns and

visual appeal.

Several Web sites, such as WebSurveyor

(www.websurveyor.com), allow users to designsurveys online without downloading the software.
http://www.websurveyor.com/http://www.websurveyor.com/


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TABLE 7.1 (Cont.)

Relative Advantages of Different Survey Methods

________________________________________________________________________________

METHOD ADVANATAGES DISADVANTAGES

CAPI Complex questions can be asked High social desirability

Very good for physical stimuli Quantity of data is moderate

Very good control of environment High cost

Very good response rate

Low potential for interviewer bias

Mail No field force problems Limited to simple questions

No interviewer bias Low sample control for cold mail

Moderate/High quantity of data No control of environment

Social desirability is low Low response rate for cold mail

Low/moderate cost Low speed

Electronic No field force problems Limited to simple questions

No interviewer bias Low sample controlLow cost No control of environment

Social desirability is low Low response rate

High speed Moderate quantity of data

________________________________________________________________________________


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C it i f S l ti S


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Criteria for Selecting a Survey

Method

When evaluating the various survey methods within

the context of a specific research project, one has to

consider the salient factors relevant to data

collection.

Often, certain factors dominate, leading to a particular

survey method as the natural choice.

If no method is clearly superior, the choice must be

based on an overall consideration of the advantagesand disadvantages of the various methods.

Often, in large projects these methods are combined

to enhance the quality of data in a cost-effective

manner.

Lecture plan


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Lecture plan

Methods of Ob taining Quanti tat ive Data in Descr ip t ive Research

Survey Methods:

Advantages and Disadvantages

Classification of survey methods

Criteria for selecting a survey method

Improving survey response rate

Observation Methods:

Classification of Observation Methods

Advantages and Disadvantages

A comparison between Survey and Observation Methods


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Methods of Improving Response Rates

Prior

Notification Incentives Follow-upOther

Facilitators

Monetary Nonmonetary

PromisedPrepaid

Improving Response Rates


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Follow-up, or contacting the nonrespondents

periodically after the initial contact, is particularly

effective in decreasing refusals in mail surveys.

Follow-up can also be done by telephone, e-mail,

or personal contact.

Personalization, or sending letters addressed to

specific individuals, is effective in increasing

response rates.


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Observat ion Methods

Personal Observation

A researcher observes actual behavior as it

occurs.

The observer does not attempt to manipulate

the phenomenon being observed but merely

records what takes place.

For example, a researcher might record

traffic counts and observe traffic flows in a

department store.



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Mechanical Observation

Do not require respondents' direct participation.

the AC Nielsen audimeter

turnstiles that record the number of peopleentering or leaving a building.

On-site cameras (still, motion picture, or video) Optical scanners in supermarkets

Do require respondent involvement.

eye-tracking monitors, pupilometers psychogalvanometers

voice pitch analyzers

devices measuring response latency


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Relative Advantages of Observation

They permit measurement of actual behaviorrather than reports of intended or preferred

behavior.

There is no reporting bias, and potential bias

caused by the interviewer and the interviewingprocess is eliminated or reduced.

Certain types of data can be collected only by

observation.

If the observed phenomenon occurs frequently or

is of short duration, observational methods may

be cheaper and faster than survey methods.

Relative Disadvantages of


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Relative Disadvantages of

Observation

The reasons for the observed behavior may not bedetermined, since little is known about the underlying

motives, beliefs, attitudes, and preferences.

Selective perception (bias in the researcher's perception)

can bias the data. Observational data are often time-consuming and

expensive, and it is difficult to observe certain forms of

behavior.

In some cases, the use of observational methods may beunethical, as in observing people without their knowledge

or consent.

It is best to view observation as a complement to survey

methods, rather than as being in competition with them.


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TABLE 7.3

Relative Advantages of Observation MethodsMETHOD ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES

Personal Observation Most flexible High observation biasHighly suitable in natural settings High analysis bias

Mechanical observation Low observation bias Can be intrusiveLow to medium analysis bias Not always suitable in natural

settings


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Interview Method

The Interview Method of collecting data

involves presentation of oral-verbalstimuli and reply in terms of oral

verbal responses


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Personal Interview

Thus, the interviewer in a structured interview

follows a rigid procedure, asking questions in a

form and order prescribed

In unstructured interviewsthere is a flexibility of

approach to questioning

Unstructured interviews do not follow a system of

pre-determined questions and standardizedtechniques of recording information


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Other Interview Techniques

Focused Interviewto focus attention

on the given experience of the

respondent and its effectsThe Interviewer has the freedom to

decide the manner and sequence of

questions to elicit/explore reasons andmotives. The main task is to confine the

respondent to a discussion of issues


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Other Interview Techniques

Clinical Interviewis concerned with broadunderlying feelings or motivations or with thecourse of an individuals life experience. Eliciting

information is left to the interviewers discretionNon-Directive Interviewthe interviewer's

function is simply to encourage the respondent totalk about the topic with a bare minimum of direct

questioning. The interviewer often acts as acatalyst to a comprehensive expression of therespondents feelings and beliefs


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Disadvantages

1. Expensive method

2. Interviewer bias

3. Respondent bias

4. Time consuming

5. Under the interview method the organizationrequired for selecting, training, and supervisingthe field staff is complex with formidable

problems6. Establishing rapport to facilitate free and frank

responses is very difficult


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Demerits

1. Low rate of return

2. Respondents need to be educated and

cooperative3. Inbuilt inflexibility

4. Possibility of ambiguous replies or

omission of items

5. This method is slow


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Features of a Questionnaire

Questionnaire is the heart of a survey

needs to be carefully constructed

Need to understand the features of theQuestionnaireits general form,

question sequence and question

formulation and the wording of thequestions


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General Form Structured Questionnaires may also have fixed

alternative questions in which responses are limited tothe stated alternatives

Thus, a highly structured Questionnaire is one in which

all the questions and answers are specified andcomments in the respondents own words are held tothe minimum

Unstructured Questionnairewhen the abovecharacteristics are absent, it is known as a

unstructured Questionnaire The Interviewer is provided with a general guideline on

the type of information to be obtained


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3. Question Formulation & Wording

Phrasing the questions must be clearand unambiguous

Questions should be impartial andunbiased

Should be easily understood

Should be simple (one idea at a time)

Should be concrete

Form of questions may be multiplechoice or open-ended


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Very similar to the Questionnaire method

The main difference is that a schedule is filled by theenumeratorwho is specially appointed for the

purposeEnumerator goes to the respondents, asks them the

questions from the Performa in the order listed, andrecords the responses in the space provided

Enumerators must be trained in administering theschedule

Survey using Schedules

(Data Collection Thru Schedules)


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Collection of Secondary Data

Published data are available in:

1. Publications of State/Central govts

2. Publications of International Bodies

3. Technical and Trade Journals

4. Books, Magazines and Newspapers

5. Reports/Publications of various organizations(banks, stock exchanges, business houses,etc)

6. Reportsby scholars, Universities, etc

7. Public records, Historical Documents, etc


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Secondary Data must possess the

following characteristics:Reliability of datamay be tested by checking:

Who collected the data?

What were the sources of the data?

Was the data collected properly?

Suitability of datadata that are suitable for one enquiry may not benecessarily suitable in another enquiry

Therefore, the researcher must scrutinize the definition of variousterms and units of collection. Also, the objectives, scope and natureof the original enquiry must be studied

Adequacy of datathe data will be considered inadequate, if they arerelated to an area which may be either narrower or wider than thearea of the present enquiry

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