Decisions If statements in C. 2 Decision Making: Equality and Relational Operators Executable...

Decisions

If statements in C

2

Decision Making: Equality and Relational Operators

• Executable statements– Perform actions (calculations, input/output of data)– Perform decisions

• May want to print "pass" or "fail" given the value of a test grade

• if control structure– If a condition is true, then the body of the if statement

executed• 0 is false, non-zero is true

– Control always resumes after the if structure• Keywords– Special words reserved for C– Cannot be used as identifiers or variable names

3


Standard algebraic equality operator or relational operator

C equality or relational operator

Example of C condition

Meaning of C condition

Equality Operators = == x == y x is equal to y

not = != x != y x is not equal to y Relational Operators > > x > y x is greater than y

< < x < y x is less than y

>= >= x >= y x is greater than or equal to y

<= <= x <= y x is less than or equal to y

4


Keywords

auto double int struct

break else long switch

case enum register typedef

char extern return union

const float short unsigned

continue for signed void

default goto sizeof volatile

do if static while

5

Control Structures

• Sequential execution – Statements executed one after the other in the order written– All programs written in terms of 3 control structures

• Sequence structures: Built into C. Programs executed sequentially by default

• Selection structures: C has three types: if, if/else, and switch

• Repetition structures: C has three types: while, do/while and for

6

The if Selection Structure

• Selection structure: – Used to choose among alternative courses of action

– Pseudocode:If student’s grade is greater than or equal to 80

Print “Passed”

• If condition true – Print statement executed and program goes on to next

statement

– If false, print statement is ignored and the program goes onto the next statement

– Indenting makes programs easier to read• C ignores whitespace characters

7


• Pseudocode statement in C:if ( grade >= 60 ) printf( "Passed\n" );

– C code corresponds closely to the pseudocode

8


• if structure is a single-entry/single-exit structure

true

false

grade >= 60

print “Passed”

A decision can be made on any expression. zero - false nonzero - trueExample:3 - 4 is true

9

The if/else Selection Structure

• if– Only performs an action if the condition is true

• if/else– Specifies an action to be performed both when the condition

is true and when it is false

• Psuedocode:If student’s grade is greater than or equal to 60

Print “Passed”

elsePrint “Failed”

– Note spacing/indentation conventions

10


• C code:if ( grade >= 60 )

printf( "Passed\n");

else

printf( "Failed\n");

• Ternary conditional operator (?:) DO NOT USE!– Takes three arguments (condition, value if true, value if false)

– Our pseudocode could be written:printf( "%s\n", grade >= 60 ? "Passed" : "Failed" );

– Or it could have been written:grade >= 60 ? printf( “Passed\n” ) : printf( “Failed\n” );

11


• Flow chart of the if/else selection structure

• Nested if/else structures – Test for multiple cases by placing if/else selection

structures inside if/else selection structures

– Once condition is met, rest of statements skipped

– Deep indentation usually not used in practice

truefalse

print “Failed” print “Passed”

grade >= 60

2000 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.

12


– Pseudocode for a nested if/else structure

If student’s grade is greater than or equal to 90Print “A”

else If student’s grade is greater than or equal to 80 Print “B”else If student’s grade is greater than or equal to 70 Print “C” else If student’s grade is greater than or equal to 60 Print “D” else Print “F”

13


• Compound statement: – Set of statements within a pair of braces

– Example:if ( grade >= 60 )

printf( "Passed.\n" );

else {

printf( "Failed.\n" );

printf( "You must take this course again.\n" );}

– Without the braces, the statementprintf( "You must take this course again.\n" );

would be executed automatically

14


• Block:– Compound statements with declarations

• Syntax errors– Caught by compiler

• Logic errors: – Have their effect at execution time

– Non-fatal: program runs, but has incorrect output

– Fatal: program exits prematurely

isdigit() Function

The isdigit() function is part of the character-handling library <ctype.h>#include <stdio.h>

#include <ctype.h>

main()

{

char cResponse = '\0';

printf("\nPlease enter a letter: ");

scanf("%c", &cResponse);

if ( isdigit(cResponse) == 0 )

printf("\nThank you\n");

else

printf("\nYou did not enter a letter\n");

}

15

INTRODUCTION TO BOOLEAN ALGEBRA

Boolean algebra is named after George Boole, a mathematician in the nineteenth century. Booledeveloped his own branch of logic containing the values true and false and the operatorsand, or, and not to manipulate the values.Even though Boole’s work was before the advent of computers, his research has become thefoundation of today’s modern digital circuitry in computer architecture.

Truth table for and (&&)x y Result

true true true

true false false

false true false

false false false

Truth table for or (||)x y Result

true true true

true false true

false true true

false false false

Solve the following Boolean algebra problems, given x == 5, y == 3, and z == 4

1. x > 3 and z == 42. y >= 3 or z > 43. NOT(x == 4 or y < z)4. (z == 5 or x > 3) and (y == z or x < 10)

C syntax for compound if statements

if ( 3 > 5 && 5 < 5 )printf("The entire expression is false\n");

if ( 3 > 5 || 6 < 5 )printf("The entire expression is false\n");

Control statement – replaces multiple if/else statements

Example switch statement

switch(n)

{

case 0: printf("You typed zero.\n");

break;

case 1:printf("n is a perfect square\n");

break;

case 2:

printf("n is an even number\n");

case 3:

case 7:

printf("n is a prime number\n");

break;

case 4:

printf("n is a perfect square\n");

case 6:

printf("n is an even number\n");

break;

default:

printf("Only single-digit numbers are allowed\n");

break;

}

switch (using pre-processor)#define STATE_READY 1 #define STATE_SET 2 #define STATE_GO 3 #define STATE_FAIL 4

switch( state ) { case STATE_READY:

state = STATE_SET; if( x < 0 )

state = STATE_FAIL; break;

case STATE_SET: state = STATE_GO; if( y > 0 )

state = STATE_FAIL; break;

case STATE_GO: printf( "go!\n" ); break;

case STATE_FAIL: exit( -1 );

}

Random Numbers

int iRandomNum = 0;

srand(time(0));

iRandomNum = (rand() % 4) + 1;

24

Assignment

25

1) Finish the 5 problems on page 48

Decisions:


26

3.8 Formulating Algorithms(Counter-Controlled Repetition)

• Counter-controlled repetition– Loop repeated until counter reaches a certain value– Definite repetition: number of repetitions is known – Example: A class of ten students took a quiz. The grades

(integers in the range 0 to 100) for this quiz are available to you. Determine the class average on the quiz

– Pseudocode: Set total to zero

Set grade counter to oneWhile grade counter is less than or equal to ten

Input the next gradeAdd the grade into the totalAdd one to the grade counter

Set the class average to the total divided by tenPrint the class average



OutlineOutline27

1. Initialize Variables

2. Execute Loop

3. Output results

1 /* Fig. 3.6: fig03_06.c2 Class average program with 3 counter-controlled repetition */4 #include <stdio.h>56 int main()7 {8 int counter, grade, total, average;9 10 /* initialization phase */11 total = 0;12 counter = 1;13 14 /* processing phase */15 while ( counter <= 10 ) {16 printf( "Enter grade: " );17 scanf( "%d", &grade );18 total = total + grade;19 counter = counter + 1; 20 }21 22 /* termination phase */23 average = total / 10;24 printf( "Class average is %d\n", average );2526 return 0; /* indicate program ended successfully */27}



OutlineOutline28

Program OutputEnter grade: 98Enter grade: 76Enter grade: 71Enter grade: 87Enter grade: 83Enter grade: 90Enter grade: 57Enter grade: 79Enter grade: 82Enter grade: 94Class average is 81


29

3.9 Formulating Algorithms with Top-Down, Stepwise Refinement

• Problem becomes: Develop a class-averaging program that will process an arbitrary number of grades each time the program is run.

– Unknown number of students

– How will the program know to end?

• Use sentinel value – Also called signal value, dummy value, or flag value

– Indicates “end of data entry.”

– Loop ends when user inputs the sentinel value

– Sentinel value chosen so it cannot be confused with a regular input (such as -1 in this case)


30


• Top-down, stepwise refinement – Begin with a pseudocode representation of the top:

Determine the class average for the quiz

– Divide top into smaller tasks and list them in order: Initialize variablesInput, sum and count the quiz gradesCalculate and print the class average

• Many programs have three phases:– Initialization: initializes the program variables

– Processing: inputs data values and adjusts program variables accordingly

– Termination: calculates and prints the final results


31


• Refine the initialization phase from Initialize variables to:

Initialize total to zeroInitialize counter to zero

• Refine Input, sum and count the quiz grades to Input the first grade (possibly the sentinel)While the user has not as yet entered the sentinel Add this grade into the running total Add one to the grade counter Input the next grade (possibly the sentinel)


32


• Refine Calculate and print the class average toIf the counter is not equal to zero Set the average to the total divided by the counter Print the averageelse Print “No grades were entered”



OutlineOutline33

1. Initialize Variables

2. Get user input

2.1 Perform Loop

1 /* Fig. 3.8: fig03_08.c2 Class average program with 3 sentinel-controlled repetition */4 #include <stdio.h>56 int main()7 {8 float average; /* new data type */9 int counter, grade, total;10 11 /* initialization phase */12 total = 0;13 counter = 0;14 15 /* processing phase */16 printf( "Enter grade, -1 to end: " );17 scanf( "%d", &grade );18 19 while ( grade != -1 ) {20 total = total + grade;21 counter = counter + 1; 22 printf( "Enter grade, -1 to end: " );23 scanf( "%d", &grade );24 }



OutlineOutline34

3. Calculate Average

3.1 Print Results

Program Output

2526 /* termination phase */27 if ( counter != 0 ) {28 average = ( float ) total / counter;29 printf( "Class average is %.2f", average );30 }31 else32 printf( "No grades were entered\n" );3334 return 0; /* indicate program ended successfully */35}

Enter grade, -1 to end: 75Enter grade, -1 to end: 94Enter grade, -1 to end: 97Enter grade, -1 to end: 88Enter grade, -1 to end: 70Enter grade, -1 to end: 64Enter grade, -1 to end: 83Enter grade, -1 to end: 89Enter grade, -1 to end: -1Class average is 82.50


35

3.10 Nested control structures

• Problem – A college has a list of test results (1 = pass, 2 = fail) for 10

students

– Write a program that analyzes the results • If more than 8 students pass, print "Raise Tuition"

• Notice that– The program must process 10 test results

• Counter-controlled loop will be used

– Two counters can be used• One for number of passes, one for number of fails

– Each test result is a number—either a 1 or a 2• If the number is not a 1, we assume that it is a 2


36


• Top level outlineAnalyze exam results and decide if tuition should be raised

• First RefinementInitialize variables

Input the ten quiz grades and count passes and failures

Print a summary of the exam results and decide if tuition should be raised

• Refine Initialize variables to Initialize passes to zero

Initialize failures to zero

Initialize student counter to one


37


• Refine Input the ten quiz grades and count passes and failures to

While student counter is less than or equal to tenInput the next exam resultIf the student passed Add one to passeselse Add one to failuresAdd one to student counter

• Refine Print a summary of the exam results and decide if tuition should be raised to

Print the number of passesPrint the number of failuresIf more than eight students passed

Print “Raise tuition”



OutlineOutline38

1. Initialize variables

2. Input data and count passes/failures

3. Print results

1 /* Fig. 3.10: fig03_10.c2 Analysis of examination results */3 #include <stdio.h>45 int main()6 {7 /* initializing variables in declarations */8 int passes = 0, failures = 0, student = 1, result;910 /* process 10 students; counter-controlled loop */11 while ( student <= 10 ) {12 printf( "Enter result ( 1=pass,2=fail ): " );13 scanf( "%d", &result );1415 if ( result == 1 ) /* if/else nested in while */16 passes = passes + 1;17 else18 failures = failures + 1;1920 student = student + 1;21 }2223 printf( "Passed %d\n", passes );24 printf( "Failed %d\n", failures );2526 if ( passes > 8 )27 printf( "Raise tuition\n" );2829 return 0; /* successful termination */30}



OutlineOutline39

Program OutputEnter Result (1=pass,2=fail): 1Enter Result (1=pass,2=fail): 2Enter Result (1=pass,2=fail): 2Enter Result (1=pass,2=fail): 1Enter Result (1=pass,2=fail): 1Enter Result (1=pass,2=fail): 1Enter Result (1=pass,2=fail): 2Enter Result (1=pass,2=fail): 1Enter Result (1=pass,2=fail): 1Enter Result (1=pass,2=fail): 2Passed 6Failed 4


40

3.11Assignment Operators

• Assignment operators abbreviate assignment expressions

c = c + 3;

can be abbreviated as c += 3; using the addition assignment operator

• Statements of the formvariable = variable operator expression;

can be rewritten asvariable operator= expression;

• Examples of other assignment operators:d -= 4 (d = d - 4)e *= 5 (e = e * 5)f /= 3 (f = f / 3)g %= 9 (g = g % 9)


41

3.12Increment and Decrement Operators

• Increment operator (++)– Can be used instead of c+=1

• Decrement operator (--)– Can be used instead of c-=1

• Preincrement– Operator is used before the variable (++c or --c)

– Variable is changed before the expression it is in is evaluated

• Postincrement– Operator is used after the variable (c++ or c--)

– Expression executes before the variable is changed


42

3.12Increment and Decrement Operators

• If c equals 5, then printf( "%d", ++c );

– Prints 6 printf( "%d", c++ );

– Prints 5 – In either case, c now has the value of 6

• When variable not in an expression– Preincrementing and postincrementing have the same effect

++c;

printf( “%d”, c );

– Has the same effect asc++;

printf( “%d”, c );


43

Chapter 4 - Program Control

Outline4.1 Introduction4.2 The Essentials of Repetition4.3 Counter-Controlled Repetition4.4 The For Repetition Structure4.5 The For Structure: Notes and Observations4.6 Examples Using the For Structure4.7 The Switch Multiple-Selection Structure4.8 The Do/While Repetition Structure4.9 The break and continue Statements4.10 Logical Operators4.11 Confusing Equality (==) and Assignment (=) Operators4.12 Structured Programming Summary


44

4.1 Introduction

• This chapter introduces– Additional repetition control structures

• for• do/while

– switch multiple selection structure– break statement

• Used for exiting immediately and rapidly from certain control structures

– continue statement• Used for skipping the remainder of the body of a repetition

structure and proceeding with the next iteration of the loop


45

4.2 The Essentials of Repetition

• Loop– Group of instructions computer executes repeatedly while

some condition remains true

• Counter-controlled repetition– Definite repetition: know how many times loop will execute

– Control variable used to count repetitions

• Sentinel-controlled repetition– Indefinite repetition

– Used when number of repetitions not known

– Sentinel value indicates "end of data"


46

4.3 Essentials of Counter-Controlled Repetition

• Counter-controlled repetition requires– The name of a control variable (or loop counter)

– The initial value of the control variable

– A condition that tests for the final value of the control variable (i.e., whether looping should continue)

– An increment (or decrement) by which the control variable is modified each time through the loop


47

4.3 Essentials of Counter-Controlled Repetition

• Example: int counter = 1; // initialization

while ( counter <= 10 ) { // repetition condition

printf( "%d\n", counter );

++counter; // increment

}

– The statementint counter = 1;

• Names counter• Declares it to be an integer

• Reserves space for it in memory

• Sets it to an initial value of 1


48

4.4 The for Repetition Structure

• Format when using for loopsfor ( initialization; loopContinuationTest; increment )

statement

• Example: for( int counter = 1; counter <= 10; counter++ )

printf( "%d\n", counter );

– Prints the integers from one to ten

No semicolon (;) after last expression


49

4.4 The for Repetition Structure

• For loops can usually be rewritten as while loops:initialization;while ( loopContinuationTest ) { statement; increment;}

• Initialization and increment – Can be comma-separated lists

– Example:for (int i = 0, j = 0; j + i <= 10; j++, i++)

printf( "%d\n", j + i );


50

4.5 The for Structure: Notes and Observations

• Arithmetic expressions– Initialization, loop-continuation, and increment can contain

arithmetic expressions. If x equals 2 and y equals 10 for ( j = x; j <= 4 * x * y; j += y / x )

is equivalent tofor ( j = 2; j <= 80; j += 5 )

• Notes about the for structure:– "Increment" may be negative (decrement)

– If the loop continuation condition is initially false• The body of the for structure is not performed

• Control proceeds with the next statement after the for structure

– Control variable• Often printed or used inside for body, but not necessary



OutlineOutline51


2. for repetition structure

Program Output

Sum is 2550

1 /* Fig. 4.5: fig04_05.c 2 Summation with for */3 #include <stdio.h>45 int main()6 {7 int sum = 0, number;89 for ( number = 2; number <= 100; number += 2 )10 sum += number;11 12 printf( "Sum is %d\n", sum );1314 return 0;15}


52

4.7 The switch Multiple-Selection Structure

• switch– Useful when a variable or expression is tested for all the

values it can assume and different actions are taken

• Format– Series of case labels and an optional default case

switch ( value ){case '1':

actionscase '2':

actionsdefault:

actions}

– break; exits from structure


53

4.7 The switch Multiple-Selection Structure

• Flowchart of the switch structure

true

false

.

.

.

case a case a action(s)

break

case b case b action(s)

break

false

falsecase z case z

action(s)break

true

true

default action(s)



OutlineOutline54


2. Input data

2.1 Use switch loop to update count

1 /* Fig. 4.7: fig04_07.c2 Counting letter grades */3 #include <stdio.h>45 int main()6 {7 int grade;8 int aCount = 0, bCount = 0, cCount = 0, 9 dCount = 0, fCount = 0;1011 printf( "Enter the letter grades.\n" );12 printf( "Enter the EOF character to end input.\n" );1314 while ( ( grade = getchar() ) != EOF ) {1516 switch ( grade ) { /* switch nested in while */1718 case 'A': case 'a': /* grade was uppercase A */19 ++aCount; /* or lowercase a */20 break;2122 case 'B': case 'b': /* grade was uppercase B */23 ++bCount; /* or lowercase b */24 break;2526 case 'C': case 'c': /* grade was uppercase C */27 ++cCount; /* or lowercase c */28 break;2930 case 'D': case 'd': /* grade was uppercase D */31 ++dCount; /* or lowercase d */32 break;



OutlineOutline55

2.1 Use switch loop to update count

3. Print results

3334 case 'F': case 'f': /* grade was uppercase F */35 ++fCount; /* or lowercase f */36 break;3738 case '\n': case' ': /* ignore these in input */39 break;4041 default: /* catch all other characters */42 printf( "Incorrect letter grade entered." ); 43 printf( " Enter a new grade.\n" ); 44 break;45 }46 }4748 printf( "\nTotals for each letter grade are:\n" );49 printf( "A: %d\n", aCount );50 printf( "B: %d\n", bCount );51 printf( "C: %d\n", cCount );52 printf( "D: %d\n", dCount );53 printf( "F: %d\n", fCount );5455 return 0;56}



OutlineOutline56

Program OutputEnter the letter grades.Enter the EOF character to end input.ABCCADFCEIncorrect letter grade entered. Enter a new grade.DAB Totals for each letter grade are: A: 3B: 2C: 3D: 2F: 1


57

4.8 The do/while Repetition Structure

• The do/while repetition structure – Similar to the while structure

– Condition for repetition tested after the body of the loop is performed

• All actions are performed at least once

– Format:do {

statement;

} while ( condition );


58


• Example (letting counter = 1):do {

printf( "%d ", counter );

} while (++counter <= 10);

– Prints the integers from 1 to 10


59


• Flowchart of the do/while repetition structure

true

false

action(s)

condition



OutlineOutline60

1. Initialize variable

2. Loop

3. Print

Program Output

1 /* Fig. 4.9: fig04_09.c

2 Using the do/while repetition structure */

3 #include <stdio.h>

4

5 int main()

6 {

7 int counter = 1;

8

9 do {

10 printf( "%d ", counter );

11 } while ( ++counter <= 10 );

12

13 return 0;

14}

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10


61

4.9 The break and continue Statements

• break– Causes immediate exit from a while, for, do/while or switch structure

– Program execution continues with the first statement after the structure

– Common uses of the break statement• Escape early from a loop

• Skip the remainder of a switch structure


62

4.9 The break and continue Statements

• continue– Skips the remaining statements in the body of a while, for or do/while structure

• Proceeds with the next iteration of the loop

– while and do/while• Loop-continuation test is evaluated immediately after the continue statement is executed

– for• Increment expression is executed, then the loop-continuation

test is evaluated



OutlineOutline63

1. Initialize variable

2. Loop

3. Print

Program Output

1 /* Fig. 4.12: fig04_12.c2 Using the continue statement in a for structure */3 #include <stdio.h>45 int main()6 {7 int x;8 9 for ( x = 1; x <= 10; x++ ) {1011 if ( x == 5 ) 12 continue; /* skip remaining code in loop only13 if x == 5 */14 15 printf( "%d ", x ); 16 }17 18 printf( "\nUsed continue to skip printing the value 5\n" );19 return 0;20}

1 2 3 4 6 7 8 9 10Used continue to skip printing the value 5


64

4.10Logical Operators

• && ( logical AND ) – Returns true if both conditions are true

• || ( logical OR ) – Returns true if either of its conditions are true

• ! ( logical NOT, logical negation )– Reverses the truth/falsity of its condition

– Unary operator, has one operand

• Useful as conditions in loopsExpression Result

true && false falsetrue || false true

!false true


65

4.11Confusing Equality (==) and Assignment (=) Operators

• Dangerous error– Does not ordinarily cause syntax errors

– Any expression that produces a value can be used in control structures

– Nonzero values are true, zero values are false– Example using ==:

if ( payCode == 4 )

printf( "You get a bonus!\n" ); • Checks paycode, if it is 4 then a bonus is awarded


66


– Example, replacing == with =:if ( payCode = 4 )

printf( "You get a bonus!\n" );• This sets paycode to 4• 4 is nonzero, so expression is true, and bonus awarded no

matter what the paycode was

– Logic error, not a syntax error


67


• lvalues– Expressions that can appear on the left side of an equation

– Their values can be changed, such as variable names • x = 4;

• rvalues– Expressions that can only appear on the right side of an

equation

– Constants, such as numbers • Cannot write 4 = x;• Must write x = 4;

– lvalues can be used as rvalues, but not vice versa• y = x;


68

4.12Structured-Programming Summary

• Structured programming– Easier than unstructured programs to understand, test,

debug and, modify programs

• Rules for structured programming– Rules developed by programming community

– Only single-entry/single-exit control structures are used

– Rules: 1. Begin with the “simplest flowchart”

2. Any rectangle (action) can be replaced by two rectangles (actions) in sequence

3. Any rectangle (action) can be replaced by any control structure (sequence, if, if/else, switch, while, do/while or for)

4. Rules 2 and 3 can be applied in any order and multiple times


69


.

.

.

Rule 2 Rule 2 Rule 2

Rule 1 - Begin with the simplest flowchart

Rule 2 - Any rectangle can be replaced by two rectangles in sequence


70


Rule 3

Rule 3

Rule 3

Rule 3 - Replace any rectangle with a control structure


71


• All programs can be broken down into 3 controls– Sequence – handled automatically by compiler

– Selection – if, if/else or switch

– Repetition – while, do/while or for• Can only be combined in two ways

– Nesting (rule 3)

– Stacking (rule 2)

– Any selection can be rewritten as an if statement, and any repetition can be rewritten as a while statement


Chapter 5 - Functions

Outline5.1 Introduction5.2 Program Modules in C5.3 Math Library Functions5.4 Functions5.5 Function Definitions5.6 Function Prototypes5.7 Header Files5.8 Calling Functions: Call by Value and Call by Reference5.9 Random Number Generation5.10 Example: A Game of Chance5.11 Storage Classes5.12 Scope Rules5.13 Recursion5.14 Example Using Recursion: The Fibonacci Series5.15 Recursion vs. Iteration


5.1 Introduction

• Divide and conquer – Construct a program from smaller pieces or components

• These smaller pieces are called modules

– Each piece more manageable than the original program


5.2 Program Modules in C

• Functions– Modules in C– Programs combine user-defined functions with library functions

• C standard library has a wide variety of functions

• Function calls– Invoking functions

• Provide function name and arguments (data)• Function performs operations or manipulations• Function returns results

– Function call analogy:• Boss asks worker to complete task

– Worker gets information, does task, returns result– Information hiding: boss does not know details


5.3 Math Library Functions

• Math library functions – perform common mathematical calculations– #include <math.h>

• Format for calling functions– FunctionName( argument );

• If multiple arguments, use comma-separated list

– printf( "%.2f", sqrt( 900.0 ) ); • Calls function sqrt, which returns the square root of its

argument

• All math functions return data type double

– Arguments may be constants, variables, or expressions


5.4 Functions

• Functions– Modularize a program– All variables declared inside functions are local variables

• Known only in function defined

– Parameters• Communicate information between functions• Local variables

• Benefits of functions– Divide and conquer

• Manageable program development

– Software reusability• Use existing functions as building blocks for new programs• Abstraction - hide internal details (library functions)

– Avoid code repetition


5.5 Function Definitions

• Function definition formatreturn-value-type function-name( parameter-list ){ declarations and statements}

– Function-name: any valid identifier

– Return-value-type: data type of the result (default int)• void – indicates that the function returns nothing

– Parameter-list: comma separated list, declares parameters• A type must be listed explicitly for each parameter unless, the

parameter is of type int


5.5 Function Definitions

• Function definition format (continued)return-value-type function-name( parameter-list ){ declarations and statements}

– Declarations and statements: function body (block)• Variables can be declared inside blocks (can be nested)

• Functions can not be defined inside other functions

– Returning control• If nothing returned

– return;

– or, until reaches right brace

• If something returned – return expression;



OutlineOutline

1. Function prototype (3 parameters)

2. Input values

2.1 Call function

3.Function definition

Program Output

1 /* Fig. 5.4: fig05_04.c2 Finding the maximum of three integers */3 #include <stdio.h>45 int maximum( int, int, int ); /* function prototype */67 int main()8 {9 int a, b, c;1011 printf( "Enter three integers: " );12 scanf( "%d%d%d", &a, &b, &c );13 printf( "Maximum is: %d\n", maximum( a, b, c ) );1415 return 0;16}1718/* Function maximum definition */19int maximum( int x, int y, int z )20{21 int max = x;2223 if ( y > max )24 max = y;2526 if ( z > max )27 max = z;2829 return max;30}Enter three integers: 22 85 17Maximum is: 85


5.6 Function Prototypes

• Function prototype – Function name

– Parameters – what the function takes in

– Return type – data type function returns (default int)

– Used to validate functions

– Prototype only needed if function definition comes after use in program

– The function with the prototypeint maximum( int, int, int );

• Takes in 3 ints

• Returns an int

• Promotion rules and conversions– Converting to lower types can lead to errors


5.7 Header Files

• Header files– Contain function prototypes for library functions– <stdlib.h> , <math.h> , etc

– Load with #include <filename>#include <math.h>

• Custom header files– Create file with functions

– Save as filename.h– Load in other files with #include "filename.h"– Reuse functions


5.8 Calling Functions: Call by Value and Call by Reference

• Used when invoking functions• Call by value

– Copy of argument passed to function

– Changes in function do not effect original

– Use when function does not need to modify argument• Avoids accidental changes

• Call by reference – Passes original argument

– Changes in function effect original

– Only used with trusted functions

• For now, we focus on call by value


5.9 Random Number Generation

• rand function– Load <stdlib.h>– Returns "random" number between 0 and RAND_MAX (at

least 32767)i = rand();

– Pseudorandom• Preset sequence of "random" numbers• Same sequence for every function call

• Scaling– To get a random number between 1 and n

1 + ( rand() % n )• rand() % n returns a number between 0 and n - 1• Add 1 to make random number between 1 and n

1 + ( rand() % 6)– number between 1 and 6


5.9 Random Number Generation

• srand function– <stdlib.h>– Takes an integer seed and jumps to that location in its

"random" sequencesrand( seed );

– srand( time( NULL ) ); //load <time.h>• time( NULL )

– Returns the time at which the program was compiled in seconds

– “Randomizes" the seed



OutlineOutline

1. Initialize seed

2. Input value for seed

2.1 Use srand to change random sequence

2.2 Define Loop

3. Generate and output random numbers

1 /* Fig. 5.9: fig05_09.c2 Randomizing die-rolling program */3 #include <stdlib.h>4 #include <stdio.h>56 int main()7 {8 int i;9 unsigned seed;10 11 printf( "Enter seed: " );12 scanf( "%u", &seed );13 srand( seed );14 15 for ( i = 1; i <= 10; i++ ) {16 printf( "%10d", 1 + ( rand() % 6 ) );17 18 if ( i % 5 == 0 )19 printf( "\n" );20 }2122 return 0;23}



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Program OutputEnter seed: 867 2 4 6 1 6 1 1 3 6 2 Enter seed: 67 6 1 4 6 2 1 6 1 6 4

Enter seed: 67 6 1 4 6 2 1 6 1 6 4


5.10Example: A Game of Chance

• Craps simulator• Rules

– Roll two dice• 7 or 11 on first throw, player wins

• 2, 3, or 12 on first throw, player loses

• 4, 5, 6, 8, 9, 10 - value becomes player's "point"

– Player must roll his point before rolling 7 to win



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1. rollDice prototype

1.1 Initialize variables

1.2 Seed srand

2. Define switch statement for win/loss/continue

2.1 Loop

1 /* Fig. 5.10: fig05_10.c2 Craps */3 #include <stdio.h>4 #include <stdlib.h>5 #include <time.h>67 int rollDice( void );89 int main()10{11 int gameStatus, sum, myPoint;1213 srand( time( NULL ) );14 sum = rollDice(); /* first roll of the dice */1516 switch ( sum ) {17 case 7: case 11: /* win on first roll */18 gameStatus = 1;19 break;20 case 2: case 3: case 12: /* lose on first roll */21 gameStatus = 2;22 break;23 default: /* remember point */24 gameStatus = 0;25 myPoint = sum;26 printf( "Point is %d\n", myPoint );27 break;28 }2930 while ( gameStatus == 0 ) { /* keep rolling */31 sum = rollDice();32



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2.2 Print win/loss

Program Output

33 if ( sum == myPoint ) /* win by making point */34 gameStatus = 1;35 else36 if ( sum == 7 ) /* lose by rolling 7 */37 gameStatus = 2;38 }3940 if ( gameStatus == 1 )41 printf( "Player wins\n" );42 else43 printf( "Player loses\n" );4445 return 0;46}4748int rollDice( void )49{50 int die1, die2, workSum;5152 die1 = 1 + ( rand() % 6 );53 die2 = 1 + ( rand() % 6 );54 workSum = die1 + die2;55 printf( "Player rolled %d + %d = %d\n", die1, die2, workSum );56 return workSum;57}Player rolled 6 + 5 = 11Player wins



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Program Output

Player rolled 6 + 6 = 12Player loses

Player rolled 4 + 6 = 10Point is 10Player rolled 2 + 4 = 6Player rolled 6 + 5 = 11Player rolled 3 + 3 = 6Player rolled 6 + 4 = 10Player wins Player rolled 1 + 3 = 4Point is 4Player rolled 1 + 4 = 5Player rolled 5 + 4 = 9Player rolled 4 + 6 = 10Player rolled 6 + 3 = 9Player rolled 1 + 2 = 3Player rolled 5 + 2 = 7Player loses


5.11Storage Classes

• Storage class specifiers– Storage duration – how long an object exists in memory

– Scope – where object can be referenced in program

– Linkage – specifies the files in which an identifier is known (more in Chapter 14)

• Automatic storage– Object created and destroyed within its block– auto: default for local variables

auto double x, y;

– register: tries to put variable into high-speed registers• Can only be used for automatic variables

register int counter = 1;


5.11Storage Classes

• Static storage – Variables exist for entire program execution

– Default value of zero– static: local variables defined in functions.

• Keep value after function ends

• Only known in their own function

– extern: default for global variables and functions• Known in any function


5.12Scope Rules

• File scope – Identifier defined outside function, known in all functions

– Used for global variables, function definitions, function prototypes

• Function scope – Can only be referenced inside a function body

– Used only for labels (start:, case: , etc.)


5.12Scope Rules

• Block scope – Identifier declared inside a block

• Block scope begins at declaration, ends at right brace

– Used for variables, function parameters (local variables of function)

– Outer blocks "hidden" from inner blocks if there is a variable with the same name in the inner block

• Function prototype scope – Used for identifiers in parameter list



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1. Function prototypes

1.1 Initialize global variable

1.2 Initialize local variable

1.3 Initialize local variable in block

2. Call functions

3. Output results

1 /* Fig. 5.12: fig05_12.c2 A scoping example */3 #include <stdio.h>45 void a( void ); /* function prototype */6 void b( void ); /* function prototype */7 void c( void ); /* function prototype */89 int x = 1; /* global variable */1011int main()12{13 int x = 5; /* local variable to main */1415 printf("local x in outer scope of main is %d\n", x );1617 { /* start new scope */18 int x = 7;1920 printf( "local x in inner scope of main is %d\n", x );21 } /* end new scope */2223 printf( "local x in outer scope of main is %d\n", x );2425 a(); /* a has automatic local x */26 b(); /* b has static local x */27 c(); /* c uses global x */28 a(); /* a reinitializes automatic local x */29 b(); /* static local x retains its previous value */30 c(); /* global x also retains its value */



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3.1 Function definitions

3132 printf( "local x in main is %d\n", x );33 return 0;34}3536void a( void )37{38 int x = 25; /* initialized each time a is called */3940 printf( "\nlocal x in a is %d after entering a\n", x );41 ++x;42 printf( "local x in a is %d before exiting a\n", x );43}4445void b( void )46{47 static int x = 50; /* static initialization only */48 /* first time b is called */49 printf( "\nlocal static x is %d on entering b\n", x );50 ++x;51 printf( "local static x is %d on exiting b\n", x );52}5354void c( void )55{56 printf( "\nglobal x is %d on entering c\n", x );57 x *= 10;58 printf( "global x is %d on exiting c\n", x );59}



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Program Outputlocal x in outer scope of main is 5local x in inner scope of main is 7local x in outer scope of main is 5 local x in a is 25 after entering alocal x in a is 26 before exiting a local static x is 50 on entering blocal static x is 51 on exiting b global x is 1 on entering cglobal x is 10 on exiting c local x in a is 25 after entering alocal x in a is 26 before exiting a local static x is 51 on entering blocal static x is 52 on exiting b global x is 10 on entering cglobal x is 100 on exiting clocal x in main is 5


5.13Recursion

• Recursive functions – Functions that call themselves

– Can only solve a base case

– Divide a problem up into• What it can do

• What it cannot do

– What it cannot do resembles original problem

– The function launches a new copy of itself (recursion step) to solve what it cannot do

– Eventually base case gets solved• Gets plugged in, works its way up and solves whole problem


5.13Recursion

• Example: factorials– 5! = 5 * 4 * 3 * 2 * 1– Notice that

• 5! = 5 * 4!• 4! = 4 * 3! ...

– Can compute factorials recursively

– Solve base case (1! = 0! = 1) then plug in• 2! = 2 * 1! = 2 * 1 = 2;• 3! = 3 * 2! = 3 * 2 = 6;


5.14Example Using Recursion: The Fibonacci Series

• Fibonacci series: 0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8...– Each number is the sum of the previous two

– Can be solved recursively:• fib( n ) = fib( n - 1 ) + fib( n – 2 )

– Code for the fibaonacci functionlong fibonacci( long n )

{

if (n == 0 || n == 1) // base case

return n;

else

return fibonacci( n - 1) + fibonacci( n – 2 );

}


5.14Example Using Recursion: The Fibonacci Series

• Set of recursive calls to function fibonacci

f( 3 )

f( 1 )f( 2 )

f( 1 ) f( 0 ) return 1

return 1 return 0

return +

+return



OutlineOutline

1. Function prototype

1.1 Initialize variables

2. Input an integer

2.1 Call function fibonacci

2.2 Output results.

3. Define fibonacci recursively

Program Output

1 /* Fig. 5.15: fig05_15.c2 Recursive fibonacci function */3 #include <stdio.h>45 long fibonacci( long );67 int main()8 {9 long result, number;1011 printf( "Enter an integer: " );12 scanf( "%ld", &number );13 result = fibonacci( number );14 printf( "Fibonacci( %ld ) = %ld\n", number, result );15 return 0;16}1718/* Recursive definition of function fibonacci */19long fibonacci( long n )20{21 if ( n == 0 || n == 1 )22 return n;23 else24 return fibonacci( n - 1 ) + fibonacci( n - 2 );25}Enter an integer: 0Fibonacci(0) = 0 Enter an integer: 1Fibonacci(1) = 1



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Program Output

Enter an integer: 2Fibonacci(2) = 1 Enter an integer: 3Fibonacci(3) = 2 Enter an integer: 4Fibonacci(4) = 3 Enter an integer: 5Fibonacci(5) = 5 Enter an integer: 6Fibonacci(6) = 8 Enter an integer: 10Fibonacci(10) = 55 Enter an integer: 20Fibonacci(20) = 6765 Enter an integer: 30Fibonacci(30) = 832040 Enter an integer: 35Fibonacci(35) = 9227465


5.15Recursion vs. Iteration

• Repetition– Iteration: explicit loop

– Recursion: repeated function calls

• Termination– Iteration: loop condition fails

– Recursion: base case recognized

• Both can have infinite loops• Balance

– Choice between performance (iteration) and good software engineering (recursion)

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