DEFINITION OF SPECIES

In biology, a species is one of the basic units of biological classification and a taxonomic rank. A species is often defined as a group of organisms capable of interbreeding and producing fertile offspring. While in many cases this definition is adequate, more precise or differing measures are often used, such as similarity of DNA, morphology or ecological niche. Presence of specific locally adapted traits may further subdivide species into subspecies.

Each species is placed within a single genus. This is a hypothesis that the species is more closely related to other species within its genus than to species of other genera. All species are given a binomial name consisting of the generic name and specific name (or specific epithet).

The commonly used names for plant and animal taxa sometimes correspond to species: for example, "lion", "walrus", and "Camphor tree" – each refers to a species. In other cases common names do not: for example, "deer" refers to a family of 34 species, including Eld's Deer, Red Deer and Elk (Wapiti). The last two species were once considered a single species, illustrating how species boundaries may change with increased scientific knowledge.

Total number of species (estimated): 7–100 millions (identified and unidentified), including:

DEFINITION ENDANGERED SPECIES

An endangered species is a population of organisms which is at risk of becoming extinct because it is either few in numbers, or threatened by changing environmental or predation parameters. The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) has calculated the percentage of endangered species as 40 percent of all organisms based on the sample of species that have been evaluated through 2006.[2]

Eg : Endangered: faces a very high risk of extinction in the near future. Examples: Dhole, Blue Whale, Bonobo, Ethiopian wolf, Giant Panda, Snow Leopard, African Wild Dog, Tiger, Indian Rhinoceros, three species of Albatrosses, Crowned Solitary Eagle, Philippine Eagle, Markhor, Orangutan, Grevy's zebra, Tasmanian Devil,

The Siberian Tiger is a subspecies of tiger that is critically endangered; three subspecies of tiger are already extinct.

The most endangered asiatic top predator, the dhole is on the edge of extinction.

DEFINITION 'ENDEMIC SPECIES'

An 'Endemic Species' is one that is only found in a particular region and nowhere else in the world. Since these species are not widespread and may be confined to only one or two protected areas, they are of great conservation concern.

Endemism is the ecological state of being unique to a particular geographic location, such as a specific island, habitat type, nation or other defined zone. To be endemic to a place or area means that it is found only in that part of the world and nowhere else. For example, all species of lemur are endemic to the island of Madagascar. There are 50 species, all native to the island.

India has many endemic plant and vertebrate species. Among plants, species endemism is estimated at 33% with c. 140 endemic genera but no endemic families (Botanical Survey of India, 1983). Areas rich in endemism are north-east India, the Western Ghats and the north-western and eastern Himalayas. A small pocket of local endemism also occurs in the Eastern Ghats (MacKinnon & MacKinnon, 1986). The Gangetic plains are generally poor in endemics, while the Andaman and Nicobar Islands contribute at least 220 species to the endemic flora of India (Botanical Survey of India, 1983)

BIOGEOGRAPHICAL CLASSIFICATION IN INDIA

Biogeography deals with the geographical distribution of plants and animals. Communities of plants and animals in different geographical areas of the world differ widely from each other. Biogeography is divided into branches: i] Phyto-geography and ii] Zoo-geography.

The Orange-breasted Sunbird (Nectarinia violacea) is exclusively found in Fynbos vegetation.

Phyto-geography (plant geography) deals with origin, distribution and environmental interrelationships of plants. Zoogeography deals with the migration and distribution of animals.From the stand point of biodiversity, India is given the status of a “Mega-diversity” zone. CISSP There are 10 biogeographic zones witch are distinguished clearly in India. They are as follows—v Trans Himalayan zone.v Himalayan zone.v Desert zone.v Semiarid zone.v Western ghat zone.v Deccan platea zone.v Gangetic plain zone.v North east zone.v Coastal zone.v Islands present near the shore line.

1. Trans Himalayan zone:This is the northern most area of the country around Himalayas. This zone is not related to mountains but it is the area present surrounding the mountains. 70-290 This region shows 1. Irregular vegetation.2. It has the richest wild sheep producing quality wool. 3. It has not only quality sheep but also goat community which is qualitatively and quantitatively in superior in the world. 4. Snow leopard is a special animal observable in this zone. 5. Migratory birds like black neck crane are seen here. The great Indian bustard which is an endangered variety is also seen in the grasslands west to this zone.2. Himalayan zone:This is a hilly region with good flora and fauna, exhibiting maximum biodiversity in this region. There are national parks here in this zone.3. Desert zone:This is a part of Rajasthan state, from where, the great desert of western India namely ‘Thar desert’ starts, and Desert zone is really a deserted zone with areas like Jaisalmir surrounded by sand dunes, which are the best centers for studying soil erosion by wind.4. Semi arid zone:It starts in Rajasthan and extends up to some parts in the state of Punjab and Haryana. In this area, ground water and surface water is much less. Dry xerophytic vegetation is predominant, fauna is also minimum. N10-004 Very few orchids and bamboo and other plants are seen.5. Western ghats:It represents the mountainous western zone of south peninsular India having rich flora and fauna with tropical rain forests extending from Konkan region of Maharashtra up to the western part of Kerala generally called Malabaar coast of Arabian Sea.Wild relatives of cultivated plants like banana, mango, citrus, black pepper are found abundantly in this part.6. Deccan Plateau zone:This is the central table land of south India with rich flora and fauna. But some areas represent semiarid type of vegetation. Rainfall occurs mainly by the south west monsoon, in these areas and so limited number of dense forests is present in Deccan. Deccan platean is represented in the states of Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, Tamilnadu, Karnataka and Kerala.

Endangered speciesAn endangered species is a population of organisms which is at risk of becoming extinct because it is either few in numbers, or threatened by changing environmental or predation parameters. The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) has calculated the percentage of endangered species as 40 percent of all organisms based on the sample of species that have been evaluated through 2006.[2]

Many nations have laws offering protection to conservation reliant species: for example, forbidding hunting, restricting land development or creating preserves.

Only a few of the many species at risk of extinction actually make it to the lists and obtain legal protection. Many more species become extinct, or potentially will become extinct, without gaining public notice.

Destructive human activities have led to the current rate of species extinction, which is at least 100–1,000 times higher than the expected natural rate.

This has impacts far beyond the potential cultural loss of iconic species such as tigers, rhinos and whales. Species and the ecosystems they are part of provide essential goods and services that make human life possible and contribute enormously to our health and well-being — breathable air, clean water, food, fibers, building materials, medicines, energy, fertile soils, climate regulation, transport, and recreational and spiritual values.

IUCN Red List Endangered species

The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) is the world's main authority on the conservation status of species.

IUCN Red List refers to a specific category of threatened species, and may include critically endangered species. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species uses the term endangered species as a specific category of imperilment, rather than as a general term. Under the IUCN Categories and Criteria, endangered species is between critically endangered and vulnerable. Also critically endangered species may also be counted as endangered species and fill all the criteria

The more general term used by the IUCN for species at risk of extinction is threatened species, which also includes the less-at-risk category of vulnerable species together with endangered and critically endangered. IUCN categories include:

Philippine Eagle, pictured in Davao City

Extinct:

Philippine Eagle, pictured in Davao Citythe last remaining member of the species has died, or is presumed beyond

reasonable doubt to have died. Examples: Javan Tiger, Thylacine, Dodo, Passenger Pigeon, Caribbean Monk Seal, Dimetrodon, Aurochs, Dusky Seaside Sparrow

Extinct in the wild: captive individuals survive, but there is no free-living, natural population. Examples: Alagoas Curassow

Critically endangered: faces an extremely high risk of extinction in the immediate future. Examples: Mountain Gorilla, Arakan Forest Turtle, Darwin's Fox, Javan Rhino, Brazilian Merganser, Gharial, Vaquita

Endangered: faces a very high risk of extinction in the near future. Examples: Dhole, Blue Whale, Bonobo, Ethiopian wolf, Giant Panda, Snow Leopard, African Wild Dog, Tiger, Indian Rhinoceros, three species of Albatrosses, Crowned Solitary Eagle, Philippine Eagle, Markhor, Orangutan, Grevy's zebra, Tasmanian Devil,

Vulnerable: faces a high risk of extinction in the medium-term. Examples: Cheetah, Gaur, Lion, Sloth Bear, Manatee, Polar Bear, African Golden Cat, Komodo dragon, Golden hamster

Conservation dependent: The following animals are not severely threatened, but must depend on conservation programs. Examples: Spotted Hyena, Blanford's fox, Leopard Shark, Black Caiman, Killer whale

Near threatened: may be considered threatened in the near future. Examples: Blue-billed Duck, Solitary Eagle, Small-clawed Otter, Maned Wolf, Tiger Shark, Okapi.

Impact on biodiversity and endangered species

In order to conserve the biodiversity of the planet, one must take into consideration the reasons why so many species are becoming endangered. “Habitat loss is the most widespread cause of species endangerment in the U.S., affecting 85% of imperiled species” . When an animal’s ecosystem is not maintained, they lose their home and are either forced to adapt to new surroundings or perish. Pollution is another factor that causes many species to become endangered. Also, over-exploitation, disease , and climate change have led to the endangerment of several species.

Humans have an impact on the species and their environment. “As human use of resources, energy, and space intensified over the past few centuries, the diversity of life has been substantially diminished in most parts of the world” .

Humans also set standards for which species they think should be saved and which species they find unimportant or undesirable. For example, the coqui frog, an invasive species in Hawaii, is so common there that its “nocturnal singing” reduces the value of homes and prevents hotels from using rooms near forests. Hawaiians have proposed eliminating the frog, and several wildlife managers want to release a pathogen to kill the frogs. The frog has decreased the value of homes and caused a loss of business for several hotels, so the Hawaiians decided it was acceptable to get rid of the group of coqui frog living near them.

Another example where the human impact affected the welfare of a species sex in the instance of non-native mute swans establishing themselves at Arrowhead Lake in Vermont. When the population of swans grew to eight birds, the Vermont Fish and Wildlife Department decided to take action. Two swans were eventually killed, angering animal welfare organizations and people living near the lake.

Yet another example of the human impact in the lives of endangered species is that of the Preble’s meadow jumping mouse. Research has shown that the mouse is not taxonomically different from the Bear Lodge meadow jumping mouse and the US Fish and Wildlife Service has proposed removing the Preble’s mouse from the endangered species list based on this information.

Species maintaining importance

“Diversity of life and living systems are a necessary condition for human development” . Many question the importance of maintaining biodiversity in today’s world, where conservation efforts prove costly and time consuming. Species should be saved for “aesthetic and moral justifications; the importance of wild species as providers of products and services essential to human welfare; the value of particular species as indicators of environmental health or as keystone species crucial to the functioning of ecosystems; and the scientific breakthroughs that have come from the study of wild organisms” . In other words, species serve as a source of art and entertainment, provide products such as medicine for human well-being, indicate the welfare of the overall environment and ecosystem, and provided research that resulted in scientific discoveries. An example of an “aesthetic justification” in conserving endangered species is that of the introduction of the gray wolf into Yellowstone National Park. The gray wolf has brought numerous amounts of tourists to the park and added to the biodiversity in the protected region.

Another example, supporting the conservation of endangered species as providers of products for human well-being, is the scrub mint. It has been found that the scrub mint contains an anti-fungal agent and a natural insecticide. Also, the deterioration of the bald eagle and the peregrine falcon “alerted people to the potential health hazards associated with the widespread spraying of DDT and other persistent pesticides” .

This serves as an example of how certain fish can serve as identifiers of environmental health and protect human life as well as other species. Finally, an example of species providing for scientific discoveries is the instance of the Pacific yew which “became the source of taxol, one of the most potent anticancer compounds ever discovered” . Endangered species could prove useful to human development, maintenance of biodiversity and preservation of ecosystems.

Another approach is known as ecosystem conservation, where a focus is placed less on preserving any individual given species than on preserving the proper functioning of the ecosystem as a whole

Helping preserve endangered species

It is the goal of conservationists to create and expand upon ways to preserve endangered species and maintain biodiversity. There are several ways in which one can aid in preserving the world’s species who are nearing extinction. One such way is obtaining more information on different groups of species, especially invertebrates, fungi, and marine organisms, where sufficient data is lacking.

For example, to understand the causes of population declines and extinction an experiment was conducted on the butterfly population in Finland. In this analysis, the butterflies’ endangered list classification, distribution, density, larval specificity, dispersal ability, adult habitat breadth, flight period and body size were all recorded and examined to determine the threatened state of each species. It was found that the butterflies’ distribution has declined by fifty-one and a half percent, and they have a severely restricted habitat. One example of specific butterflies who have a declining distribution rate are the Frigga’s Fritillary and Grizzled Skipper, who have been affected by habitat loss due to extensive draining of the bogs where they live. This experiment shows that when we know the causes of endangerment, we can successfully create solutions for the management of biodiversity.

Another way to help preserve endangered species is to create a new professional society dedicated to ecological ethics. This could help ecologists make ethical decisions in their research and management of biodiversity. Also, creating more awareness on environmental ethics can help encourage species preservation. “Courses in ethics for students, and training programs for ecologists and biodiversity managers” all could create environmental awareness and prevent violations of ethics in research and management. One final way in which one can conserve endangered species is through federal agency investments and protection enacted by the federal government. “Ecologists have proposed biological corridors, biosphere reserves, ecosystem management, and eco-regional planning as approaches to integrate biodiversity conservation and socioeconomic development at increasingly larger spatial scales”.

One example of a federal mandated conservation zone is the Northwest Hawaiian Islands Marine National Monument, the largest marine protected area in the world. The monument is essential to the preservation of underwater communities and overfished regions. Only researchers working in the area are permitted to fish, no corals may be removed, and the Department of Homeland Security will enforce restrictions on vessels passing through the waters via satellite imaging. The monument will serve as a home to an estimated seven thousand species, most of which cannot be found anywhere else in the world. This environmental monument demonstrates the fact that it is possible to create a safe environment for endangered species, as well as maintaining some of the world’s largest ecosystems.

Causes of Endangerment

 

    Habitat Destruction        Introduction of Exotic Species 

       Overexploitation                        More Factors

When discussing the causes of endangerment, it is important to understand that individual species are not the only factors involved in this dilemma. Endangerment is a broad issue, one that involves the habitats and environments where species live and interact with one another. Although some measures are being taken to help specific cases of endangerment, the universal problem cannot be solved until humans protect the natural environments where endangered species dwell.

There are many reasons why a particular species may become endangered. Although these factors can be analyzed and grouped, there are many causes that appear repeatedly. Below are several factors leading to endangerment:

Habitat Destruction

Our planet is continually changing, causing habitats to be altered and modified. Natural changes tend to occur at a gradual pace, usually causing only a slight impact on individual species. However, when changes occur at a fast pace, there is little or no time for individual species to react and adjust to new circumstances. This can create disastrous results, and for this reason, rapid habitat loss is the primary cause of species endangerment. The strongest forces in rapid habitat loss are human beings. Nearly every region of the earth has been affected by human activity, particularly during this past century. The loss of microbes in soils that formerly supported tropical forests, the extinction of fish and various aquatic species in polluted habitats, and changes in global climate brought about by the release of greenhouse gases are all results of human activity.

It can be difficult for an individual to recognize the effects that humans have had on specific species. It is hard to identify or predict human effects on individual species and habitats, especially during a human lifetime. But it is quite apparent that human activity has greatly contributed to species endangerment. For example, although tropical forests may look as though they are lush, they are actually highly susceptible to destruction. This is because the soils in which they grow are lacking in nutrients. It may take Centuries to re-grow a forest that was cut down by humans or destroyed by fire, and many of the world's severely threatened animals and plants live in these forests. If the current rate of forest loss continues, huge quantities of plant and animal species will disappear.

Introduction of Exotic Species

Native species are those plants and animals that are part of a specific geographic area, and have ordinarily been a part of that particular biological landscape for a lengthy period of time. They are well adapted to their local environment and are accustomed to the presence of other native species within the same general habitat. Exotic species, however, are interlopers. These species are introduced into new environments by way of human activities, either intentionally or accidentally. These interlopers are viewed by the native species as foreign elements. They may cause no obvious problems and may eventual be considered as natural as any native species in the habitat. However, exotic species may also seriously disrupt delicate ecological balances and may produce a plethora of unintended yet harmful consequences.

The worst of these unintended yet harmful consequences arise when introduced exotic species put native species in jeopardy by preying on them. This can alter the natural habitat and can cause a greater competition for food. Species have been biologically introduced to environments all over the world, and the most destructive effects have occurred on islands. Introduced insects, rats, pigs, cats, and other foreign species have actually caused the endangerment and extinction of hundreds of species during the past five centuries. Exotic species are certainly a factor leading to endangerment.

Overexploitation

A species that faces overexploitation is one that may become severely endangered or even extinct due to the rate in which the species is being used. Unrestricted whaling during the 20th century is an example of overexploitation, and the whaling industry brought many species of whales to extremely low population sizes. When several whale species were nearly extinct, a number of nations (including the United States) agreed to abide by an international moratorium on whaling. Due to this moratorium, some whale species, such as the grey whale, have made remarkable comebacks, while others remain threatened or endangered.

Due to the trade in animal parts, many species continue to suffer high rates of exploitation. Even today, there are demands for items such as rhino horns and tiger bones in several areas of Asia. It is here that there exists a strong market for traditional medicines made from these animal parts.

More Factors

Disease, pollution, and limited distribution are more factors that threaten various plant and animal species. If a species does not have the natural genetic protection against particular pathogens, an introduced disease can have severe effects on that specie. For example, rabies and canine distemper viruses are presently destroying carnivore populations in East Africa. Domestic animals often transmit the diseases that affect wild populations, demonstrating again how human activities lie at the root of most causes of endangerment. Pollution has seriously affected multiple terrestrial and aquatic species, and limited distributions are frequently a consequence of other threats; populations confined to few small areas due to of habitat loss, for example, may be disastrously affected by random factors.

Reptiles

Green Turtle

NAME:

English: Green Turtle

Tagalog: Pawikan

Scientific: Chelonia Mydas

ORIGIN

Population Status/Origin /Distribtution Habitat

The Green Turtle occurs throughout Philippines waters, with important nesting concentrations in the Turtle islands and Bancauan island, Tawi-Tawi. Approximately 80% of the Philippine green turtle nesting occur in this area 9 Limpus, 1985 unpublished). The turtle islands are known to be a traditional nesting area for the green turtle. Along with the Turtle Islands of Sabah and the Berau Islands in Indonesia, they support the only major (i.e. thousands of testing females anually) green turtle breeding aggregation in the ASEAN Region (Limpus,1985 unpublished). A significant decline in annual egg production is now evident due to large-scale harvesting of the turtle eggs for decades.

The green turtle is widely distributed in tropical and subtropical waters near continental coasts and around islands. It is rarely found in temperate water.

Olive-Ridley Turtle

NAME:

English: Olive-Ridley Turtle

Tagalog: Pawikan

Scientific: Lepidochelys Olivacea

ORIGIN Population Status/Origin /Distribtution Habitat The olive ridley is not a very commom species in the Philippines. The type specimen for the specise was collected from Manila Bay in 1829 and early this century. Taylor(1920 &1921) recorded that " the species is not rare and is taken frequently in Manila Bay". Recent record are scarce. Gomez (1y hatchlings were 980) reported a captive specimen but could not determine the capture site. In 1987, an olive ridley was captured in Palawan and was last released. In 1988, a specimen was caught by a freshmen in Navotas, Malabon and was later releasesd by the PCP in Batangas. On August 1990, a juvenile olive ridley was caprtured in Carigara Bay, Capoocan, leyte. This was released inthe same place on September 11,1990 after a PCP metal tag was applied (Region VIII, FAO report) . The most recent documented sighting of olive ridleys took place in Subic Bay,Zambales. A group of olive ridlerecovered at El Grande Island and a nest of eggs were laid in front of the officers Club, USN installation. The egg were laid on December 23,1992 and the hatchlings emerged on February 14,1993. Mayor Richard Gordon took pride in releasing the newly emerged olive ridley hatchlings. These past two years, resort owners in Subic have reported that olive ridleys nests during the months of November to December.

The olive ridley ia a pantropical species living principally in the northern hemisphere. They are widely distributed in continental coastal waters.

Hawksbill Turtle

NAME:

English: Hawksbill Turtle

Tagalog: Pawikan

Scientific: Eretmochelys Imbricata

ORIGIN

Population Status/Origin /Distribution Habitat

The Hawksbill occurs widely with low nesting densities throughout the Philippines. No major nesting aggregating have been identified but were found to nest in small numbers of numerous islands. A hawksbill turtle from a feeding ground at Culasi, Antique, Central Philippines was recorded nesting 713 kilometers distant to the Northern Sabah Turtle Islands (de Silva, 1982 ). Hawksbills appear to be now greatly reduced in number when compared with the past harvest statistics ( Seale,1911,1917; Polunin,1975, deCelis,1982). The relative rarity of the hawksbill is largely a result of prolonged over-exploitation of eggs and the international trade of tortoiseshell.

The hawksbill is the most tropical of all sea turtles. it is distributed throughout the Central Atlantic and Indo pacific Region.

Leatherback Turtle

NAME:

English: Leather Back Turtle

Tagalog: Pawikan

Scientific: Dermochelys Coriacea

ORIGIN

Population Status/Origin /Distribution Habitat

Only a single nesting within the Philippines is known for the leatherback turtle from the Quiniluban island Group (F. Matillano and D. Labra, BFAR Staff, 1985).

Isolated records of leatherback trutles caught in nets or washed ashore have been reported to PCP. In Hinunangan, Southern Leyte, it was capture on September 19,1990. The activity of leatherback was not recorded. It was released the following day (region VIII, FAO Report ). Still another leatherback was captured and released in Binuangan, Tubay, Agusan del Norte on February 16,1992. The CCL and CCW were 147.3 cm and 68 cm, respectively. Based on the 1994 habitat survey on marine turtle conducted by the PCP in the Province of Romblon, occasional sighting of leatherback turtle have been reported. Ibrahim (1994) reported that most sighting of Malaysia leatherbacks have been received from Hawaii, Japan, Indonesia and mostly from the Philippines. The species is probably common in the open waters of the Philippines where they feed before migrating to breed in neighboring countries.

The leatherback can adapt to colder water making it the most widely distributed of all the sea turtle. It is a highly pelagic species.

Loggerhead Turtle

NAME:

English: Loggerhead Turtle

Tagalog: Pawikan

Scientific: Caretta caretta

ORIGIN

Population Status/Origin /Distribution Habitat

Loggerhead turtle is documented in the Philippines only from old published photos (Seale, 1911; Taylor,1920 &1921). Two recent sightings of loggerheads, tagged in Japan took place in Philippine water.

Other than these, there appears to be no other positive records of this species from Philippine waters. If breeding indeed occurs, it would probably be in the extreme northern islands adjacent to the important loggerhead nesting aggregation in Southern Japan.

The Loggerhead turtle is widely distributed in coastal tropical and subtropical waters around the world. This species commonly wander into temperate water and to the boundaries of warm currents.

Crocodile

NAME:

English: Crocodile

Tagalog: Buaya

Scientific: Crocodylus Midorensis

ORIGIN

Population Status/Origin /Distribtution Habitat

The term 'crocodile' was derived from the Greek word 'krokodeilos' meaning Lizard. There are two crocodalian found in the Philippines. They are Philippine or fresh water crocodile (Cocodylus midorenses) and Estuarine or saltwater crcodile (Crocodylus porosus).

The Estuarine crocodile is widely been distributed than the Philippine or freshwater crocordiles. Salty crocodile are found in all the larger Islands of the Philippines including Luzon , Mindanao, Palawan, Samr, Leyte and Panay. in global distribution extends from eastern Indiato northern Austratia.

Its habitat are the mouths of rivers and muddy canals located near the sea and can also be found in mangroves and shamps.

Both species of crocodiles are endangered in the Philippines. they are been hunted for their valuable skin which is considered as one of the most price leather in the international market. A belt made from the crocodile skin has an average worth 250 US dollar and a handbag cost 4000 US dollar while shoes cost 600 to 800 US dollars. A live crocodile can fetch as much as 10,000 pesos.

Most of the original habitats of the crocodile are now lostand it has been coverted to fishponds or has been cleared for agriculture making them very rare in the philippines and can be found only in uninhabited areas.

Birds

Philippine Cockatoo

NAME:

English: Philippine Cockatoo

Tagalog: Kalangay

Scientific: Kakatoe Haematuropygia

ORIGIN

Population Status/Origin /Distribution Habitat

The species is widely distributed throughout the Philippines where it is endemic. Several birds were seen in nest-holes in tall dead trees in April and May in the interior of Negros, around Pagyabonan, Bais. The trees were tall ones that were left standing in burned clearings that had been plated with rice for several seasons and then allowed to grow up with cogon grass. these clearings were interspersed with large patches of original dipterocarp forest in rolling country.

Grain and seeds are preferred as food. Nine birds taken from Negros had eaten corn and the seeds of wild bananas.

There are probably only 800 to 300 birds left in Palawan and the species has had 60 to 90 percent decline in population in the late 10 to 15 years. The major cause of the rapid decline of its population of the unregulated collection illegal trade of this species which very much in demandas house pet and zoo's animal. Habitat loss is also a major factor for this decline.

Tarictic Hornbill

NAME:

English: Tarictic Hornbill

Tagalog: Tariktik

Scientific: Penelopides Panini Panini

ORIGIN

Population Status/Origin /Distribution Habitat

The Tarictic hornbill's range follows the limits of the dipterocarp forests found from the lowlands to about 800 m elevation. Some birds may be found in mid- mountain forests of slightly higher elevation but not as frequently as the next species. Its main habitat is the dipterocarp forests. Occasionally it goes to feed on fruiting trees in clearings close to the original forests or on fruiting trees second-growth patches in well-forest areas.

It is a noisy birds and keeps up its incessant notes that sound like the syllables "Ta-ric-tic, ta-ric-tic,ta-ric-tic" as it feeds on fruits. Some times, more than a dozen birds feed at the same time on one fruiting tree. As some leave others come in. This continues throughout the day. Among the dense foliage, it difficult to locate the birds immediately in spite of the noise.

Philippine Eagle

NAME:

English: Philippine Eagle

Tagalog: Aguila

Scientific: Pithecophaga Jefferyi

ORIGIN

Population Status/Origin /Distribtution Habitat

The Philippine Eagle is a giant forest raptor endemic to the Philippines. It is considered one of the largest and most powerful eagles in the world. Unfortunately, it is also one of the world's rarest and certainly among its most critically endangered vertebrate species.

The Eagle is known to be geographically restricted to the islands of Luzon, Samr, Leyte, and Mindanao. These islands were once connected to each other during the mid-Pleistocene when the sea level was lower by 120-160 meters than at present.

Recent biogeographical analysis suggest that the origin of Pithecophaga is clearly Papuasian. Its closest relative is believed to be the Ne Guinea harpy eagle,Haryopsis novaeguinea The ancestors of the Philippine Eagle probably arrived through te southeast part of Mindanao prior to the mid-Pleistocene.

Population Status

The current population status of the Philippine Eagle is not known. the species has been considered rare since it was first dicovered in 1896. morever, the eagle has always been difficult to census because of the significant logistic difficulties of working in dense, steep rain forest.

Attemps to survey or estimate the population status of the species have always been crude at best. Only scattered, individual reports occured up through the 1960's. Additionally, data from researchrs in the 70's to the early 80's were difficult to interpret. And because of the small sample sizes and nature of approaches used, no confidence limits could be established for these estimates.

The general indicators of population status continue to be alarming. Habitat and probably prey population are continuing to disappear at a rapid rate. Thus, wild population are losing places to live and likely are becoming food stressed .

Of the two primary characteristics of population, i.e. reproductive rate and survival rate the latter is the most important for populations long-lived, lowly reproducing species. Chance effects ( such as weather fluctuation, epidemics, inbreeding, etc.) only make matters worse for small population.

Mindoro Imperial Pigeon

NAME:

English: Mindoro Imperial Pigeon

Scientific: Dacula Mindorenses

ORIGIN

Population Status/Origin /Distribution Habitat

Confined with Mindoro, where it uncommon. occurs in forested highlands above 1,400 meters although may come down to lower altitudes during the dry season after water. Feeds on large fruit. Usually seen in pairs; sometimes in threes or fours. Voice penetrating booming note little information is available in this species.

Philippine BooBook Owl

NAME:

English: Philippine BooBook Owl

Tagalog: Kuago

Scientific: Ninox Philippenses Centralist

ORIGIN

Population Status/Origin /Distribution Habitat

The numerous of the owl family are distributed all over the tropical and temperate region of the world. Nine species by about 29 forms, occurs in the Philippines, one of which is migratory, and one a mere straggler.

Members of this family usually have lengthened feathers above and behind the eye known as "horns" or "ear tufts" The habits are those describe for the grass owl family.

The Philippine Boobook owl is common on the various islands. Its notes are always heard at night in the foothills, in the neighborhood of dense second-growth or original forests. Some birds are even flushed from the small dense patches of the trees that are allowed to row at the sides cultivated fields or long the small creek that run across farms.

The owl, like any other owl, is seldom encountered during daytime. however, with the aid of an electric trough with concentrated beam, it is easy to see four or five birds at night, their yellowish gleaming eyes easily showing where they are.

Palawan Peacock Pheasant

NAME:

English: Palawan Peacock Pheasant

Scientific: Polyplectron emphanum

ORIGIN

Population Status/Origin /Distribution Habitat

Endemic to Palawan where it is quite uncommon. Lives on the floor of the deep forest though seldom observed because of its shy and wary nature. The male struts and displays to the female in a dancing arena within a clearing on the forest floor. Feeds on a variety of fruit and seeds, as well as insects and other small animals. Much sought after by collectors and may be

threatened with extinction unless adequately protected.

Black Shahma

NAME:

English: Black Shahma

Scientific: Copsychus cebuensis

ORIGIN Population Status/Origin /Distribtution Habitat

Found only on Cebu where it is very scarce; endemic. Occurs in the undergrowth of the patches of secondary growth tracts along steep ravines and in bamboo groves and thickets. Secretive and little known about its behavior.

Crimson Backed Woodpecker

NAME:

English: Crimson Backed Woodpecker

Tagalog: Karpintero

Scientific: Chrysocolapteus Lucidus

ORIGIN

Population Status/Origin /Distribution Habitat

The Crimson-backed woodpecker is frequently found in both original and second-growth forest in the hills up to about 600 m. elevation, near the upper limit of the dipterocarp forest zone. occasionally it visits the partly burned dead trees left standing in abandoned clearing close to forests.

It is a noisy bird making loud fast-repeated noter as it goes about in its search for food, drumming against wood. The birds usually goes about in pairs which keep track of each on the in the dense growth by means of the oft-repeated notes. the tapping on a large partly burned hollow tree, produces a very loud sound that closely resembles that produced by a modern riveting machine.

The birds is not at all shy and allow close approach, while carryings on nonchalantly its search for food.

The species is distributed from India and Ceylon, east to Burma, Thailand and Indochina, and the Philippines and south to Malaysia. At least seven endemic races are known in the Philippines.

The C.l haemtribon, occurs in Luzon and Marinduque; C.l. grandis, occurs in Polillo C.l. rufopunctatus, occurs in Bohol, Leyte, panaon ans samar; C.l. xanthocephalus, occurs in Guimaras, Masbate, Negros, Panay and Ticao; C.l. licidus, occurs in Zamboanga and Basilan; C.l. montanus, occurs throughout Mindoro except in Zamboanga and the C.l erythrocephalus, occurs in Balabac, Calamianes and Palawan.

Sulu Hornbill

NAME:

English: Sulu Hornbill

Scientific: Anthracoceros montani

ORIGIN

Population Status/Origin /Distribution Habitat

Scarce. Occurs in the mountains of Jolo, Sulu and Tawi-Tawi. Usually travels in pairs or in small noisy groups. Feeds on forest fruit, small lizards and some insects. Like other hornbills, nests in tree holes.

Mammals

Philippine Tarsier

NAME:

English: Philippine Tarsier

Tagalog: Mamag

Scientific: Tarsius Philippensis

ORIGIN

Population Status/Origin /Distribution Habitat

The Philippine Tarsier stays in the lowlands and medium elevations, in the plains and in rolling or hilly country. It stays in mixed open country with dense patches of bush, tall grass, light bamboo, and low trees, preferably along the dense edges of clearing made in these areas. The animal may be accidentally disturbed during daytime from its living quarters among the dense low vegetation at the edge of clearing frequently in newly-opened country, and at the outskirts of forests. It jumps agilely and at first glance appears more like a surprised rat than anything else.

At night the tarsier is often found in the edges of clearings looking for food. It is often encountered in newly-burned kaingin patches, where it is after the ash and the pieces of charcoal as sources of salt.

It is a timid animal and dislikes to stay in strong light, even if it is only the light of the day. It is satisfied to stay in the darkest corner of a cage and cling there, hiding its face away from the spectator. when two or more animals are placed together inside a cage, all of them stay together in the darkest corner, one on top of the back of another. The animal acts and moves sluggishly during the day but at night it becomes very active.

The tarsier feeds mainly on insects and small reptiles. Captive tarsiers relish cockroaches and house lizard.

Tarsier occur in Samar, Leyte, Bohol and Mindanao. Several species have been described but it is more likely that there is only one species that is distributed among these islands, which may include two or three subspecies.

Philippine Deer

NAME:

English: Philippine Deer

Tagalog: Usa

Scientific: Cervus Mariannus

ORIGIN

Population Status/Origin /Distribtution Habitat

Cervus mariannus is known to have at least four subspecies which are endemic to Luzon, Mindoro, Mindanao, and associated smaller islands in the eastern part of the Philippines (Oliver et al.1991) This animal is one of the regional variants of Cervus unicolor, is listed under Appendix II of the Comvention on the International Trade of Endangered Species of Flora nad Fauna (CITES). It has been considered as an endangered species by the ASEAN Experts Group onEnvironment (1986). However, compared with the Spotted Deer and the Calamian Deer, Cervus mariannus is not as seriously threatened throughout its range and is not included in the IUCN Red List (IUCN 19900. Recent survey, however, has indicated that hte subspecies of cervus mariannus in Mindoro (C.m. nigricans) are highly threatened within their respective range because if deforestation and over-hunting (OLiver et al.1990).

Mouse Deer

NAME:

English: Mouse Deer

Tagalog: Pilandok

Scientific: Tragulus Nigricans

ORIGIN

Population Status/Origin /Distribtution Habitat

Small deerlike ruminants wothout horns in both sexes; canines present in both jaws, but well-developed in upper jaw in the male; middle metacarpals fused; molars selenodont; premolars adapted for cutting.

From India, throughout southeastern Asia to the western malaysia islands. In the Philippines found only in Balabac island, south of Palawan, but not on Palawan island itself.

The Balabac Chevrotain or mouse deer is active at night. During the day, it stays in deeply-shaded spots, among the dense vegetations, inside original forests, but may also be found inside the second growth forests close to virgin forests. The animal is difficult to find in the forest during the day, but at night it roams around the cleared areas, even close to seashore.

Mouse Deer are commonly encountered along the roadsides at night with the use of flashlights. The eyes flash very brightly once caught in the beam and the animal normally stares for sometime before fleeing.

Palawan Bearcat

NAME:

English: Palawan Bearcat

Tagalog: Binturong

Scientific: Arctictis Binturong

ORIGIN

Population Status/Origin /Distribution Habitat

The Mammalian Fauna of the Philippine Islands is exceptionally diverse with over 165 species and at least 121 of which are endemic with the Philippines. One this species the Palawan Bearcat locally known as Manturon or Binturong. It is found only in Palawan.

The Palawan Bearcat usually stays in denser vegetation both in original and secondary growth forests. it can also be found in lowlands and extends its range in to the hills and lower mountain slopes.

It is arboreal, and uses its prehensile tails for climbing trees especially high canopy staying among dense clusters of the leaves where it difficult to discover. It is a nocturnal species and can only be seen through its eyes luminous eyes that stares for short periods against bright beams and flashlights. The Palawan bearcats is sometimes eaten by the natives. The fur is used in making caps, wraps and coats and is even used as decor. The species has been heavily affected by deforestation, hunting and trapping.

Sea Cow

NAME:

English: Sea Cow

Tagalog: Dugong

Scientific: Dugung Dugon

ORIGIN

Population Status/Origin /Distribtution Habitat

Dugong live long and have very low productive rates They can live up to about 70 years and only reach sexual maturity at the age of 9 to 17 years. The male and female dugong can be differentiated from each other by lookinf at the distances between their anus, genital slit and umbilical scar. After mating, the female will give birth to only a single calf bonding as the calf stays near the cow for at least 18 months. during this time the calf will suckle from the cow's teats underneath the flipper.

The only time that the cow will concieve again is after 3 to 7 years. Helen Marsh assumess that if every female dugong in a given population gives birth every three years startung at the age of 10, an increase in the population of only 5% is expected per year.

Dugongs can be seen in tropical shallow coastal waters from 3 to 20 meters in depth where we can also find an abundance of seagrass. The Philippines is one of the 43 countries in the Indopacific where dugongs can be found which includes countries sech as Africa, India, indonesia, Papua New Guinea, Palau, Australia and the middle East. Today, only relict populatios remain in the Indo-Pacific, separated by large areas where populations are either close to extinction or are already extinct (Marsh1993)

There are several distinct populations in the world which were determined through mitochondrial DNA studies (Tikel 1995). One is the Asian dugong, another is the African dugong and several other populations in Autralia. It is estimited that there are only more than 100,000 dugongs in the whole world (Marsh pers. comm.)

Dugong were previously found in every island of the Philiippines. They were numerous along the country's lengthy coast. There is even one reord of a dugong caught from Manila Bay in the 18th century (Aragon1951). Documentation by early writers deliver a myriad of information, belifs and superstition about this animal. They were considered mysterious and human-like, although some described them as monstrous. Many historical accounts say that their body parts have medicinal powers.

It is evident that the dugongs have been exploited in the Philippines for a very long time.

There are no population counts in the country. In palawan, where most studies have been done. the population is described as sparse and low in density (Kataoka et al. 1995 and Nishiwaki et al 1979). Dugongs form large herbs of up to hundreds of animals. Usually, they are only seenalone or in pairs.

Dugongs have become extinct in many aresa in the Philippines. Most of the remaining of the dugongs in the country can be found in Palawan. Twoother areas with possible viable populatios are the eastern Luzon coast (Isabela-Quezon) ans southern Mondanao. There are alsoindications that dugongs may still exist in Bicol, Catanduanes, Romblon, Mindoro, Caluya Islands and Cuyo. they are probably rare or extinct in the western Lizon coast, norther Mindanao, Samar and the visayas(Kataoka et al.1995)

Tamaraw

NAME:

English: Tamaraw

Tagalog: Tamaraw

Scientific: Anoa Mindorensis

ORIGIN

Population Status/Origin /Distribution Habitat

The wild Asiatic water buffalo is at present restricted to northeastern India, Ceylon, southern Vietnam, and the Malay Peninsula. This species is widely distributed as a domesticated animal and has been introduced into southern Europe, northern Africa, China, Philippines (called carabao), Indonesia, and Australia. The Tamaraw is Found only on mindoro Island in the Philippines and nowhere else in the world.

The Tamaraw is the largest land animal native to the Philippines. This small buffalo frequents dense vegetation along the rivers in the lowlands of Mindoro island and spends much of its time in the marshy areas. It is found in open grasslands and forests and range from sea level up to the high ridges of mountains on Mindoro Island, with elevation of more than 2000 m.

This dwarf buffalo is over hunted both by sport hunters and by people who are after its meat. The species is one of the top game animals and its head is considered valuable trophy by the average big-game hunter anywhere in the world. Inspite of government regulations prohibiting its capture and killing, the species continues to be collecte and killed by illegal hunters.

This dwarf buffalo is noted for its fierceness when cornered. The native hunters in Mindoro say that it is always best to have a nearly tree to climb up when hunting the Tamaraw, because it really attacks even when slightly wounded.

The Tamaraw found only on Mindoro Island and nowhere else.

Destruction of its habitat due to the deforestation or habitat alterations have been contributed to its decline. Over hunting of collecting trophies are also taken a heavy tool of Tamaraw population. From 10,00 heads in 1900's, the tamaraw population is now down 369 heads in the late 80's given them a precarious grip of survival.

Spotted Sambar Deer

NAME:

English: Spotted Sambar Deer

Tagalog: Usa (East Visayan)

Scientific: Cervus (Rusa) Alfredi

ORIGIN

Population Status/Origin /Distribution Habitat

The Spotted Sambar Deer frequents the extensive coronal areas in the interior of Negros Island, both in lowlands and in the highlands up to about 1200 m. The species is abundant especially in the vicinity of extensive tracts of original forests where it can seek cover.

The deer feeds on the young shoots of the cogon grass and on the young leaves and buds of low forest growth.

The extensive coronals between Bayaon and Bais municipalities, in the rolling country of the interior, are favorite hunting grounds for deer. The animals attracted to the newly-burnt clearings in the forests where they lick the ashes for the their salt requirements. The favorite practice of the deer hunter is to burn wide tracts of cogon areas and then wait for a few weeks until the new shoots come up and then hunt at night the new shoots come up and then hunt at night with the aid of head lamps, or torches. The deer seems to be attracted helplessly to the beam of light and merely stands still. A hunters can easily bag half a dozen deer in s single night.

African Elephant

Common Name:  African elephant

Scientific Name: Loxodonta africana

Location: Africa

Subspecies:

Savanna elephant

(Loxodonta africana africana)

Forest elephant

(Loxodonta Africana cyclotis)

African elephants once numbered in the millions across Africa, but by the mid-1980s their populations had been devastated by poaching. The status of the species now varies greatly across

the continent. Some populations remain in danger due to poaching for meat and ivory, habitat loss and conflict with humans.

Elephants are important because their future is tied to much of Africa's rich biodiversity. Scientists consider African elephants to be keystone species as they help to maintain suitable habitats

for many other species in savanna and forest ecosystems.

Elephants directly influence forest composition and density, and can alter the broader landscape. In tropical forests, elephants create clearings and gaps in the canopy that encourage tree

regeneration. In the savannas, they can reduce bush cover to create an environment favorable to a mix of browsing and grazing animals.

Project of Environmental Studies

Project Name

ENDANGERED SPECIES

Submitted By:

Under the guidance of

Don Bosco Institute Of Technology,

ENDANGERED SPECIES

An endangered species is a population of organisms which is at risk of becoming extinct because it is either few in numbers, or threatened by

changing environmental or predation parameters. The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) has calculated the percentage of endangered

species as 40 percent of all organisms based on the sample of species that have been evaluated through 2006. Only a few of the many species at risk of

extinction actually make it to the lists and obtain legal protection. Many more species become extinct, or potentially will become extinct, without gaining

public notice.

The wildlife of India is varied and one of the richest wildlife of the world. The wildlife of India is having the several endangered species that are living

critically in India that too in the verge of extinction. The species are endangered as due to the reasons like: 

they are few in number they are threatened by the environmental and climatic parameters

The endangered species of the Indian Wildlife are identified by the different international organizations like World Wildlife Fund (WWF), International

Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) and the Wildlife Institute of India (WII). There are many reasons that have been on the

verge of extinction in India. The reasons for it are:

1.the loss of the species in the biological entity

2.destabilization of an ecosystem

3.endangerment of other species

4.loss of irreplaceable genetic material and associated bio-chemicals

India is so varied and rich in the wildlife as it holds 400 species of mammals and 1200 species of birds. To go on the Wildlife Safari is the best way to explore

the natural flora and fauna of the Indian Wildlife Sanctuary. There are about 80 National Park and 400 Wildlife Sanctuaries. The National Parks in India are

giving their best support in the conservation of these endangered species such as Royal Bengal Tigers, Indian Elephants, Indian Rhinos, Siberian Crane,

leopards and lions. The list of endangered species are categorized into certain categories like: Critically Endangered (CR), Endangered (EN), Vulnerable (VU)

and Threatened. This classification of animals is done by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) and the

Wildlife Institute of India (WII) in the year 2004. 

There are many such unique variety of the animals that has been kept in the National Parks and the Wildlife Sanctuaries. There are more than 350 species of

mammals that inhabit in the country. The species that ranges from Indian Elephants, Indian Rhinoceros, Royal Bengal Tigers etc. As the endangered species

are classified into four categories and they are Critically Endangered, Endangered, Vulnerable and Threatened. 

The animals who are listed under the Critically Endangered are as under: 

Jenkin's Shrew

Malabar Large Spotted Civet

Namdapha Flying Squirrel

Pygmy Hog

Salim Ali's Fruit Bat

Sumatran Rhinoceros 

Wroughton's Free Tailed Bat

Species

According to official records, there are more than 130000 animal species in India. According to some, the number may actually be much more than this. There

has been a threat to this natural treasure with the increasing destruction of their habitat like the tropical forests and biosphere reserves. There are a number of

causes which lead to the endangerment of a particular species such as habitat destruction, paucity of prey, overexploitation etc. The animal population has

been declining by every passing minute and we are likely to face grave consequences until we do not react fast. Moreover, the plants and animals hold

immense medicinal, agricultural, ecological and commercial value. This is the time when the endangered species must be protected so that our future

generations are not deprived of experiencing this valuable treasure. Some of the animals

Asian Elephant -Loss of habitat and poaching have led to the near extinction of this gentle giant and there are only about 15 to 20 thousand of these creatures

left in the wild. The Asian Elephant is mainly found in the terai region of Uttar Pradesh, Bengal, Assam, Kerala and Karnataka.  

Leopard

There has been much said about saving the Tiger, but far less attention has been paid to its dotted counterpart, which is equally threatened and their are only

about 7500 leopards to be seen aroundin the Indian jungles. These are concentrated in parts of central India and north east. 

Asiatic Lion-

Found in the Gir national park, on last count their are only about 352 of these ferocious beasts left. Now is the time we should act and protect the Lion if we

want our children to see and admire this marvellous creature.

Snow-Leopard

The exotic looking creature is mostly seen in the upper reaches of the Himalayas. Poaching and paucity of prey have led to its near extinction, but thanks to

environmentalist who woke up to this threat and took immediate measures forthe animal's survival. 

You can help protect the endangered species by doing whatever little you can. Mentioned below are some of the things you should and should not do

Make sure you obey the rules while visiting an animal sanctuary and never pollute the environment.

Join one of the local wildlife conservation organisations in your area.

Plant trees and build a bird feeder in your backyard.

Recycle stuff and try to use minimum non biodegradable material.

Some facts

According to estimates, there are a total of one and a half million species on the planet. However, the number could be 20 times more than this.

More than 1000 animal species in the world are considered to be endangered.

More than 3500 protected areas exist in the world, which include national parks, wildlife sanctuaries and other reserves.

An endangered species is one which is low in number and is at an immediate risk of becoming extinct. Such species need special protection for their

survival.

Causes of Endangerment

When discussing the causes of endangerment, it is important to understand that individual species are not the only factors involved in this dilemma.

Endangerment is a broad issue, one that involves the habitats and environments where species live and interact with one another. Although some measures are

being taken to help specific cases of endangerment, the universal problem cannot be solved until humans protect the natural environments where endangered

species dwell.

There are many reasons why a particular species may become endangered. Although these factors can be analyzed and grouped, there are many causes that

appear repeatedly. Below are several factors leading to endangerment:

Habitat Destruction

Our planet is continually changing, causing habitats to be altered and modified. Natural changes tend to occur at a gradual pace, usually causing only a slight

impact on individual species. However, when changes occur at a fast pace, there is little or no time for individual species to react and adjust to new

circumstances. This can create disastrous results, and for this reason, rapid habitat loss is the primary cause of species endangerment. The strongest forces in

rapid habitat loss are human beings. Nearly every region of the earth has been affected by human activity, particularly during this past century. The loss of

microbes in soils that formerly supported tropical forests, the extinction of fish and various aquatic species in polluted habitats, and changes in global climate

brought about by the release of greenhouse gases are all results of human activity.

It can be difficult for an individual to recognize the effects that humans have had on specific species. It is hard to identify or predict human effects on

individual species and habitats, especially during a human lifetime. But it is quite apparent that human activity has greatly contributed to species

endangerment. For example, although tropical forests may look as though they are lush, they are actually highly susceptible to destruction. This is because the

soils in which they grow are lacking in nutrients. It may take Centuries to re-grow a forest that was cut down by humans or destroyed by fire, and many of the

world's severely threatened animals and plants live in these forests. If the current rate of forest loss continues, huge quantities of plant and animal species will

disappear.

Introduction of Exotic Species

Native species are those plants and animals that are part of a specific geographic area, and have ordinarily been a part of that particular biological landscape

for a lengthy period of time. They are well adapted to their local environment and are accustomed to the presence of other native species within the same

general habitat. Exotic species, however, are interlopers. These species are introduced into new environments by way of human activities, either intentionally

or accidentally. These interlopers are viewed by the native species as foreign elements. They may cause no obvious problems and may eventual be considered

as natural as any native species in the habitat. However, exotic species may also seriously disrupt delicate ecological balances and may produce a plethora of

unintended yet harmful consequences.

The worst of these unintended yet harmful consequences arise when introduced exotic species put native species in jeopardy by preying on them. This can

alter the natural habitat and can cause a greater competition for food. Species have been biologically introduced to environments all over the world, and the

most destructive effects have occurred on islands. Introduced insects, rats, pigs, cats, and other foreign species have actually caused the endangerment and

extinction of hundreds of species during the past five centuries. Exotic species are certainly a factor leading to endangerment.

Overexploitation

A species that faces overexploitation is one that may become severely endangered or even extinct due to the rate in which the species is being used.

Unrestricted whaling during the 20th century is an example of overexploitation, and the whaling industry brought many species of whales to extremely low

population sizes. When several whale species were nearly extinct, a number of nations (including the United States) agreed to abide by an international

moratorium on whaling. Due to this moratorium, some whale species, such as the grey whale, have made remarkable comebacks, while others remain

threatened or endangered.

Due to the trade in animal parts, many species continue to suffer high rates of exploitation. Even today, there are demands for items such as rhino horns and

tiger bones in several areas of Asia. It is here that there exists a strong market for traditional medicines made from these animal parts.

More Factors

Disease, pollution, and limited distribution are more factors that threaten various plant and animal species. If a species does not have the natural genetic

protection against particular pathogens, an introduced disease can have severe effects on that specie. For example, rabies and canine distemper viruses are

presently destroying carnivore populations in East Africa. Domestic animals often transmit the diseases that affect wild populations, demonstrating again how

human activities lie at the root of most causes of endangerment. Pollution has seriously affected multiple terrestrial and aquatic species, and limited

distributions are frequently a consequence of other threats; populations confined to few small areas due to of habitat loss, for example, may be disastrously

affected by random factors.

Why Save Endangered Species?

Plants and animals hold medicinal, agricultural, ecological, commercial and aesthetic/recreational value. Endangered species must be protected and saved so

that future generations can experience their presence and value.

Medicinal

Plants and animals are responsible for a variety of useful medications. In fact, about forty percent of all prescriptions written today are composed from the

natural compounds of different species. These species not only save lives, but they contribute to a prospering pharmaceutical industry worth over $40 billion

annually. Unfortunately, only 5% of known plant species have been screened for their medicinal values, although we continue to lose up to 100 species daily.

The Pacific yew, a slow-growing tree found in the ancient forests of the Pacific Northwest, was historically considered a "trash" tree (it was burned after

clearcutting). However, a substance in its bark taxol was recently identified as one of the most promising treatments for ovarian and breast cancer.

Additionally, more than 3 million American heart disease sufferers would perish within 72 hours of a heart attack without digitalis, a drug derived from the

purple foxglove.

 

Agricultural

There are an estimated 80,000 edible plants in the world. Humans depend upon only 20 species of these plants, such as wheat and corn, to provide 90% of the

world's food. Wild relatives of these common crops contain essential disease-resistant material. They also provide humans with the means to develop new

crops that can grow in inadequate lands such as in poor soils or drought-stricken areas to help solve the world hunger problem. In the 1970s, genetic material

from a wild corn species in Mexico was used to stop a leaf fungus that had previously wiped out 15% of the U.S. corn crop.

Ecological

Plant and animal species are the foundation of healthy ecosystems. Humans depend on ecosystems such as coastal estuaries, prairie grasslands, and ancient

forests to purify their air, clean their water, and supply them with food. When species become endangered, it is an indicator that the health of these vital

ecosystems is beginning to unravel. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service estimates that losing one plant species can trigger the loss of up to 30 other insect,

plant and higher animal species.

The northern spotted owl, listed as threatened in 1990, is an indicator of the declining health of the ancient forests of the Pacific Northwest. These forests are

the home to over 100 other old-growth dependent species, which are at risk due to decades of unsustainable forest management practices.

Pollution off the coast of Florida is killing the coral reefs along the Florida Keys, which serve as habitat for hundreds of species of fish. Commercial fish

species have begun to decline, causing a threat to the multi-million dollar tourism industry, which depends on the quality of the environment.

THE PLIGHT OF ENDANGERED SPECIES

There are now 41,415 species on the IUCN Red List and 16,306 of them are threatened with extinction, up from 16,118 last year. This includes both

endangered animals and endangered plants.

One in four mammals, one in eight birds, one third of all amphibians and 70% of the world’s assessed plants on the 2007 IUCN Red List are in jeopardy. The

total number of extinct species has reached 785 and a further 65 are only found in captivity or in cultivation. In the last 500 years, human activity has forced

over 800 species into extinction.

For every species that is alive today, perhaps a thousand more have lived previously and become extinct. Most of these extinctions occurred before humans

evolved, and the species are known to us only through fossils. Extinctions are a natural part of evolutionary processes, but through most of the history of life

on Earth, biological diversity has been increasing.

Periodically, however, major changes in the conditions on Earth have caused the collapse of living systems, and large percentages of species a have become

extinct. These species will never return. It takes millions of years for life forms to diversify again.

The current extinction crisis is unique, in that the loss of biodiversity is occurring very rapidly, and the causes of the crisis are the activities of a single species:

human beings. Some scientists believe the current crisis began when humans and their domestic animals first began to colonize the various parts of the globe.

Others believe it began around 1600, when human population growth exploded, and the level of per capita resource consumption began to rise dramatically in

some parts of the world.

Of the species that are best known, the so-called "higher animals," more than one percent have become extinct in the last 400 years and the overwhelming

majority of these extinctions are anthropogenic. Many more species are in danger of becoming extinct if we do not act quickly to conserve them.

Conclusion:

"This we know: the earth does not belong to man,

man belongs to the earth. All things are connected

like the blood that unites us all

Man did not weave the web of life, he is merely a strand in it

Whatever he does to the web, he does to himself."

Source:

www.wikipedia.com

www.endangeredspecies.org

www.indianwildspecies.org

www.incredibleindia.com

Endemic Species.An endemic species is an animal or plant species whose habitat is restricted to a particular area or space on the globe. Since these species are not widespread and may be confined to only one or two protected areas, they are of great conservation concern. This general term is used for a range of creatures including mammal species, reptile species, bird species and insect species. Details on an endemic species may be different depending on what kind of animal or plant is being referenced. Generally, an endemic species is a focus point for helping to protect biodiversity in a given environment.

Scientists who are researching endemic species are involved in what’s called zoogeography. The study of an endemic species involves different zoogeographical zones that make up the habitat for different ranges of species. Looking at zoogeography helps biologists to decipher the past of a type of animal or plant, and predict its future.

Biogeographical classification of india

WILDLIFE PROTECTED AREA NETWORK IN INDIA : A REVIEW

Fig. 3 : Biogeographic Classification of India : Zones

8282INDIA : STATE OF THE ENVIRONMENT 2001INDIA : STATE OF THE ENVIRONMENT 2001

The Biogeographic classificationThe Biogeographic classificationThe Biogeographic classification

The Biogeographic classificationThe Biogeographic classification

Coasts. A large coastline distributed bothnof India (Rodgers and Pawar 1990)of India (Rodgers and Pawar 1990)of India (Rodgers and Pawar 1990)

of India (Rodgers and Pawar 1990)of India (Rodgers and Pawar 1990)

to the west and east, with distinctTrans-Himalayas. An extension of the differences between the two; LakshadeepnTibetan plateau, harboring high-altitude islands are included in this with thecold desert in Laddakh (J&K) and Lahaul percent area being negligible.Spiti (H.P) comprising 5.7 % of the coun-try’s landmass. Apart from the biogeographic classificationsHimalayas. The entire mountain chain described above ecosystems can also be de-nrunning from north-western to north- marcated on the basis of purely geographicaleastern India, comprising a diverse range or geological features like mountains, islands,of biotic provinces and biomes, 7.2 % of valleys, plateaux, oceans; on the basis of veg-the country’s landmass. etative cover like forests, grasslands,Desert. The extremely arid area west of the mangroves and deserts; on the basis ofnAravalli hill range, comprising both the climatic conditions like arid and semi-aridsalty desert of Gujarat and the sand desert areas, permanently snow-bound areas, highof Rajasthan. 6.9% of the country’s land- rainfall areas; on the basis of soil characteristicmass. and other such criteria.Semi-arid. The zone between the desert In some descriptions the biomes/ecosys-nand the Deccan plateau, including the tems are clubbed together into very generalAravalli hill range. 15.6 % of the country’s habitat classifications. The main natural habi-landmass. tat types are:Western ghats. The hill ranges and plains Forestsn nrunning along the western coastline, south Grasslandsnof the Tapti river, covering an extremely Wetlandsndiverse range of biotic provinces and Mangrovesnbiomes. 5.8% of the country’s landmass. Coral reefsnDeccan peninsula. The largest of the zones, Desertsn ncovering much of the southern and south-central plateau with a predominantlydeciduous vegetation. 4.3 % of the coun-try’s landmass.Gangetic plain. Defined by the Gangesnriver system, these plains are relativelyhomogenous. 11% of the country’slandmass.North-east India. The plains and non-nHimalayan hill ranges of northeasternIndia, with a wide variation of vegetation.5.2% of the country’s landmass.Islands. The Andaman and Nicobar Islandsnin the Bay of Bengal, with a highly diverse Photo 9.3Mixed coniferous forestset of biomes. 0.03% of the country’s land- Source MoEF Annual report 1998-99mass.

83BIODIVERSITY

Table 9.4Forest types distribution and percentage

Forest type Distribution % of forest area

Tropical forestsTropical wet evergreen North East & South, Andaman & Nicobar island 5.8Tropical semi evergreen South & East 2.5Tropical moist deciduous Central & East 30.3Tropical littoral & swamp Along the coast 0.9Tropical dry deciduous West & Central 38.2Tropical thorn West & Central 6.7Tropical dry evergreen Central & South 0.1

Subtropical forestsSubtropical broad leaved hill forests South 0.4Subtropical pine Sub-Himalayan tract 5.0Subtropical dry evergreen North-East & South 0.2Temperate forestsMontane wet temperate Himalaya & Nilgiris (in Western Ghats) 2.0Himalayan moist temperate Temperate areas of Himalayas 3.4Himalayan dry temperate Dry temperate areas of Himalayas 0.2

Sub-alpine and alpine forestsSub-alpine Himalaya 4.3Moist alpine shrub Himalaya 4.3Dry alpine shrub Himalaya 4.3

Source GoI 1999

Forests The diversity of grasslands in India is highThe forest cover of the country is placed at ranging from semi-arid pastures of the western633 397 sq km according to the forest survey part of the Deccan peninsula, the humid,of India assessment (1997). This presents semi-waterlogged tall grassland of the Terai19.27% of India’s total geographical areas. belt, the rolling shola grasslands of theIndia is endowed with diverse forest types western ghat hilltops, and the high-altituderanging from the Tropical wet evergreen for- alpine pastures of the Himalayas.ests in North-Eastern to the Tropical thorn The grass flora in India is also quite di-forests in the Central and Western India verse, consisting of about 1256 species in 245(Photo 9.3). The forests of the country can be genera and an estimated 370 endemic speciesdivided into 16 major groups comprising 221 reported (Shukla, 1983). Unfortunately duetypes. The distribution of these groups, and to greater neglect than Forests the status ofthe percentage of total forest area covered by grasslands is not so well known or docu-each are given in Table 9.4. mented.

Grasslands Wetlands

In India the spread of grassland and Wetlands cover 3% of the Indian landmass, orshrubland is put at 12% of the total landmass nearly 100 000 sq. Km (Olson et al. 1983).(Olson et al. 1983) while the planning Wetlands in India harbor a vast variety of lifecommission (1989) and Grasslands and forms that are a part of the complex food ofFodder research Institute, Jhansi (1993) gives these transitional ecosystems. About 320an estimate of about 3.7 to 3.9%. species of birds are associated with the Indian

8484INDIA : STATE OF THE ENVIRONMENT 2001INDIA : STATE OF THE ENVIRONMENT 2001

Mangroves

Government of India estimated mangrovecover of 674 000 ha, which is about 7% of theworld’s mangrove.

Mangroves are salt-tolerant ecosystems intropical and subtropical regions. These ecosys-tems are largely characterized by assemblageof unrelated tree genera that share the com-mon ability to grow in saline tidal zone. Indiaharbours some of the best mangroves swampsin the world, located in the alluvial deltas ofGanga, Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna, andPhoto 9.4Wetlands of West Bengal

Source MoEF Annual report 1999-2000 Cauveri rivers and on the Andaman andNicobar group of Islands (Photo 9.5). The

Wetlands (Photo 9.4). Apart from birds, the total area covered by mangroves in India iswetlands support a diverse population of estimated at about 6,700 sq km. amounting toplants and animals including 150 species of about 7% of the Worlds mangroves.amphibians. Wetlands are the habitat of some The largest stretch of mangroves in theof the world’s endangered and threatened country lies in the Sunderbans in West Bengalflora and fauna. The Western and Central covering an area of about 4,200 sq. km. Theflock of Siberian crane, one of the most predominant mangroves species are Avicenniaendangered cranes in the world, uses officinalis Excoecaria agallocha, Heritiera fomes,Keoladeo as its winter site. The brown Bruguiera parviflora, Ceriops decandra,antlered deer ( Cervus eldi eldi) or ‘sangai’ is Rhizophora mucronataand Xylocarpus grana-found only in phumadis(floating landmasses) tum. Mangroves also harbour a number ofof Lok Tak Lake. Gahirmatha beach is a major molluscs, polychaetes and honeybees. Thebreeding site of olive ridley turtles. Chilka isthe habitat of many threatened species such asgreen sea turtle, Hawksbill turtle, dugong,and blackbuck.

Photo 9.6Soft corals (Sinularia sp.) of Andaman and Nicobar IslandsSource MoEF Annual report 1996-97

Indian mangroves are host to 105 species offish, 20 kinds of shellfish, and 229 crustaceanPhoto 9.5Waterway in the Pitchavaram mangrove forest flankedspecies. The Royal Bengal tiger is found in theby Avicennia and Rhizophora treesSunderban mangroves. Different species ofSource MoEF Annual report 1998-99monkeys, otters, deer, fishing cats, snakes and

8585BIODIVERSITYBIODIVERSITY

wild pigs are common. A total of 117 species cies are restricted to the Thar area (Rodgersof migratory and residential birds have been and Pawar 1988). In the remote part of Greatreported. The most common birds are flamin- Rann, Gujarat lies the nesting ground ofgos, storks, sea eagles, kites, kingfishers, Flamingoes and the only known population ofsandpipers, bulbuls, and whistlers. Asiatic wild ass.

The cold deserts in India cover a vast areaCoral reefs of 109 990 sq. Km, about 87,780 sq. km inAccurate estimates of coral reef extent in the Laddakh (Jammu and Kashmir) and 22,210world are not available. A rough estimate puts sq. Km in Lahaul -Spiti (Himachal Pradesh).it at 600 000 sq Km (Smith 1978) out of The diversity of the high altitude cold desertswhich 60% occurs in the Indian Ocean region has been studied only recently with manyand most of it in south-east Asia (Photo 9.6). insect species being endemic. Interestingly

The coral reef cover in Indian waters is the cold desert harbors Kianga close relativeroughly estimated upto 19,000 sq. Km (Wafar of the Indian wild ass found the Rann of1992). Indian reefs belong to the following Kachchh. Other distinctive animals includecategories: Snow leopard, Yak, Tibetan antelope, Ibex,

Blue sheep, Tibetan gazelle, Woolly hare etc.PalkBay and Gulf of Mannar : Fringing

Biodiversity hotspotsBiodiversity hotspotsBiodiversity hotspots

Biodiversity hotspotsBiodiversity hotspots

Gulf of Kachchh : Fringing ,Patchy Biodiversity hotspots are areas that are unusu-

Andaman and Nicobar Islands : Fringing ally rich in species, most of which areLakshadeep Islands : Atolls endemic, and are under a constant threat ofCentral West coast : Patchy being overexploited. Among the 18 hot spots

in the world, two are found in India. TheseThe diversity of the Indian coral reefs is very are two distinct areas: the Eastern Himalayasimpressive with about 200 coral species be- and the Western Ghats and are also depictedlonging to 71 genera (Untawale and in the National forest vegetation map ofDhargalkar 1993). The richest being Andaman India. Together these 18 sites containand Nicobar Islands which alone harbors 179 approximately 49 955 endemic plant species,species (Subba Rao 1989). or 20% of the world’s recorded plants species,

in only 746 400 sq km or 0.5% of the earth’sDeserts land surface.In India, deserts extend over about 2% of the

Eastern Himalayaslandmass (Olson et al. 1983). Three kinds ofdeserts are noticeable in India: Phytogeographically, the Eastern Himalayas

The sand desert of western Rajasthan and forms a distinct floral region and comprisesnneighbouring areas. Nepal, Bhutan, neighbouring states of east andThe vast salt desert of Gujarat north-east India, and a contiguous sectornThe high-altitude cold desert of Jammu Yunnan province in south western China. Innand Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh. the whole of Eastern Himalayas, there are an

estimated 9000 plant species, with 3500 (i.e.Desert fauna in India is also quite diverse, 39%) of them being endemic. In India’s sectorwith about 1200 sp. of animals reported from of the area, there occur some 5800 plantThar region of which 440 are vertebrates and species, roughly 2000 (i.e. 36%) of them being755 are invertebrates. Desert fox, Desert cat, endemic.Houbara Bustard and some Sandgrouse spe-

8686INDIA : STATE OF THE ENVIRONMENT 2001INDIA : STATE OF THE ENVIRONMENT 2001

Map 9.1National forest vegetation map of India with biodiversityhotspots

At least 55 flowering plants endemic to Species of several families of monocotyledons,this area are recognized as rare, for example, Orchidaceae, Zingiberaceae and Arecaceaethe pitcher plant ( Nepenthes khasiana). abound in the area. Gymnosperms and

The area has long been recognized as a pteridophytes (ferns) are also well representedrich centre of primitive flowering plants and in the area.the area is recognized as ‘Cradle of Speciation’.

8787BIODIVERSITYBIODIVERSITY

The area is also rich in wild relatives ofplants of economic significance, e.g. ricebanana, citrus, ginger, chilli, jute andsugarcane. The region is regarded as the centreof origin and diversification of five palms ofcommercial importance namely, coconut,arecanut, palmyra palm, sugar palm and wilddate palm.

Tea (Thea sinensis) is reported to be incultivation in this region for the last 40,000years. Many wild and allied species of tea, theleaves of which are used as substitute of tea, Photo 9.7The Malabar Tree Nymph (Idea malabarica) found onlyare found growing in the North East in the in wet evergreen forest of the Western Ghatsnatural habitats. Source MoEF Annual report 1997-98

The ‘taxol’ plant Taxus wallichianaissparsely distributed in the region and has

Western ghatscome under red data category due to its overexploitation for extraction of a drug effectively The Western Ghats region is considered asused against cancer. one of the most important biogeographic

As regards faunal diversity, 63% of the zones of India, as it is one of the richestgenera of land mammals in India are know centres of endemism. Due to variedfrom this area. During the last four decades, topography and micro-climatic regimes, sometwo new mammals have been discovered from areas within the region are considered to bethe region: Golden Langur from Assam – active zones of speciation.Bhutan region, and Namdapha flying squirrel The region has 490 arborescent taxa, offrom Arunachal Pradesh indicating the species which as many as 308 are endemics this ende-richness of the region. mism of tree species shows a distinct trend,

The area is also a rich centre of avian being the highest (43%) in 8N-10°30’N loca-diversity – more than 60% of the Indian birds tion and declining to 11% in 16N - 16°30’Nare recorded in the North East. The region location.also has two endemic genera of lizards, and 35 About 1 500 endemic species ofendemic reptilian species, including two turtle. dicotyledonous plants are reported from theOf the 204 Indian amphibians, at least 68 Western Ghats. 245 species of orchids belong-species are known from North East, 20 of ing to 75 genera are found here, of which 112which are endemic. species in 10 genera are endemic to the region

From Namdapha National Park itself, a (Photo 9.7).new genus of mammal, a new subspecies of As regards the fauna, as many as 315bird, 6 new species of amphibia, four new species of vertebrates belonging to 22 generaspecies of fish, at least 15 new spcies of beetles are endemic, these include 12 species of mam-and 6 new species of flies have been discovered mals, 13 species of birds, 89 species of reptiles,(Babu and Arora 1999). 87 species of amphibians and 104 species of

fish.

8888INDIA : STATE OF THE ENVIRONMENT 2001INDIA : STATE OF THE ENVIRONMENT 2001

Photo 9.8Renanthera imschortians: a highly threatened speciesof orchid commonly known as Red VandaSource MoEF Annual report 1998-99

Photo 9.9Lion-tailed Macaque: an endangered speciesSource MoEF Annual report 1999-2000The extent of endemism is high in am-

phibian and reptiles. There occur 117 speciesof amphibians in the region, of which 89species (i.e. 76%) are endemic. Of the 165 The contribution of natural and agricul-species of reptiles found in Western Ghats, 88 tural biodiversity in terms of crops, live stock,species are endemic. fisheries etc is very substantial in terms of

Many of the endemics and other species commercial value.are listed as threatened (Photo 9.8). Nearly Such biodiversity has a major contribution235 species of endemic flowering plants are to make to the Indian GDP (gross domesticconsidered endangered. Rare fauna of the product). The large economic implications ofregion includes: Lion Tailed Macaque (Photo biodiversity in its wild and domesticated9.9), Nilgiri Langur, Nilgiri Tahr, Flying forms is the rice improvement programme.Squirrel, and Malabar Gray Hornbill (Babu Rice accounts for 22% of the total croppedand Arora 1999). area and 39% of the total area under cereals,

which reflects its importance in the country’sBiodiversity contribution to IndianBiodiversity contribution to IndianBiodiversity contribution to IndianBiodiversity contribution to IndianBiodiversity contribution to Indian

struggle to attain self-sufficiency in food.economyeconomyeconomyeconomyeconomy

When the rice crop was doomed due to theBiodiversity products have obtained a com- grassy stunt virus in the 1970s, one singlemercial value and have been increasingly gene from the wild strain of rice, namelyexchanged in the markets having a monetary Oryza nivarafrom Uttar Pradesh, showedvalue, from which their share in the national resistance to this virus and proved vital in theeconomy can be judged. In the Indian fight against the virus.context it is difficult to put a value on With respect to the commercial value ofdiversity as such because the marketable the plant species of medicinal value, the worldproducts are of various kinds both legal and trade is of several billion dollars and this isillegal e.g wood and non-wood products from growing. The export market for medicinalforests where wood comprises the major plants has also increased. India’s foreigncommercial produce is both legally exported exchange reserves from horticulturalas well as illegally smuggled out of the products are from high yielding varietiescountry. Many non-wood forest produce and (ICAR 1999). Increased production ofthe illegal produce is not accounted for in the oilseeds also helped in saving large amountsofficial documents. of foreign exchange spent on edible oil

import.

8989BIODIVERSITYBIODIVERSITY

The aforesaid pressures will lead to loss of India (ZSI) established in 1916. The Forestbiodiversity in India and will also result in Survey of India established in 1981 assessesconsiderable drop in Indian GDP and foreign the forest cover, with a view to develop anexchange earnings from horticultural prod- accurate database for planning anducts, oil seeds, oil meal, and oil cake will drop monitoring purposes. The Wildlife Institute ofdown to a great extent. India undertakes studies of endangered

species of animals and critical ecosystems.Over 47,000 species of plants and 89,000

Response

The Ministry of Environment and Forests(MoEF) is the nodal agency in the Govern-ment of India for planning, promotion,coordination, and overseeing the implementa-tion of the environmental and forestryprogrammes. The MoEF is also the focal pointfor implementation of the Convention onBiological Diversity. The mandates of theMinistry interalia include survey of flora,fauna, forests and wildlife, and conservationof natural resources (Photo 9.10). Theseobjectives are supported by legislative and

Photo 9.11Pitcher plant: an endangered speciesregulatory measures. A number of institutions Source MoEF Annual report 1997-98

animals species have been recorded by theBSI and ZSI respectively.

The Survey organizations have publishedover the years, documents on flora and faunaat country, state and in some cases districtlevels and for selected ecosystems. Besides,extensive reports on inventories of resourcesindicating level of biodiversity in selectedareas have also been brought out. The Surveyshave also published Red Data Books onendangered species (Photo 9.11). The voucherspecimens are preserved in Central NationalPhoto 9.10Black buck: needs conservation

Source MoEF Annual report 1997-98 Herbarium (CNH) of BSI and NationalZoological Collection (NZC) of ZSI.

affiliated with the Ministry are involved in the The Forest Survey of India publisheswork related to various aspects of biological every three years, a State of Forest in Indiadiversity. Survey and inventorization of the report based on remote sensing and groundfloral and faunal resources are carried out by truth data.the Botanical Survey of India (BSI) estab-lished in 1890, and the Zoological Survey of

9090INDIA : STATE OF THE ENVIRONMENT 2001INDIA : STATE OF THE ENVIRONMENT 2001

have been significant in restoring viablepopulation of large mammals such as tiger,lion, rhinoceros, crocodiles, elephants, etc.The Indian Council of Forestry Researchnand Education (ICFRE) has identified 309forest preservation plots of representativeforest types for conservation of viable andrepresentative areas of biodiversity. 187 ofthese plots are in natural forests and 112 inplantations, covering a total area of 8,500hectares.

Photo 9.12A herd of Cheetal at Bandipur Wildlife SanctuaryA programme entitled “Eco-develop-nSource MoEF Annual report 1999-2000 ment” for in situ conservation of biologicaldiversity involving local communities has

Existing policy rExisting policy rExisting policy response

esponseesponseesponseExisting policy rExisting policy r

esponse been initiated in recent years. The conceptIn situ conservation (within natural of eco-development integrates the ecologi-habitat) cal and economic parameters for sustainedSome important measures taken are as follows: conservation of ecosystems by involving the

Approximately 4.2% of the total geographi- local communities with the maintenance ofncal area of the country has been earmarked earmarked regions surrounding protectedfor extensive in situ conservation of areas. The economic needs of the localhabitats and ecosystems. A protected area communities are taken care of under thisnetwork of 85 National Parks and 448 programme through provision ofWildlife Sanctuaries have been created alternative sources of income and a steady(Photo 9.12). The results of this network availability of forest and related produce.

Table 9.5Biosphere reserves set up

Name of the site Date of notification Location (State)

Nilgiri 01.08.86 Part of Wynad , Nagarhole, Bandipur and Madumalai, Nilambur, Silent Valley andSiruvani hills (Tamil Nadu)

Nanda Devi 18.01.88 Part of Chamoli, Pithoragarh, Almora Districts (Uttar Pradesh)Nokrerk 01.09.88 Part of Gora Hills (Meghalaya)Manas 14.03.89 Part of Kokrajhar, Bongaigaon, Barpeta, Nalbari, Kamprup and Darang district

(Assam)Sunderbans 29.03.89 Part of delta of Ganga & Brahamaputra river system (West Bengal)Gulf of Mannar 18.02.89 Indan part of Gulf of Mannar between India and Sri Lanka (Tamil Nadu)Great Nicobar 06.01.89 Southern most islands of Andaman and Nicobar (A&N islands)Similpal 21.06.94 Part of Mayurbhanj district (Orissa)Dibru-Saikhowa 28.07.97 Part of Dibrugarh and Tinsukia district (Assam)Dehang Debang 02.09.98 Part of Siang and Debang velley in Arunachal PradeshPachmarhi 03.03.99 Parts of Betul, Hoshangabad and Chindwara districts of Madhya PradeshKanchanjanga 07.02.2000 Part of Kanchanjanga Hills and Sikkim

Source MoEF 2000

9191BIODIVERSITYBIODIVERSITY

Photo 9.13Den of the Royal Bengal Tiger of Sundarbans Biosphere ReservesSource MoEF Annual report 1999-2000

To conserve the respective ecosystems, an formulation of perspective plans for con-Biosphere Reserve Programme is beingservation based on resource survey usingimplemented. Twelve biodiversity rich areasremote sensing technology and GISof the country have been designated asstudies on biodiversity and relatedBiosphere Reserves (Table 9.5) applyingecological matters, prevention of pollutionthe diversity and genetic integrity of plants,from point and non-point sources,animals and microorganisms in theirtreatment of catchment, desilting and weedtotality as part of the natural ecosystems,control.so as to ensure their self-perpetuation andWild Life Protection Act is in the finalunhindered evolution of the living nstage of revision and provisions have beenresources (Photo 9.13).made for conservation reserves and com-Programmes have also been launched forn

scientific management and wise use offragile ecosystem. Specific programmes for Table 9.6World heritage sitesmanagement and conservation of wetlands,

Site Locationmangroves, and coral reef systems are alsobeing implemented. 21 wetlands, 15 man- Kaziranga National Park Assamgrove areas and 4 coral reef areas have Keoladeo Ghana National Park Rajasthanbeen identified for management. National Manas Wildlife Sanctuary Assam

Nanda Devi National Park Uttar Pradeshand sub-national level committees overseeSundarban National Park West Bengaland guide these programme to ensure

strong policy and strategic support.Six internationally significant wetlands of munity reserves to allow restrictive use tonIndia have been declared as “Ramsar make it more people oriented. PresentlySites ” under the Ramsar Convention. To Biodiversity Act which is in the final stage,focus attention on urban wetlands threat- has got the component of Nationalened by pollution and other anthropogenic Biodiversity Authority to control access toactivities, State Governments were re- genetic resources form international com-quested to identify lakes that could be munity. There will also be Stateinclude the National Lake Conservation Biodiversity Boards to control access toPlan. The activities of the NLCP include domestic consumers.

9292INDIA : STATE OF THE ENVIRONMENT 2001INDIA : STATE OF THE ENVIRONMENT 2001

Under the World Heritage Convention, fivennatural sites have been declared as “ WorldHeritage Sites ”, the name of which areunder:The Tura Range in Gora Hills ofnMeghalaya is a gene sanctuary forpreserving the rich native diversity of wildCitrus and Musa species.Sanctuaries for rhododendrons andnorchids have been established in Sikkim.Large mammal species targeted protectionn Photo 9.14Herd of elephants of North-east Indiabased on the perception of threat to them

Source MoEF Annual report 1998-99have been under implementation.Project Tiger. A potential example of annhighly endangered species is the Indian

Project Elephant was launched in 1991-92Tiger ( Panthera tigris) The fall and rise in nthe number of Tiger’s in India is an index to assist States having free ranging popula-of the extent and nature of conservation tion of wild elephants to ensure long term

survival of identified viable populations ofefforts. It is estimated that India had about40 000 tigers in 1900, and the number elephants in their natural habitats (Photodeclined to a mere about 1 800 in 1972. 9.14). Major activities of Project Elephant

are:Hence, Project Tiger was launched in 1973with the following objectives: • Ecological restoration of existing natural

habitats and migratory routes of el-• To ensure maintenance of availableephantspopulation of Tigers in India for scien-

tific, economic, aesthetic, cultural and • Development of scientific and plannedmanagement for conservation of el-ecological valueephants habitats and value population of• To preserve, for all times, the areas of

such biological importance as a national wild Asiatic elephants in India• Promotion of measures for mitigation ofheritage for the benefit, education and

man-elephant conflict in crucial habitatsenjoyment of the people• At present there are 25 Tiger Reserves and moderating pressures of human and

domestic stock activities in crucial el-spreading over in 14 states and coveringephant habitatsan area of about 33 875 sq km and the

Tiger population has more than doubled • Strengthening of measures for protectionof wild elephants from poachers andnow due to a total ban on hunting andunnatural caused of deathtrading tiger products at national and

international levels and the implementa- • Research on Project Elephant manage-ment related issuestion of habitat improvement and

ˆ Public education and awareness pro-anti-poaching measures (MoEF 2000)grammes

• Eco-development• Veterinary care

9393BIODIVERSITYBIODIVERSITY

Rhinos have been given special attention in currently available survey, Centralnselected sanctuaries and national parks in Government and State Government togetherthe North East and North-west India. All run and manage 33 Botanical Gardens.these programmes, though focussed on a Universities have their own botanic gardens.single species, have a wider impact as they There are 275 zoos, deer parks, safari parks,conserve habitats and a variety of other aquaria etc. A Central Zoo Authority was setspecies in those habitats. up to secure better management of zoos. A

scheme entitled Assistance to BotanicGardens provides one-time assistance tobotanic gardens to strengthen and institutemeasure for ex-situ conservation ofthreatened and endangered species in theirrespective regions.

Recent conservation initiatives

Several recent initiatives of the Indian Gov-ernment have focused on wetland, mangrovesand coral reef management. In 1998-99, anamount of Rs. 140 lakhs were released to theState Governments for the preparation ofmanagement action plans for Pongdam inHimachal Pradesh, Wullar in Kashmir, Loktakin Manipur, Rudrasagar in Tripura andPhoto 9.15Joint Forest ManagementKolleru in Andhra Pradesh. Additionally, onemore wetland has been identified for conserva-

The Ministry of Environment and Forests tion, i.e. Rudrasagar from Tripura, thusnconstituted the National Afforestation and increasing the list to 20 wetlands for intensiveEco-development Board (NAEB) in conservation in the country. Additionally, aAugust 1992. National Afforestation and wetland strategy has been drafted.Eco-development Board has evolved The National Committee on Conservationspecific schemes for promoting and Management of Mangroves and Coralafforestation and management strategies, Reefs in September 1998 recommended thewhich help the states in developing specific establishment of an Indian Coral Reef Moni-afforestation and management strategies toring Network to develop Action Plans forand eco-development packages for aug- important coral reefs of the country. Prepara-menting biomass production through a tion of these plans is already underway.participatory planning process of Joint Moreover, financial assistance from UNDP/Forest Management and microplanning GEF has led to a PDF-B project on strength-(Photo 9.15). ening the Gulf of Mannar Biosphere Reserve.

The ZSI (Zoological Survey of India) hasEx-situ conservation (outside natural initiated another UNDP/GEF project relatinghabitats) to management of Andaman’s coral reefs.To complement in situ conservation,attention has been paid to ex-situconservation measures. According to

94INDIA : STATE OF THE ENVIRONMENT 2001

Policy gapsPolicy gapsPolicy gaps

Policy rPolicy rPolicy recommendations

ecommendationsecommendations

ecommendationsPolicy gapsPolicy gapsPolicy rPolicy r

ecommendationsLack of policies for protection of wetlands, Most of the legal provisions pertain mainlyn ngrasslands, sacred groves and other areas to use/exploitation of biological resources,significant from the point of view of rather than their conservation. Even Wildbiodiversity. Life Protection Act 1972, focuses on pro-Lacunae in economic policy, institutional tection rather than conservation.nand governance system Protection under Wild Life Protection ActInadequate enforcement of existing laws is largely directed towards large animalnPoor implementation of wildlife protection species (charismatic terrestrial species)nact 1972 as amended in 1991 rather than the large spectrum of faunaInadequate implementation of eco-devel- and flora also found in the marine realm.nopment programmes Hence the existing laws relating tonNeed for enhanced role of NGOs and biodiversity shall be examined in order tonother institutions bring them in tune with the provisions ofNeed for political commitment and good convention to reflect current understandingnwill. of biodiversity conservation.Need for providing Institutional Structure Need for comprehensive legislation onn nNeed for more sectoral financial outlay biodiversity conservation and use especiallynHuman resource development - limited fisheries policies, which is generally ig-nlocal community participation nored.

Formulation of policies for protection ofnKnowledge/inforKnowledge/inforKnowledge/information/data

mation/datamation/datamation/data

Knowledge/inforKnowledge/infor

mation/data wetlands, grasslands, sacred groves, marineDocumentation of biodiversity is an urgent flora and fauna and other areas significantnrequirement as latest statistics and data on from the point of view of biodiversity.floral and faunal biodiversity of India has Improving policy environment.nnot been compiled and documented. Passage of biodiversity bill.nThe information and data should be made A presence of a biodiversity cell in alln navailable to the scientific and socio-eco- development departments impinging onnomic agencies to support the evaluation/ land and water.revision of the policies. Documentation of biodiversity.nLack of knowledge of the magnitude, Increase allocation of financial resourcesn npatterns, causes and rates of deforestation for conservation of biodiversity.and biodiversity laws at the ecosystem and Integrating conservation with developmentnlandscape level. Incentives and disincentives for impropernInformation on poaching trade and trade use of biodiversitynroutes is sketchy and current wildlife pro- Biodiversity Act / Bill should not overridentection and law enforcement measures are the provisions of Wildlife Protection act.inadequate and inefficient procedure. There should be continuous monitoring ofnBiodiversity Act /Bill should not override biodiversity use for review of results ofnthe provisions of Wildlife Protection Act. implementation of policies and programmes.