DEMO - ******* · Women, Ahkameyimowak (Cocteau Books, 2011). Rachel Shah is a PhD student in the...

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INDIGENOUSSTUDIESANDENGAGEDANTHROPOLOGY


AdvancingtherisingfieldofengagedorparticipatoryanthropologythatisemergingatthesametimeasincreasedoppositionfromIndigenouspeoplestoresearch,thisbookofferscriticalreflectionsonresearchapproachesto-date.Theengagedapproachseekstochangetheresearcher-researchedrelationshipfundamentally,tomakemethodsmoreappropriateandbeneficialtocommunitiesbyinvolvingthemasparticipantsintheentireprocessfromchoiceofresearchtopiconwards.Theaimisnotonlytochangepowerrelationships,butalsoengagewithnon-academicaudiences.

Theadvancementofsuchanegalitarianandinclusiveapproachtoresearchcanprovokestrongopposition.Somearguethatitthreatensacademicrigourandworryabouttheunderminingofdisciplinaryauthority.Otherspointtothedifficultiesofestablishinganappropriatelynon-ethnocentricmoralstanceandnavigatingthecomplexproblemscommunitiesface.DrawingontheexperiencesofIndigenousscholars,anthropologistsanddevelopmentprofessionalsacquaintedwitharangeofcultures,thisbookfurthersourunderstandingofpressingissuessuchasinterpretation,transmissionandownershipofIndigenousknowledge,andappropriatewaystorepresentandcommunicateit.Allthecontributorsrecognisethepluralityofknowledgeandincorporateperspectivesthatderive,atleastinpart,fromotherwaysofbeingintheworld.

Thebookincludespowerfulinsightsfromdifferentpartsoftheworldthatdemonstratethechallenges,nuances,ethics,practices,potentialandpowerofengagedapproaches.Relationshipsbetweenresearcherandresearchedcommunitiesareskilfully"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

negotiatedthroughindividualchaptersandthedialoguethatwascreatedthroughthesymposiumtobringthesepiecestogether.Suchworkisnevercomfortable,anddialoguecanbetestinganddifficultbutitisworththeeffortonallsidesasituncoversunderstandingsthatcouldnotcometobeinanyotherway.Thoroughlyrecommendedforthosebeginningtheirjourneyofengagementandforthosewhoarewellalongtheway.LindaTuhiwaiSmith,TheUniversityofWaikato,NewZealand

Sillitoehas(again)hituponacollectionthatwonderfullymeetsanurgentcontemporaryneedforanthropologists.Hiswiderangeofcontributorsaddressabevyofpertinentissuesandonecanonlyhopethatthecollaborationtheyadvocatepersistsbeyondthepresentmomentofinterest.

JoyHendry,OxfordBrookesUniversity,UK

Thisimportantandtimelybookprovidesanswerstothepressingquestionthatnowconfrontsyounganthropologistssettingofftodofieldworkwithindigenouspeoples:‘whatisthebenefitofthistous?’Bybringingtogethercontributionsfromindigenousscholarsandanthropologiststhisbookenrichesbothfieldsandprovidesaframeworkfordialoguedirectedtorealizingtheemancipatorypossibilitiesofresearchthatisdonewithpeopleratherthanaboutthem.’

PaulOldham,UnitedNationsUniversity,Japan


IndigenousStudiesandEngagedAnthropology

TheCollaborativeMoment

Editedby

PAULSILLITOEDurhamUniversity,UK


Firstpublished2015byAshgatePublishing

Published2016byRoutledge2ParkSquare,MiltonPark,Abingdon,OxonOX144RN711ThirdAvenue,NewYork,NY10017,USA

RoutledgeisanimprintoftheTaylor&FrancisGroup,aninformabusiness

Copyright©PaulSillitoe2015

PaulSillitoehasassertedhisrightundertheCopyright,DesignsandPatentsAct,1988,tobeidentifiedastheeditorofthiswork.

Allrightsreserved.Nopartofthisbookmaybereprintedorreproducedorutilisedinanyformorbyanyelectronic,mechanical,orothermeans,nowknownorhereafterinvented,includingphotocopyingandrecording,orinanyinformationstorageorretrievalsystem,withoutpermissioninwritingfromthepublishers.

Notice:Productorcorporatenamesmaybetrademarksorregisteredtrademarks,andareusedonlyforidentificationandexplanationwithoutintenttoinfringe.

BritishLibraryCataloguinginPublicationDataAcataloguerecordforthisbookisavailablefromtheBritishLibrary"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

TheLibraryofCongresshascatalogedtheprintededitionasfollows:Indigenousstudiesandengagedanthropology:thecollaborativemoment/editedbyPaulSillitoe.pagescmIncludesbibliographicalreferencesandindex.ISBN978-1-4094-4541-8(hardback:alk.paper)--ISBN978-1-3155-8837-7(ebook)--ISBN978-1-3171-1721-6(epub)1.Indigenouspeoples--Research--Methodology.2.Appliedanthropology.3.Ethnology--Methodology.I.Sillitoe,Paul,1949-editorofcompilation.GN380.I5372014305.8’00723--dc23

2014018357

ISBN:978-1-4094-4541-8(hbk)ISBN:978-1-3155-8837-7(ebk-PDF)ISBN:978-1-3171-1721-6(ebk-ePUB)


Insupportofthediversevoicesofindigenouspeopleswhosefightfortheirintegrityandfortheirrightsagainstneocolonial

practiceschallengeandexpandourunderstandingoftheworld,andofourselves.


Contents

ListofFiguresNotesonContributorsPreface

1TheDialoguebetweenIndigenousStudiesandEngagedAnthropology:SomeFirstImpressionsPaulSillitoe

PARTI:ENGAGINGWITHINDIGENEITY

2SharingAnthropologicalKnowledge,DecolonizingAnthropology:EmberáIndigeneityandEngagedAnthropologyDimitriosTheodossopoulos

3FosteringtheRapprochementofAnthropologyandIndigenousStudies:TheEncounterofanItalianAnthropologistwithKaupapaMāoriResearchDomenicaGisellaCalabrò

4HidinginPlainSight:AssimilationandtheEndofStoryRobynSandri

PARTII:PROBLEMSOFREPRESENTATIONAND"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

RIGHTS

5ThePromisesandConundrumsofDecolonizedCollaborationEmmaCervone

6UrbanAmerindiansandAdvocacy:TowardaPoliticallyEngagedAnthropologyRepresentingUrbanAmerindigeneitiesinManaus,BrazilJ.P.Linstroth

7OldWineinNewBottles:Self-determination,ParticipatoryDemocracyandFree,PriorandInformedConsentJayanthaPerera

8The(Non-Legal)GuidetoMeaningfulRecognition:ACaseStudyfromtheCanningBasin,WesternAustraliaTranTran

PARTIII:CHALLENGINGTHEDOMINANCEOFTHEACADEMY

9IntegratingAfricanProverbsintheEducationofYoungLearners:TheChallengeofKnowledgeSynthesisGeorgeJ.SefaDei[NanaSefaAtweneboahI]

10IndigenousPeoples’AmazonianSustainableDevelopmentProjectPriscillaSettee


11EngagementandOwnershipofKnowledge:IssuesAffectingIndigenousEducationandPedagogyRaymondNichol

12QuestionsofPowerinSchoolingforIndigenousPapuansRachelShah

Index


ListofFigures

2.1EmberáwomaninPararaPurureadingReverteComa’sethnography

2.2EmberáchildrenbrowsingTayler’sethnographyandmyfieldnotes

2.3PhotographicexhibitioninPararaPurubeforeitseventualdestructionbyastorm

2.4EmberáchildrenchoosingdesignsfromUlloa’slaminatedpages

6.1Tuxaua(leader)Paulo,Sateré-Mawé,dressedupinfullregaliainthecityofManaus2009

6.2BrazilianmilitarypoliceaccostingIliana,Sateré-Mawé,atLagoAzuloccupationsite,11March2008


NotesonContributors

DomenicaGisellaCalabròstudiedforaPhDasamemberoftheresearchprogramme‘Anthropologies,Institutions,Representations’intheFacultyofEducationattheUniversitàdegliStudidiMessina,Sicily,Italy.SheinvestigatedtheindigenizationofrugbyinNewZealandanditsroleintheprocessofMāoriidentitydefinition.Shewashostedby‘TeKawaaMāui’,theSchoolofMāoriStudiesatVictoriaUniversityofWellington,duringherfieldwork.

EmmaCervoneisaculturalanthropologistandAssociateDirectorofLatinAmericanStudiesatJohnHopkinsUniversity.ShehasworkedontheindigenousmovementinEcuadorandhasanactiveresearchagendaincollaborationwithindigenousorganizationsonissuesofracism,genderandindigenousjusticeinEcuador.SheistheauthorofthebookLongLiveAtahualpa,IndigenousPolitics,JusticeandDemocracyintheNorthernAndes.

GeorgeJ.SefaDeiiscurrentlyProfessorofSocialJusticeEducation,OntarioInstituteforStudiesinEducationattheUniversityofToronto.Histeachingandresearchinterestsareintheareasofanti-racism,minorityschooling,internationaldevelopment,anti-colonialthoughtandindigenousknowledgesystems.HeisatraditionalchiefinGhana,beingthe"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

AdumakwaaheneofthetownofAsokore,andhisstoolnameisNanaSefaTweneboahI.

J.P.LinstrothisanAffiliateResearchProfessorwiththeDepartmentofAnthropologyatFloridaAtlanticUniversity.HeobtainedhisD.Phil.inSocialandCulturalAnthropologyfromtheUniversityofOxford.Also,hewasarecipientofaJ.WilliamFulbrightForeignScholarGrant(2008–2009)tostudyurbanAmerindiansinManaus,BrazilandtobeaVisitingProfessorwiththeDepartmentofAnthropologyattheUniversidadeFederaldoAmazonas(UFAM).

RaymondNicholisCo-ordinatorInternationalandSeniorLecturer,SocialScienceEducation,intheFacultyofEducation,LaTrobeUniversity,Victoria,Australia.HeisaFellowoftheAustralianAnthropologicalSociety.Inteachereducationhespecializesinthefieldsofhumanities,citizenshipandIndigenousstudiesandeducation,particularlyinAustraliaandMelanesia.HeistheauthorofGrowingUpIndigenous:DevelopingEffectivePedagogyforEducationandDevelopment(SensePublishers,2010).

JayanthaPererawasPrincipalSafeguardsSpecialistoftheSouthAsiaDepartmentattheAsianDevelopmentBank,Manila,thePhilippines.HeiscurrentlyVisitingProfessorofDevelopmentStudiesattheKelaniyaUniversity,SriLanka.Hiskeyareasofinterestareinvoluntaryresettlement,indigenouspeoples,environmentallawandpractice,internationallaw,andagrarianchangeinSouthAsia.HeisafellowoftheRoyal


AnthropologicalInstitute,London.

RobynSandriisadescendantoftheKooma-GungarripeoplesofSouthWestQueensland.ShecompletedaPhDin2012,gatheringthestoriesoffourgenerationsofstorytellersandtheirexperienceswithcolonialschools.Herworkisfocusedontheroleofstorytothemaintenanceofacultureacrosstimeandhowthelossofstorydisruptsthetrans-generationalknowingsandidentityofcolonizedAboriginalculturalgroups.RobynlecturesinIndigenousStudiesatAustralianCatholicUniversityinSydney.

PriscillaSetteeisAssociateProfessorintheDepartmentofNativeStudiesattheUniversityofSaskatchewanandamemberofCumberlandHouseCreeFirstNationsfromnorthernSaskatchewan.In2012shereceivedtheUniversityofSaskatchewanProvost’sAwardforTeachingExcellenceinAboriginalEducation,andin2013shewasawardedtheQueenElizabethDiamondJubileeAwardforcontributionstoCanada.SheisauthorofPimatisiwin,GlobalIndigenousKnowledgeSystems(JohnCharltonPublishingLtd,2013)andTheStrengthofWomen,Ahkameyimowak(CocteauBooks,2011).

RachelShahisaPhDstudentintheAnthropologydepartment,DurhamUniversity.Hercurrentresearchisenquiringinto,andcontrasting,traditionalinformallearningandformalschooleducationinthehighlandsofPapua,Indonesia.Herresearchinterestsincludeaninterrogationofissuesofinternationaldevelopment,educationandsocialjusticeinthecontextofindigenousknowledgeandculture.


PaulSillitoeisProfessorofAnthropology,UniversityofDurham.Hisinterestsincludesustainabledevelopmentandsocialchange,humanecologyandethno-science,livelihoodandtechnology,withresearchexperienceinthePacific,SouthAsiaandGulfregions.Hiscurrentresearchfocusesonnaturalresourcesmanagement,technology,anddevelopment,andheisengagedinworkonconservationinQatar.

DimitriosTheodossopoulosisReaderinSocialAnthropologyattheUniversityofKent.Hisresearchaddressesthetopicsofexoticization,ethnicstereotypes,indigeneity,authenticity,resistanceandprotest,theeconomiccrisis,andthepoliticsofculturalrepresentationinPanamaandGreece.HeisauthorofTroubleswithTurtles(Berghahn,2003),editorofWhenGreeksThinkaboutTurks(Routledge,2006),andco-editorofUnitedinDiscontent(Berghahn,2010)andGreatExpectations(Berghahn,2011).

TranTranisResearchFellowbasedattheAustralianInstituteofAboriginalandTorresStraitIslanderStudies(AIATSIS).TrancompletedherPhDattheUNESCOCentreforWaterLawPolicyandScience,UniversityofDundee.HerthesiswasabouttheinfluenceofknowledgestructuresonwatermanagementintheCanningBasin,WesternAustralia.ShehasworkedintheNativeTitleResearchUnitatAIATSISfocussingonrecognitionandsecurityofIndigenouslandandwaterrightsandsupportingIndigenousgovernancestructures.TraniscurrentlyworkingonthedesignandimplementationofcollaborativemanagementarrangementsoverIndigenouslands.



Preface

Manypeoplearoundtheworldincreasinglyopposeresearchintheircommunities.Thehostilityoftenrelatestotheperceptionthatresearch,undertakenarchetypicallybyanthropology,goeshand-in-handwithwiderpolitical-economicdominationandinequality,fosteringaccusationsofneocolonialism.Itisanaspectofmountingcriticismofprevailingacademicpracticeandcallsforaradicalchangeintheconductofresearch,thatitshouldfeaturemoreegalitarianandinclusiveapproaches.Thismoreinclusivewayofdoingresearchgoesbacktothe1960swhenmethodologiesseekingtochangetherelationshipbetweenresearcherandresearchedstartedtentativelytoappear.Theseaimtorevisetheresearchprocesssothatitismoreresponsivetotheneedsandprioritiesofcommunities,involvingthemasparticipants,fromchoiceofresearchtopicandkeyquestions,tothepublicationofresults.Thiswayofdoingresearch,variouslycalledactionorparticipatoryresearch,increasinglygoesunderthelabelofengagedanthropology.Itaimsnotonlytochangepowerrelationshipswithinresearchprojects,butalsoimproveengagementwiththewiderpublicandinterdisciplinarycollaboration.

Anotherresponsetolocaloppositiontoresearchcomesfromwithincommunitiesthemselves,whichmayseektoundertaketheirownresearch.ItoccursincreasinglyunderthelabelofIndigenousstudies.Itpredictablycoversabroadspectrumof


interestswithnativescholarsseekingtoadvanceunderstandingofknowledgeintheirlocales,whichgloballyvarywidely.TheseIndigenousstudiesaredistinctiveinthattheyaimtotackleproblemsidentifiedbycommunitiesandtoundertakeresearchthatwillbenefitthem.Themethodsarealsodistinctive,inoftengenuinelyseekingtoinvolveallthoseconcernedasequalpartners.

WhilebothengagedanthropologyandIndigenousstudiesseektoundertakeparticipatoryresearchthatisappropriateandassistscommunities,theirperspectivesdifferstrikinglyinsomeregards.Theformofknowledgetheyfocusonoftenvariesandtheirideasaboutitsroleincontemporarysociety.AnthropologistslargelyconsiderthecontentandstructureoflocalperspectivesaccordingtoWesternintellectualprinciplesoflogicalcoherence.Theyfocus,forinstance,inso-calledindigenousknowledgeenquiries,primarilyonpeoples’understandingoftheirenvironmentsandhowtheygaintheirlivelihoodsandtreatillness,intheirendeavourstocontributetodevelopmenteffortstoextendthebenefitsofindustrialtechnology,underpinnedbyagriculturalandmedicalscience,topoorcommunities,byincludinglocalexpertiseandconcernsmoremeaningfullyandequitablyintheprocess.

SomeIndigenousscholarsopposesuchtrends,arguingthatthesedestroytheculturalandenvironmentalheritageoftheircommunities.Theshiftimplies,atbest,hybridizationoflocalknowledge,oratworst,itsdestruction,andsimultaneouslytheintegrationofcommunitiesmoreextensivelyintotheglobaleconomy.TherelevanceofcertainaspectsoftraditionalIndigenousknowledgeandpracticestocontemporarylifeisanissuehere.Thesenativeresearchersmoreoftenemphasizethe"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

moralandspiritualdimensionsofknowledge,whichtheymaydrawoninstrugglestoachievehumanrightsandself-determination,environmentalequity,accesstolandandresources,andultimatelyculturalsurvival.

Inordertoestablishatrulyengagedanthropology,itisnecessarytoaddressthesedisconnectionsbetweenapproachesandmethods,whichchallengeanthropology’sfundamentalclaimtorepresentthelifewaysandworldviewsofothers.IndeedinteractionbetweenIndigenousstudiesandengagedanthropologyhasthepotentialdramaticallytoalterthepracticeofsocio-culturalanthropology.Thetranslationofnon-WesternwaysofbeingintheworldintotermsunderstandablebyaWesternaudienceisacorepartofanthropology.Theextenttowhichthesetranslationsdistorttheirsubjectmatterhaslongbeenatopicofdebate,sharpenedinrecentdecadesbythepostmoderncritique.ThemeaningfulinclusionofthetranslationsandcritiquesofIndigenousscholarsintothisdebatecanonlyenrichanddeepenit:inwhatwaysdotheirperspectivesaddto,andmodify,ourunderstandingofindigenousontologiesandepistemologies?

Insomeways,themethodologiesofIndigenousstudiesmatchthoseofengagedanthropology.WhileIndigenousscholarsaredrawingonexperienceasthe‘researched’informulatingtheiregalitarianmethodologies,andanthropologistsarebuildinguponexperienceas‘researchers’indevelopingparticipatorymethods,bothfeatureinclusiveapproachestoenquiriesthatmakeadifferencelocally.Itisdisconcerting,then,thatinsteadofmutuallyprofitingfrominteractionanddiscussionoftheirapproachesandperspectives,theyaredevelopinglargelyinparallel.Althoughintegrationpromisestobenefitboth,uptonowanthropologistshavelargelyfailedtoincludeIndigenous"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

academicsintheirdebates,whileIndigenousscholarsareoftensuspiciousofanthropologists.Thisvolumeseekstocontributetothebreakingdownofthebarriers.

TheconcernsofIndigenousstudiesinform,toagreaterorlesserextent,allofthecontributionstothebook.Theyrecognizethepluralityofknowledgetraditionsandseekopenexchange,incorporatingperspectivesthathavederived,atleastinpart,fromotherwaysofknowing.Themesaddressedincludehowtotacklethedominanceofanthropology,andWesternsocialsciencegenerally,inaccountsofIndigenouspeoples.Anotheristheimplicationforanthropologyofequalizingresearcharrangements,includingthediscipline’splacewithintheacademy.TheinterrogationofideasofIndigenity,theirrepresentationandanthropology’srolearefurthertopics.Thepoliticalissuesofrepresentationandownershipofknowledgeemergeaskeythemes.

SomeIndigenousauthorsvoiceconcernsthatforeignresearchersextract,modifyandco-optknowledgefromtheircommunitieswithnoreturn.Thesecontentionspromptquestionsabouthowmuchbetterindigenousscholars’representationsare–whichpresumablydiffertosomeextenttoofromlocalcommunityviews,asinformed(polluted)bytheexpectationsofformalnon-Indigenouseducation–andwhatareappropriatewaysofrepresentingandcommunicatingIndigenousknowledgeandconcernsthatmayvaryfromregiontoregion.Whataretheimplicationsforlocalknowledge,oftentacitandexperiential,ofelicitingandpresentingitaccordingtoacademiccanons,evenifthesedifferfromthoseofwesternuniversities?Whatcantheperspectivesandexperiencesofindigenousscholarsteachusaboutthewaywerepresentandpassonknowledge:shouldwe"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

startthinkingaboutteachinganthropologyinnewways?Whiletheaimsofengagedanthropologyseempositive,ithas

nonethelessprovokedstrongoppositionfromwithintheacademy,somearguingthatitthreatensanalyticalrigourandmaycompromisescholarship.Iftheresearchagendaissetthroughaparticipatoryprocessitmaydilutedisciplinaryexpertisebypreventingresearchersfromfocussingontopicstheyspecializein.Otherpoliticalconcerns,particularlywithrespecttoactionresearch,includethedifficultyofnavigatingthecomplexproblemsthatmany,oftenmarginalizedcommunitiesface,andthedangerofreinforcinginequalitiesbyaligning,albeitinadvertently,withmorepowerfulfactions.Theseproblemsinturnrelatetothechallengeofestablishinganappropriatelynon-ethnocentricmoralstance,whichfurtherrelatestoissuesofrepresentation,dominationandownershipofknowledge.

Itistosuchpressingandexcitingissuesthatthisbookaddressesitself,bringingtogetherauniquecombinationofviewstofurtherdiscussionbetweenIndigenousstudiesandengagedanthropology,andstriveforamoreinclusiveandegalitariananthropology.Thechapterspresentdiverseandsometimescontradictoryperspectiveson,andacrossthesethemes,drawingontheexperiencesofIndigenousscholars,socialanthropologistsanddevelopmentprofessionalsacquaintedwitharangeofculturesinvariousregionsoftheworld.

Itisapleasure,asalways,toclosethisprefacewithanacknowledgementofthanks.AllcontributorsacknowledgeadebtofgratitudetoSerenaHecklerforinitiatingthediscussionthatledtothisbook.ItstartedwhensheandIhadtenure,asjuniorandseniorpartners,ofaNuffieldFoundationNewCareerDevelopmentFellowship(NCF/32406).WethanktheNuffield"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

Foundationforitsgeneroussupport,andtheBritishAcademy,too(GrantCSG-52196).Finally,IthankJackieSillitoeforrunningherlaser-likecopyeditingpenoverthemanuscripttoensurethatallthecontributionsfollowedthepublisher’shousestyleconsistently.

Note

Thesharp-eyedwillnoticethatthewordindigenousissometimesspelledindigenouswithalowcase‘i’andothertimesasIndigenouswithacapitalI.Thisisapoliticalissueforsomecontributors,whoconsiderIndigenousequivalenttoadjectivessuchasEuropeanorAmericanindistinguishingcertainpopulations.(HendryandFitznor(2012:xiii)notethesameapparentinconsistentspellingofarangeofwords,askingthereadertounderstandthatcurrently‘therewouldseemtobelittleglobalagreement’overtheirusage.)

References

Hendry,J.andFitznor,L.(eds)2012.Introduction,inAnthropologists,IndigenousScholarsandtheResearchEndeavour:SeekingBridgesTowardsMutualRespect,editedbyJ.HendryandL.Fitznor.Abingdon:Routledge,1–18.


Chapter1TheDialoguebetweenIndigenousStudiesandEngagedAnthropology:SomeFirst

Impressions

PaulSillitoe

WhenIwasengagedinsometeachingattheUniversityofPapuaNewGuinea(PNG),Ihadanawkwardexperience.Acolleaguebecameincreasinglyirateduringaconversationafteraseminar.Itwasoverabookthathadrecentlyappearedthatwasproving–bafflingly,tomycolleague–influentialamonganthropologists.HetoldmethathecouldnotrecognizemuchabouthislifeandideasasaPapuaNewGuineaninthebook;infactfranklyhecouldnotunderstanditatallreally.Itsowedaseed,albeitatthetime,asoftenhappens,Ididnotrealizethatithadbeenplantedinmymind.ItwasfurtherstimulatedtogerminatewhenIheardRogerKeesingdescribe,andsubsequentlyIread,howwhentheKwaiopeople,wholiveonMalaitaintheSolomonIslands,agreedtohimlivingwiththem,theydidsothinkingthathewouldsupport‘theireffortstocodifytheircustomarylawandancestrallyimposedtaboossoastodemandtheirrecognitionbythestate’(1992:vii).Anexpectationthathedeclaredwasa‘curse’becausehecouldnotwritesucha‘customarylawbook…fromthecriticalstandpointofananthropologist’(1992:13),andhenever


attemptedtodoso,leavingtheprojectto‘theKwaiothemselves’(1992:13).

Itseemsoddthatananthropologistshoulddeclarethathecouldnotengagewithwhatwasofinterestandconcerntothepeopleheliveswith,becauseitisnotrelevantfromhisresearchperspective(Morauta(1979)madeasimilarobservationsometimeago).Orthatadisciplinethatpurportstofurtherunderstandingofotherculturalwaysofbeingintheworldshouldproduceworkinwhichthesubjectsthemselvescannotrecognizetheirbehaviourorideas(seeOwusu1978:312;Nakata1998;Lassiter2005:121).Thenaggingworriespromptedbythesetwoexperiencesandothersare,forme,behindthisvolume,whichseekstoengagewithsuchissues,andhelpustoseebeyond,andworktowardsresolving,suchcontradictions.

TheSocietyConceptandDomination

Thenotionofsociety–whichwascentraltothebookthatsoinfuriatedmyPNGcolleague–illustratesthenatureofsuchcontradictions.Itisanideathathaslongpresenteduswithproblems.ThepeopleIknowinthePapuaNewGuineaHighlandsnotonlyapparentlyhavenosuchconcept(andcertainlynowordthatcomesanywherenearit,tomyknowledge)butalsobehaveinwaysthatmakeitdifficulttoidentifysuchametasocialcollectivity(forinstance,allthosewhospeakthesamelanguage–whowemightconsiderasconstitutingasociety–havenocollectivenameforthemselvesanddifferinsocialbehaviouralparticularsfromplacetoplace(Sillitoe1979,2010)).Regardlessoftheapparentlyimposed,‘secondintention’status,oftheterm"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

society,socialscientistsassumethatallhumanbeingsmustliveinasociety–thatwefindsucheverywhere–thatpersonsinteractascollectivitiesandobservecertainagreednormstoguidetheirbehaviour–orelsetheirdisciplineshavenomeaning(TuhiwaiSmith1999:47–50).Indeeditisthisconceptthatunderpinstheirclaimtosomeintellectualauthorityandabilitytofurtherourknowledgeandunderstandingofhumaninteractionandbehaviour.

WheredoesthisputpeoplesuchasmyhighlandNewGuineafriendswhodonotseeminglyhavesuchanidea?Inaword,itputsthematadisadvantagewhenfacedwithsocialscientists,whoclaimtousethisconceptandabarrageofrelatedonestounderstandtheirbehaviour.Butwefindanthropologistsinanoddpositiontoo–asIhavepointedoutpreviously(Sillitoe2007:157–8)–ofappearingtoknowmoreaboutthepeopletheystudythantheyknowaboutthemselves,whentheobjectofstudyistheirideasandbehaviour–whichisofthem.Somesocialscientistsareastonishingly,indeedarrogantlyconfidentinthesupremacyoftheirknowledge,asevidentinthefollowingcommentcriticizingapaperthatIsubmittedtoajournal,whereIremarkedontheproprietyofanthropologistsassumingtorepresentasuperiorunderstanding:

Idisagreestronglywiththestatement:“Itisnolongertenable–ifiteverwas–forustorepresentthelifeways,beliefs,etc.,ofthosewestudy.Mostpopulationsareabletorepresentthemselves”.Theliteratureisfullofexamplesofliteratepopulationsnotunderstandingtheirsocioculturalsystem.Thelocalsarenotawareoftheproblemsthattheanthropologistsaddressandtheusesoftheirwork;thereisan“unconsciousness”insocioculturalsystemsandthelocalsdonotunderstandthese;thelocalsdonotfullyunderstandtheinterplayoftheirownmeaningsnorseetheinterrelationsbetweenthedomainsoftheirsocioculturalsystem.


ItisreminiscentofMalinowski’s(1922:11–12)commentsabout‘depictingtheconstitution’ofTrobriandsocietywheretheproblemwasthatthe‘nativesobeytheforcesandcommandsofthetribalcode,buttheydonotcomprehendthem’andconsequently‘itwouldbefutiletoattemptquestioninganativeinabstract,sociologicalterms’,whichwemighttakeasearlyauthorizationfortheimpositionoftheconceptof‘society’andassociatedsocialscience‘theory’,oranadmissionoftheinevitabilityofWesternersintroducingsuchforeignnotionstomakesenseofwhattheyobserve,hearandexperience.Itistimetomovebeyondtheparticipant-observationapproachthathisworkheraldedtowardsparticipatory-reflection(Sillitoe2012),collaborativelyformulatingnewapproachesthatallowthe‘natives’toexpresstheirunderstandings.

Whatdoesthissuggestaboutthedisciplineofanthropology?Itseemstoconfirm,assomeindigenousscholarsinparticularargue,thatitserves,wittinglyorunwittingly,asanagentofWesterndomination.Ithasscarcelydonesobyactingasthe‘handmaidenofcolonialism’,assomeill-informedcriticssuggest(Sillitoe2006:7)–anthropologistshavingcontributedrelativelylittletocolonialadministrationsintheirdominationofsubjectpeoples,beinglargelyconsideredwhacky,irrelevantoutsiders(muchastheyareinsomedevelopmentcirclestoday).ButthedisciplinehasactedasanotableforceforWesterndominationofothersbyforcingunderstandingoftheirlifewaystofitWesternconcepts,toservetheintellectualconcernsandagendasofWesternauthorities(see,forexample,Banerjee’sandLinstead’s2004critiqueofthe‘indigenouslandethic’concept).TheCanningBasincasestudydiscussedbyTranTraninthisvolumeillustratestheconsequencesforAboriginalpeopleinAustralia,of"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

howgovernmentadministeredlegalrecognitionofnativetitletolandandwaterresourcesdispossessesanddistortsnativeviewsandrights.

Buttoplaydevil’sadvocate,whichismyintentioninthisintroductiontostirupinterest,itisarguable,takingapostmodernline,thatsuchanoutcomewasinevitable.HowelsemightweexpecttheseWesternintellectualintruderstomakesenseofcommunitieselsewhere,alreadysocializedastheywereintoanunderstandingoftheworld,exceptaccordingtotheconceptsandknowledgetheyhadinheritedfromtheirculture?Thisisaninescapablebugaboothatstalksus,fornomatterhowmuchwestruggletoseethatourworkisastrueaswecanmakeittothoseweseektounderstand,itisavainhopefromapostmodernviewpoint(Flahertyetal.2002).Somaybeitisinevitablethatwefocusonconcernsthatmaybeirrelevanttothosewelivewithandproduceworkinwhichtheycannotrecognizetheirbehaviourorideas?Ifso,allthemorereasonforadialoguewith,orbetterstillcollaborationwithindigenousscholars.Forthisissurelyonewaytobreakoutofthepostmodernimpasse.

Distinguishing‘TermsofIntention’

OnwhatgroundshasWesternacademicdiscourseassumedauthorityforitsconceptsandunderstanding(TuhiwaiSmith1999:59–65)?Unliketechnologicalinventions,fromwhichthedominationofWesternculturelargelystems–thediffusionofwhichtothepresumedbettermentofhumankindinformsinternationaldevelopment1–Westernphilosophicalknowledgeisnotdemonstrablysuperior.Whenwetakeacloserlookatthe"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

notionofsocietyandothersuchideas,weseethequestionabilityoftheirassumedauthority.Theconceptof‘society’,a‘termofsecondintention’inlogic(asformulatedbytheScholasticsoftheMiddleAges),isoneforwhichwehavenoempiricalsensederivedevidence,unlikea‘termoffirstintention’suchas‘humanindividual’,whichreferstosomeone/thingthatwecansee,touch,hear,smelletc.(seeRussell1946:463–4;Jacob2003;EncyclopædiaBritannica2009).While‘termsoffirstintention’concernparticularuniqueexamplesofphenomena–suchasanyonereadingthisbook–towhichwecanreferinourdiscussionsandcompareourideaswhateveroursocio-culturalbackground(assumingthatallhumanshavethesamesenses);‘termsofsecondintention’concernuniversalizingabstractions–suchasagroupofsociallyinteractinghumanbeings–affordnoconcretereferentasabstractideas(IcannotsitmyideaofEnglishsocietyinachairtoinvestigateitfurther,unlikemybrother).

TheoriginofsuchabstractconceptsisaphilosophicalconundrumgoingbackatleasttoPlato’smetaphysical‘TheoryofForms’,whichassertsthatforideasrepresentedbygeneraltermssuchasjustice,beautyetc.,thereexistsomewherebeyondourkentimeless,ideal,mind-independent,supernatural-power-[God]-createdentities.Butitappearsthatthe‘TheoryofForms’idealtypesdifferbetweenintellectualtraditions,theseculturallyinformedgeneraltermsbeingsubjecttowidecultural-linguisticvariation,whichassecondorderintellectualconstructionspresentuswithabstractcategoriesthatareparticularlydifficulttoaccess,translateandcorrelatecross-culturally.Andwecertainlycannotrankthem,onesuperiortoanother,exceptonsubjectivecriteriaaccordingtoyourculturallyinformedvalues.Whatisencodedandthoughtaboutasacategoryinonelanguage–sayacollection"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

ofinteractinghumanbeingscomprisingasocietydescendedfromatroupeofhairyapes–maybeencodedquitedifferentlyinanother–sayaclanthataccordingtooriginmythscamefromaflockofsulphur-crestedcockatoos.

Theso-calledtheoriesofsocialscienceareconsequentlysocio-culturallyandhistoricallysituatedconstructions,moresothannaturalsciencetheory,whichfocusesexperimentallyon‘termsoffirstintention’phenomenaandusesrigorouslydefinedanduniversallyagreed‘termsofsecondintention’tointerpretresults.Thepredictableconsistencyofthethingscomprisingmanyscientific‘termsofsecondintention’facilitatessuchtheorizing–atleastonplanetEarth–onemoleculeofCO2isconstitutedexactlythesameandbehavesidenticallytoanyother–atleastinthemacro-worldweinhabit.Itisthecontrol,andscopetointerfereinthenaturalworld,whichthispredictabilityallows,thatunderpinsaforementionedscientifictechnologythatshoresupWesterndomination.Humanbehaviour,asweknow,doesnotshowsuchconsistency,whichcompoundstheproblemsfacedbysocialsciencebecausenotonlyareits‘termsofsecondintention’culturallyandhistoricallycontingentbutits‘termsoffirstintention’areindividuallyhighlyvariabletoo!Thesocialsciencesareonlynowfacinguptotheimplicationsofindividualbehaviouralvariationwiththemovefromastructuraltoaprocessualfocus,challengingassumptionsabouthomogenousnormativecodesguidingsocialinteractionormembersofthesamesocialgroupsharingthesameconcepts,valuesetc.Youhaveonlytoaskasampleofpersonsmetinthestreetwhattheyunderstandbytheword‘society’toseethis,foryouwillreceivearangeofdifferinganswers–thatis,thoseofuswhohavetheconceptof‘society’cannotevenagreewhatitis(notevensocial"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

scientists!).

TacklingDominance:IdeologyversusTheory

Thedifferencebetweenthe‘termsofintention’thatthenaturalandsocialsciencesinvestigatehaspromptedmetoarguethatitismoreaccuratetotalkaboutsocialscienceideologythantheory(SillitoeandBicker2004).Theimplicationsofadmittingthatsocialsciencedealsinideologynottheoryareconsiderable.ItunderminesdominanceofWesternsocialscience.Itindicatesthattherearenoobjectivegroundsfordeclaringoneviewbetterthananother;itisasubjectivematterinformedbyculturallyshapedvaluesthatcanvarywidely(Stanfield1985).Anditrevealsthepartanthropologyhasplayedinfurtheringdominationbyintellectualmeans,contributingtotheproliferationofsocialsciencetheories–thataresubjecttorapidfashionchangesthatseemuncannilytotrackideologicalfashionsinWesternsociety–whichthedisciplineconsequentlyimposessomewhatdubiouslyelsewhere,employingthemasiftheyhavethestampofsomeunquestionableuniversalacademicauthority.

Whateverone’sviewoftheinevitabilityorotherwiseofthisprocessofintellectualdominationfollowingEuropeanexplorationandintrusionintootherpartsoftheworld,itisincreasinglyacknowledgedthatitistimewesoughttogiveanequalhearingtoothervoicesandviews(Chambers1997;Lamphere2003:153).Weneedtoembarkonajourneytogether.2Dopeopleentertainnotionsequivalenttosociety,forexample,andhowdotheyexpressthese,andhowmaythesebemoreeffectivelyusedininteractingwithauthoritiesthatinterfereintheirlives?Iftheydo"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

notentertainsuchideas,itisnotourplace,Ithink,totryandimaginewhattheideaofsocietymightbeinitsapparentabsence–evenifjustifiedasaprovisionalconcept(becauseasaforeignideatostartwithitcanneverbereplacedwithafinalmoreappropriateone).Itisagaintoimposetheconceptinanotherguise,whenweshouldallowpeopletoexpresstheirunderstandingsofhumansocialinteraction.Whatotherwaysaretheretoconceivealternative‘termsofsecondintention’forcollectivesocialbehaviour?Theymay,forinstance,involveunfamiliarnotionsofreciprocity,certainlyintheNewGuineahighlands.

Ratherthandefendingtheoretical-cum-ideologicalturfs,anthropologistsshouldincreaseeffortstomakejointcausewithindigenousscholarstosecuretheirideologicalviewsanequalairing(Cervone2007),whichshouldbeeasyforthoseinadisciplinepredicatedonthepremisethatwehavemuchtolearnfromotherwaysofbeingintheworld.Butinstead,itisdifficult,foritimpliesadramaticchangeincurrentacademicarrangements,withagenuinedemocratizingofpowerstructures–anequal‘interweaving’ofindigenousandanthropologicalperspectives,aftersymmetricalTonganfelavaipatterns(Ka’ili2012)–whereasWesternscholarsarenodifferenttootherswhoholdpowerinbeingreluctanttorelinquishit,eventhoughtheintellectualrewardsmaybegreat.Buteventsareincreasinglyforcingsuchchange,particularlytheincreasingirritation,evenhostility,shownbycommunitiestooutsiderresearchers,notablyintheAmericasbutalsoincreasinglyelsewheresuchasAustralasia(Rigney1999,2006;Greene2004,McCartyetal.2005:1),whicharefed-upwithforeignnosey-parkerswhocontributenothinginreturn.AsanAustralianwebsitefor"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

indigenousstudiescomments,‘wehavebeenresearchedtodeathandthereisnothingonthegroundtoshowforit…whydon’ttheyleaveusalone?’(UmillikoIndigenousHigherEducationResearchCentren.d.).Insomeinstances,peopleseeresearchersperpetuatingexploitativeneo-colonialrelations,asagentsofwiderpolitical-economicforceswidelyglossedasglobalization,whichareresultinginconsiderableunwelcomeupheavalinsomeregions.ThesentimentsarecommoninLatinAmerica,astheinfamousElDoradoaffairdiscussedbyEmmaCervonegraphicallyillustrates,andthechapterbyJohnLinstrothshowsfurther,recountingthestrugglesofAmerindianslivingintheBraziliancityofManausandhowtheexpectationfromthestartofhisresearchwasthathewouldreciprocatetheirhelpbycollaboratingwiththemintheirpoliticalbattlewiththeurbanauthorities.

IndigenousCollaboration

Therehavebeensomemovestowardsgreaterinclusivity.Oneexampleistheindigenousknowledgeindevelopmentinitiativethatbuildsonparticipatoryapproachesthatmanyanthropologistssupport,whichseekstoincludetheexpertise,viewpointsandaspirationsoflocalcommunitiesmeaningfullyandequitablyinthedevelopmentprocess(Warren,SlikkerveerandBrokensha1995;Antweiler1998;Grenier1998;Sillitoe1998;EllenandHarris2000;Emery2000).Whiletheindigenousknowledgeapproachfocuseslargelyonunderstandingandmanagementoflocalenvironments,howpeoplesecuretheirlivelihoodsandtreatsickness,itseekstoencompasssocio-culturalcontext,including"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

considerationofpoliticalissuesandhistory,whichoftenfeatureunequalpowerrelationsthatperpetuatepoverty.Ithasbeendoggedbythemanipulationofparticipatoryapproachesindevelopmentcontexts,asthoseinvolvedinprojectsseektoreachthe‘managementmilestones’setdownbyaccountingfixatedpoliticalpaymasters(CookeandKothari2001;Mosse2005).Theindigenousscholarshipapproachholdsoutthehopeofseeingcurrentlyabusedparticipatoryresearchmethodsappliedproperly.

Anotherexampleisthewayinwhichsomemuseumethnographershavesoughtinthelastdecadeorsotocollaboratewithcuratorcolleaguesandlocalcommunitiesinregionsfromwhencetheircollectionsoriginate,inarrangingdisplaysanddocumentingobjects(HerlewithBani1998;Simpson2001;Hendry2002;PeersandBrown2003;Stanley2007).Consequently,ethnographicmuseumshavemovedfromturgidbackwatertotheanthropologicalmainstream,introducingfreshideasandleadingthewayinparticipatoryresearch.Itmaybethatdealingwith‘termoffirstintention’things–namelyobjects–givesthemanedge;asitiseasiertocollaboratewiththings–suchasmasks–tofocusdiscussionson,ratherthanabstractideas–suchassociety.Thereissomethingnicelyironicinthis,asmuseumethnography’sfocusonthingscontributed–followingearlyVictorianevolutionaryinterest–toitbeingconsideredanuninspiringandlargelyignoredaspectofanthropology,untilrecently(Sillitoe1988:6;Bouquet2001).

Theengagedagendaseekstopromoteinclusionbeyonddevelopmentandmuseumcontexts,toinvolvethewiderdisciplineofsocio-culturalanthropology.Itisincreasinglythoughtoverdueandhasthepotentialradicallytoalterresearchpracticeandapproachestoteaching,andindeedwhatwethinkwe"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

know.Itimpliesanoverhauloftheentireresearchprocesssothatitismoreresponsivetotheconcernsandrequirementsofcommunities,involvingthemascollaborators,fromformulationofresearchprojecttothedisseminationoffindings(Co-operativeResearchCentreforAboriginalandTropicalHealth2002;Denzin,LincolnandTuhiwaiSmith2008;LowandMerry2010:S209).Manyindigenousscholarsarguethatresearchshouldbringbenefitstothecommunitywherecarriedout(Ka’ili2012).Inherchapter,EmmaCervonediscussestheepistemologicalandmethodologicalimplicationsofsuchcollaborationbetweenengagedanthropologistsandindigenousscholars,drawingonherEcuadorexperiences.Whileindigenousacademicstapintotheircommunities’experienceinformulatingtheirresearchagendas,engagedanthropologistsseektofurthertheiraimsbyadvancingparticipatoryapproaches.Buildingtrustisacentralissueregardingsuchengagement,by,forinstance,demonstrablychangingpowerrelationswithinresearchprojects,forgingmeaningfulpartnershipswithindigenousrepresentativesandscholarstogaugeprogressandaccesslocalconcerns.Inthisvolumeweseektofurthersuchjourneyingtogetherthroughcollaboration,forgingnecessaryconnectionsandpromotingapositiveexchangeofideas,expertise,andcriticism.

Whilecooperationbetweenengagedanthropologyandindigenousresearchseemsadvantageous,indeedobligatory,particularlywiththesimilaritiesbetweentheirphilosophies,itisperplexingthattheyareworkinglargelyinisolation.Thereareconsiderablemutualmisunderstandingsgiventheirmarkedlydifferentviewsandapproaches;mostanthropologistsignoringindigenousscholars,whointheirturnarelargelyantagonistictooutsiderresearchers.Let’sbreakdownthesebarriers.Wemay"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

facilitatemeaningfuldialogueandexchangeofideasaboutfuturedirectionsinresearchof,andby,localcommunitiesbybringingallpartiestogether,seekingtodrawondifferentcultural-intellectualtraditions.Whatissuesdoindigenousstudiesseeascentralandwhatroleisthereforanthropologicalresearch?Whatistheirperspectiveonthecurrentlypopularparticipatory/engagedresearchparadigm?Byhavingcolleagueswithdifferentbackgrounds–experienceofindigenousuniversities,internationalagenciesetc.–comparenotes,experiences,ideasandsoon,weseekparallelsandlearnlessonsfromoneanother.Itisnecessaryfranklytocompareandcontrastapproachestodocumentingandfurtheringunderstandingofhumanwaysofbeingintheworld,exploringtheadvantagesanddisadvantagesofdifferentapproachestoresearch,clearingupmisconceptionsandagreeingmutuallybeneficialfuturedirections(inthespiritofBeck’s2004‘realisticcosmopolitanism’).

DefiningIndigenousStudies

Whatareindigenousstudies?Theyfeatureresearchconductedbyandforindigenouspeopleratherthanbeingaboutthem(Co-operativeResearchCentreforAboriginalandTropicalHealth2002;CenterforWorldIndigenousStudies,n.d.).Theyhaveemergedfromadeep-seatedandunderstandableresentmentwithresearchthatlargelyexcludescommunities,whilebeingaboutthem(Rigney1999,2006).Theyaresimilartoothersubalterndemandsthroughhistoryforpeopletohavemoreofasayinaffairsthatconcernthem,suchasworkingclassandsuffragettemovements.Theyfeaturenotonlyresearchthataimstobenefit"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

thecommunity,butalsodistinctiveparticipatorymethodologiesadvancedbyindigenousacademics,whichbuildatransparent,genuinelytwo-wayprocess,includingdemocraticdecision-making(Denzin,Lincoln,andTuhiwaiSmith2008).SuchasKaupapaMāoriresearchinAotearoa(NewZealand),whereindigenouspeopleandscholarsengageonequalterms(TuhiwaiSmith1999:183–95;Bishop1996,1999,2005).Inherchapter,DomenicaCalabrògivesaninsightintowhatcollaboratingasananthropologistwithKaupaparesearchersinvolves–‘whereresearchmeetsMaori,orMaorimeetsresearch,onequalizingterms’(TuhiwaiSmith1999:185)–duringherenquiriesintotheimpactoftheindigenizationofNewZealandrugbyonMāoriidentity.

Whatfurtherdistinguishesindigenousscholarsfromanthropologists?WhiledefiningthedisciplineofanthropologyisaSisypheantask–andhencenotoneIshallattempthere–itclearlydiffersfromindigenousscholarshipforthosewhoengageinit.Bydefinition,personswhoidentifyasmembersofcommunitiesconductindigenousstudiesthere.Thisisarguablyasignificantdistinctionbetweenindigenousscholarsandanthropologists.Somethinkthattoqualifyasananthropologistitisnecessarytoworkinadifferentsocio-culturalcontext–thatis,traversesomesocio-culturalboundary–becauseonlyinthiswaycanyougainthenecessarycross-culturalexperienceandawarenessthatiscentraltoanthropology(Sillitoe2007:151).Butmostindigenousscholarshavebydefaultcrossedsuchasocio-culturalRubiconandsohaveananthropologicalperspective,beingexposedtoWesterneducation,languageandphilosophy–whichinturnleadstofurtherproblemsdiscussedbelow.Someevenhaveananthropologicalbackground,whichtheyhave"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

presumablytokeepincheck,soasnotoverlytocontaminatetheirindigenouscredentials(forexampleMedicine2001).Similarly,someEuro-AmericanswhoonlyhaveexperienceofEuropeansocietycallthemselvesanthropologistsandnotsociologists,havingformulatedtheideaof‘anthropologyathome’.Inthecontextofthisvolume,theypresumablyqualifyasindigenousscholarstoo,whichhasacertainironyasmanynon-Westernindigenousscholarswouldbeoffendedtobelabelledasanthropologists,whereassomeoftheirWesterncounterpartsfighttojustifytheuseofthelabelforthemselves,whichsuggestssomefurtherdifferences.

Thiscontradictionrelatestoseverallong-standinganthropologicalconundrums,whichresultfromtryingtoridetwohorsesatonce–theculturallyrelativeandcomparative–thatparadoxicallyseemtopullinoppositedirections.3Indigenousstudiesfocusbydefinitiononasingleregion/community,andmakenopretenceatfurtheringunderstandingofallhumankind.Thosewhoengageinanthropologicalfieldworklikewiseseektofurtherunderstandingofparticularsocio-culturalarrangementsatcertainhistoricalperiods,butwhereasindigenousscholarsdosowithaviewtofurtheringtheinterestsofthelocalcommunity,anthropologistsdosotoincreasetheirknowledgeoftherangeofsucharrangementsglobally.Theyseekfurthertoadvanceour(Westernframed)understandingofthehumanconditionfromacomparativecross-culturalperspective,inwhichcontextitisarguablylegitimatetoemploytheWestern‘termofsecondintention’society.Suchfieldwork,crossingintoadifferentsocio-culturalworld,isarguablynecessarynotonlytosupplyethnographicdataforcross-culturalintellectualhypothesizingbutalsotosharpenawarenessofcomparativeissues,otherwisewe"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

remainrootedinourownethnocentricworldview,albeitwecannotentirelyescapeit,beingsubjecttoourownculturalconditioningasthepostmoderncritiqueaffirms.Whileindigenousscholars,focussingontheircommunities,willfurtherenrichourunderstandingoftherangeofhumansocio-culturalarrangements,andsosupplygristtothecomparativemill,theymoreoverpromisetodeepenthechallengetoourunderstandingofwhatitistobeintheworld,constructivelyconfrontingthepostmodernviewthathasalmostparalyzedsocialscience(asscience)forthepasttwodecadesorso.

CorrectnessofTerm‘Indigenous’

Theabovedefinitionofindigenousstudiesanditscontrastwithanthropologyassumesthatyoubuyintotheideaof‘indigenous’asacategory.Somesocialscientistscriticisetheideaofindigenousscholarship,findingthe‘indigenous’adjectiveobjectionablebecauseitisdifficulttodefineintheseglobalizingtimeswithmuchmigration,andpotentiallydivisiveandpoliticallydangerous.Therehasbeenafuriousdebaterecentlyoverthecorrectnessofusingthewordindigenous,detractorsarguingthathistoryshowsthatitisdifficulttodefine,ifnotmeaningless(Kuper2003;KendrickandLewis2004;Barnard2006;Guentheretal.2006).Inhischapter,DimitriosTheopopoluscommentsfurtheronthedebate.Nooneistrulyindigenoustoanywhere.Thereare‘noindigenouspeoples.Everynativebeganasanalien’(Beck2004:447).Thereis,forexample,nosuchpersonasathoroughlynativeEnglishmanbecausethosewhoinhabitEnglandareamixofimmigrantsandinvaders"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

includingCelts,Romans,Angles,Saxons,Vikings,Normans,withrepeatedinfluxesofIrish,Scottish,Jewish,HuguenotandmorerecentlyvariousCommonwealthandEuropeancitizens,resultinginacosmopolitanifnotmongrelculture–ascapturedintheScottishbard’swords‘England,dearEngland–themostcolonizedplaceonearth’.

Thereisanxietyfromaliberalperspectivethatuseofthetermindigenousmayencouragedisagreeablexenophobic,evenracialemotions.Also,unsurprisingly,somecoloniallyfoundedstates,suchastheUSAandAustralia,donotwishtodrawattentiontoindigenousissuesandrightsgiventheirhistoryofdomination,ethnocideandevengenocide(forexampleWolfe1994;Povinelli1998;Battiste2002;FourArrows2006).Whilesomeintellectualswarnagainsttheuseofthetermindigenous,manypeopleuseittodescribethemselves.Indeedattemptstodiscourageitsusecouldarguablyincreaseanimosity,ifpersonsperceiveathreattotheiridentityorprerogativetoconsiderthemselvesasnativetosomewhere–thatis,belongingwheretheycanrelatetothevaluesandwayoflife.Millionsthinkofthemselves,forinstance,asEnglishindigenes.Thisrelatestothatstrandofsocialstudiesthatconcernsidentity:theemotionalneedthathumansevincetobelongtoagroup,toaculturewithitslanguageandhistory.ThechapterbyRobynSandri,whoidentifieswiththeAboriginalpeopleofsouthQueensland,graphicallyillustratesthecomplexitiesofsuchconcerns,particularlywhereindigenouscommunitieshaveenduredgenerationsofcolonialdomination,includinggrossviolationofhumanrights.

Theseidentityconcernsofteninvolveaninterestintradition.WeseethisintheurgetheKwaiohaveto‘codifytheircustomarylaw’,mentionedinmyopeningcomments.Theseinterestsin"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

traditionarealsosubjecttoacademiccriticism.Archaeologyandhistoryshowthatallcultureschange,albeitsomeapparentlyfasterthanothers,andsoaninterestintraditionalidentity,thoughtofasunchangingcustompassingmuchthesamefromgenerationtogeneration,iswrongheaded,forthereisnosuchthing(HobsbawmandRanger1983;Douglas2004).WhilethismaybecorrectfromaWesternintellectualperspective,itdoesnotapparentlystopsomepeople–againoftenethnicminoritiesoftribalorigin–talkingabouttraditionandtheirwishtokeepitintact,thewaytheythinkithasalwaysbeenforthem.Theyexpressaneedtoprotectitfromextinctioninthefaceofcurrentglobalpressuresandsomeevensearchfor‘lost’,oftensuppressed,traditions.Theysometimesdrawontheworkofethnographerstoconstructsuchasenseofidentityandcommunicateittoothers,asDimitriosTheopopulosdiscussesinthecontextoftheEmberaspeakersofPanamaandtheireffortstotakeadvantageoftheopportunitiespresentedbyculturaltourism.Thereisanintriguingcontradictionhere,inthatregardlessofthehostilitysomeindigenousscholarsmayhaveforanthropologists,somedrawheavilyonearlierethnographicresearchinassertingidentitiesbuilton‘tradition’and‘custom’.

Theseeffortstoreinstatetraditionbringtomindthedistinctionbetweenso-calledhotandcoldsocieties,orlinearandcircularones.Criticismofthetermsindigenousandtraditionalisofapiecewithanthropologists’shiftofinterestawayfromtheir‘traditional’circular-tribalsubjectmattertowardstheirownsociety’slinearconceptsandconcernswithchange.Itisarguedthatwhileideasofcirculartraditionmayreflectthelocalviewinsomeplaces,suchasynchronicfocus(withassociatednotionsofstructureandbogusethnocentricpresent)iserroneoussocial"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

science.Itappearsanoverstatement,evenmisrepresentation,asoccursinmanyaradicalchangeofperspective.Localways,albeitsubjecttochange,continueagainsttheapparentodds.Hunter-gathererscontinuetohuntandgather;shiftingcultivatorstoshiftandcultivate;communitiestobelieveinlocaldeities;clanobligationstoinformsociallifeetc.Theyarestubbornlyresistanttotheblandishmentsandthreatsofglobalcapitalismandmodernism,suggestingthatthereissomethingtopeoples’insistencethattraditionrules.Itispossiblethathumankindwilleventuallydevelopaharmoniousglobalculturewherecommonapproachestoissueswillbethenorm,butitisalongwayoffoncurrentevidence,anaspectofwhichisthewaypeoplekeenlydefendtheiridentities–asindigenous,traditionalorwhatever(seedebatebetweenBeck2004andLatour2004).

PoliticsofIndigenity

Theinterestinlocaltraditionssuggeststhatnotallareinathrallattheprospectofchange(oftenglossedoptimisticallyasdevelopment)orglobalization(formany,codeforAmericanworlddomination),whichisironicallypushingsomepeopleintheoppositedirection,seekingtoreaffirmtheirindigenityandassociatedtraditions,astheyseewhattheyvalueincreasinglythreatenedbynominallydemocraticcapitalism.SuchviewsareexpressedbyGeorgeDei,PriscillaSetteeandRobynSandriintheirchapters.Theyrelateagaintothepoliticaldimensionofindigenousstudies,astheyattempttoovercomethelegacyofdominationandstereotypingbyoutsiders(Spivak1988).Thefocusoncustomsupportseffortstoestablishlegitimate"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

entitlementtoresourcesandgainsomepoliticalleveragebysubstantiatingtraditionalclaims.Weseethiswithsomepopulationsincreasinglymarkingthemselvesoffasnativetocertainregionsastheyfightfortheirrightsandself-determination,ofwhichnationalgovernmentsseektodispossessthem(seeforinstancethedebateinAnthropologyToday–Bowen2000;Colchester2002;McIntosh,ColchesterandBowen2002;Rosengren2002–alsoNiezen2003;Asch2004).Manyofthoseinvolvedaretribalpeople,whohavelongbeenofinterestto,evenuntilrecentlylargelydefinedanthropology,theonlydisciplinetoesteemthemhighlyenoughtowishproperlyandsympatheticallytounderstandtheirwaysofbeing.Theentitlementsofmanytribalpopulationshavebeengrosslyviolatedfromaliberalstandpoint(ashighlightedregularlybyNGOssuchasSurvivalInternationalandMinorityRightsGroup,seeforexampletheon-goingstruggleoftheSanpeopleinBotswana(MinorityRightsGroup2005;SurvivalInternational2006;OmaandThoma2006)).Theyaretryingtorighthistoricalwrongsandsurelyhavearighttorepresentthemselvesasindigenousandhaverecoursetotradition,iftheythinkitwillhelptheirinterests?

Butthepoliticalissuesarecomplex,forinstancewhohastherighttorepresentwhomandwhat?Thequestionofwhen,ifever,itisappropriatetoinvolveoneselfinthepoliticsofcommunitiestowhichonedoesnotbelongpresentsanon-goingethicaldilemmaforthosewhoadvocateengagedanthropology.Thetussleisbetween‘becomingengagedinactivismthatseekstoreformfeaturesofsociallifetoenhancesocialjustice’andseekingtoremain‘adisengagedoutsiderobservingandrecordingsociallife’onthegroundsthatonehasno‘ethicalrighttoseektochangeotherwaysoflife’(LowandMerry2010:S211–12)."******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

Manyindigenousrepresentativesarguethatsuchpoliticsisforlocalpeople.Therearevariousindigenousmovements,includinglocallyrootedNGOsandeducationalbodies,currentlyseekingtovoicetheirviewsinternationally,sometimesholdingalternativeworldsummits(SillitoeandBicker2004;CenterforWorldIndigenousStudiesn.d.).ThechapterbyJayanthaPereradiscussesassociatedproblems,suchaspeoples’claimstotherightofself-determinationwhenengulfedwithinnationstates,whichmaypaylipserviceonlytotheethicoffree,priorandinformedconsentregardingactivitiesthatintrudeintoindigenouscommunitiesandtrampleonwhattheseconsidertobethegoodlife.Thepoliticsofrepresentationofknowledgeistrickyformanyindigenousactivists:howrepresentativearetheyoftheircommunities?Thereisthethornymatterofwhoselectslocalrepresentatives,andkeepsaneyeontheirrepresentationandsoon.Oftennobody,astheyareself-appointed;fewaredemocraticallyelectedbytheircommunitiestorepresenttheirviews.Whateverwayyoulookatit,weremainonestepremovedfromthe‘realknowledge’thatresidesinlocalcommunities,andinevitablydealwithrepresentatives,albeittheymayhaveamoredirect,evenauthenticvoice,asculturebearers.Andtheymaymoremeaningfullyfosterparticipation,althoughontheotherhand,theymaynot.

Whilethehoaryquestionoftheproprietyofappearingtospeakforothershasbeencentraltodebatesaboutanthropologicalinvolvementindevelopment(Agrawal1995,1999;Hobart1993;Shiva1996;Escobar1998),localrepresentativeshavetobecautioustooofbeingaccusedoftaking,alteringandco-optingtheircommunity’sknowledgetotheirownends.Thereisadangerthatcommunitiesmayexperiencelessoutsiderdomination,only"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

tofindthemselvessubjecttomoreinsiderdomination.Localrepresentativesarenotneutral,afterall,asthereisnosuchthingasavalue-freestanceinsocialenquiries.Theyareasproneasanyoutsiderstoimposetheirownmoralviewsinresearch,andthesemayalignonlywiththoseofasectionofthelocalcommunity.Theymayhavevestedintereststhatpromptthemtorepresentviewsthatareagainsttheinterestsofsomesectionofthecommunity.Thechancesarethattheywillalignwithmorepowerfullocalfactionsandactinwaystomaintainsocialhierarchiesintheirfavour;whichisanissuethatRayNicholaddressesinhischapter.Thepersonaldilemmasofthosewhoactsimultaneouslyas‘insiders’and‘outsiders’canbeconsiderable,findingthemselvesfacingconflictinginterests(Kaomea2004;Jankie2004).

Critiquesoftheuseofthewords‘indigenous’and‘traditional’appeartohavemoretodowithWesternintellectualpreoccupationsthanthoseofpeopleelsewherewhohappilyusetheselabels.Argumentsagainsttheirusemaybewellintentioned,reducingthe‘we’and‘them’distinctionsthatoftencharacterizemisuseofpower,alsopossiblyoffensiveracism,byencouragingustoconsiderourselvesallequallyhumanwiththesamerightsandsoon,asJayanthaPereraargues.Buttheycomeperilouslyclosetotakingacolonial-likesuperiorstance–‘weknowbetterhowdangeroussuchtermsareatfomentingnastysentiments,sostopusingthem’,whichisreminiscentofthe‘weknowbetterthanyouhowyouorganizeyoursociallives,havingtheideaofsocietythatwedeployanalytically’.Itisunhelpful,evenarguablyethnocentric,forprivileged,globe-trotting,cosmopolitanacademicstofoisttheirconcernsandworriesonothers,arguingthattheyshouldnottalkincertainwaysbecauseitisdivisive,"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

especiallywhentheconcernsandworriesofthesepopulationsareoftenpressing,involvingbasichumanrightsissues,andevenon-goingsurvival.

Criticismofthe‘indigenous’adjectiveisevenpotentiallymoreneo-colonialthanthesecommentssuggest(LowandMerry2010:S212–13),inapparentlydenyingthatpeopleshoulddistinguishtheirsocio-culturaltraditionsfromothers.Itisunderstandablethatsomepeoplesuspectthatitiscovertosmothertheirwayofbeingintheworldastheychoose.Ineffectivelyseekingtoshutdowndebate,theanti-indigenousargumentcouldbeseentojustifytheimpositionoftheviewsofthemostpowerfulontherest,onthegroundsthattherearenodifferencesbetweenus.Andononelevelthisisso,asweareallhumanbeings–therubis:whosesocio-culturallydeterminedworldviewandunderstandingisgoingtodominate?Theanti-viewmightbeused,forexample,tojustifythemodernizationapproachtodevelopmentasitimpliesthatthis‘solution’shouldworkeverywhere(Sillitoe2002:133).Andpeoplewillhavesocietywhetherornotitjiveswiththeirviewofsociallifebecause,deniedanyseparateculturalidentity,wecanimposeitonthem.Whilefewofthosearguingagainstthe‘indigenous’and‘traditional’adjectiveswouldprobablygoalongwiththislineofreasoning,thedangerexistsifweareunabletodistinguishbetweencommunitiesinthemannerthesetermssuggest,forotherwisethesameviewsshouldlogicallyapplyeverywhere.

Ifsomepeoplewishtospeakofthemselvesasindigenouswithrespecttosomeculturaltradition,andcantotheirmindsdistinguishindigenousandtraditional–categoriesthatoverlapconsiderablywithsuchanthropologicalonesassocietyandculture–whohastheauthoritytotellthemotherwise?Afterall,"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

eventheUN,arbiteronglobalpoliticalissues,sanctionstheuseofthetermindigenouswithitsDecadeoftheWorld’sIndigenousPeopleandconcernforIndigenousPeoples’Rights(UnitedNations1993;MinorityRightsGroup2006).Weneedtogetawayfromtheideologyandbacktotheethnographytofurtherunderstandingofwhyandhowpeopleusesuchterms,andlistennon-judgmentallytoindigenousscholars.

KnowledgeDifferentials

Indigenousscholarshipchallengesnotonlytheproprietyofthecategoriesweusebutalso,asmentionedabove,Westernideasofwhatknowledgecomprises,asRobynSandriandEmmaCervonepointoutintheirchapters.Itsperspectivesmaydifferstrikinglyfromthoseofsocialscience,asillustratedbytheabsence,forinstance,oftheabstractionsocietyasanorganizingprincipleforexplaininghumanbehaviour.Incontrasttosuchsocialphilosophy,manyindigenousscholarsemphasizethemoral,evenreligiousdimensionsofknowledge,whichtheybelieveinvolveslearningwhatitistobeasociallyresponsiblememberofyourcommunityawareofyourplaceinthewiderenvironment,seeingthematurityoftheselfandachievementofwisdomasanon-goingspiritualprocess(Manuelito2005:83;IsmailandCazden2005:90;BarnhardtandKawagley2005;UniversidadInterculturalAmawtayWasi2004).ThechapterbyGeorgeDeiillustratestheimportanceofthemoraldimensionsofeducationthroughadiscussionoftheuseoftraditionalproverbsinsomeAfricancommunities.Inthisview,knowledgeisnotabouthavingthewherewithalforexplaininganddoingthingstotheworldbut"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

aboutunderstandingandbeinginitresponsibly.Itisaworldviewthatisgraduallygainingahearinginthe

West,movingfromthemarginsofwackygreenspiritualismthatclaimssupposedlyDruidicroots,tothemainstreamasweincreasinglyrealizetheneedtorespectnatureandseektoreconnectwithher.Forinstance,itisperhapslesslikelytodaythatweshouldwitnessarepeatofwhatoccurredatthemillennialconferenceoftheAssociationofSocialAnthropologistsoftheUKandCommonwealthdevotedtodiscussinglocalknowledgeindevelopment(Sillitoe,BickerandPottier2002).Weinvitedtothemeetingsomeadvocatesoftheendogenousdevelopmentapproach(COMPAS),whichseekstoovercomethematerialisticbiasofWesternattitudesbytakingpeople’sspiritualandsocialwell-beingaswellastheirmaterialwell-beingintoaccount,whotoourembarrassmentencounteredacademicarrogance,indeedrudeness,oftheworstkind,withmanydelegatesdismissingortalkingdowntothem.

Theroleofknowledgeincontemporarysocietymaybedifferentintheeyesofindigenousscholars,asisevidentinattitudestorightsoverit.TheWesternapproachstressestheownershipofknowledgewithpatentsandsoontoprotectitandensureitsprivilegedexploitation,ofteninsomeproductiveprocessformaterialgain.Otherapproachesaremoreopenandtreatknowledgeascommonproperty,somethingtowhichthecommunityhascollectiverights,tobesharedtothebenefitofall(Posey,DutfieldandPlenderleith1995;BrushandStabinsky1996;Dutfield1999;Clift2007).Thesedifferencesbetweenknowledgetraditionspromptsomeindigenousscholarstospeakoftheneedforacleanbreak,seeingnohopeofreconciliation,onlycontinuingdomination,asexemplifiedintheWestern"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

approachtocontrollingknowledgeandmanifeststarklyinbio-prospectingandpiracyexperiencedbysomecommunities.Itisallofapiecewithindigenousscholarsseekingtobreakawayfromoutsidepowerstructuresthathaveunderminedtheirepistemologies,anaspectoftheaforementionedstrugglesforself-determination,securinghumanandlandrights,andevenculturalsurvival(McCartyetal.2005;TuhiwaiSmith2005:95).Inthiscontextsomespeakofdecolonizingtheirknowledge(TuhiwaiSmith1999;KagendoandSwadener2004),whichisathemethatEmmaCervoneaddressesinherchapter.Howfeasibleisthisaim?

TheLiteracyConundrumandOtherRepresentations

Again,playingthedevil’sadvocate,itisarguablethatwrittenWesterndocumentationanddiscussioninevitablydominatedwhereEuropeanscameacrossoraltraditionsintheAmericas,AfricaandAustralasia.Afterall,aliteratetraditionleavesanenduringrecordwhereasspokenwordsdonot.IndeedIthinkthatagoodcasecanbemadeinsupportofmanyethnographers’effortstorecordpeoples’waysoflifeintheseregionsbeforetheywereoverwhelmedandchangedbycolonialandsubsequentlycapitalistglobalizingforces.Theyesteemedthesecultureshighlyenoughtospendtheircareersdocumentingandfurtheringsympatheticunderstandingofthem.Theirwritingscompriseasignificantrecordofculturalheritageandhistorythatwouldotherwisebelosttohumanity,whichaspointedoutabovemanyindigenouspeopletodaydrawuponinreconstructingidentitiesmoreauthentictotheirwayofbeingintheworldanddefending"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

theirrighttodoso.TheastonishingSmithsonianrecordscometomindhere,aresourceminedbyFirstNationspeopleinsearchofevidenceabouttheirancestors’ways,albeitlargelyignoredcurrentlybyanthropologistsintheircross-culturalattemptstofurtherourunderstandingofhumanity(see,forexample,Dorsey1884;Cushing1896;Mooney1896;FletcherandLaFlesche1911;Boas1921;Radin1923;Swanton1928;Bunzel1932).

But,ofcourse,Westernintellectualtraditionsevencametodominatewherepeoplehadtheirownliteraryheritage,suchasinSouthAsia,ChinaandtheArabworld–underthebannerofOrientalstudiesbesidesanthropology.Althoughsomeanthropologistsmayrefertothisliterature,particularlythoseworkinginthe‘Orient’,theideasitcontainssomehowfailmuchtoinformtheir‘theories’.Forinstance,itisonlyrecentlythatIhavelearnedabouttheworkofIbnKhaldun,whoisprobablyoneoftheworld’sfirstsociologists,writingonsocialissuessomehundredsofyearsbeforeEuropeansocialphilosophyhituponthem(Gellner1975;Alatas2006).HisconceptofasabiyyahforeshadowsideasofsocialsolidaritythatdidnotappearinEuropeuntilthenineteenthcentury(Durkheim1933),andIbnKhaldunalsoadvancedatheoryofarural–urbancycleofsocialchangethatforeshadowstwentieth-centuryideasofrural–urbancontinua(Redfield1947).Moreover,throughtheassiduouseffortsofcolonial,missionaryanddevelopmentagencies,therearenowliteratepeopleeverywherecapableofdocumentinganddiscussingforthemselvestheirparticularculturallyinformedviewsandunderstanding–manyincreasinglystylingthemselvesindigenousscholars–andyetWesternacademictraditionscontinuetodominatearoundtheglobe(RibeiroandEscobar2006).

Literacybringsotherproblemsforindigenousscholars"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

(TuhiwaiSmith1999:35–7),namelyinevitablepollutionbytheEuro-Americanintellectualtradition,whentheyarecaughtupinitsformaleducationsystem,asRachelShahpointsoutindiscussingtheproblemsthatpeopleinPapuaencounterwithformalschooling.Thechallengeindigenousacademicsfaceinthisevent,isdistancingthemselvesfromtheindoctrinationtheyhavereceivedfromaWesterneducationtofindtheauthenticvoiceoftheirpeople.Thisrelatestoabovecommentsaboutindigenousscholarsbeinganthropologistsbydefault–whatevertheymaythinkofanthropologists–inthesensethattheirexposuretoWesterneducationandthoughtmeansthattheyhaveanawarenessoftwoentirelydifferentsocio-culturaltraditionsandwrestlewiththeimplications.Itsuggeststhatweneedareverseanthropology;thatis,onethatlooksattheWestthroughanAboriginalorAmazonianphilosophic-culturallens.Towhatextentisthispossibleordoexchangessuchasinthisvolumesimplyperpetuatestructuresofintellectualdomination,takingplaceinaEuropeaneducationalcontextandfollowingitsrulesofdebate?

Lookedatthisway,bothinsiderandoutsiderscholarsfacethesamefundamentalproblem,butseenfromoppositesides:thissuggeststhatcollaborationor‘interweaving’(Ka’ili2012)shouldbefruitful,thetwoperspectivescomplementingoneanother.Portrayingnon-WesternknowledgeinwaysunderstandabletothosesocializedintotheEuro-Americantraditionisoneofanthropology’sdefiningobjectives.Ithaslongwrestledwiththeproblemoffaithfullyrepresentingotherlifewaysandworldviews,especiallyusingWesterncategoriesandmethodsofdocumentation–suchastheideaofsociety,imposedasifatermoffirstintention.Itisnottheonlyunderstandingpossibleor"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

legitimate,andcertainlynottheonebywhichweshouldnecessarilyframeourunderstandingofparticularsocio-culturaltraditions.Theextenttowhichitispossibletoescapeourintellectualframeofreferencehasbecomeacentraltopicofdebate,particularlywiththeadventofpostmodernism,whicharguesthatanthropology’sideological(ortheoretical)concernsinevitablydistortitssubjectmatter.Itislikelythatjointlyexploringandreviewingindigenouscritiqueswillhelpaddressthisproblem;theindigenousscholaranintegralparty,makingusawareofissuesandhelpingustounderstandotherviews(CenterforWorldIndigenousStudiesn.d.).Arguablythisistruertoanthropology,allowingculture-bearerstodriveresearchenquiries,andbydeferringtoindigenousscholarswemaypotentiallyhaveaway(atleastpartially)togetbeyondthepostmodernhermeneuticimpasse.

Inwhatwaysdosuchscholars’presentationsofother‘waysofbeingintheworld’differ(RibeiroandEscobar2006)?Theyareoftenfiercelycriticalofoutsideranthropologists’representations–suchasmyfrustratedUniversityofPapuaNewGuineacolleague–whoperceivethedisciplinetobewanderinglostinajargonjungleimpenetrabletothem,withpreoccupationsthatseemunrelatedtolocalviewsandconcerns(Owusu1978;Nakata1998).Again,itisanaspectofintellectualcontrolandpower,forthoseunabletocomprehendwhatisgoingonareinevitablyshutout.Itisnecessaryforanthropologytotaketheircriticismsandviewsseriously.Howcrediblewouldforeignerwrittentravelguidebooksbe,ifwhattheycontainedwasunrecognizabletolocalswhoreadthem?Butdoindigenousscholarsrepresenttheirplaceandcommunitymorefaithfully?Theywillsurelydistortthelocalperspectivetosomeextent,"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

particularlyiftheyseektomeetWesternacademicexpectations.Thesechallengesrelateagaintothepoliticalissuesofrepresentationdiscussedabove.Thequestionofhowtheviewsofindigenousscholarsdifferfromthoseofthepeopletheyseektorepresentisascrucialasdifferencesbetweenthemandnon-indigenousresearchers.

ChallengesofIndigenousEducation

Thisbringsustoeducation,whichisemergingascentraltoindigenousstudies(Villegas,NeugebauerandVenegas2008),asdemonstratedbythecontributionsofPriscillaSettee,RayNicholandRachelShahtothisbook.FormalWesternstyleeducationmayparadoxicallybotherodeindigenousknowledgeandpossiblyupholdit,ifappropriatelyorganized–andmuchdebaterevolvesaroundappropriateness(Batesetal.2009;Wangoola2012).TheestablishmentofindigenouslyframededucationprogrammesepitomizesattemptstobreakfreeofdistortingWesternintellectualviewsanddominanceandtowrestlebackcontroloftherepresentationandreproductionoflocalways;forinstance,theMpamboAfrikanMultiversitythatpromotesAfricanscholarshipandknowledgeusinglocallanguages,challengingmainstreamacademicthinking(Wangoola2012).Regardinguniversities,forinstance,therearecallsforthosethatseektoincludeindigenousstudents,toembracetheirworldviews,notexpectthemsomehowtoputasidetheirculturalheritage(MihesuahandWilson2004;Kuokkanen2007).Inherchapter,PriscillaSettee,whointriguinglyisamemberoftheNorthAmericanCreeNationworkingwithaSouthAmerican"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

indigenousuniversityinPeru,givesafirst-handaccountoftheproblemsthatsuchstudentsfaceandtheimplications,forinstancewithrespecttomotivationandretentionissues.

Theemergenceofindigenouseducationalinstitutionstotransmitandrepresentlocaltraditioninculturallyappropriatewaysclearlyrelatestoconcernsmentionedearlieroveridentityandself-representation.Anarrayofinstitutionshasappeared,fromtraditionschoolstoindigenousuniversities,variouslysupportedbylocalNGOsandgovernments,whichseektoworkinculturallyappropriateways,offeringarangeofcoursesandworkshopstailoredtolocalcustom.Teacherswithnativecredentialsseektoinstructstudentsfromtheircommunitiesinculturallyaptways,drawingonindigenousepistemologiestoorganizesyllabuses,courses,andresearch.Severaldifferentparallelapproachestoindigenousteachingandresearchhaveemerged,strugglingwithsimilarquestionsbutformulatingdiverselocallyappropriateanswers.Someoftheseoccurintheformaleducationsector,whereenlightenededucationalistsstriveforindigenouslyappropriateapproaches,suchasRayNicholproposesinhischapter,drawingonalongcareerasaneducationalistseekingwaysforwardsinAustralasiancontexts.Butelsewhere,authoritiesseektoimposeforeigneducationalstructures,oftendeeplyflawedandpoorlystaffed,asRachelShahdescribesforPapua,whereschoolingispartofanassimilationpolicythataimstoturnPapuansintogoodIndonesiancitizens,andthreatenstorepeatmistakesmadeelsewhere.

Thesefledglingindigenousinitiativesandinstitutionsfaceconsiderableproblems,notleastofrecognition.Towhatextentisitpossible,orindeednecessary,toreconcileindigenousteachingandenquirywithmainstreameducation?Howdotheirrespective"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

pedagogicphilosophiesconvergeanddiverge,theindigenoussidefeaturingarangeofworldviewsthatcontrastandsometimesconflictwithEnlightenmentprinciplesofrationalenquiry,andwhatisthesignificanceofthesedifferences?Thisreturnsustotheissueofdominationagain,asRayNicholremindsusinhischapter.ThereisatendencyforWestern-styleeducationtoassumethatitissuperior,largelybecauseofitstechnologicalassociations.Itshegemonyderivesfromtheapplicationofcertainknowledge,whichhasresultedinawesomeindustrialcapacitythatallowshumansunprecedentedabilitytointerveneintheworld.Thisappriseseffortstointerfaceindigenouswithscientificknowledgeindevelopmentcontexts,namelytofacilitatetheup-takeofassumedtechnologicalbenefits,byrepresentinglocalknowledgeandpracticesmoreeffectivelytodevelopmentagencies,winningrespectabilitysothattheycanplaytheirpartinthisprocess(Sillitoe,DixonandBarr2005).

Theseeffortsassumethatlocalknowledgeandpracticeshavesomethingtocontributemoregenerallytoo.Criticsofsuchtechno-capitalistframeddevelopmentareincreasinglyaskingifitisnecessarilyagoodthing,pointingoutthatwedonotseemtohavethewisdom(andcertainlynotthepoliticalstructures)tohandlecontemporarytechnologicalknowledge,asevermoreevidentwithgrowingconcernsoverdamagetothenaturalenvironment,notablyclimatechange,andhorrendouslydestructivewars.Andthereiscertainly,ofcourse,moretolifethanmaterialstandardofliving,asweareincreasinglyrealizingwithagrowingfocusonallaspectsofwell-being,includingthesocialandemotional.Thesearecertainlythemesthatresonatewithindigenouseducationinitiativesthatseektofindspaceforalternativeviewsofhowtobeintheworld,asGeorgeDei’s"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

chapterstresses.Thechallengesfacingindigenouseducationlookdifferent

whenviewedfromthemainstreamandindigenoussides.Indigenousscholarshipcanpromptstrongmainstreamcriticism.Somethinkthatitthreatenstocompromiseacceptedintellectualstandardsandacademicrigour.Thisviewisevidentinthecommentquotedearlier,assertingsocialscientists’authoritativeuseofthesocietyconcept.Theseworriesrelatetolossofdisciplinaryauthorityandcontroloverthequalityofteachingandresearch.WhileindigenousscholarshipmayquestionWesternintellectualpre-occupations,weshouldsurelywelcomethisasgoodanthropology,withculture-bearers–thatis,theethnography–leadingenquiries,whichisinlinewithmytongue-in-cheekcallforethnographic-determinism(Sillitoe2003:336;2010).Furthermore,isitnotpossiblethatwemightagreesomeuniversalstandardsforindigenousscholarshipandanthropologicalresearch?

Butweshouldnotunderestimatetheproblemsthatwefaceifthesestandardsconflictwiththepowerfulmetropolitaneducationalestablishment–foranthropologyisonlyatinyandpoliticallyweakdiscipline.Thecareerimplicationsforacademicsseekingtosynchronizetheirworksympatheticallywithindigenousscholarshipareconsiderable(especiallyearlyintheircareers)withpressurestoconformtodisciplinarystandardsof‘true’scholarship(Mahmood2012),exacerbatedcurrentlywithRAE/REF4demandsimposedbyaccountancy-drivenWesternculture(ShoreandWright1999).Theseinhibitintellectualfreedomandtrueexperimentation.Itisarguablyfoolhardytoallowparticipationtodrivetheresearchagendawiththeseconstraints(LowandMerry2010:S213).Allowingindigenous"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

scholarshipaleadrolemaypreventresearchersfocusingontopicstheyareknowledgeableof,which,withthetrendforevernarrowerspecializationwithinacademia,isanotherproblem.Ineffectitmayseemtodenyanthropologistsanyexpertise(Sillitoe2007:154–5).Certainlytheymaynolongerbefreetocontributetotheideological(theoretical)debateofthemomentastheychoose,toadvancetheircareers,anintriguingprospectasmentionedabove.

ThechallengesviewedfromtheindigenoussideconcernthestruggletogetWesterneducationtoacceptitasreputable.ThisisevidentforinstanceinthedifficultiesthatindigenousscholarsfaceinpublishingtheirworkinpukkaEuro-Americanoutlets(suchasacademicjournals,universitypressesetc.)becausenotdeemedtobeofsufficientintellectualmerit.Itillustratesagainthepuzzlingaforementionedintellectualarrogance,foradisciplinethatpurportstofurtherunderstandingofothersocio-culturalwaystodenythevoiceofscholar-culture-bearers.Oneindigenousresponseis:whybotheranyway?Thecostsforindigenouseducationalinstitutionsofwinningacertainlevelofaccreditationbymainstreameducationalauthoritiesmaybetoohigh,recognitiondemandingtoomanycompromisesintheirrepresentationandtransmissionofindigenousphilosophies,oftentacitandexperiential,inimicaltostructuringalongtheformallinesofWesterninstitutions,evenradicallystyledones.Indeedthisisarguablyanissueforanthropologygenerallytoo–seebelow.Instead,indigenousscholarsshouldseektohavetheirknowledgeacceptedonitsterms,justastheWestacceptsAsiantranscendentalmeditationasanalternativeknowledgetradition,acknowledgingthatifyoumeditateyouachieveadifferentstateofconsciousnessandunderstandingofbeingintheworld."******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

Independencemayhaveresourceimplications–althoughsomemayarguethatifyouwishtodothingslocallyandmaintainlocalcontrol,youshouldresourceactivitieslocally.Forinstance,oneresponsetothepublicationproblemisforindigenousscholarstocreatetheirownoutletsandperhapsshowupWesternacademicswiththeirinclusiveethos–soofteninmyexperienceanindigenousvalue(thatis,notwishingtodominateorbesubordinate).Buttheymayhaveconsiderabledifficultyfundingthemselves.Thishascertainlybeenourexperience,establishingtwojournalsinBangladesh–GrassrootsVoiceandLocalVoice–devotedtolocalknowledgeindevelopmentissues(Sen,AngellandMiles2000:214).Morepositively,theemergenceofelectronicpublishingmayaffordmoreaffordableopportunities.Butthereisadangerthatanysuchindigenousalternativeswillbethoughtinferior;certainlymycolleagueshavejudgedpapersthatIhavepublishedinthesetwoBanglajournalsasnotREFerable.Also,ofcourse,thisgo-it-aloneresponsedefeatstheobjectiveofthisvolume,tobringallsidestogetheronajourneytoexplorecollaborativepossibilities.Intheserespects,theinterfacebetweenindigenousandWesterneducationalinstitutionsmeritsfurtherdiscussion.

IndigenousEducation:ImplicationsforAnthropology

Theestablishmentofindigenouseducationalandresearchinstitutionsislikelytohaveconsiderablerepercussionsforanthropology.TheeducationalimplicationsofharmonizinginformalindigenouspedagogywithformalWesterneducationarepotentiallyprofoundforthediscipline,ifnotothersubjectstoo.In"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

future,anthropologicaleducationshouldarguablyexpecttofollowtheindigenouswaybyandlarge;theviewsandexperiencesofnativescholarscomingtoinformteachingabouttheirculturesinWesterninstitutions.Theyhavethepotentialtorevolutionizenotonlythewayweteachbutalsowhatweteachourstudents;inshorttheentireanthropologicalapproachtoeducation.

Inwhatwaysdotheapproachesandmethodsofindigenouseducationalinstitutionsdifferinrepresentinglocalknowledgeandpractice:aretheymoreauthenticandvalid(forexampleSwisher1998;TuhiwaiSmith1999)andwhatdoesanthropologyhavetolearnfromthem?Ifwedecidetheyaremoreauthenticandvalid,thenwehavelogicallytofollowthem.Itseemsonlyrightthatindigenousinstitutionsandtheirstaffshouldinformteachingandresearchontheircultures,enteringintoaconstructivedialoguewithanthropologiststoforgemutuallyhelpfulscholarlylinks.WhataretheimplicationsforWesterneducation,oflearningtheindigenousway–whichisoftentacitandexperiential–frequentlyelicitinganddocumentingknowledgedifferently,evendifferingoverwhatconstitutesknowledge?Itimpliesnewapproachestoeducationandtheneedtoconsidertheprospectofhavingtothinkaboutlearninganthropologyinnovelways.

ItisintriguingtocontemplatetheimplicationsofteachingstudentsaboutMaoriorAboriginaloranyotherculturalrealityintermsdeterminedbyculture-bearer-scholarsandnotWestern-social-scientists.Forinstance,imagineseminarswhereitisnecessarytoundergoaspectsofArandainitiationtounderstandhuman–environmentrelationstheDesertAborigineway,ortoimbibetheebenehallucinogenoftheYanomamotoappreciateshamanismafteranAmazonianIndian,orlearntotrancedanceas"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

aSan!KungtoconnectwithaspectsoflifeintheKalaharidesert.Theyimplydifferenteducationalstandards.Theymay,forinstance,giveanovelspintoknowledgeownership,mentionedearlier;ifwelearnabouttheDreamtimelikeanAranda,forexample,thismayimposerestrictionsonsharingtheknowledgethatiskeptsecretbetweeninitiates(seeAllen’s1998interestingdiscussionofthepedagogicimplicationsofLagunaPueblosecrecy).Theconsequencesforexaminationsarefascinatingtocontemplateandintimatethesortofrevolutionimpliedineducation:awayfromtick-boxpedagogic-factoriesturningouttransferable-skilledgraduatesforthejobmarket;arevolutionthatincreasingnumbersofcriticsthinknecessary(Mahmood2012),albeitperhapsnotinthisway.

Thevarietyofapproachestoeducationpresentsfurtherconundrums.Weshouldnotexpect,ofcourse,asanthropologists,tocomeupwithanyunifiedglobalwayofrepresenting,teachingand‘preserving’socio-culturalknowledge.AndweneedtobreakwiththeideaofWesternknowledgeversusallothers.Thereisapoliticalaspecthereagainrelatingtopointsmadeabove,withapproachesvaryingfromregiontoregiondependingnotonlyonculturebutalsohistory(ofcolonizationetc.).Thisisoneofthekeymessagesofindigenousknowledgeresearchindevelopment,namelythatthesearchbyagenciesforonedevelopmentmodelorsolutionisinappropriate,asthesameapproachwillnotapplyeverywhere(Sillitoe,DixonandBarr2005:22).Itisnecessarytoacknowledgethepluralityofapproaches,comparingandcontrastingtheexperiencesandinsightsofindigenouseducationalistsandresearchersfromvariouspartsoftheworld.

Butwhataretheimplicationsforensuringthequalityandrigourofteachingandresearch,pointsmadeabove?Againwe"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

findthattheindigenousscholarapproach,allowingforamultitudeofviews,fliesinthefaceofcurrentpolicyinWesternhighereducationthatseekstostandardizeeverythingaccordingtochecklistsof‘learningoutcomes’,‘keyskills’,‘moduleproformas’‘methodsoutlines’etc.Indigenousscholarshipmayhelpcombattheconsequentdangerofintellectualossification.WhilefromaWesternintellectualviewpoint,agoodknowledgeofvariousstandardapproachestoasubjectisnecessarytoundertakingsoundenquiries,weriskplacingtoomuchemphasisontheseandproducingresearchrobotswhowillreproducethemethodologicalrecipeeverywhere,whenweneedtoimbueahealthyelementofflexibilityandinnovativenessinourapproachtoteachingandresearch,inordertoallowotherviewsofwhatknowledgeisandbeingintheworldtoemergeandinformworkinthebestanthropologicaltradition.Itisnecessarytofurtherunderstandingofhoweducationalissuesinfluenceindigenousinstitutions,suchastheimpactofnationalpoliciesandprogrammesonlocalcommunities,asRachelShahdescribesforPapua,andtheneedforthesetovaryasnecessaryfromplacetoplace.Otherwisewearegoingtogoonimposingourviewofsocietyoneveryone.

ThreatstoAnthropology?

Inseekingtograntanalyticalspacetoalternative‘termsofsecondintention’,suchasideasof‘society’orotherwise,anthropologymayruntheriskoffallingfurtherapart,whenitisalready,asnoted,adifficultenoughsubjecttoencompassanddefine(Sillitoe2007:149–51).Itisarguablethatsupportingindigenouseffortsto"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

developenquiriesandteachingappropriateandbeneficialtolocalcommunities,whichstrikesthoseofusadvocatingamoreengagedanthropologyasethicallytherightwaytogo,maypotentiallycontributetothediscipline’sfurtheratomization.Thisispossiblyanotherreason,largelyunspokenandperhapsevenunconscious,forresistancetoallowingalargervoicetootherculturalviews,suchasviaindigenousscholarship.

Theforegoingdiscussionofthedefinitionofindigenousstudiestouchedontheproblemsmetindemarcatingthediffusedisciplineofanthropology,inseekingtodistinguishanthropologistsfromsociologistsandaskingwhereindigenousscholarsstandinrelationtothetwo,notingthechallengesofnegotiatingdeepcultural-linguisticdifferences.Theseproblemsrelateinturntothetendencyofanthropologiststosubscribetothetheory-cum-ideologyofthemoment,whichkeepstheirwaywarddisciplinaryflocktogetherinsomemeasure,andwecanseethedangertheymaysenseinallowingthemultifariousvoicesofindigenousscholarshipmoreprominence,inthreateningtoundothisconnection–insofarascurrenttheory-cum-ideologydoesnotcalldirectlytoissuesofconcerntolocalcommunities.Theargumentisnotthatsocialscientistsshouldceasetousetheirdisciplines’conceptstofurthertheirunderstandingofhumanbehaviour,butratherthattheyneedtoactonthepostmodernacknowledgementthattheyarepeculiartoacertainculturalandhistoricalmoment,andallowmorescopeforthosewhosupplycross-culturalbehaviouralgristtotheirmill,directlytoexpresstheirunderstandings.

Thedangersaresurelyworthcourtingforanthropology,thecentraltenetofwhichisthatwehavemuchtolearnfromotherculturalwaysofunderstandinghowweareintheworld.These"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

areintellectuallyexcitingandchallengingtimes.Andtheymaynotbethatthreateninganyway.Firstly,theideologyofmuchindigenousscholarshipisreconciliatoryandinclusive,notdominatingandexclusive.Let’swalkthepathtogether.Secondly,thecross-culturalcomparativetraditionofanthropologycontinuestogiveitidentity,Westernintellectuals,asnotedearlier,usingtheirknowledge–albeitmaybedistorted–ofothers’ways,tofurthertheirunderstandingofthehumansocio-culturalconditionglobally.Wethinkcomparisonusefulandthatwemaylearnfromeachother’sexperiences;albeitthoseworkingcomparativelywillhavetoworkhardertodefinethetermstheyusetolabelanyrangeofinstitutionsorbehavioursfromdifferentcultures,theindigenoustraditionresultingineachbeingrepresentedaccordingtoitsown‘termsofsecondintention’andnotpre-packagedintoones–suchassocietyorclan,lineage,exchange,chieforwhatever–readyforcomparativedebate.Thepositiveoutcomewillbetokeeptheprimaryethnographymoreclearlydistinguishedfromsecondaryintellectualactivities:agoalworthstrivingforinitself.

Thelargestthreattoanthropologyisnottoengagewiththesechallenges,andforindigenousscholarstomarchonalone.

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1Iamspeakinghistoricallyhereandleavingasidetheincreasinglyevidentenvironmentalproblemsthatindustrializationbrings.

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RAE‘ResearchAssessmentExercise’,whicharetheUKgovernment’smechanismsforassessingtheworthofuniversityresearchandfunding.


PARTIEngagingwithIndigeneity


Chapter2SharingAnthropologicalKnowledge,DecolonizingAnthropology:Emberá

IndigeneityandEngagedAnthropology

DimitriosTheodossopoulos

Intheearlytwentiethcentury,acolonial,andnowadaysunpopular,visionofanthropologypromotedthedocumentationoflocalknowledgeforacademicaudiences.Intheearlytwenty-firstcentury,engagedanthropologyischallengingthisunidirectionalflowofknowledge,encouragingareverseprocessoftranslationfromacademiclanguageintolocal(orindigenous)meaningfulterms.Makingacademicknowledgeavailabletoindigenousrespondents-cum-interlocutorsoftenrequiressuchanactoftranslation:acommitmentundertakenbytheanthropologisttoshareor‘communicateback’(inaneasilycomprehensibleform)academicinterpretationsofethnographyaboutlocal/indigenoushistoriesorculturalpractices,whichmayhavebeen,insomecases,partiallyforgotten,orfallenoutofuse.

Thecommunicationorsharingofanthropologicalknowledgewithindigenousgroups–thepeoplewhohavebeenpreviouslythesubjectsofanthropology–canopenthewayfor‘reverseanthropology’(seeSillitoethisvolume):anewviewoftheworldthatdoesnotstrictlycomplytoWesterninterpretations.Suchan


ethosofsharingcanmakethreeimportantcontributionstothedevelopmentofanengagedperspectiveinanthropology.Firstly,itchallengesthedividebetweenengagedanddisengagedanthropology,adivisionthatalsoindirectlyreproducestheWestandtherestduality.Secondly,itadvancestheprojectofdecolonizinganthropologybyshiftingthedirectionofthetranslationofknowledgetoserve,notthecuriosityofacademics,butthepeoplestudiedbyacademics.Thirdly,sharingknowledgeaboutindigenousculture,historyandidentitycanaidinthearticulationofnew(oftenunarticulated)narrativesofindigeneity,aprocessthatcanpotentiallyempowerindigenousculturalrepresentation.

Itiswidelyarguedthatinformationcollectedbyanthropologistshashelpedindigenousgroupswinstrugglesoverhumanrights,landentitlement,andlegalissues(seeamongmany,Strang1997;Kirsch2002;Demian2003;Hale2006,2008;Eriksen2006;Langtonthisvolume;andinPanama,Howe2009).Yet,severalgenerationsofanthropologistshavebeenambivalentaboutmakingapparentthepracticalcontributionoftheirresearchtothegreaterpublic,ahesitationthathasconfinedmuchanthropologicalknowledgetoacademia(seeMacClancy1996;Eriksen2006).Anescapefromsuchadatedandexoticizedimageofanthropologynecessitatesengagementwith‘contemporaryrealities,inwaysmeaningfultosubjectsandreaders’(MacClancy1996:46),andalsoincludesthepossibility,whichIhighlightinthischapter,thatanthropologycaninterestandbeofusetothepeoplestudiedbyanthropology.

Tocontextualizethesebroaderarguments,IfocusontheindigenousidentityofanAmerindiangroup,theEmberá,andtheirinterestinmyworkandthatofotheranthropologists."******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

SharinganthropologicalunderstandingsabouttheEmberáwiththeEmberáhashadatransformativeeffectonmycareerasithasencouragedmetowalkthefinelinethatseparatesengagedandacademicanthropology.IthasalsoenabledtheEmberáintheparticularcommunityIstudy–PararaPuru,ChagresNationalPark,Panama1–toenhancetheirculturalrepresentationinindigenoustourism.Thisreciprocalrelationshiphasinfluencedmyacademicpriorities,andhasencouragedmetocollectanthropologicalknowledgeaboutEmberádecliningculturalpractices(writteninacademicformat,andpublishedinacademicvenues)tosharewiththem.

Indigeneity,EngagedandDisengaged

Themeaninganddefinitionofindigeneity–eventhetermitself–havebeenthefocusofmuchdebateinanthropologyrecently,whichreflectsandfurtherreproducesthepolaritybetweenengagedanddisengagedanthropology.ApreambletothedebatewasanarticlebyBeteille(1998)thatpointstosomeoftheinconsistenciesinherentinthenotionofindigenouspeople.Earlyanthropologicaltermssuchas‘tribal’and‘primitive’people–themembersof‘simple’,‘preliteratesocieties’–echotheillsofsocialevolutionismandhavebeenreplacedbythealternativeterm‘indigenouspeople’,whichdenotes‘priorityofsettlement’(ibid.:188).Oneinconsistencyisthatinsomepartsoftheworldtheindigenouspeoplearenotinfactthefirstsettlers.TheEmberá,forinstance,wereonceconfinedtoColombia,buttheyhaveexpandedinthelastcoupleofcenturiestooccupylandsinEasternPanamaonceinhabitedbyotherindigenousgroups.In"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

someplaces,PanamaniansofAfricandescentcanclaimpriorsettlementtotheAmerindianEmberá,althoughtheycannotraiseaclaimofindigeneity.

InconsistenciessuchastheseinspiredKuper(2003)tohighlightthattheterm‘indigenous’,apartfromitslackofdefinitionalclarity,hassimilaritieswithsomeofthenotpolitically-correcttermsitreplaced.Forhimthenotionof‘indigenouspeople’isamodern,morepoliteadaptationoftheterm‘primitive’.Helistsexamplesofincorrectuseofthetermbynon-anthropologiststhatshowaromanticized,essentialist,evolutionistconceptualization,and,finally,proposesthatanthropologistsshouldabandontheterm.HispropositionprovokedavarietyofresponsesconcentratingonthepotentialimplicationsofKuper’spositionfortheindigenouspeoples’movementsorhislackofattentiontothehistoryofdiscriminationexperiencedbydispossessedindigenousgroups(Robins2003;Place2003;Ramos2003;KenrickandLewis2004a,2004b;Saugestad2004;Turner2004;Zips2006).Somecommentators(forexampleBarnard2004,2006)haveattemptedtoreachacompromisebetweenKuper’spurelyacademicconcernsandtheimportanceofindigeneityasaconceptualtoolinsupportingindigenousrights.

Regardingengagedanthropology,KenrickandLewis(2004a,2004b)criticizedKuper’spoliticallydisengagedpositionforstereotypingthecomplexityofindigenousrealities.TheyalsochargedKuperfornottakingintoaccountthehistoricalprocessesthathaveshapedthepositionofsomemarginalpopulations,andforunderestimatingtheroleandimportanceofindigenouspeople’smovements.Centraltotheirargument,whichtheyelevatetoacriterionforindigeneity,istheirexperienceof"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

dispossessionanddiscriminationatthehandsofmorepowerfulgroups.DispossessionisalsooneoftheprinciplesoftheUnitedNationsWorkingGrouponIndigenousPopulations.

Focusingontheinternationalizationofindigeneity,Merlan(2009)discussesaspectsoftheUnitedNationsdraftdeclarationonindigenousrights,whichconsideredcriteriasuchasself-determination,settlementandterritory,culturalandpoliticalrights,re-settlementandoccupation.Shedistinguishesbetween‘criterial’(basedonpredetermined,globalcriteria2)and‘relational’(definedcontextuallyaccordingtoarelationshipwithOthers3)definitionsofindigeneity.Saugestad(2001),KenrickandLewis(2004),andBarnard(2006)alsopropose‘relational’understandingsofindigenousidentitiesasgoodalternativestotheessentialismofnarrowerdefinitions.AsMerlanobserves,thediscussion(andpublishedliterature)onindigeneityhasexpandedtosuchanextent4that‘thereisnotjustoneconceptouttherebutarangeinvolvingdifferenthistoriesandpositions,thatintheinterestsofinternationalmobilization,areoftentreatedastheywereone’(Merlan2009:320).

Asthisshortreviewdemonstrates,anengagedperspectivetowardsindigeneitydoesnotonlyinvolveacknowledgingthepoliticallegitimizationandinternationalizationoftheterminthecontextofdebatesaboutindigenousrights,butalsoitscontextualspecificityandcomplexity.Localunderstandingsofindigenousidentitiesoftenhaveessentialistconnotations–asKuper(1988,2003)andothersobserve–andcanbeprofoundlyexclusivist,evennationalist.Yet,discardingatermloadedwithlocalmeaningcontradictsanthropology’sfundamentalcommitmenttorespectculturaldifference.Engagedanthropology,asanorientationthattakeslocalprioritiesseriously,hasnootheroptionthanto"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

accommodateindigeneityasdefinedinlocalandrelationalterms,whichcanpotentiallyincludeessentialist,nationalist,evenracistlocalviews.Wecanidentify,criticize,andcontextualizethose–oftenwithinhistoriesofessentialist,nationalistorracistdiscriminationeffectedbymorepowerfulOthers–butwecannotignorethem.

EmberáIndigenousIdentity:OnceaBurden,TodayanAsset

TheancestorsoftheEmberá,knownamongthenon-indigenousPanamanianmajorityastheChocoes(thepeoplefromChocó,Colombia),andreferredto,asotherIndiangroups,bythedenigratingterm‘indios’,sufferedpersecutionanddiscriminationduringcolonialtimes.Theymanagedtosurvivebyadoptingstrategiesofmigrationanddispersion,preferablyinrelativelyremoteplacesintherainforest(Williams2005).Inthelast40years,theyhaveformedconcentratedcommunitieswithschoolsandacertaindegreeofpoliticalrepresentation(Kane2004;Herlihy2003;VelásquezRunk,2009).Theirmostvisiblepoliticalachievementhasbeentheestablishmentofasemi-autonomousreservationintwodemarcateddistricts(theComarcasIandII)inprovinceDarien.Yet,halfoftheEmberáliveoutsidetheirsemi-autonomousreservation(Colin2010)andstrivetoachieverecognitionfortheirlandsinPanama.

Followingawell-establishedculturaltraditionofmigratingalongriversystems–aresponse,inmostcases,topersecution,over-population,oravoidanceofinternalconflict–theEmberá


havespreadfromlowlandColombiatoEasternPanama,andasfareastastheChagresNationalParkclosetotheCanal,wherePararaPuruislocated.Morerecently,someEmberáhaveenteredintotourism,invitinginternationalvisitorstotheircommunitiestoexperiencepresentationsofindigenousculture.IndigenousidentityhasbecomeavaluableresourcethatenablestheEmberátogainarespectableincomewithoutmigratingtothecityorabandoningtheirwayoflife(Theodossopoulos2007,2010,2011).Atthesametime,touristinterestinindigenousidentitieshascontributedtomakingEmberáculturemorerespectedatanationallevelandmorevisibleinternationally.

Thisnewculturalvisibilityisatransformationofstatus.TheadmirationofforeignaudienceshasfacilitatedashiftinEmberárepresentation,onethathasprogressivelymovedawayfromthepreviousstereotypeofthe‘indio’(Indian)andclosertotheterm‘indigenas’(indigenous),atermdenotingacertaindegreeofacceptanceandanacknowledgementofrights.InthoseEmberácommunitiesthathaveengagedwithtourism–suchasPararaPuru–theadmirationofforeignvisitors,mostofwhomareindividualsfromwealthyandpowerfulnationsoftheNorth,hasinstilledanewlydevelopedsenseofindigenouspride.‘Thegringoswanttovisitus,theindigenous,notthevillagesofthelatinos’,explainsoneoftheleadersofPararaPuru,whilehiscousin,whowasonceattractedtotheopportunitiesofthebigcity,adds:‘InowenjoydancingandplayingEmberámusiceveryday;everydayIseeagainhowbeautifulmycultureis’.

FortheEmberáindigeneityisnowanassetthatcanopenthedoorwaytonewopportunities.Buttheseadvantageshaveattractedenviouscommentsfromcritics–forexample,urbanPanamanians,orsomeoffthebeaten-tracktravellers–whosee"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

anyaspectofindigenousculturethatismadeavailabletotouristsaslessauthenticandreal(seeTheodossopoulos2013a).Suchcriticismsrelatetoanessentialistviewof‘real’indigenousidentityaspureanduncontaminated,attainedonlybyisolatedtribalpeoplesuntouchedbymodernity,anexoticviewthatdoesnotchallengeWesterncivilizingpriorities(Ramos1998:84).

Thetouristquestfortheauthenticindigeneentailsadistinctionbetween‘real’and‘unreal’identities,whichimpliesahiddenevolutionistdistinctionbetweenhigherandlowerculture.Inmanyrespects,theWesternidealizationofindigenousidentitiesnostalgicallyconceivedastheidealized‘vanishingsavage’andlostworldsunaffectedby(Western)civilizingprocesses(Clifford1986;Rosaldo1989)setsnewdilemmasfortheEmberá(seeTheodossopoulos2011,2013a),whoarenowexpectedtosatisfythedesiresofaninternationalaudiencewishingto‘consume’Emberáidentity.WhileinthepastthePanamanianmajorityexpectedthemtounderplaytheirculturaldifferenceandbecomemoderncitizensoftheirnation,inthelast20yearstheEmberáhaverealizedthattheinternationalcommunityexpectsthemtoputtheirindigeneityattheforefrontoftheirrepresentation.Inthiscontext,anthropologicalknowledgecanprovidevaluableinspirationforlocalnarrativesaboutindigenousidentity.

EmberáIdeasofIndigeneity

IntheNorthernEmberádialectspokeninPanama,Emberámeans‘aperson’(Mortensen1999:1)or‘thepeople’(TorresdeAraúz1966:7)ormoreliberally‘thehumans’.Itsignifiesalanguage"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

andanethnicgroup(ideallyendogamous).FromtheEmberápointofviewtheonlyotherpeoplesharingqualitiesofEmberá-ness(andnominallyacceptableasmarriagepartners)aretheWounaan,alinguisticallyandhistoricallyrelatedethnicgroup(cf.VelásquezRunk2009).Otherpeopletheyclassifyaskampunia(thatis,noEmberá)(seeKane1994,Theodossopoulos2013a).ThekampuniaarefurthersubdividedintoSpanish-speakingblackpeople(kampuniapaima)andSpanish-speakingwhiteormestizopeople(kampuniatoro),whotheEmberáofEasternPanamaalsocallcolonos(becausetheycamefromWesternPanamatocolonizetheirland).Morerecently,onehearsanewadaptationofthekampuniaterm:kampunia-gringo,todescribewhiteNorthAmericansandEuropeans.5

TheKuna,knowninEmberáas‘hurá’,wereoncetraditionalenemies,butmorerecentlytheyhavebecomealliesinstrugglestosecureindigenousrights.TheEmberárefertootherPanamanianindigenousgroupsbythenamesthesegroupsuseforthemselves,suchas‘Ngäbe’,agroupinWesternPanamawhomtheyEmberáencounteredmorerecently.AllAmerindiangroupsofPanama–includingtheKuna,theNgäbe,andtheWouanan–arerecognizedbytheEmberáasindigenous.Here,thetermindigenousisalsoaracialsignifierreferringtoallpeopleofAmerindiandescent:blackorwhitePanamanians(orforeigners)canneverbeindigenous.DespitemycommittedeffortstostrictlyfollowEmberáconventions,Ihaveonlysucceededinbeingcalled‘whiteEmberá’(Emberátoro),butnever‘indigenous’.

TheEmberáunderstandingofwhoisindigenousaccordswithwiderLatinAmerican‘structuresofalterity’(Wade1997:36–7),whichassociateindigenousnesswith‘Indian-ness’andanancestralconnectionwiththeAmericas.Whentheymigrate–"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

fromColombiatoPanamaorfromtherainforesttothecity–theyremainindigenousforaslongastheyremembertheirlanguageandtheydesiretoassociatewithanindigenousidentity.ChildrenraisedinPanamaCitywhodonotspeakEmberáareabsorbedtotheflexiblecategoryofmestizo,andmaybecome‘latinos’(Spanish-speaking,non-indigenouspeople),asmyEmberáfriendsadmitwithpointedremarkswhentheycriticizerelativesorfriendswhochoosetoresideinthecity.

Overall,theEmberádonotfavourtheideaofethnicmixing.Thosewhomarrynon-indigenousPanamaniansareseenaslosttotheEmberácultureandthechildrenofsuchunionsareexpectedtolosetouchwiththeirindigenousidentity.6Suchchildrenareoftencalledenrazados(half-breeds),whichindicatesaracializedviewofindigeneityandEmberá-ness.Yet,andtocomplicatethematterfurther,culturalfactorsarealsoconsideredimportantforestablishinganEmberáidentity.SeveraloffspringofmixedEmberá–non-indigenousunionsinEasternPanama,whohavebeenraisedandremainedinEmberácommunities,areacceptedbytheircommunitiesasfullmembersandafewholdpositionsofresponsibility.Nevertheless,ineverydaylife,individualsofmixeddescent–adultsorchildren,evenchildrenorgrandchildrenofindividualsofmixeddescent–oftenbecomethetargetofjokesthatpickupelementsoftheirnon-fully-indigenousappearance;forexamplecurlyorwavyhair,whiterordarkerskincolour.

Whennon-indigenousPanamaniansusetheterm‘Indian’torefertotheEmberátheyperceiveitascarryingnegativeconnotations,associatedwithsocialinferiorityandaless‘civilized’status.FromanEmberápointofview,theterm‘indigenous’ismorepoliticallycorrect,acknowledgingrightsandhistoricalconnectionswiththeAmericas.Unlike‘Indian’,which"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

wasusedinadiscriminatorywayinthepastto‘exclude’orstigmatizeinferiority,theterm‘indigenous’isassociatedwiththemorerecentpoliticsofindigenousrepresentation,andtheofficialnomenclatureofthenationstate,wheretheterm‘indigenous’conveysacertaindegreeofrespectandofficialacceptance.

AnEmberáschoolteacher,whoafterfinishinghisdegreeinPanamaCityhaschosentoworkatalocalschoolinDarién,expressedthefollowingviewswithrespecttotheterm‘Indian’(whichareshapedfromreadingthehistoryofthekampunia-‘whites’,butdivergefromthekampunianarrative):

ThetermIndianthatweusefortheindigenousdidnotexistintheAmericas.Theconceptofindigenousdidnotexistinourlanguage.Thetermindigenousisawordofthelatinos.For400yearsnowtheycallusIndians.Thisisnotcorrect.InEuropeandintheUnitedStatespeopleusethetermEmberá.HereinPanamatheycallusindios;Iwantthemtoknowmewithmytruename,Emberá,mytrueculture.

WhenIwasintheUniversity,Iwroteinmydissertation:“AmericanEmberáculture”(culturaAmericanaEmberá).Itoldthem,theIndiansliveinanothercontinent,inIndia.We,theEmberá,liveinanothercontinent,theAmericas.WhentheytalkaboutIndiansitisliketheytalkaboutanotherplanet.Theblacksandthewhitescamefromanothercontinentandnowtheycallmeindio.

IhaveheardsimilarcomplaintsfromolderEmberáwhoareunhappywiththePanamanianpreferencetocallthemChocoes(thepeoplefromChocó,Colombia).‘Itisasiftheytrytoremindusthatwecamefromsomewhereelse’,saidanEmberáfromPararaPuru,‘butwhenmygrandfathercameheretherewasnoborderbetweenColombiaandPanama’.Anoldermanexpressedthesamecomplaintmoredirectly:

TheworlddoesnotknowmeasanEmberá.HereinPanamatheydonot


knowmewiththenameofmyculture.HereinPanamatheycallusChocoes.InEmberáculturenoonecallsanyoneIndian:thiswordisnotawordofours!WeareEmberá:thepeopleofthisland.

TodaythewordEmberáisincreasinglyusedinPanama,evenbynon-indigenousPanamanians.Twoseparateprocesseshavecontributedtothischange.Firstly,theformalizationofEmberápoliticalstructures,whichincludedtheappointmentofEmberárepresentativesatcommunityandregionallevel,wheretheEmberá,likeallotherPanamaniangroups,arereferredtobytheirself-chosenname.Secondly,thedevelopmentofindigenoustourisminthelast15yearssupportedbynationaladvertisementcampaignsthatpresentEmberácultureasanassettoPanamaniandiversity.AsIhavementionedearlier,thenewvisibilityandrevaluationofEmberáculture–whichisfortheEmberáanewpositiveexperience–hasinspiredadesireamongtheEmberáofPararaPurutorearticulate,butalsolearnmorefactsabout,theirculturalidentity.Itisherethatanthropologicalknowledgecanmakeacontribution.

TheEmberáInterestinOthers

‘ArethereanyindigenouspeopleinEngland?’isaquestionIhavebeenaskedmanytimesduringfieldworkinPararaPuru.Even,whenmyinterlocutorsknowtheanswer–becausetheyaskedmetheyearbefore–theyarekeentocomparenotesonthehumangeographyofdistantcountries,orhearmerepeatingwhatisforthemunusual–almostexotic–information,suchas,forexample,thathousesinEnglandhavecentralheatingandthatpeoplewearmanylayersofclothesinthewinter.WhenIremind"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

myinterlocutorsthatIwasborninasomewhatwarmercountrycalledGreece,Iinvitetheinevitablequestion:‘ArethereanyindigenouspeopleinGreece?’

AccordingtotheEmberávisionofindigeneity,withitsracializedandAmerica-centredorientation,itmakesnosensetotalkaboutEuropeanethnicgroups–suchas,forexample,theWelshortheBasque–as‘indigenous’.SoIhavedeveloped,intime,diplomaticresponses,toexplaintotheEmberáthattherearenotanypeoplefromtheAmericas–suchasthosetheEmberárecognizeasindigenous–whoarenativetoEurope:Europeisanothercontinent,notpartoftheAmericas.TheEmberálistencarefullytomylonganswersandthink,andsometimestheycomment–whilelookingatpicturesonmycomputerscreen–thatcertainethnicgroups,suchastheMaori,areindeedindigenous,whileothers,suchasmanyAfricanpeoplearenotindigenous,sinceaccordingtotheirethnicclassificationtheyare‘blackpeople’(kampunia-paimá,‘blackOthers’).

Throughtheirexperienceofentertainingforeigntourists,theEmberáofPararaPuruarenowawareofseveralnationalities:duringthetourismencountertheycarefullyobservetheirvisitors,cateringtotheirneedsorattemptingtoanticipatetheirexpectations(Theodossopoulos2011).Intime,theEmberáhavedevelopedtheirownstereotypesaboutthevariousforeignerstheymeet,whicharebasedontheirastuteobservations:visitorsfromtheUnitedStatesspendlotsofmoneybuyingindigenousartefacts,theItaliansarejollyandflirtatious,theGermanshaveatendencytobreakawayfromtheirgroupandgetlost.SuchobservationsshowthatexoticizationbasedonstereotypingisnotthesoleprivilegeoftheWest,andthatindigenousactorscanexerciseacertaindegreeofdiscursiveagency,characterizing"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

peoplefromeconomicallymorepowerfulcountries(Theodossopoulos2014).Overall,however,thegrowingfamiliarityoftheEmberáwithnewcategoriesofpeoplehasexcitedtheirdesiretoexpandtheirgeographicalhorizonsandlearnaboutnewOthers.TheEmberáoftenaskmeforadditionalinformation,theirownanthropologist,whoprofessestoknowaboutothercultures;thisis,afterall,asIhaveexplainedtotheEmberáinpreviousconversations,whatanthropologiststeach.

Itisdifficult,Iadmit,tosatisfytheEmberáappetiteforgeographicalknowledge.Mostquestionsaddressfieldsofexperiencethatareimportanttothem,suchas,forexample:HowaretheriversinEngland?Whattypeoffishdotheysustain?Whatanimalsliveintheforest?Arepeopleallowedtohunt?Whatistheclimate?Butasthediscussionprogresses,questionsexpandfromtheenvironmenttotheeconomy:WhatarethesalariesofpeopleinthisorthatEuropeancountry?Dopeopleowntheirowncars?Whatarethepricesofclothesorfood?Themostunusualamongmyreplies–whichareoftenseenasamusingfromanEmberápointofview–excitequestionsthatcanberepeatedseveraltimesoverthecourseofthesameweek,becauseknowledgecirculatesinthecommunity,anddifferentindividualswanttohearaparticulardescriptiondirectlyfromme.DiscussionsusuallystartwhileIamsittingwiththeEmberáobservingtouristsfromdifferentcountries–forexample,Germany,ItalyorFrance–aboutwhichtheEmberáareinterestedtoknowallsortsoffactualdetails.

OnmyannualreturnstoPararaPuru,mylifeandwork(inEngland)andmytravels(inPanamaorabroad)areatopicofparticularinterest.Iamexpectedtoshowphotographsonmylaptopscreenoffriendsandrelatives,otherindigenouspeopleI"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

havemetinfarawaycountriesorinPanama.IreceiveprogressivelynewandmoredetailedquestionsaboutthecountryandcitywhereInowlive,myuniversityandstudents,myworkasananthropologist.IamoftenaskedtodescribethecoursesthatIteach(insimpleterms),howIuseEmberácultureasanexampletoeducatestudents,theinterestofEuropeanstudentsinlearningaboutindigenouscultures.Inresponse,IamconstantlyencouragedtotelltheworldabouttheEmberá,persuademorepeopletovisitPararaPuruorprovidesupport.

Amongmytravellingexperiences,thosethatmostinteresttheEmberáarethoseaboutotherEmberácommunities,boththosewithwhichtheyarefamiliar,butmoreparticularly,distantcommunitiesthattheyhavenevervisited.EverytimeIreturntoPararaPuruaftervisitingDarién,theprovinceinPanamawiththemostsubstantialEmberápopulation,Iamexpectedtoofferdetailedaccountsofthepeople,therivers,thecultivations,andmoreimportantly,famousorlessfamousshamansIhavemet.TheEmberágatheraroundmylaptopscreentoseephotographsandvideosfromotherpartsoftheEmberáworld,commentingonpeopleandobjects,evaluatingordebatingtheinformation.Thiskindofsharinginformationisnotjustaninvaluablelessonforme,butasourceofvaluableinsightsforthecommunity,whosemembersrelyonsuchcomparativeknowledge–regardingcommunitiesthattheycannotaffordtovisit–toenhancetheirculturalrepresentationintourism.

SharingAnthropologicalKnowledgeaboutEmberáwiththeEmberá


OnanearlytriptoPararaPuruItookwithmeinthefieldStephanieKane’s(1994)monographabouttheEmberátoprovidemewithanopeningtodescribewhatanthropologistsdo.TheEmberáwerethrilledtorealizethatbookshadbeenwrittenabouttheircultureandsearchedthepagesforphotographswithexcitement.ThefollowingyearIreturnedwithDonaldTayler’s(1996)monographabouttheWouananinColombia,whichcontainsagoodselectionofphotographsandfiguresofartefacts.Iwasaskedtotranslateextracts,soayearlaterIbroughttothecommunitytwoEmberámonographsinSpanish,byTorresdeAraúz(1966)andReverteComa(2002).TheresidentsofPararaPurureceived,oncemore,thephotographsandsketchesofartefactswithexcitement,offeringtheirinterpretationofadornmentsandobjects,whileagreeingordisagreeingwiththetransliterationofEmberápronunciation.7


Figure2.1EmberáwomaninPararaPurureadingReverteComa’sethnography

Encouragedbythisenthusiasticresponse,IstartedsystematicallycollectingvisualmaterialabouttheEmberáfromethnographicsources,scanningoldphotographsintheBritishlibraryorphotocopyingpagesfromrarearticlesIobtainedthroughinterlibraryloan.EverytimeIconsultedanewEmberáacademicsource,Icreatedafolderoffiguresandphotographsonmylaptop,whichIthensharedwiththeresidentsofPararaPuruatthenextavailableopportunity.Inthelastsevenyears,thispracticeofsharingvisualinformationaboutEmberáculturehasdevelopedintoanongoingandfruitfulconversationaboutEmberáhistoryandidentityduringwhichmyinterlocutorssharetheirownmemories–andlinguisticaccuracy–andIamexpectedto"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

summarizeanthropologicalinterpretationsinmoreapproachableterms.

ThisinterestoftheEmberáinanthropologicalinformationcanbeeasilycontextualizedwithinthebroadercontextofindigenoustourism.Duringtourismpresentations,theresidentsofPararaPuruhavetoarticulateanarrativeabouttheircultureanditshistory.Theyexplainthemethodsofconstructingtraditionalartefacts,thedanceandmusictraditionstheyalsoperform,anddescribethehistoryoftheircommunityandaspectsofitspoliticalorganizationandsociallife.Eachgroupoftourists,smallorlarge,iswelcomedbyoneofthecommunityleaderswhooffersaspeechtothemaboutthedistinctivenessofEmberácultureandwayoflife(Theodossopoulos2011).Untilthreeyearsago,thespeechwasdeliveredbyelectedmembersofthecommunity–thoseholdingpositionsintherunningofcommunityaffairs–butmorerecently,allmenandwomen,havestartedsharingthisresponsibility,andtaketurnstoparticipateindeliveringthespeech.

ThetaskofexplainingEmberáculturetooutsidershasbecomeacommonaspectoflifeinPararaPuru,undertakeninavarietyofcontexts–oftenlessstructuredthantheculturalpresentations–suchaswhiletransportingvisitorsinadugoutcanoe,guidingthemthroughtherainforest,orchattingwithtouristswhilewaitingfortheregularpresentationstostart.TheambitionofmanyistobecomeguidestoEmberáculture,to‘teach’thetourists.ThisdesirereflectsanambitiontomovebeyondhesitantexperimentationwithentertainingOthersandstarteducatingOthers:thatis,astheEmberásay,‘work’towardsmaking‘Emberácultureknown’tothenon-Emberáworld.ThisprocessdoesnotmerelyenhancetherepresentationoftheEmberá"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

culture,butalsoencouragesandfacilitatesitsenrichmentwithnewculturalelements(Theodossopoulos2013a).

TheinteresttheEmberáhaveinethnographicinformationrepresentsadesiretoimproveindigenousculturalrepresentationbyintroducingintoitknowledgeaboutdecliningculturalpractices,historicalevents,andacomparativeawarenessofinternalvariationwithinEmberáculture.TheresidentsofPararaPuru,likethoseofmostotherEmberácommunities,cannotaffordtotravelwidelyandvisitmanyotherEmberácommunities.Theirknowledgeofthepast,asreceivedfromparentsandgrandfathers,doesnotextendbeyondthree,orinsomecases,fourgenerations.Inaddition,manycommunitiesoutsidethesemi-autonomousreservationshaveexperienced,priortotheintroductionoftourismandtherecentre-evaluationofindigeneity,increasingexposuretonon-indigenouslifestyles.


Figure2.2EmberáchildrenbrowsingTayler’sethnographyandmyfieldnotes

When,forexample,theEmberáofPararaPuruhadtopolishtheirknowledgeofEmberádancingtopreparefortheirfirstculturalpresentationsfortourists,theycomparedthememoriesofelderlywomenbornlocallyandthoseofEmberáwomenborninfarawaycommunities(nowmarriedtoPararaPurumen).Thedancescontainnumerousandconstantlyevolvingvariations,8andknowledgeofthedetailsofthedanceaspracticedbytroupesinotherEmberácommunitiesisimportanttoachievingacceptableandaestheticallypleasingimprovisation.Myownanthropological


notesandcomparisonsonthistopic,whichhadbenefitedfromtravelingextensivelyamongEmberácommunitiesinPanama,andalsomysubstantialvideoarchiveofEmberádanceshasprovedtobevaluableresourceforPararaPuruwomen9(Theodossopoulos2013c).

Experiencedmenwhoarearticulatespeakershaveonseveraloccasionssurprisedmewiththeirquestions–suchas,forexample,‘wheredotheEmberácomefrom?’–althoughtheyknowthatIhaveseenthemansweringthosequestionscountlesstimesduringtouristpresentations.Myinterlocutors,awarethatIread‘allthosebooks’aboutEmberáculture,soughtanyadditionalfacts.Inresponding,Ihavehadseveralopportunitiestoexplain,drawingfrommyreadingofacademicsources,thediversityofEmberálanguagesinColombia,thecompetitionbetweenEmberáandotherindigenousgroups,suchastheKuna,andthechronologyofvariouseventsinEmberáhistory.Conversationsliketheseend,inmostcases,withtheEmberáreciprocatingbysharingfragmentsoforalhistory,suchasforexample,storiesaboutthewarswiththeKunathattheyheardfromtheirgrandparents.

ThedesireoftheEmberátofamiliarizethemselveswithamoreprecisechronologyofhistoricaleventssharplycontrastswiththeircommonpracticeofcollapsingtimeineverydayconversation.Intheircollectivehistoricalconsciousnesstheancienttimesisavaguelydefinedperiodthatincorporatesthemesfrom100yearsagotopre-Columbiantimes.Asimilargeneralizingtendencyresultsinacollapseofgeographicalandethnicvariation.Ineverydaynarrativesaboutthepast,recentlyinfusedwithinformationfromprimaryschooltextbooks,theEmberáoftenstandforallindigenouspeopleoftheAmericas"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

persecutedbyEuropeancolonialism:someyoungerEmberá,forexample,arguethat‘ColumbuskilledmillionsofEmberá!’SuchselectivegeneralizationsmakemorepersuasivetherhetoricalargumentsthathighlighttheundeniableaggressivenatureofWesterncolonialismandtheexploitationexperiencedinearliercenturies.Yet,someEmberárepeatedlyinvitedmetocommentontheexactexperienceoftheirethnicgroupintheirpainfulcolonialhistory.

Onotheroccasions,suchinvitationsinvolveengaginginamateurarchaeology,exploringthematerialremainsofthepast.Afterseeing(onmylaptop)photosofpre-ColumbianceramicfragmentsdiscoveredbyEmberáinDarién,theEmberáofPararaPurushowedmesimilarceramicfragmentsthattheyregularlyfindinChagres.In2011,asmallgrouptookmetoalittleislandinthenearbyAlajuelaLakecoveredwithfragmentsofbrokenpottery.Unabletoprovideasophisticatedarchaeologicalinterpretation,IinvitedPanamanianarchaeologist,ThomasMendizábal,tovisitthesite.IttranspiredthatthelocationwasanoldSpanishtown,VendadeChagres,builtclosetotheCaminoReal,oneofthemainroutesoftransportincolonialtimes(seeMendizábalandTheodossopoulos2012).TheEmberáguidedusalongtheremainingpavedpartsoftheCaminoRealandsolicitedouropinionaboutthesuitabilityofthisrouteasanattractionfortourists.Attheendofourwalk,weallsatexhaustedinthedugoutcanoe,andtheEmberáseizedtheopportunitytoaskquestionsthattheyhaveaskedmeseveraltimesbefore,thistimeofMendizábal,aspecialistoftimespast.

Aweeklater,IwitnessedfragmentsofthisinformationcirculatinginPararaPuru.Severalmembersofthecommunityapproachedmetovisitandidentifyothersiteswithantiquitiesin"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

thevicinity.‘Indigenousarchaeologies’,understoodaslocal(unofficial)setsofknowledgethatrepresentanawarenessofthematerialremainsofthepast,canofferanalternativeperspectivethatcancontributetothedecolonizationofarchaeology(Hamilakis2008).Hereindigenousactorscantakethefirststepininspiringacademicresearch,usinglocalknowledgetoguidearchaeologists,whilearchaeologistcansharetheiracademicknowledgewithlocalpopulations,apracticethatmayleadtowardsthedevelopmentofan‘engagedarchaeology’(Murray2011).

Between2009and2010IworkedwiththeEmberátoprepareacollectionofphotographsillustratingEmberápractices–suchascanoeconstructionandbasketweaving–whichthetouristscannotexperiencedirectly.TheEmberáprovidedatextexplainingtheactivities,whichItranslatedintoEnglishandorganizedappropriatelytosupportthephotographicexhibitionsetonwoodenpanels.Theexhibitionwasdestroyedbyastormin2011,buttheEmberá,seeingmyupsetwhenIwitnessedthatthisarchivehadbeenlost,consoledmebytellinghowmuchtheyhadlearntabouttheir‘ownculture’whileworkingwithmetosetupthisproject.


Figure2.3PhotographicexhibitioninPararaPurubeforeitseventualdestructionbyastorm

Onotheroccasions,informationfromanthropologybooksenhanceddailypracticesinamoredirectmanner.AftershowingtheEmberáinPararaPuruAstridUlloa’s(1992)monographonEmberábodypaintinginColombia,whichcontainsanimpressivecollectionofdesigns,theyaskedmetolaminatesomepagesforthemtousewhilebodypaintingthetourists.Paintingthearmsandlegsoftourists–ormakinganindigenous‘tattoo’,asthetouristguidesadvertisetheactivity–isastandardpartofculturalpresentations,andprovidestheEmberáwithanopportunitytoearna$2to$5tip.ThetouristsoftenhesitateindecidingwhichdesigntouseorasktheEmberáfornon-indigenousthemes.ThelaminatedpagesfromUlloa’sbooksolvedsomeofthoseproblems,astheyarenowusedasa‘menu’forthetouriststo


choose.‘Thepagescanhelpusteachthetouriststhedesignsofourownculture’,commentedoneofthecommunity’sleaderssubsequently.

Figure2.4EmberáchildrenchoosingdesignsfromUlloa’slaminatedpages


DuringthesearchofethnographicrecordsforvisualmaterialaboutEmberáculture,Idiscoveredchildhoodphotographsdatingfromthe1960sofsomeoftheolderPararaPururesidents.TakenbyPanamanianethnographers,mostlystudentsofTorresdeAraúz,whoreproducedtheminunpublishedthesesstoredinthelibraryoftheUniversityofPanama,thesephotographicillustrationsremainedundetectedforthelast50years.TheyincludedphotographsofthenowdeceasedfoundersandapicalancestorsoftheEmberácommunitiesintheChagresregion.TheactofsharingthesephotographswiththeresidentsofPararaPuruinspiredthetellingofdetailednarrativesaboutthehistoryoftheEmberáinChagres,whichnowfeature,intheirrecentlyexpandedversion,intouristculturalpresentations.

Otherethnographicinformation,suchasmapsanddemographicdata,cancontributeinunexpectedwaystoindigenouslife.Oneofmykinshipdiagrams,forexample,hasbeenusedbyaschoolteachertolearnthenamesofthechildreninthecommunityandtheircorrespondingfamilies,whileanothersimilardiagramhasbeenusedbytheleadershipofPararaPuruforadministrativepurposes.Wheneverindoubtabouttheexactpopulationofthecommunity,theEmberáwillaskmetodeliveranup-to-datefigure.Whenhigh-resolutionmapsareneededbyEmberáleaderstoorganizepoliticalstrategies–inthecontextoftheirprotractedlandrightsstruggle–theyknowthattheycanrelyon‘their’anthropologisttoprocuremapsfromthegeographicalinstituteandplanningdepartmentinthecapital.Inthis,andmanyotherrespects,theEmberávaluemyscholarlyprecision,confidenceindealingwithbureaucracy,andexperiencewiththetechnologiesoftheoutsideworld.TheinitiationofaFacebookpageforthecommunityin2010,andtrainingoneofthe"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

community’syoungmentoserveasitsadministrator,10isanotherexample.ThehopeisthattheFacebookpagewillattractanaudiencetosupportfuturepetitionsoverlandrights.

TowardsaNon-staticViewofEngagementandIndigeneity

TherewasatimewhenIapproachedanthropologicaldebatesaboutindigeneitywithacademicdetachment,arguingwithatoneofpoliticalcorrectnessthattheterm‘indigenous’shouldnotbeusedonlyforthedisadvantaged,butforallpeople’sidentities.Ipromotedanall-inclusiveviewofindigeneity,targetingtheessentialistconnotationsofitsexclusiveusebyparticulargroups.Thisviewwasframedintermsofmulticulturalpoliticsinurban,Westerncontexts,butwasdivorced,asIrealizedaftermyinvolvementwiththeEmberá,fromtheconcretepoliticalrealitiesoflessprivilegedgroupsintheperipheryofeconomicpower.AswithKuper’s(2003)critique,mypreviouspoliticallycorrectbutdetachedapproachunderestimatedthemeaningfulnessofindigenousexperience(whichisoftenthatofdispossession)andtherelationalqualitiesofthetermindigenous(seeSaugestad2001;Barnard2006;KenrickandLewis2004a,2004b).

MyrelationshipwiththeEmberátaughtmetoreconsidersomeofmypreviouslydisengagedviewsandgraduallyreshapedmypriorities.Ilearnedtoappreciatelocalunderstandingsofindigeneitywithoutfearoftheiressentialistorexclusivistconnotations.Whileindigenousviewsofindigeneitymayfeaturefixedandclosednarrativesthatexcludemanytypesofnon-fully


indigenouspeople,itisimportanttoappreciatethatsuchlocalandconstantlytransformingviewsareflexibleenoughtoaccommodatechange.TheEmberá,whohadbeenstereotypeduntilrecentlyasChocoesorindios,havenowbeenacceptedbythenationalandinternationalcommunitybyreferenceto‘theirown’chosenname.ThemeaningofbeinganEmberáinthetwenty-firstcenturyisnotthesameasthatofthelatetwentiethcentury.Theterm‘indigenous’,asunderstoodbytheEmberá,carrieswithittheconnotationsofsuchanachievement.

TheresidentsofPararaPuru,encouragedbythewarmreceptionoftheirculturebytouristaudiences,havebecomeawarethatthemeaningofindigeneity–anditsconsequencesforthem–ischanging.Thisiswhytheyaresointerestedincollectinginformationabouttheirownculture,includinganthropologicalknowledgefromolderethnographicaccounts,especiallythoseaboutculturalpracticesthathadbeendecliningduringthelastpartofthetwentiethcentury.Theynowwelcomeinformationfromethnographicaccountsofthepast,aswellascomparativeethnographicinformationfromthepresent,whichprovideameasureofthepaceofsocialchangeindifferentEmberácommunities.Suchknowledgeinformsnew,fluidstrategiesofculturalrepresentationinthetwenty-firstcentury,adaptedtocaterforaudiencesofnationalandinternationaltouristswhosharecontradictory(idealizingorstereotyping)expectations(seeTheodossopoulos2011,2014).

Indigenousknowledge‘neverstandsstill’:itincorporates‘Westernknowledgeandpractices’inthecourseoftheglobalizationprocess(Sillitoe1998:230;2002:15).Anawarenessofthebroaderrelevanceandvisibilityofone’sowncultureencouragestheforgingofalliancesbetweenindigenous"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

communitiesandWesternsupportersoftheindigenouscause(Conklin1997;Ramos1998;Brysk2000).ThenarrativestheEmberáusetodescribetheirindigenousidentity,developastheyattempttoarticulatetheirculturalrepresentationintermsmeaningfultooutsidersandenlargetoincorporatenewmeanings,including,asIhaveshowninthischapter,informationfromacademicaccounts.11Inthisrespect,thefluidandconstantgrowthofEmberánarrativesofidentitycanbeseenasatransformationofprevioustransformations(Gow2001:127),notasarupturewithEmberáidentity.

Seenfromthispointofview,therenewedinterestoftheEmberáinthehistoryoftheirculture,asIhavearguedelsewhereindetail(Theodossopoulos2012,2013a),doesnotdeservetobeinterpretedas‘inventionoftradition’,anotiondevelopedbyHobsbawm(1983)todeconstructnationalistprocessesofceremonializationendorsedbythenationstate.Thenotionofinventioncanoffendindigenoussensibilitiesandidentities(seeLinnekin1991;Shalins1999;Theodossopoulos2012,2013a,2013b)andunderminethefluidityofsocialchange.SomeoftheEmberáculturalpracticesthatarenowflourishingagainduetotourism,hadbeenindeclinepreviously,buttheyhavenevercompletelydisappeared.Theynowexpandinnewdirectionsthroughpractice,creativityandimprovisation,extendingthemeaningofwhatisorisnotindigenousEmberáculture.

ThesethoughtsleadmetosituatethepracticeofsharinganthropologicalunderstandingsabouttheEmberáwiththeEmberáwithinafluidandnon-statictheoreticalcontextualizationofindigeneity.Anthropologistsincreasinglyquestionthestaticmythoftheneutralobserver,whichcanbeasinterfering–legitimizinginaction–ascollaboration.‘Anactionapproach,as"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

opposedtoapurelyacademicone’involves‘informingthemaboutourthoughts’(Sillitoe2002:5;myemphasis).Ourthoughts,privilegedbyinformationgatheredbyscholarlyandtriangulatedmethods,includeinformationaboutthem,oftentheproductofgenerationsofanthropologicalcomparison,corroborationandsystematiccollectionofindigenousknowledge.Itisunethicaltowithholdsuchinformationfromitsoriginalauthors.

Sowehavecomefullcircle.Thedividinglinebetweenengagedanddisengagedapproachestoanthropologyisnotasfirmasitseemsanditislikelytobecomelessclearwiththechallengesconfrontingindigenousstudiesinthetwenty-firstcentury.Toescapefromimperialistnostalgia,asreflectedintherescuemissionofcolonialanthropology(Rosaldo1989)–salvagingvanishingidentities,forexample–wehavetoacceptsocialchangeastheprerogativeofindigeneity.Detachedanthropologicalcritiquecanopenthewayforthisprocess,liftingtheburdenofastaticvisionofindigenoussociety,toencourageareverseprocessoftranslation:previouslyanthropologiststranslatedOthernessforWesterncuriosityandacademiccontemplation;nowadays,anthropologyhasmaturedenough–throughdisengageddeconstructionandself-critique–toembarkinareciprocalengagementwithOtherness.

Acknowledgements

IwouldliketothanktheEconomicandSocialResearchCouncil(researchgrantRES-000–22–3733)forsupportingthefieldworkuponwhichthisarticleisbased,andtheresidentsofPararaPuru"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

forparticipatingwithmeinareciprocalquestforknowledgeaboutEmberáculture.IwouldalsoliketothankPaulSillitoeforhisconstructivecommentsthathaveinspiredtherevisionofthischapter.

References

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——2010a.Tourismandindigenouscultureasresources:LessonsfromEmberáculturaltourisminPanama,inTourism,PowerandCulture:AnthropologicalInsights,editedbyD.V.L.MacleodandJ.G.Carrier.Bristol:ChannelView,115–33.

——2010b.Withorwithoutgringos:WhenPanamanianstalkabouttheUnitedStatesanditscitizens.SocialAnalysis,54(1),52–70.

——2011.Emberáindigenoustourismandtheworldofexpectations,inGreatExpectations:ImaginationandAnticipationinTourism,editedbyJ.SkinnerandD.Theodossopoulos.Oxford:Berghahn,40–60.

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——2013a.Emberáindigenoustourismandthetrapofauthenticity:Beyondin-authenticityandinvention.AnthropologicalQuarterly,86(2),397–426.

——2013b.Layingclaimtoauthenticity:Fiveanthropologicaldilemmas.AnthropologicalQuarterly,86(2),337–60.

——2013c.Dance,visibilityandrepresentationalself-awarenessinanEmberácommunityinPanama,inKnowledge,TransformationandIdentityintheAnthropologyofDance,editedbyJ.SkinnerandH.NeveuKringelbach.Oxford:Berghahn,121–40.

——2014.ScornorIdealization?TourismImaginaries,ExoticisationandAmbivalenceinEmberáIndigenousTourism,inTourismImaginaries:ThroughanAnthropologicalLens,editedbyNelsonGraburnandNoelSalazar,57–79.Oxford:BerghahnBooks.

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1Ihaveconducted17monthsoffieldworkinPararaPuru–spreadoversevenyearsfrom2005to2012–duringwhichIexaminedEmberásocialchangeonavarietyoftopics,suchastheuse(ornot)oftheIndigenousattire(Theodossopoulos2012,2013a),theEmberádancingtradition(Theodossopoulos,2012),theelusiveconceptofauthenticity(Theodossopoulos2013a),theperceptionofIndigenousculture(andalsothetouriststhemselves)as‘resources’intourism(Theodossopoulos2010),theresponseoftheEmberátotouristexpectations(Theodossopoulos2011),andtheexoticizationofindigeneityinthetourismimaginaryandtheparallelexoticizationofthetouristsbytheirIndigenoushosts(Theodossopoulos2014).

2Inherenttothepeopledefinedasindigenous;thussuchdefinitionshaveaproclivitytowardsessentialism.

3Anapproachtowardsdefiningindigeneitythatismoreflexibleanddynamic,asitacknowledgesthatparticulardefinitionsaretheresultofparticularhistoricalprocesses.

4TheanthropologicalliteratureonindigeneityhasgrowntosuchanextentthatMerlan(2009),inanextensivereview,doesnotrefertoseminalarticlesbyBeteille(1998)andKuper(2003)whopublishedpreviouslyinthesamejournal.

5FormoredetailedinformationabouttheusesofthetermgringoinPanama,seeTheodossopoulos2010b;blackNorthAmericansareoftendescribedasgringo-paima(blackgringos).

6Thetermcampesino(farmer)–whichfromtheEmberápointofviewissynonymoustothetermslatinoorcolono–isoftenusedwithironytorefertothoseEmberáwhohavemarriedlatinosoradoptednon-Emberálifestyle.AnEmberáwouldsayforexample:‘Mybrotherhasmarriedakampuniawomanandhasbecomeacampesino;henowliveswiththelatinos’.

7Yet,theypaidlessattentiontothetext,despitethefactthatmostcanreadSpanish;itwasmyjob,Irealized,toprovideconcisesummaries,asIhadpreviouslydonewithbookswritteninEnglish.

8ForadetaileddescriptionoftheEmberástylesofdancing,andrevalorizationoftheEmberádancingtraditionthroughtourism,seeTheodossopoulos2013c.

9WomenfromotherEmberácommunitieshavealsoaskedrepeatedlytoseemyvideosofEmberádancesinPararaPuru.

10AnthropologystudentsfromtheUniversityofKent,whereIteach,arenowabletosendmessagesviaFacebooktoPararaPuru,demonstratingthattheyareindeedinterestedtoknowabouttheEmberáandtheirindigenousculture.

11TheKuna,theneighborsoftheEmberá,haveusedethnographicaccountstothebenefitoftheirculturalandpoliticalrepresentation.Howe(2009)providesuswithadetailedaccountofthelongrelationshipbetweenKunaleadersandWesternethnographers.ThisrelationshiphasledtothedevelopmentofKunaauto-ethnography.Incomparison,theEmberáhavereceivedlessattentionbyanthropologists.TheynowfollowthefootstepsoftheKunaindevelopingtheirownrepresentationalnarratives."******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"


Chapter3FosteringtheRapprochementof

AnthropologyandIndigenousStudies:TheEncounterofanItalianAnthropologistwith

KaupapaMāoriResearch

DomenicaGisellaCalabrò

InthischapterIsharemyexperienceasananthropologistworkingwithMāoriacademicsandencounteringMāoriapproachestoresearch.DuringmydoctoralstudiesIinvestigatedtheindigenizationofrugbyinNewZealandandthesocio-culturalandpoliticalimpactofthisphenomenononthedefinitionsofMāoriidentity(Calabrò2011).IwasenrolledinaPhDprogrammeattheUniversityofMessina(Italy),butmovedtoNewZealandforayear,1whereIwashostedandsupportedbytheSchoolofMāoriStudiesatVictoriaUniversityofWellington.MāoriStudiesusedtobeabranchofanthropologyandacquiredautonomyin1978,whenSirMeadstartedtheprogrammeofMāoriStudiesatVictoriaUniversity(cf.Mead1997),directlydefyinganthropology’smonopolyoverresearchmethodsandindigenousissues.

ThispositioningenabledmetoconnecttotheMāoriacademiccommunity,familiarizewiththeirapproachtoknowledge,knownasKaupapaMāoriresearch,andthusnegotiatemyspaceasa


researcher.Itendedupbeingaparallelfieldwork.WhileinvestigatingaboutMāoriandrugby,IwasalsotryingtounderstandtheMāoriapproachtoresearchandreflectingonmyunintentionalinternalizationofcolonialattitudes.AndIpuzzledhowandwheretolocatemyselfintheMāoriacademiccommunityasanon-Māori,anon-NewZealanderandananthropologist.

Multiplenebulouszonesemergedfromthisexperience.Itdoesnotsuggestthebanningofanthropology,nordoesitsupposeoutsidersnecessarilyobservingandanalysingindigenousissues.Conflictandfrictionscentre,firstandforemost,aroundpoliticalandhistoricalissuesfavouringWesternepistemes–atermthatKuokkanen(2007)borrowedfromFoucaulttoemphasizetheindissolubilityofknowledgeandworldviewwhichseemstogounnoticedwhenweusethetermepistemology–overindigenousonestotheextentthatmanyWesternersdonotrecognizethatscientificalternativesexist.Negotiationsarepossible,buttheyareendless,dependingoncontingencies,personalitiesandawarenessoftheissues.

GenesisoftheJourney

MyintroductiontoCulturalAnthropologyoccurredin2002inItalywhenIwasstudyingForeignLanguagesandLiterature.Itwasanoptionalsubject,theexactcontentofwhichwasuncleartomanystudents.Byandlarge,anthropologyrepresentsanichesubjectinItalianacademia.Likesomeforefathersofanthropology,Isteppedintothisworldaccidentallyandindirectly,detouringfrommyinitialstudies.Whatcaptivatedme"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

wasthatanthropologyaddressedmyintellectualcuriosityaboutculturalvariety,anddiversityofsocialissues,whilepromoting–itseemedtome–respectandmutualunderstandingofpeopleasculturalsubjects.

Ilearntaboutitshistory,itspastfaultsanditspresenttensions.Theclassesalsofocussedonlocalrelationswithanthropologicalscience,whentheItalianswere‘observed’beforebeing‘observers’.Hereanthropologicalresearchdidnotoccurwithinthecolonialframe,butIvividlyrecallimagesofhumblesouthernItalianpeasants–remindingmeofmygrandparentsandtheCalabrianrealitywhereIgrewup–beingdescribedassuperstitiousandprimitivebyearlyobservers.MyfamiliaritywithSouthernItalyenhancedmyawarenessoftheculturaldiscriminationwhichpervadedearlyanalyses,andreinforcedmyempathytowardsthe‘observed’,whosedignitywasusuallycompromised.

TheItalianrelationshipwithanthropologyisrecent,butcomplex.Localchangingattitudesemergedasearlyasinthe1950s,involvingthehumanizingapproachofErnestoDeMartino.Priortothepost-moderndebateoverthevalidityofanthropology’sanalyticalcategoriesandtheelaborationofanengagedanthropology,DeMartino,whofocussedonmagicandreligionamongstthemarginalizedinhabitantsofsouthernItalyandtheislands(see,forexample,DeMartino2005[1961]),promoteda‘criticalreflectionontheverycategoriesofouranalysisandrecognitionthatthesecategoriesderivefromourownethnocentricvalues’(Saunders1993:878),hence,thedenominationofhisstanceas‘criticalethnocentrism’(ibid.).Claimingthatallvalueswerehistoricallydetermined,DeMartinoengagedinhistoricizingthelivesofsouthernItalians(1941,"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

1949);influencedbyGramsci,hedisclosedthepowerdifferentialsthatpermeatedculturalobservation(1951).Finally,reflectingonthemoralandintellectualimplicationsofresearch,hesuggestedthat‘oneneedstofindthewaytoanordinaryhumanrelation,andsituateintherightpointwhereonecanbewiththeminthesamehistory’(1999[1995]:62).

ThelegacyofDeMartinoequallyimpactedonmypredispositiontowardsthediscipline.Inthiscase,itsuggestedthatanthropologyhadthepotentialtolearnfromitsmistakes.Nevertheless,beingsituatedontheanthropologicalperiphery,andwithmylimitedanthropologicaleducation,Iwassomehowlessawareoftheburdensomelegacyofanthropology’srelationshipwithcolonialism(cf.Asad1973;Lewis1973;Clifford2004),andtheacrimonyofsome‘classical’anthropologicaldebates(cf.Trask2001;Obeyesekere1997).SuchdegreeofnaivetyplayedaroleinmydecisiontoworkwithMāori.

Iftheforcesthatnormallyandsilentlyinformone’selectionofthesitehadprevailed–suchascareeroutcomesorthetopicalityofasite,IwouldhaveperhapsnotdaredtoproposeadoctoralprojectworkingintheMāoricommunity.ThechoicewaspeculiarinItalianacademia.Furthermore,Māoriculturescarcelyfeaturestodayintheanthropologicallandscape.Tosomeextent,thesamereasonthatitfitsthearchetypeoffieldwork(distant,native,tribal)makesitcontroversial.Also,theemergenceofMāoriStudiesparalleledbyindigenouspoliticalandsocialactivismhasresultedinthealienationofWesternresearchersfromNewZealand’sindigenousworld(cf.Hanson1989;Webster1998).

InNewZealandananthropologistactuallylamentedtomethatpost-graduatestudentsarenowadaysunwillingtocarryout"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

projectswithMāoribecausetheyfearthem.AsIlearnt,MāorianthropologystudentsmayexperiencedistresstoowhendealingwithMāoriStudies.Personally,Ihaveneverviewedmyselfasanintrepidanthropologist.WhenIsentoutmyresearchproposaltotheheadofMāoriStudies,Ifeareditwouldbediscardedbecauseofmynon-Māoriness.Atsomestageofthefieldwork,Ifeltuncomfortable.Yet,IwasneverscaredenoughnottoconsiderworkingwithMāoriortoabandonthefield.

IbelievethemaindifferencebetweenNewZealandersandIrestedinourbeingsituatedindifferenthistoricalandanthropologicalcontexts.Iwasnotfamiliarwithfeelingssuchasguiltformyancestors’deeds,orfeartodiscovertheunbalancethathidesbehindaflauntedbiculturalcredo.Iwasnotaffectedbythesocio-politicaldynamicsthatcharacterizethecountryandIwasnotinfluencedbythemisrepresentationoftheindigenouscommunityinthedominantdiscourse,which,Iargue,playsanimportantroleininformingnon-MāoriperceptionsofMāori.Ifanything,Iwasinfluencedbytheinternationalmis/representationofMāoriwithinrugby,whichinstilledfascinationandcuriosityratherthanhostility.Fromthispointofview,beinganoutsiderdidplayapositiverole.ItallowedmyimaginationtomovefreelyandshapeacollaborationwithMāori.

TherewasalsosomethingaccidentalinmydecisiontoconsideraMāori-relatedtopic,albeititmightsoundcliché(cf.GuptaandFerguson1997:11).WhenIstartedattendinganthropologyclasses,IwasalreadyinterestedinlearningaboutMāoriculture.MythenpartnerwasfromNewZealand.Eventhoughtheywerenotindigenous,heandhisfamilyhadofferedmeMāoribonecarvingandpounamu(greenstone)pendantsasagift.ThatexpressionofNewZealand’sindigenousculturehad"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

somehowbecomepartofme.Assuch,ithadbeenpiquingmycuriosity.Furthermore,athree-monthstayinNewZealandwasalreadyplanned.Thus,IpassionatelyturnedasojournmotivatedbypersonalreasonsintoananthropologicalenquiryonaspectsofMāoriculture.2Followingmystudies,ImovedtoNewZealandforayear’sworkexperienceandlearnedmoreaboutNewZealandethnicrelationsandindigenousculture.BythetimeIdecidedtoundertakedoctoralstudiesinculturalanthropology,IhadbecomequitefamiliarwithNewZealand,itshistoryandsocialdynamics.

MyapproachtoanthropologyandfortuitousnessallowedmetopicturearesearchwithMāori,yetIbelievedthatIwouldneedthesupportoftheMāoriacademiccommunity.BoththeindigenousmistrustIexperiencedwhenIfirststartedtoshowaninterestinMāoricultureandtheunderstandingofthehistoricalcontextIhadgainedfrommystaysinNewZealandsolicitedsuchasolution.Accordingly,Isenttheproject’soutlinetotheheadofaschoolofMāoriStudies,askingforapprovalandhospitality.HisassentprovedthatMāoriacademicsdonotaprioriexcludenon-MāoriparticipationtoMāoriresearch.Asamatteroffact,atthattimetheschoolatVictoriawashostingothernon-Māoriresearchers.However,beingwelcomedtoMāoriStudieswaslikebeingadmittedtopassatestratherthanpassingthetest.Iwasgivenachance;thechancetobeexposedtoMāoriresearchandtoexperiencewhatisactuallyabout,andtoprovethatIwasworthtrustingasaresearcher.

TheIntelligibilityofEpistemicPlurality


WhenIarrivedinMāoriStudies,someMāoristudentsrecommendedIreadLindaTuhiwaiSmith’s(1999)bookaboutdecolonizingmethodologiesandtheformalizationofaMāoriapproachtoresearchknownasKaupapaMāoriresearch.TheMāoriterm‘Kaupapa’(agenda,philosophy,programme)situatesresearchinaMāoricontext,integratingtheirworldview,practices,needsandgoals.TheMāoriunderstandingoftheworld,mātauranga,restsondistinctivesemanticandontologicalorders,butearlynon-Māoriobserversdismisseditaspuerileandirrational(cf.Polack1840;Thomson1859),oronlyvalueditasfigurativerepresentationoftheworld–throughallegoriesandpersonification(Best1921).Inthissense,KaupapaMāoriresearchhasrestoredthedignityofMāoriknowledge.

WhilestudentsandresearchersinMāoriStudiesassertedanindigenouspathtoknowledge,IactuallysensedthattheatmosphereintheMāoriacademicspacewasquitedissimilartowhatIhadtheretoforeexperienced.EveryoneviewedtheMāoriStudies’community(students,teachersandadministrators)asafamily,upholdingvaluessuchasreciprocity,sharing,humblenessandparticipation.Importancewasgiventocollectivedecision-making.Thecommunityaspiredtokotahitanga(unity)inspiteoffrictionsanddissimilarities.3Asaresearcher,everyonefeltresponsibletowardstheMāoricommunityatlargeaswellasthepeopleinvolvedintheirwork.Everyoneshowedstrongcriticalspiritinanironicway,makingengagementanddeterminationtoachieveintellectualenfranchisementpalpable.Therewasthepresenceofmana(spiritualprestige/authority)withthemarae(Māoriceremonialcentre)actingasa‘physicalmetaphorforintellectualdomain’(Hokowhitu2010a:13).Therewasrespectfortheancestorssymbolizedbythecarvedmeeting-house,and"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

emphasisonhospitality(definedbyMāorivaluesandprocedures).ConferencesweremodelledontheMāorihui(meeting),thusrevolvingaroundthemaraeandvaluinghospitality.

Firstofall,theMāoriStudiescommunityhasemergedasametaphoricalwhānau.Thewhānauisthebasickin-structureofsocietywithasetofdefiningvaluesandprocedures(Metge1990,1995).Allthemoreoftengroupsbasedoncommoninterestsratherthandescentorkin‘usethewordwhaanauassymbolandcharter,expressingthequalityoftheircommitmenttoeachotherandcontinuallyremindingthemselvesofthetikanga(practicesandvalues)whichtheyassociatewiththewhaanauandtowhichtheyaspire’(Metge1990:74).PeopleinMāoriStudiesexplicitlyrefertotheirdepartmentaswhānau.ThesameMāorilanguagepointstothenotionofwhānauasparadigmofMāorisocialrelations.Theconceptofsocialrelationshipisexpressedbytheterm‘whanaungatanga’.ManyresearchparticipantsusedthistermtodefinethecamaraderieofMāorirugby.Itisarelationshipbasedonsharedexperiencesandworkingtogether,andinformedbyreciprocity,wherepeopledevelopasenseofbelonging.Torefertotheprocessofestablishingsucharelationship,Māoriusetheterm‘whakawhanaungatanga’,wherewhakameans‘tocausesomethingtohappen,causetobe’.Thissametermisalsousedtotranslate‘relatingwell’.

Thewhānau-likerelationshipswithinMāoriStudiesprovidedinsightsontheMāori-definedresearchIwasreadingaboutinthebooks.Firstly,therelationbetweenresearcherandinformantshouldbeareplicaofthoserelationships.Secondly,theresponsibilityoftheresearchertowardsthecommunityupheldbyKaupapaMāoriresearchisnotsolelyrelevanttothepolitical"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

context;italsofallswithinMāorisocialdynamics,wheretherelationshipwiththecommunitycontributestodefinetheindividual.Finally,thevalueswhichideallyinformthewhānauunderpintheethicalguidelinesofKaupapaMāoriresearchasidentifiedbyLindaSmith(1999:120):arohakitetangata(arespectforpeople);kanohikitea(theseenface,thatiscommityourself,participate);titiro,whakarongo…korero(look,listen…speak);manaakikitetangata(shareandhostpeople,begenerous);kiatupato(becautious);kauaetakahiatemanaotetangata(donottrampleoverthemanaofpeople);kauaemahaki(don’tflauntyourknowledge).Asamatteroffact,formulationsofKaupapaMāoriresearchhaveexplicitlyviewedthenotionofwhānauasapivotalelementinorganizingresearch(Nepe1990;Smith1999;Bishop1998).Whānau-likedynamicsmakeMāoriStudiesasafeacademicenvironmenttoMāori,wheretheydonothavetojustifywhotheyareandwhattheydo.IarguethatthisaspectisparamountinlegitimizingtheexistenceofMāoriStudies.Ialsobelievethatdetractorsofindigenousstudiesusuallymissthisaspect,forthesimplereasonthattheyhavenotexperiencedormanagedtoempathizewiththeculturalestrangementandfrustrationminoritygroupstendtoexperiencewithinmainstreamcontexts(cf.Sandri’schapter).

Tocontinue,Māoriresearchhasemergedasanintegratedwhole,for‘Māori’ssciencesystemisinaformthatcannotbeseparatedfromthefamilysystem,religionsystemandpoliticalsystem’(Ito2004:20).TheJapaneseanthropologistIto(2004)observedMāoriStudiesasadisciplineagainstLuhmann’ssocialsystemtheory,whichdescribesmodernsocietyasbeingfunctionallydifferentiatedinmanysystems,whichareautonomous,self-referentialandclosed,andusebinarycodes(for"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

example,true/false;legal/illegal).Upholdinganall-encompassingapproachtoscience,MāoriStudiesareviewedasanexampleof‘dedifferentiation’ofsystems.Thus,holismemergesasthedefiningtraitofMāoriStudiesagainstnon-indigenousdisciplines.Becauseofthenon-alignmentofindigenousstudieswiththelogicofWesterndisciplines,theirscientificintegrityisoftenquestioned.

ThepolaritiesofWestern/dominantgroupsandIndigenousgroupsdonotcircumscribedifferencesinknowledge,academicinstitution,andpowerrelations.AsastudentinitiatedinanthropologyinanItalianinstitution,Irecognizethepresenceofcentreandperipherieswithinmydiscipline(GuptaandFerguson1997:25–9;)aswellastheimpactofmynationalscientificfield‘withitstraditions,habitsofthought,problematics,sharedcommonplaces,andsoon’(Bourdieu2003:283),whichcausedmetoexperienceasubtleformofestrangementinthemainstreaminstitutionwhereMāoriStudiesissituatedtoo.Still,despitemyacademicoriginsandtheawarenessofculturaldifferencewhichpertainstoanthropology,Ihadnotappropriatelyanticipatedthe‘culturalshock’atMāoriStudies,whichshowstheextenttowhichwefailtorealizethattheacademicenvironmentisitselfculturallyinformed,andtakemanyofourproceduresandvaluesforgranted.

However,Ialsorealizedthatourtendencytogiveourresearchcategoriesandacademicpracticesforgrantedparadoxicallyconfirmstheveryculturaldimensionofacademia.AsillustratedbyKuokkanen,episteme‘[…]isamodeofsocialreality,arealitythatistaken-for-grantedgroundwhoseunwrittenrulesarelearned(orasFoucaultwouldsay,“written”inthesocialorder)throughtheprocessesofsocializationintoaparticular"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

culture’(2007:53).Fromthispointofview,IarguethattheMāori-enhancedawarenessoftheirepistemeistobeascribedtothehistoricaleventsthathavenotallowedthemtotakeitforgranted.Māorihavehadtoobjectifytheirepisteme,inordertopreserveitandsafeguardit.Ultimately,thiscomesdownagaintopowerdifferentials.

HistoricizingMāoriStudies’BitternesstowardsAnthropology

BeingentrenchedintheMāoriworldview,theauthorityofMāoriStudiesandkaupapaMāoriresearchtranscendsthehereandnow.Yet,wehavetoconsiderpoliticalmotives,whicharethesameastheindigenousmovement,andinformthesamedefinitionof‘indigenous’asillustratedbySillitoe’schapter.MāoriStudies,likeindigenousstudiesgenerally,opposesubjugationwithinthefieldofknowledgechallengingWesterndisciplinarycontrol(cf.Walker1996;Smith1999;Mahuika2008).Unlikeotherdisciplines,anthropologyhasesteemednon-Westernknowledgeforgenerations,eventhoughmostlyframedinWesterncategories.Similarly,ithastriedtodialoguewithindigenouscommunitiesforalongtime.Anthropologistswhoworkedduringthecolonialerawerenotusuallypartofthecolonialmachine;nordidtheynecessarilyendorsecolonialistideas,somuchsothatwealsofindearlyattemptsofself-reflexivity;moreover,thecolonialofficersdidnotappreciateanthropologistseither.4Nevertheless,duetothehistoricalcontextandthewayethnographieshavebeenusedbycolonialandpostcolonialforces,amongstindigenouspeopleanthropologyhasgainedareputationasthemainacademic"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

locusofcolonialdomination,5andtendstobestillperceivedas‘thestudyofprimitivesocieties’asitusedtobeconceivedinitsorigins(cf.Evans-Pritchard1951;Nadel1953).

Ihaveaccordinglybeentoldorsuggestedthatmyresearchwasunethical.Orobsolete.Ihavebeen‘challenged’bybeingaskedhowIwouldfeelifsomeonestartedobservingandcommentinguponthepeopleIidentifiedwithandourculture,beingpresumedthatitwouldnotnormallybethecase.IrespondedbyadmittingIwouldbeinitiallysuspicioustoo.Isharedmycommunity’srelationtoanthropology.IillustratedthedefinitionofanthropologyIembraced.IstressedthatitwasnotmyintentiontogetintoacompetitionbetweeninternalandexternalgazeandtoreplacetheMāoriviewpoint.Idescribedmystandpointascomplementarytotheinsiderone,providedthatno-oneisevertotallyoutsiderorinsider,6andthatone’sspecificexperiencesimpactonresearchasmuchasthe(not)belongingtothecultureinvestigated.OnoneoccasionIchallengedback,arguingthatitwouldhavebeenreallyinterestingtoseemycultureandtheWestingeneralthroughaMāorilens.Howwouldtheyperceivefacts,valuesandpractices?Howwouldtheyapproachresearch?Inthatcase,itwaspointedoutthatMāoricannotaffordthetimetounderstandothercultures,fortheyhavetodailystrivetolegitimateandpreservetheirown,andhavetourgentlyfaceissuesdeeplyaffectingtheircommunitywell-being.

TheconclusionisthattosomeextentIwasabletodefendanthropologyandtogototheothersideofworldinordertoworkwithMāori,becauseIwasprivilegedenoughnottohavetoconstantlyworryaboutdefendingmyowncultureandidentity.Inindigenouscontextsmanygrievancesremainfeedingresentment.Anthropologists’work–decontextualized,misinterpretedand"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

manipulated–maystillbemisusedbymediaanddominantinstitutions.7Furthermore,thebalanceofpowerstillfavouringPākehā(NewZealandersofEuropeandescent)overMāori,thelattercanexerciserangatiratanga(self-determination)inameaningfulwayinMāoricontextsonly(Metge1995:311).Basically,whenMāoriandItalkedaboutanthropology,wewouldoftentalkpasteachother,ourperceptionsofanthropologybeingrelatedtodistinctpastsanddistinctpresents.

ItisalsointerestingnotingthattheMāoriviewofculturedoesnotencourageanthropologicalobservationeither.Allexpressionswhichcanbelabelledasculture(symbols,rituals,language,arts,knowledgeabouttheworld)areclassifiedastaonga,atermcommonlytranslatedastreasures,preciouspossessions.Theyarethereforeexpectedtobetreatedwithrespect,preservedandtransmittedtotheinheritors,andarecollectivelyheldandmanagedbyiwi(tribe),hapū(subtribe),andwhānau.Theconsequenceisthat‘Māoriwhohaveinternalizedthisunderstandingaboutthenatureofknowledge[…]refusetogeneralizeaboutMātaurangaMāoriandspeakonlyofwhattheylearntandknowasmembersoftheirowniwi,hapūandwhānau’(Metge1995:310).Thisaspectemergedwheninterviewing,inasmuchasparticipantswouldfrequentlyclarifythattheycouldnotspeakonbehalfofallMāori,orthattheycouldonlyrefertotheexperienceoftheirowntribalgroups.Thismakesusreflectuponthefactthatthemereactofgeneralizinguponcultures,talkingaboutand‘handling’culturesdifferentfromourownissituatedintheWesternlogic.WhenwequestionourresearchpossibilitieswithMāori,weshouldmaybe‘worry’aboutthisaspectratherthantheMāoricurrentoppositiontothediscipline.

InMāoricontextsthecriticalapproachtoanthropologyasa"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

formofpoliticaldominationis,however,long-standing.ThecorrespondencebetweenTeRangiHīroa(orSirPeterBuck),thefirstMāorianthropologist,andthepoliticianandlawyerApiranaNgata,whoplayedapivotalroleintheresurgenceofMāoriprideandtheimprovementoftheirsocio-culturalconditionduringthefirsthalfofthelastcentury,providesanhonestandacuteobservationofanthropologyatthetime,whichremainstopical(Sorrenson,vols1–3,1986).In1928NgataexpressedhisdistressatthewayAnglo-AmericananthropologistsrepresentedMāoriandothernativepeoplesnegatively(Sorrenson,vol.1,1986:91–2).Inresponsetothatcomment,Buckadvocatedthecreationofanindigenousapproachtoculturalanalysis(Sorrenson,vol.1,1986:121–2).WealsoseeBuckconsideringandopposingthecommonideathatMāorilackedabstractthinking(Sorrenson,vol.1,1986:236;cf.Metge1976:72–3),lamentinghowPākehāanthropologistsnormallyglossedoverMāoricorrectionsandopinions,whenevertheytriedtomaketheirvoiceheard(Sorrenson,vol.2,1986:172),andrevealingthePākehāeconomicandpoliticalintereststhatlaybehindthemissionto‘civilize’theMāoriandtheuseofanthropologytofulfilthosegoals(Sorrenson,vol.2,1986:209–10).WeevenseehimreflectingaboutthepossibilitiesandlimitsofhisviewasinsiderinMāoriculture(Sorrenson,vol.1,1986:123–4).

BuckandNgataquestionedtheauthorityofWesternanthropologistsandtheirmethodsandgoals,butbelievedthattheanthropologicalapproachtoculturecouldbeusedtotheirownbenefitandintheirownway.Attheturnofthetwentiethcentury,followingthelandwars,Māorihaddecreasedto15percentofthepopulationandlostmostoftheirlands.MoralswerecollapsingandmanyMāoriweredismissingtheirpracticesandlanguage,"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

assimilationbeingseenastheonlyoptionavailable.Giventhisscenario,‘NgataandTeRangihoasawAnthropologyasatoolforculturalrecoveryandforexpressingandmaintainingadeeply-heldsenseofidentityandculturalbeing’(Kahotea2006:6).Asamatteroffact,BuckwroteseveralethnographicmonographsonMāoriculture,documentingelementsofMāoriculturethatweredisappearingorhaddisappeared.

Atfirst,IbelievedBuckandNgata’sstancecouldlegitimizeandeaseapossiblecollaborationbetweenanthropologyandMāoriresearch/erstoday.TheMāorianthropologistKahotea(2006)alsoreferredtoBuck’sworkandapproachtoanthropologytojustifyhiscommitmenttotheanthropologicalresearch.Nonetheless,thescenarioIhavesketchedinthepreviousparagraphsuggeststhatattheirtimetherewasnoalternativebuttopromotechangewithinanthropology.Consequently,theuseofresearchtobenefitthecommunity,thereflectiononanindigenousapproachtoresearch,andtheefforttochallengeWesterndeterminationwithinresearchcouldberatherviewedasaprimevalattemptofscientificself-determinationandthusanearlyformofMāoriStudies.8

Inanycase,followingtheSecondWorldWar,thesocio-politicalandeconomiccontextchangedradicallyandcertainlyleftlittlespaceforsimilareven-handedvoices,9andMāoridefinitelygottoviewanthropologyasthestrongholdofthePākehādefinitionofMāori.10TheMāoriupsurgeatthenationalpoliticallevelwhichisnotsolelyaboutrecognition,butisalsoanexpressionofindigenousconscientization(Smith,G.2003),eventuallyenabledthemtoemancipatefromanthropology.SeekingtoelaborateanautochthonousapproachcognisantoftheWesternnotionofresearch,itisarguablethatMāoriStudies"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

representtheintellectualpursuitofBuck’sandNgata’sidealstoday.Thiswouldcorroboratetheargumentthatanthropologyisoutdated,havingbeenreplacedbyindigenousstudies.Yet,MāoriStudiesgobeyondthewayofthescopeandinterestsofanthropology,andthelatterdisciplineisnotmerelyaboutunderstandingindigenouscultures.Ratherthansubstitutinganthropology,IarguethatMāoriStudieshavegainedtheirowndisciplinarydignityandspacewithintheacademia.

FacingPoliticstoBridgeDisciplinaryDistance

SincethecontroversybetweenanthropologyandMāoriresearchstemsfirstandforemostfromthehistoricalcontext,tonegotiateaspaceasananthropologistIhadtoencompassthepoliticaldimensionofMāoriStudies,itsimplicationsandresponsibilities.ThefactthatIwasdoingMāori-relatedresearchandsituatedmyselfinaMāoriacademiccontexthadpoliticalandethicalimplications,whichfullyemergedintherangeofreactionsandqualmsmypositioningraised.IdonotnecessarilyrefertoMāorireactions.IincludetheresponseofanthropologistsorstudentswhostayawayfromMāoritopicsbecauseofthepoliticalreality,and,aboveall,thereactionsofnon-MāoriNewZealanders,particularlyPākehā.

Non-MāoriwerestartledasmuchasMāoriwerebymyinterestinindigenouselementsandissues.Afewofthem–usuallypeoplewhowereknowledgeableaboutindigenousculture–applaudedmyinterestandapproach.Inmostcases,Iwouldperceivecircumspectionandmalaise.Someseemedtobeexperiencingafeelingofinadequacyvis-à-visthefactthatI"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

possessedabetterknowledgeaboutMāorithantheydid.OthersseemedtoautomaticallyinterpretmyattemptstolearntheMāorilanguageandtheMāoriwaysasmysidingwiththeindigenouspeopleinanallegedbattlebetweenMāoriandPākehā.SometimesIwas‘reminded’howMāoricultureisunauthenticandmerelypolitical,ortoldthatMāorihadpushedbeyondlimitsthe‘storyoftheTreatyofWaitangiandtheland’.11Morefrequently,IwasgentlymadetounderstandthatIcouldnotreallyappreciatehowthingsworkedbecauseIwasnotaNewZealander.

Consequently,onecannotignorethepoliticswithoutde-historicizingMāorihostilitytowardsanthropologistsand,moregenerallyWesternobservers,which,asnoted,isthelegacyofcolonialism.Idonotbelievethisisareasontoputahalttoanthropologically-informedresearch.WhenSmithidentifiedfourformulasofculturalsensitivitythatcouldaccommodateforWesternpresence,sheactuallymentionedthe‘strategyofavoidance’(1999:176).Itmightbearguedthatiftheresearchersarenotpronetoengagement,dialogueandunderstandingofindigenousneedsandpractices,avoidancemightbepreferable.However,itwilleventuallybenefitno-one,asclaimedbySmith(ibid.).Avoidancecontributestocreateand/orsolidifybarriers.Italsoamountstoacceptanceof‘epistemologicalracism(i.e.whatisconsideredlegitimateepistemologyintheacademy)aswellasofsheerindifferenceandignoranceofthesortthattakesWesternepistemesforgrantedastheonlyvalidpointofdeparture’(Kuokkanen2007:67).12

Avoidanceisnotnecessarilyindicativeofculturalsensitivityeither,insofarasfearseemsmorecommonlytodictateitaswellasadesiretospareoneselfthetroubleofcomplexnegotiations,andunwillingnesstoquestionone’smethodologyandvaluesto"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

experimentwithdiverseapproaches(cf.Reilly1996:404).Fromthispointofview,avoidancesuggestscompliancewiththedominantviewofindigenouspeopleandissuesasproblems.InNewZealandMāoriareperceivedasaproblem(Walker1996)andsoistheMāori–Pākehārelationship(Maaka2008),leadingSmithtoarguethat‘problematizingtheIndigenousisaWesternobsession’(1999:91).

Duringmyfirstdifficultiesanddiscomfortinthefield,Ifellvictimtothistritediscourse,byviewingMāorireluctancetowardsWesternobserversand/oranthropologistsasaproblem.RealizingthatIhadbeenconformingwith,andthusperpetuating,thedominantdiscoursehadasignificantimpactonmyfield-approach.Accordingly,Istartedtoviewthesituationasonewherehistoricalcircumstancesinflamedsuspicionoftheresearcher,andtofocusonwhythingshadbeeneasierinthepastratherthanthereasonswhy‘itishardtoworkwithMāoritoday’.Indeed,theissueisnotsomuchthat‘collaboration’usedtobeeasierbecauseofpowerimbalance,butaboutanthropologyhavingbeenspoiledbydecadesof(apparent)collaboration,13whichmakesithardertoacceptandcopewithobstructionsandenmity.

Thus,ratherthandiscontinuinganthropologicalresearchaboutindigenous-relatedissues,oneshouldlookforortrytobuildbridgestowardscollaboration,mutualrespectandunderstanding(cf.Hendry2007,Hendry&Fitznor2012)andshouldconductresearchbearinginmindthepoliticalimplicationsoftheirwork.WhileIbelievethatanthropologicalinvestigationbecomespoliticalexercise,Iarguethatitspoliticaldimensionisquitesubtle.Itisaboutunderstandingthecurrentresearchconditionsastheresultofhistoryandpoliticsandbeingawareofthe"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

community’svulnerability;itisaboutbeingresponsibletowardsthecommunity,moreinclusiveoftheirvoicesandvigilantastothewaydataishandledandideasarearticulated.Refusingtofacethepoliticalissuesreiteratesthemistakeofanthropologistsinthecolonialera(cf.Asad1973;Sillitoe2006).Wecanbemercilesstowardsourpredecessors,overlookingprimevalformsofself-reflexivityandhistoricalconstraints,but‘thosescholarstodaywhoarecriticalofthecolonialmentalityofthattimearejustaslikelytobeblindtothecurrentpoliticalrealitiesinwhichtheyareentrappedandforwhichproblemisperceptionofthecurrentworldonelivesin;thepastseemsmucheasiertounderstandfromwithintheframeworkofthepresent’(Ottenberg1990:152).

IfounditilluminatingtovisualizethepoliticalarenawhereMāoriandnon-Māorimeetasamyriadofintersectingtrajectoriesandrelationships,ratherthanauniquetrajectoryoftwoculturesopposingeachother,aselaboratedbytheTorresStraitIslanderscientistMartinNakata(2007),whoconceivedthisspaceasa‘culturalinterface’.WhatIviewasanobstacleintheacknowledgementofthehistoricallegacyandthewayitimpactsonthe‘culturalinterface’istheenduringnegativeperceptionanduseoftheterm‘political’.ManyPākehāimplicitlyblameMāoristronglyassertingtheirMāori-nessaswellasanti-colonialideasandaspirationsbylabellingthemaspolitical.Likewise,thedominantdiscoursedemeansMāoriresearchbyidentifyingitasmerepoliticalactivism(cf.Sandri’schapter).WhatbemusedmeisthattheMāoricontextsarenotexemptfromthisperceptionoftheterm.InoticeditwasnotuncommonforMāoritoidentifythepositionofmoreintransigentorradicalscholarsandthinkersas‘political’,eventhoughitwouldoftenoccurinironicterms.Whataboutthe‘non-radical’researchers?Implyingthatinthatcase"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

therewerenopoliticsinvolvedcontradictedtheholismaswellastheengagementindecolonizationofMāoriStudies.InNewZealandthemereactofproudlyandovertlystatingone’sindigenousidentitycorrespondstoapoliticalstatement.Hence,weneedtoreviewcriticallythederogativeinterpretationsoftheterm‘political’asitinformsindigenous-relatedacademicdebates.

InvestigatingMāoriandRugby:HowsandAbouts

RugbyinformedmyfirstimpressionsofMāori,conveyingimagesofaproudandstrongpeopleconnectedtotheirheritagewhileintegratedintotheegalitariansocietyembodiedbytheAllBlacks,theNewZealandNationalteam.Thisoccurredinautumn1999,whenEnglandwashostingthefirstprofessionalRugbyWorldCupandIwastemporarilylivinginitscapital.InthatperiodahugebillboardofAdidas–sponsoroftheAllBlacks–washanginginTottenhamCourtRoad,oneofthebusieststreetsofLondon,displayingthetattooedfaceofaMāoriwarriorasasymboloftheteam.Notlongafterthebillboardhadcapturedmyeyes,IalsowatchedmyfirstAllBlacksmatchandtheirpre-matchperformanceofthehaka(Māoriposturedance),sensingimmediatelytheclamortheteamengenderedinEurope.WheneventssituatedmeonthecrossroadsbetweenEuropeandNewZealandandIstartedtoactivelygetinterestedinMāorirealities,rugbyseemedtoactasthebackgroundleitmotiv.EuropeanswhofoundoutaboutmyconnectionswithNewZealandwouldregularlyaskmequestionsconcerningthehakaandMāoriasrugbyplayers,voicingtheirrugby-relatedopinionsofMāoriandtheirstereotypesaboutindigenouspeopleatlarge.WhileinNew"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

Zealand,Iwouldlookatthingsagainsttheimagevehicledthroughrugby,noticingthatrealitypartlycontradictedsuchanidyll.IrealizedthatnotonlydidrugbyactasaninterfacebetweenMāoriandEurope,italsoemergedasthemainsitewhereMāoriandnon-Māoriwouldencounter.Also,IaccessedabroadervisionofMāoricultureandgraduallysensedthattherelationshipbetweenMāoriandrugbywasmuchmorethanthesimpleMāoriparticipationtoaWesternculturalpractice.Ithereforecametoviewrugbyasasitethatwouldprovidefurtherinsightsintothesocio-culturalandpoliticalexperienceofMāoriascolonizedsubjectsaswellasanindigenousminorityinapostcolonialsociety.

Thisishowanon-Māoriwomancomingfromanationwhererugbyisa‘traditionunderconstruction’,andwhohadneverbeenarugbyfanorplayedthisgame,endedupprobingintotheMāorirelationshipwithrugby.Mypersonaljourneygotmetoreflectuponthephenomenonandidentifyitasavaluableresearchtopic.Anthropologysuppliedtheconceptualandtheoreticalinstrumentsandthevocabularytoanalyseit.MāoriStudiesprovidedmewithguidance,intellectualsponsorshipandthechancetoactuallyinteractwiththeMāoricommunity.

However,myobjectofinvestigationsomehowmademynegotiationofaspacemoredifficult.‘Rugbyisjustagame’isarefrainonecancommonlyhearinNewZealand.Assuch,ittendstobeviewedaslackingrelevantsocio-culturalmeaningandbeingseparatedfrompolitics.Asimilartopicmaybeperceivedastrivial,ornotimpellentenoughwithinMāoriresearch,andevenwithengagedanthropology.Thetopicaswellasmyapparentlackofcredentialstoanalyseit(includingbeingawoman)mighthaveatfirstseemedtoconfirmtheassumptionthatMāoriaresupposed"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

tobestknowwhatissignificanttothem.Itriedtodemonstratethatperspectivesoriginatingfromdistinctexperiencescaninsteadenrichthespectrumofindigenous-relatedknowledgeandIdeemthattheMāoriworldviewassertingtheinterdependenceofallaspectsofreality,itshouldsanctionsuchcomplementarity.

Theresearchconfirmedthatrugbyhasbeentheobjectofaprocessofindigenization,aimingtofulfilMāoriendsofsocio-culturalcontinuityandpoliticalrecognition.IthasallowedMāoritotransmitsomeoftheirvaluesandpracticesasameansofsafeguardingandre-invigoratingindigenoussocialdynamicsundisturbed.DuetotheelevatedstatusofrugbyinNewZealandsociety,rugbyhasalsobecomeaprivilegedsiteforMāoritoparticipateinmainstreamsocietyandaplatformtoreaffirmtheirvaluesanddefinetheiridentitylocally,nationallyandinternationally.Today,itisalsoseenasasiteofsocialupwardmobility.Nevertheless,rugbyhasalsoemergedasbeingstillinstrumentaltothecontrolofMāoriculturalagency,representationandself-determinationwithinthewidersociety.Ithereforeindividuatedanambiguousanddialecticsite,whichbearstestimonytobothPākehāhegemonyandMāoriresilienceandhasambivalentrepercussionsonthecontemporaryindigenouslivedexperiences.IbelievethisinvestigationcontributestodiscloseelementsthatimpingeonMāoriself-actualizationandintegrationaswellastohighlightMāorisocio-culturaldistinctivenessandvitalityandtheiraspirationsandneedsincontemporarysociety.

DuringfieldworkIalsotriedtoencompassaspectsofMāoriresearch,movingtowardsacross-culturalmethodology.14BysituatingmyselfatMāoriStudies,IhadunawaresadoptedthetiakiormentorshipstrategyidentifiedbyGrahamSmith(Smith,"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

L.T.1999:176).Itwaseasytoalsoendorsethestrategyof‘personaldevelopment’(ibid.),wherebythenon-WesternresearcherbecomesknowledgeableofandparticipatesinMāoriculture,insofarasitisagiven-for-grantedprocedureinanthropologicalresearch.SincemyarrivalIclearlyimmersedmyselfintheMāoriculturalworld,whichincludedlearningtheMāorilanguageattendingbothuniversityclassesandthecommunity-basedTeAtaarangiclasses15atthemarae.Followingthepōwhiriorwelcomeceremonyatthemarae,Istartedtotakepartinthehuioftheuniversitymaraeaspartofthetangatawhenua(hosts)ratherthanthemanuhiri(guests).Thisincludedwelcomingandhelpingoutduringthehui.

However,mypersonaldevelopmentalsoinvolvedelementsthatwerenotcomprisedinmytrainingasananthropologist.Imovedtowardsacollectiveapproachbywelcomingtheideas,suggestionsandexpectationsofparticipantsandMāoriresearchersandbeingavailabletoanswertheirquestionsabouttheresearchandmyownexperience.Theinterviewturnedintoaniceinteractionwhichfirstandforemostenrichedmeasaperson.Thepurportedconstructionofalong-termacademicrelationshipwithMāoribecamemorecentral.Thequestion‘HowwilltheresearchbenefittheMāoricommunity?’becamelessvagueandmorerelevantandIgrewmoreresponsibletowardsthepeopleinvolvedinmyresearch.Ialsolearnttobemorepatientandflexible,inspiteofthepressureofinstitutionaldeadlinesandparameters.

IdidnotrelatetopeopleasaWesternresearcherinanthropology,butasanindividualwhoseidentitywasnolesscomplexandmultifariousthantheMāoriones.Idisclosedmywhakapapa(genealogy)asanItalianandthatenabledpeopleto"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

establishafirstconnection.Insituationslikegatheringsorfirstcontact,Ilearnttodiscloseitthroughthepepeha,asetofversesinMāorilanguagewhichdefinestheindividualinrelationtotheirlandandtheirsocialrelations.Somepeople,adultsandparticularlyelders,sawaconnectionwithmyItalianidentitybecauseofthehistoricalrelationshipthatthesoldiersofthe28thMāoriBattalionestablishedwiththeItaliansoldiersandfamiliesduringtheSecondWorldWar,intheperiodcorrespondingtotheGermaninvasionofItalyfollowingtheItaliansurrendertotheAlliedforces.OthersestablishedaconnectionbecauseoftheirworkinteractionswiththeItaliandiasporacommunity,orbecausetheythemselveshadItalianancestry.16Fromthisfirstconnection,peoplewouldidentifyfurtherconnectionsbasedonwhattheypinpointedasculturalsimilarities,suchastheemphasisplacedonhospitality;theimportanceoffamily;theattitudetolife;thepassionforfood.Inrelationtotheformeraspect,Iconfessthatsomethingassimpleasreciprocatinghospitalityorsupportbymakingatiramisurevealedtobeatoolofconnection.Regardingmywhakapapa,IequallyoftensharedmyidentificationasaSouthernItaliananditsimplications.ThehistoryoftheareaIcomefromischaracterizedbyelementsofoppression,discriminationandpovertyaswellasofinternalconflicts.Stilltoday,inEuropeandintherestofItalySouthernItalianscanbetheobjectofnegativerepresentationsandstereotypes,whichechotheaccountsprovidedbyearlyobservers.

MovingfromthatItriedtoestablishconnectionsbasedonsharedinterests(suchasMāorirugbyorMāoriresearchatlarge)andexperiences,accordingtotheprinciplesofwhakawhanaungatanga,andgraduallycreatedanetwork.IthereforeinterviewedpeoplethatIhadgotfamiliarwithorpeople"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

thatotherMāori–actinglikeintermediaries–introducedmeto.Iabandonedtheuseofaformalemailasawaytoaskforaninterviewtoprivilegeface-to-faceoratleastphonecommunication.Ienteredintothespiritofreciprocitybyappreciatingtheiravailabilitythroughakoha(gift)thatrepresentedsomethingfrommyculturewheneverpossible,andbyengagingtosendresults.IlearnttovaluemanaratherthanstatusinWesternterms,andtriedtorespectparticipants’manabynamingthemandacknowledgingthemasasourceofmyknowledge.IdecidedtowritemythesisinEnglishinsteadofItalian,sothatitcouldbeaccessibletoMāori,andcommittedtoacknowledgetheMāorilanguageasataongaandaspartoftheMāorilivedexperiencesbyrespectingtheuseofthemacronandavoidingitalics.Finally,Iincludedlengthysectionsoftheinterviewsinthethesis,sothatthereadercouldactuallyencountermanyvoiceswithdifferentpersonalities,experiencesandperspectives.Myhopewasthattheresearchwouldemergeasachoralwork.IequallyhopedtheresearchtobeaplatformwhereexistingvoicescouldarticulatethemselvesratherthanaspacewhereIwouldpurelygivevoicetoindigenousideasandaspirations.Alltheseadjustmentsmayseemlike‘minutiae’,buttheyalsoallowedmetoinitiateaconversationwhichwillhopefullybecontinued,andtodevelopawarmsenseofbelongingontheothersideofmyworld.

Conclusions

MyexperiencesuggeststhatworkingwithMāoriasananthropologistandanon-indigenousresearcherisachievable,and"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

tosomeextentdesirable,notwithstandingdiversifiedobstacles,whichcanbemetinbothanthropologyandindigenousstudies.In2012,duringaconferenceonindigenousresearch,aMāorianthropologist(Muru-Lanning2012)talkedaboutthewayshecarriedoutdoctoralresearchinherowncommunityincompliancewithMāoriperspectives,practicesandvalues.Thisparthadtobedeletedfromherthesischapteronmethodology,foritwasnotconsideredtobeanthropology.Ironyoffate,Ihadjustpresentedapaperaboutmyownexperienceasanon-indigenousanthropologistworkingwithMāori,includingabriefbutpassionateapologyofcurrentanthropologyanditspossibilitiesinindigenousresearch.Ifanthropologyexpectsresearcherstounderstandandparticipateintheculturalrealitiestheyanalyse,whyshouldnotthisextendtoresearchpractices?

Asforme,Ihavesometimesbeenclassifiedasacaseof‘gonenative’.Asaresponsetomyideas/ideals,IhavebeenoncetoldthatIdidnotneedtodoaPhDandshouldhaveinsteadtrainedasasocialworker.Moregenerally,IhavesufferedthecollisionbetweenmypatienceandmydesiretobeanaccountableresearcherintheMāoricommunityandarealitymadeofrigidtimetables,scarcityoffundingandspecificexpectationsastothewaythingsneedtobedone.Theseelementsraisefurtherquestions.Partly,theyarerelatedtothewayweconceiveanthropologicaldistance.Inmyview,itcorrespondstoalevelofemotionaldetachmentfromculturalassumptions,whichresultsfromandfurtherfostersthedevelopmentoftheacademicapproach.Itisanuneasyprocess–forourownculturalexperienceslosesomeoftheiremotivestrengthandspontaneity–whichenablestheindividualtoanalyseculturalissuesanddevelopthepotentialtoachieveadegreeofinsideraccesstoother"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

socio-culturalrealities.Partly,thequestionsarerelatedtotheawarenessoracceptanceofourhistoricalobligationsaswellasofourdisciplinaryresponsibilities,asasciencedealingwithhumanbeingsandthewayswemakesenseofourlives.Overall,theoverviewofcurrentissueswitnessesfearoflosingdisciplinarycontrol(cf.Sillitoe’schapter).

Indigenousanthropologistsareprobablyinthemostuncomfortableposition.Aimingtobeviewedasaccountableinbothcontexts,theyareperceivedas‘notanthropologistenough’or‘notindigenousenough’.TheMāorianthropologistKahotea(2006)wroteabouthisdilemmasastohowpositionhimselfinthefieldofanthropologyasaMāori.HeeventuallydidnotmentionKaupapaMāoriresearchandyetlaterrealizedthathisroleasanativeinformantrespectingMāoripracticesandhisbeinginscribedinthetraditionofMāorianthropologyautomaticallyalignedhisresearchtotheKaupapaMāorione.

Inindigenouscontexts,theissueisthehostilitytowardswhatappearsasWestern.TePungaSommerville(2011),aresearcherinEnglishliterature,noticedthatbecauseoftheconstantassociationofKaupapaMāoriresearchtoconceptsofresistanceanddisenfranchisement,Māorihavetendedtorestrainfromdoingresearchwithinfields–suchasherown(andIwouldaddanthropology)–orabouttopicsthatseemnottobeusefultoMāori,ordonotinvolveMāoriorarenotassociatedtoMāori‘traditional’waysofbeing.SuchunionmayevenleadMāoritodisregardliteraturewrittenbynon-Māori.Ratherthanwondering‘whatit[KaupapaMāoriresearch]enables’,shethusasked‘whatdoesitshutdown?’(2011:8).

MyquestionisifthecreationofindigenousstudiescanentailtherelinquishmentofallWesternelementsinindigenous-related"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

research–anditnecessarilyhasto.IarguethatMāorirugbyandindigenousstudiesarenottoodissimilarculturalphenomena.IliketothinkofthelatterastheindigenizationoftheWesternconceptofresearch.Whilethisphenomenonwitnessescreativity,resilienceoflocalepistemesandvalues,andenfranchisementwithinknowledge,theWesternoriginsofresearchandthefactthatindigenousstudiesusuallyoperatewithinaWesterncontextcannotbetranscended.Inresearch,likeindailylife,therearenoessentialdefinitionsofwhatisWesternandwhatisindigenous,fortheyhavelongoverlapped.

SomeoftheelementsIhavesometimesnoticedinMāoricontexts–judginginternalandexternalgazeinbinaryterms(good/bad),perceivingnon-indigenousindividualsinessentialistterms,fearingtobelabelledas‘political’–actuallyreproduceWesterncriteriaofdefinition.Thepictureisjustreversed.TheissueisthattheyaresomeofthediscoursesthathavebeenusedtodisenfranchiseMāorianddelegitimizetheirepisteme.Theyalsoovershadowindigenousviewswhichwouldonthecontraryfacilitateinclusivenessandcollaboration.Theemphasisonblatant‘Western’signseclipses‘theinternalizationofthesymbolicviolence’(Andersen2010:23)wherebytheEuropeanshavecontrolledtheindigenous,andsoconcealthefactthatthepowerofcolonialismconsistsinlivinginthem.

TheMāorischolarBorellpointedoutthatMāoriresearchers‘mustensurethatdecolonisingprojectsatastrategiclevel,donotbecomere-colonisingprojectsatanoperationallevel’(2005:40).TheMāoriscientistHokowhituadvocatedthatindigenouspeopleand,consequently,indigenousstudiesshouldmovebeyondtheconceptofdecolonizationitself,for‘theassertionofIndigenousself-determinationinconstantreferraltothecolonisingother"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

merelyservestore-establishtheneo-imperialcolonialpowerstructurethemselves’(2010b:210).Inthissense,Ithinkthatindigenousself-confidenceandself-esteemplayanimportantrole.Myimpressionwasthatindividualswhohadamoresecureidentitythanotherstendedtobemoreconciliatoryoropentowardsanthropologyandnon-Māoriresearchers.EncountersanddialoguescancontributetogrowsuchconfidenceaswellastofosterreconciliationwithwhatitisviewedasWestern.Themultipleconversations/confrontationsMāoriandIhad–asintellectualsandculturalsubjects–certainlybreachedmanybarrierscreatingpossibilitiesforreciprocalunderstandingandself-questioningaswellassharing.

Asadisciplinethatacknowledgesculturaldiversityandaimstounderstandcultures,IbelievethatanthropologyispotentiallytheWestern-defineddisciplinethatcanmoreeasilyaccess,makeintelligibleandlegitimatebeforetheWesternscientificworldthediversityandexigenciesofindigenousresearch.Ialsoviewitsengagementwithindigenousrealitiesasaresponsibility.AsforMāoriStudies,itopensupvariouspossibilitiesforcollaboration,because‘whileMāoriStudiespositionsMāoriculture,knowledgeandvaluesatthecentreofinvestigationandrepresentation[…]itcanalsobeabridgingpointbetweentheoreticalanddisciplinarymultiplicity’(Gonzalez2010:13).UndertheumbrellaofKaupapaMāoriresearch,anthropologyandindigenousstudiescanpotentiallyco-existasdisciplinescontributingintheirownwaytotheunderstandingofMāoriissuesandrealities.

References


Andersen,C.2010.MixedancestryorMétis?inIndigenousIdentityandResistance:ResearchingtheDiversityofKnowledge,editedbyB.Hokowhitu.Dunedin,NZ:OtagoUniversityPress,23–35.

Asad,T.(ed.)1973.AnthropologyandtheColonialEncounter.London:IthacaPress.

Bensa,A.andBourdieu,P.1985.QuandlesCanaquesprennentlaparole.Actesdelarechercheensciencessociales,56(1),69–85.

Best,E.1921.TheMāorigeniusforpersonification;withillustrationsofMāorimentality.TransactionsandProceedingsoftheRoyalSocietyofNewZealand,53:1–13.

Bishop,R.1998.Freeingourselvesfromneo-colonialnominationinresearch:AMāoriapproachtocreateknowledge.QualitativeStudiesinEducation,11(2),199–219.

Borell,B.2005.LivingintheCityAin’tSoBad:CulturalDiversityofSouthAucklandRangatahi.UnpublishedMAthesis.MasseyUniversity,NewZealand.

Bourdieu,P.2003.Participantobjectivation.JournaloftheRoyalAnthropologicalInstitute,9,281–94.

Calabrò,D.G.2011.TheIndigenizationofRugbyinNewZealandanditsRoleintheProcessofMāoriIdentityDefinition.Unpublisheddoctoralthesis.UniversityofMessina,Italy.

Clifford,J.2004.Lookingseveralways.CurrentAnthropology,45(1),5–30.

DeMartino,E.1941.Naturalismoestoricismodell’etnologia.Bari:Laterza.

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ItalianTarantism,translatedbyDorothyLouiseZinn.London:FreeAssociationBooks.

Evans-Pritchard,E.E.2004[1951].SocialAnthropology.London:Routledge.

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Gupta,A.andFerguson,J.1997.Disciplineandpractice:“Thefield”assite,method,andlocationinanthropology,inAnthropologicalLocations.BoundariesandGroundsofaFieldScience,editedbyA.GuptaandJ.Ferguson.BerkeleyandLosAngeles:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,1–46.

Hanson,A.1989.ThemakingoftheMāori.Theinventionofcultureanditslogic.AmericanAnthropologist,NewSeries91(4),890–902.

Hendry,J.2007.BuildingBridges,commonground,andtheroleoftheanthropologist.JournaloftheRoyalAnthropologicalInstitute,13(3),585–601.

Hendry,J.andFitznor,L.(eds)2012.Anthropologists,IndigenousScholarsandtheResearchEndeavour.SeekingBridgesTowardsMutualRespect.NewYork:Routledge.

Herzfeld,M.1992.TheSocialProductionofIndifference.ExploringtheSymbolicRootsofWesternBureaucracy.Chicago/London:ChicagoUniversityPress.

Hokowhitu,B.(ed.)2010a.IndigenousIdentityandResistance:"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

ResearchingtheDiversityofKnowledge.Dunedin,NZ:OtagoUniversityPress.

——2010b.Agenealogyofindigenousresistance,inIndigenousIdentityandResistance:ResearchingtheDiversityofKnowledge,editedbyB.Hokowhitu.Dunedin,NZ:OtagoUniversityPress,207–25.

Ito,Y.2004.OnMāoriStudiesasadisciplineanditsdifferentiation:Fromtheviewpointofsocialsystemtheory.TheJournalofNewZealandStudiesinJapan,11:11–23.

James,W.1973.Theanthropologistasreluctantimperialist,inAnthropologyandtheColonialEncounter,editedbyT.Asad.London:IthacaPress,41–69.

Kahotea,D.T.2006.The‘nativeinformant’asKaupapaMāoriresearch.MAIReview1,Article1,1–9.

Kuokkanen,R.2007.ReshapingtheUniversity:Responsibility,IndigenousEpistemes,andtheLogicoftheGift.Vancouver:UBCPress.

Lewis,D.1973.Anthropologyandcolonialism.CurrentAnthropology,14(5),581–602.

Maaka,R.1998.Arelationship,notaproblem,inLivingRelationship:TheTreatyofWaitangiintheNewMillenium,editedbyK.S.CoatesandP.G.McHugh.Wellington:VictoriaUniversityPress.

Mahuika,R.2008.KaupapaMāoritheoryiscriticalandanti-colonial.MAIReview3,Article4,1–16.

Mead,S.M.1997.Landmarks,BridgesandVisions:AspectsofMāoriCulture.Wellington:VictoriaUniversityPress.

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——1995.NewGrowthfromOld:TheWhānauintheModernWorld.Wellington:VictoriaUniversityPress.

Muru-Lanning,M.2012.ResearchingyourOwn:MāoriScholarshipPost-TreatySettlement.PaperpresentedatNgāPaeoteMāramatanga–InternationalIndigenousResearchDevelopmentConference,27–30June2012.

Nadel,S.F.1951.TheFoundationsofSocialAnthropology.London:CohenandWest.

Narayan,K.1993.Hownativeisanativeanthropologist?AmericanAnthropologist,95(2),671–86.

Nepe,T.M.1991.TeToiHuarewaTipuna:KaupapaMāori,anEducationalInterventionSystem.UnpublishedMAthesis.UniversityofAuckland.

Obeyesekere,G.1997.TheApotheosisofCaptainCook.EuropeanMythmakinginthePacific.Princeton:PrincetonUniversityPress.

Ottenberg,S.1990.Thirtyyearsoffieldnotes:Changingrelationshipstothetext,inFieldnotes.TheMakingofAnthropology,editedbyR.Sanjek.NewYork:CornellUniversityPress,139–60.

Polack,J.S.1840.MannersandCustomsoftheNewZealanders,Vol.2.London:MaddenandHatchard.

Reilly,M.P.J.1996.EntangledinMāorihistory:Areportonexperience.TheContemporaryPacific:AJournalofIslandAffairs,8,387–408.

Sakamoto,H.2011.Researchingkapahakaanditseducationalmeaningsintoday’sAotearoa/NewZealand:Weaving


methodologies,perspectivesanddecency.TheInternationalJournaloftheArtsinSociety,6(3),57–66.

Salmond,A.1985.Māoriepistemologies,inReasonandMorality,editedbyJ.Overing.London:Tavistock,240–64.

Saunders,G.R.1993.‘Criticalethnocentrism’andtheethnologyofErnestoDeMartino.AmericanAnthropologist,NewSeries95(4),875–93.

Sillitoe,P.2006.Thesearchforrelevance:Abriefhistoryofappliedanthropology.HistoryandAnthropology,17(1),1–19.

Smith,G.2003.KaupapaMāoriTheory:TheorizingIndigenousTransformationofEducationandSchooling.PaperpresentedatKaupapaMāoriSymposium.NZARE/AAREJointConference,Auckland,NZ,December.

Smith,L.T.1999.DecolonizingMethodologies:ResearchandIndigenousPeoples.London:ZedBooksandOtagoUniversityPress.

Sorrenson,M.P.K.(ed.)1986.TheCorrespondencebetweenSirApiranaNgataandSirPeterBuck,1925–50,vols1–3.Auckland:UniversityPrintingServices.

Spivak,G.1990.ThePostcolonialCritic.NY:Routledge.TePungaSommerville,A.2011.NeitherQualitativenor

Quantitative:KaupapaMāoriMethodology,andtheHumanities,paperpresentedattheKeiTuaoTePaeconference,Wellington,5–6May.

Thomson,A.1859.TheStoryofNewZealand:PastandPresent,SavageandCivilized,vol.I.London:JohnMurray.

Trask,H.K.1991.Nativesandanthropologists:Thecolonialstruggle.ContemporaryPacific,3,159–67.

Walker,S.1996.Kiatauterangimarie.Kaupapa.MāoriTheory"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

asaResistanceAgainsttheConstructionofMāoriastheOther.UnpublishedMAthesis.UniversityofAuckland.

Webster,S.1998.PatronsofMāoriCulture.Power,TheoryandIdeologyintheMāoriRenaissance.Dunedin:UniversityofOtagoPress.

Yacin,T.,Mammeri,M.andBourdieu,P.2003.Dubonusagedel’ethnologie.Actesdelarechercheensciencessociales,150(1),9–18.


1IstartedmyPhDin2007.IwasinNewZealandin2008(February–December)coincidingwiththeNewZealandacademicyear.IwentbackintheperiodFebruary–March2009,inordertoobservesomeMāorirugbyevents,andshortlyvisitedinJuly2010.

2Thatfirstapproachtoindigenouscultureresultedinmyfour-yeardegreedissertation,whereIfocussedonthemaraeanditsrituals.

3Forexample,someweremoreinclusiveormorehostiletowardsanthropologyandnon-Māoriresearchersthanothers,buttheengagementtodecolonizationwasacommondenominator.

4SeeWendyJames(1973)andheranalysisofMalinowski’swritingsabouttherelationbetweenanthropologyandcolonialism.SeealsoSillitoe(2006)andhisreviewoftheapplicationofanthropologyduringBritishcolonialism,andBourdieu(1985)andhisobservationoftherelationshipbetweenanthropologistsandcolonialofficersintheFrenchcolonyofNewCaledonia.

5SeeOttenberg(1990:151)whorememberedgoingtodofieldworkinNigeriadrivenbyagenuineinterestandidealsofrecognitionandseeinghisfieldnoteslabelledascolonialistassoonasNigeriagainedindependencein1960.

6Thescientificapproachtofactsandeventscreateafirstelementofdisconnectionfromthecommunityweworkwith(cf.Narayan1993:679–80).

7Afamousexampleisthearticle‘USexpertstatesthatMāoricultureisaninvention’publishedin1990bytheNewZealandnewspaperTheDominionPost,basedonHanson’sarticle(1989),whichcausedaharshsocio-politicaldebate.

8Ontheotherhand,theMāorileaderswereabletoplayapreeminentroleinacademyandpoliticsbecausetheyparticipatedtothenewcolonialsociety.Insomecases,Buckwouldhimselfadoptstancesthatmirroredtheinteriorizationofelementsofevolutionismandculturaldiscrimination.Forinstance,heclaimedthedignityandefficiencyofMāoriculturebyreferringtotheirallegedAryanorigins(cf.Hanson1989).LikeWesternerslookeddownonMāori,hewouldlookdownonAfricans.ThesecontradictionscouldbeunderstoodviewingBuckasapersonalityin-betweentwodissociatedworlds,ashisdoublenamemightsuggest.Inthissense,notonlywastheemancipationofMāoriresearchfromanthropologyunfeasible,imaginationcouldnotconceivespacesofsocio-culturalinquiryonMāoriotherthananthropology.

9Ngatapassedawayin1950.NoleaderabletostirMāoriprideandenergyemergedafterhisdeath.ThecurriculumoftheMāoriboardingschoolshadbeenchanged,inordertoorientateMāoritowardsmanualandagriculturallabour.NewZealandadoptedanindustrialeconomy.ThiseconomicalchangeoriginatedthephenomenonofMāoriurbanization,whichdeeplyaffectedMāorisocio-culturalrealities.NewZealandalsoceasedtobeacolonyandthegovernmenttriedtoaccelerateassimilation.TheMāorilanguagehadnearlybeenlostandthewholecontextwasdiscouraging.AsafewMāoritoldme,fromthe1950stothe1970smanyMāoridownplayedtheirindigenousidentity


andneglectedMāoripracticesbecause‘itwasnotcooltobeMāori’.10ImustneverthelessmentionthecontributionofWiniataMaharaia.Hegaineda

PhDinAnthropologyin1954andupheldBuckandNgata’sidealsandviewsaboutthediscipline,butprematurelydiedin1960.

11On6February1840therepresentativeoftheCrownandvarioustribalchiefsmetatWaitangiintheNorthIslandtosignatreatythatestablishedBritishsovereigntyinNewZealand,recognizedtheMāoriownershipoftheirlandsandotherpropertiesandgrantedMāoritherightsanddutiesofBritishcitizens.Māoriviewlandconfiscationasabreachofthepromisesmadeinthetreaty.Apermanentcommissionofinquiry,knownastheWaitangiTribunal,wassetupin1975.ThetribunalmakesrecommendationsonclaimsregardingbreachesofthetreatybroughtbyMāoriandaimingtocompensationorlandrestitution.

12Myimpressionwasthatignoranceandindifferencewereingrainedintothemajorityofnon-Māoriopinionsof/attitudestowardsMāori.InNewZealandtheseconditionsarediscreetlycreatedbymainstreaminstitutions.Ignoranceisthussanctioned(cf.Spivak1990)andindifferenceisinstitutionalized(cf.Herzfeld1992).

13SeeYacin,MammeriandBourdieu(2003)andtheirconsiderationsontheillusionsofthefieldworkerregardingthecollaborationoftheobservedonesinthecolonialcontext.

14Cf.Gonzalez(2010)andSakamoto(2011)forotherexamplesofnon-MāoriresearcherstryingtobeinclusiveofKaupapaMāoriresearch.

15TeAtaarangiistheMāorireinterpretationofthesilentwaylanguagelearningmethodelaboratedbytheJewishlinguistCalebGattegno,whereCuisenairerodsareusedtoillustratethelanguage,spokenlanguageisprivilegedandlearningisstudent-centred.

16ThewhānauSciascia,whichnumbersmorethan2,000people,revolvesaroundtheeponymousancestorNicolaSciascia,amanwhomigratedfromItaly–notablyfromTraniintheregionofApulia–toNewZealandduringthesecondhalfofthenineteenthcenturyandmarriedaMāoriwoman,RiriaMcGregor.Furthermore,inthe70s,agroupofItalianswenttoNewZealandtoconstructtheRangipotunnelandquiteafewofthemeventuallymarriedMāoriwomenandstayedinthecountry.Accordingtostatistics,ahigherproportionofItaliansthanofanyotherNewZealandethnicgroupidentifytheirsecondethnicityasMāori.


Chapter4HidinginPlainSight:Assimilationandthe

EndofStory

RobynSandri

WhenIstandonmytraditionalGungarricountrythespiritsspeaktome.Iknowtheywhisperwiththerustleoftheleaves,inwhirlwindsandwashofbreezeagainstthelonggrasses.Isensetheirpresenceunderfootinthedust,inthebushesandthecreekripples.Iknowthespiritscallouttome,butIcannotunderstandtheirancientwordsformyear,likemytongueknowsonlyEnglish.Theoldspiritsknowmybloodlineandgreetme.Theysensemybelonging.Mygrandmother’s’ancestorslivedheresincethebeginninganduntiltheEuropeaninvasion.Theirshadowsspeaktomeindreams.Theysendmessagestomewiththeblackandwhitebirds.Theyarelongforgottenknowings,whicharefamiliar.Icanmakenosenseofwhattheywishmetoknow.

TheFirstPeopleofAustraliasurvivedEuropeancolonizationandarestillhere.By2050itisestimatedhalfofthenorthernAustralianpopulationwillbeAboriginalAustralians(ABS2012).Atleast75percentofAboriginalAustraliansnowliveinurbanandregionalareas.Sincecolonizationmanydonotknowtheiroriginalcountryandfamilies.Theirinter-generationallinkagestolanguage,culturalstories,lore,knowledgeandtraditional"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

connectionstothelandandkinarelosttothevastmajority.Itistheexistenceofculturethataffirmsapeoples’senseofbelonging,identityandself-worth.

ThischapterdiscussesapersonalperspectiveofRobynSandri’sexperiencesgrowingupasafair-skinnedAboriginalchildinAustraliaandcontextualizesitwithinherdoctoralresearchjourney.RobyngrewupinanAboriginalfamilyduringthe1960swithanAboriginalmotherandaWelsh–Australianfather.The1960swerelivedundertheshadowofFederalAustralianWhiteAustraliaimmigrationpoliciesaswellastheAboriginalActswhichaimedatmainstreamassimilationandintegrationofnativepeoples.Thefictitiousnotionof‘TerraNullius’fromfirstsettlementdemonstratedthatAustraliawasenvisagedbyBritishcolonizersfromtheoutsetasawhiteEuropeancountry.Aboriginalpeoplewhocouldpassasoliveskinned,whiteMediterraneanorIndianheritagedidsoinordertoavoidtheharshprejudicesandholdsomehumanrightsnotaccessibletotheAboriginalpopulation.ThetraumaticimpactofcolonizationprocessescontinuetoshapetheexperiencesofdailylifeforAboriginalsfamiliesinthissettlersociety(Sandri2013).

IndigenousorIndigenistresearchisanengagedresearchinthatitseekstoheartheauthenticvoiceofthenative.Itclaimssharedspacewithinthetraditionsofacademia.Indigenousexperienceandvoiceisnotsilencedor‘Othered’bytheWesternacademicinstitutions.To‘Other’identifiesthoseconsidereddifferentfromthemainstreamculture,itisusedtoreproducepositionsofdominationandsubordination.LindaSmith(1999)arguesthatIndigenousresearchdevelopedattheintersectionofpost-colonialtheory(includingtheoristssuchasFanon,SpivakandSaid)anddecolonizationtheory.Post-colonialismwas"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

traditionallyconsideredatimeperiodofhistoryof‘handingback’colonizedstatesbysupremepowerstooriginalinhabitants.Decolonizationtheory,unlikepost-colonizationtheory,acknowledgesthatthecolonistshavenotleft.Itcallsfor‘sociallyjust’recognitionandrespectforFirstPeoples.ThisiscontentiousgroundforFirstNationacademicsasresearchanddoctoratesarebynatureWestern.AsdominantWesternthoughtandwaysofknowingpervadewithintheacademy,securinganequalspaceorvoiceisdifficult.Itimplieschangeswithinthesystemicacademicauthority.

RobynrecentlycompletedresearchwhichreliedonemergingIndigenistresearchmethodologiesthatwereinformedbyinternationalnativeresearchersincludingArchibald(2008),Rigney(1999)andSmith(1999).Indigenousresearchincludestheuseofauto-ethnographysothatthevoiceoftheIndigenousresearcherisincluded.Narrativeresearchisusedsothattheparticipant’svoiceandpoweraremoreequallybalancedwiththeresearcher.IndigenousethnographyreplacestheuseofclassicethnographybecauseitoriginatedasawayfortheWesternresearchertoexploreandexaminethe‘exotic’Other(Patton2002).Indigenousethnographyexploresthenativevoicewithinitsownperspective,contextandexperience.TheIndigenousinstrumentsallowthestorytobeunfilteredbytheWesterninterpretativelens.Thestorieddataisnot‘Othered’.IndigenistresearchoffersexperiencesandvoicesofcolonizedpeopletobeaddedtothehistoricalaccountsofEuropeancolonization.Itoffersamorebalancedandtruthfultelling.InmyfamilyourAboriginalitywaskeptsecretfromtheoutsideworld.IdidnotfullydiscoverorunderstandthatwewereAboriginaluntilIwasinmytwentiesandlivedoverseas.In2006"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

IreturnedtoAustraliatoundertakeIndigenousdoctoralstudies.IwasunsureofmynativeidentitybutclaimedAboriginalityasitwasmyheritageandthefocusofmystudy.Iwasneitheran‘insider’nor‘outsider’.Iquestionedmysenseof‘self’and‘identity’.Ifself‘referstothesubjectandthesocialvaluesacquiredbyanindividualtopositionselfwithinaconstruct’(Kumar2000),IwasnotAboriginal.NorwasIfullyEuropeanAustralianasmanyofthenormsinmyupbringingwereAboriginalbutnotlabelledassuch.WhenIcontemplatedmylivedexperienceitdidnotfeel‘hybridized’ashalfofmyheritagewasnotcelebrated.Itwasconcealedwithshame.IrealizedthatwhatIsharedwithAustralianandotherinternationalIndigenouspeopleswasacolonizedposition.AsanacademicIidentifiedasa‘colonizedIndigenousperson’asthatbestdescribedmyworldviewandlifeexperienceswithinAustralia.

WhatIwasunpreparedforwastheassignedandentrenchedstigmaofAboriginalitywithintheWesternacademiccommunity.Inmydoctoralthesis,IconsideredthehistoricalandcontemporarydifficultiesforIndigenousfamiliesengaginginacademicandschoolingsystems.Allfamiliesinthestudyreportedincidentsofracism,inequalityandexclusion.Duringmyresearch,Idiscoveredmypersonalandracializedhistoryandtheinter-generationaltraumaexperiencedbypeoplewholivewithouttheirshelteringculturalstories,loresandbeliefs.

ThehistoryofthesettlementprocesswaslargelyunrecordedfromtheAboriginalperspective.Ithasnotbeenconsideredbythemainstreamintermsoftrauma,post-traumaticstressorinter-generationalandtrans-generationalnotionsoftraumatransference.Ifoundthistobeevidentincurrentinteractionswithauthorityfiguressuchasteachersandotherofficialsin"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

governmentinstitutions.Theimpactofinter-generationaltraumaonAboriginalchildreninschoolsisnotconsideredintheoryofpracticewithinschools.PoorAboriginalschoolingoutcomescontinuetobedeterminedasafamilyorindividualproblem(Malin2003).Thisisanexampleofblamingthevictimwhichalleviatesanysystemicresponsibility.

ThewomenofmymaternalKooma-GungarrilinelivedintheircountryintheMaranoadistrictofSouthWestQueenslandsincethebeginning.TheMaranoa‘mobs’ortribesaredesertpeople.Theyareknownas‘brown-water’mobs.Traditionally,tribalgroupswereidentifiedacrossAustraliabytheirwatersourceasitdifferentiatedgeographyandcountryaswellasways,customsandcharacter.Freshwaterpeoplewerethetribeslivingonthecoastalrivers.TheUndumbiorsaltwaterpeoplelivedalongthecoastlineandoffthemainlandontheislands.Salt-waterpeoplelivedwithayearroundabundanceofseafood,andlandanimalssuchasemuandkangarootohunt.Brown-waterpeopleweresupposedtohaveharderlivingconditions,althoughmygrandmother’stribalgrouplivedinlandswherekangarooandemuareplentiful.Theywerealsoafishingpeoplewithwideinlandriverstosupplyfish.Theyhadavarietyofnativebushfoodsforfruit,vegetablesandmedicines.WhileI’veneverlivedonmycountry,Ihavethisinnatesenseofknowingaboutit.Idonotfearthelizards,snakesandbirdlifebutIamnotcomfortablewithseacreatures.Idoeatanythingfromthesaltwater.Ilikethesenseofbelongingonthoselongdryplainsthatrunontothehorizonandtheemuandkangaroothatfilltheroadsatsunriseandsunset.MydreamingsandstoriesarefromthoseplacesalthoughIonlyholdasenseofthem.

Idonotknowtheoldculturalstoriesandeverydaywaysof"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

tribalpeople,soIdonotknowwhatitmeanstoatraditionalAustralian.Thelanguage,beliefsandlorewerealreadycolonizedoutofmyfamilywhenIwasborn.Language,knowledge,intelligenceandmemoryareallintertwined,andtheoldloreislostforeverwhenthelanguageisgone.MyoldpeopletellmethatIamrelatedtotheemu,thepossum,thebrownsnakeandthewind.Itdeeplysaddensmetonotknowwhatthatmeans.

TherereallyisnowaytoappreciatethedepthofthatinterconnectednesstoyourcountryandeveryotherthingunlessyouareAboriginal;andmaybeyouevenneedtheoldlanguageinyourheadtofullyknowit.TheAboriginalcreationspirits,knownastheWagalaksisterstravelledthelandfollowingtherainbowsnake.Thesnakemadethelandscapethentheycarriedthepeople,theirlore,languageandknowledgeintheirsacreddillybagsandplacedtheminthecountrywheretheybelonged.Thepeopleconnectedtotheircountryineveryway.Theywererelatedtoeachother,totheland,thebirds,animals,treesandplants.Theywererelatedtotheweather,theair,andthenightsky.TherearenowordsintheEnglishlanguagetodescribethisconnection.Thedeeperandsacredlevelsofculturearemissingnow.Thespiritsofthecountrystillholdtheirstoriesbutfewhavethelanguagetoknowthemnow.

Thestorieswereknownbythetribesincethebeginning,andthosestorieswrappedaroundthepeoplelikeaprotectivemantle.Theycarriedandaffirmedtheculture,andtaughtthetraditionalsacredwaysaswellasthecommoneverydaywaysfromonegenerationtothenext.Parentstaughtthechildren,andfamiliesheldknowledge,valuesandbeliefseveniftheywerenotspokenaloud.Theywereinnateandimplied.Ifchildrenareremovedfromtheirfamiliestheyareremovedfromtheircultural"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

protectionsandfromtheirculturalteachers(Halloran2004).ThecontributionofearlyanthropologistssuchasNormanTindale,CharlesMountford,FredericWoodJones,ThomasCampbellandRobertPulleineweretorecordandholdsomeknowledgeintheirpioneeringethnographies.Ironically,followingcolonizationanddisruptions,someoftheanthropologists’recordsholdtheonlyculturalknowledgeattimes.TheTindaletribalmapofAustraliantribalgroups,whilecontroversialandinaccurate,isusedinnativetitleclaimstoday.

Inallcultures,culturalmaintenanceallowspeopletoknowwhotheywere,andhowtheymatterinacapriciousworld.Itsexistencedependsonongoingculturalteaching.Anoralcultureismostvulnerabletolossbecauselifeisfragile.ItgaveAboriginalpeopletheirself-worthandself-esteem.Itofferedthemaspacewheretheybelongedandhadobligationsandwheretheymattered.When‘stolenchildren’wereplacedinnon-indigenoushomesandinstitutionstheyknewinstinctivelytheywerenotEuropean,buttheydidnotknowhowtobeAboriginal.Ifthecultureisdestroyed,peopleliveinaspaceofculturaltrauma(Aitkinson,2002)

Aboriginalpeoplewereforbiddenbysettlementprocessesandinmissionsfromtellingtheirstoriesandspeakingtheirlanguages.InitialattemptstodisperseAboriginalpeoplewerehighlysuccessful.DispersalactsdidnotopenlyencouragebutcondonedtheremovalofAboriginalpeoplefromsettlers’properties.Tribeswereforciblyremovedfromtheirlandassettlersfencedtheirproperties.WhatEuropeanofficialscalled‘dispersals’werereferredtobyAboriginalpeopleasthe‘fencingtimes’.Theyarealsoknownas‘thekillingtimes’assettlerledmassacreswerecommon."******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

Tribalgroupswereremovedtomissions.ThestategovernmentsassumedthatAboriginalpeoplewouldnotsurvivemodernizationandcolonization,sothemissionswouldprovideaplaceforthemtodieout.Whilepeopleweretreatedappallinglyonmissions,manywereprotectedfromviolentdeathsandmanydidsurvive(Harris2003).OtherAboriginalpeoplewereemployedbythepropertyownersortownpeopletoworkasdomesticscouldbeexemptedfromremoval.Theytypicallylivedinsmalltribalorfamilygroupsintowncampscalled‘yumbas’.

MygreatgrandmotherAliceandherfamilylivedontheBollonyumba.Ayumbaisapermanenttowncamporfringedwellingwhichwasoutsidetheboundariesofthetown.Theycouldbebuiltontheriver,thecemeteryorthetowngarbagedump.Thehouseswerebuiltfromwhatevermaterialswereavailable,suchasoilcanshammeredflat.Alicediedinchildbirthin1933whenshewas30yearsold.Sheandtheinfantwereburiedinanunmarkedgraveinthecemeterynexttotheyumba.

Thelocalpoliceman,asprotectorofAboriginalpeople,wassenttoinvestigateherdeath.Inhisreport,whichIlocatedinarchivesrecently,hewrotethatthefamilywasclean,wellfedandthechildrenweresenttoschool.Thefamilywasgrantedanexemptionbythepoliceman.Thismeanttheywouldnotberemovedtoamission.Regardlessoftheexemption,mygrandmotherAmyandherbrotherTommyweretakenwithotherchildreninthenearbytownofStGeorgeonedaywhentheywentshopping.TherewasasystematicandgeneralroundupofAboriginalchildrenasitwasseentheyneededtoberemovedfromtheirculturalteachersifAustraliawastobeaEuropeannation.

GovernmentshadsuchpoweroverAboriginalfamiliesinthe"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

1900sbecauseallAboriginalchildrenwerebornasstatewards.Parentshadnorightsovertheirchildren.Manybabieswereremovedatbirthinhospitals,otherstakenatanytime.Typically,itwasthepolicewhoremovedchildrenfromtheirfamiliesjustasitwasusuallypolicewhotookontheparamilitaryroleofremovingfamiliesfromlandandindispersingthem.

ThegovernmentdeemedthisactionnecessaryandurgentasmanyAboriginalchildrenlivingontheyumba’swerelightskinnedenoughtolookEuropean,yetgrowingupculturallyasAboriginalAustralians.Recently,GungarripeopleintheMaranoaareatoldmethatmygrandmotherAmywassenttoTaroommission,butthereisnorecordofherinthemissionregister.Shewas11whenremoved;Isuspectshemayhavebeensentouttoworkonaproperty.Shedidnotspeakoftheexperienceever,howeveronceshespokeofbeingacookinahotelinfarWesternQueenslandwhenshewas14.

At21theQueenslandgovernmentgrantedmygrandmothera‘CertificateofExemption’.ThismeantshewasfreetoliveasanyEuropeanwoman,providedshekepttothetermsofherexemption.Thesewerethatshedidnotspeakherownlanguage,didnotinteractwithanyAboriginalpeopleincludingherfamilyanddidnotdrinkalcohol.AsfarasIknow,sheneverdidanyofthesethingsincludingassociatewithherownbrothersandsisters.MymothertellsmeGrandmawrotealettertohersisterandarrangedforan‘accidentalmeeting’atarailwaystation.For10minutestwosisters,oneoliveskinnedandtheotherblackstoodtogetherontheRomarailwaystation.Iknowofnoothertimetheymet.

MygrandmothermarriedanAustralianmanwithaGreekfatherandEnglishmother.Regardlessofherethnicheritage,my"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

grandmotherreinventedherselfandherfamilyasGreek.Idonotknowwhatlifewaslikeforthem,buttheneedtoconcealtheirAboriginalitywasparamount.Whenshegavebirthtoaverydarkskinnedbabyboy,thefamilyclaimedhewasanadopted‘bushbaby’.Thefamilylivedwhatisknownnowas‘passing’or‘falsewhiteness’(Paradies2006).Inmyownfamilyasinmany,thefearofdiscoverywassorealnoteventhechildrenweretoldoftheirheritage.ManyotherAboriginalAustralianshavehadtheexperienceofdiscoveringasanadultthattheyareIndigenousAustralians.HistorianBrucePascoe(2008)livedsuchalife,andwhenhistraditionalheritagewasrevealedtohimhewentinsearchofhisculturalroots.Allthatwasleftofhisatleast40,000-year-oldheritagewasalistof14nounsfromthetriballanguage.

Mymotherwouldnottalktomeaboutit.Herdenialwassoingrainedandherfalselifesonormalizedthatshecouldnot.IcamehometoAustraliaand,afterspeakingtomyrelatives,putthethreadsofmyfamily’sstorytogether.IdroveinlandtoGungarricountrypassingasignthatread‘WelcometotheOutback’.Weweredesertpeopleandtheroadswerelitteredwithkangarooandemuroadkill.Ifoundtheextendedfamilyandoncetheyheardofmyheritagetheywelcomedme.TheywereobviouslyAboriginalpeople.TheyhaddarkskinandAboriginalfeaturessotheyhadnothadanyopportunityto‘hideout’fromthelackofrightsandracism.Thesewerethechildrenandgrandchildrenofourcommongreatgrandparents.

Theblackfamilywelcomedmehome,butnothingaboutitfeltlikemyhome.Theylookedoutatmefromtheirbrowneyestomewithmyfairskin,buttheyhadotherfairfamilymembersknownas‘fairskinnedAboriginalpeople’.InasmallbakerycaféintheQueenslandtownofMitchell,QueenslandIspokewithaman"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

whowasmycousin.HewouldtakemeuptotheCarnarvonGorgewhichwascentraltotheGungarri‘Dreamingstories’.Therewereancestorsstillthere;wrappedinbarkandtheirpossumskincloaksanddeepintheburialcaves.IthoughtitlikelythattheDNAfromtheancestorremainswouldlikelymatchmineinsomemeasure.

HetoldmetowalkoncountrywithmyshoesoffsoIcouldbecomeknowntothespiritsofthelandandancestors,andtheycouldtalktome.Ifoundfamilyineveryconversationwithstrangersineverycaféandstore.Idiscoveredoneofmygirlhoodschoolfriendswasmybloodcousin.Iwasdirectlyrelatedtomostintown.IwishIcouldsaythisgavemecomfortandasenseofbelongingbutIfeltnoconnection.Whathadbeenshadowsinmychildhoodwasnowreality.Storiesofkillingsandmissioninjusticesbecamemyfamilyheritageandmystoriestoo.Actsofcolonizationwerenolongerotherfamilies’stories.

Thestoriesbroughtasenseofknowingtome.ItwasasiftheywereremindingmeofthingsIknewoncebuthadforgotten.Myintuitionanddreamswerenowunderstandingswhichnooneevertaughtme.Ireadtheworldandlistenedtothewindallofmylife.ItreasuredthebirdsandwonderedwhatstoriestheyweredeliveringbutIneverspokeofthesethings.Ibelievedthesewaysweremyeccentricities,butIfoundnowtheywerelegitimatewaysofknowingintheholisticIndigenousconstructionofknowledge.IlearnedthatnotallknowledgeisWesternandsiloedawayfromthelandscapeinbooksanddatabases.Myblackfamilyhadwelcomedme,butmysocalledGreekfamilyshunnedme.Iwasdisturbingtheircreatedidentities.TheyhadinventedlivesofGreeksailors,workedinGreekcafés,cookedGreekfood.IwastoldbyanauntthatIwaspickingoverthebonesofhermother.I"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

hadwantedtofindwhereIbelonged,butintruthIfoundIwasevenmoredisconnected.Icouldnotidentifywiththelifeofthetraditionalfamilies,andmyownimmediatefamilyclosedranksagainstme.EvenmyprofessionalhomedidnotwanttoknowaboutmynewunderstandingsofAboriginalAustralianlifeandtheimpactsofcolonizationandwaysofknowing.Aheadofschooltoldme,thatifIdidnotgiveupmy‘Aboriginalinterest’,Icouldnot‘haveafutureatthisuniversity’.

WorkingintheAboriginalContext

MyreasonforreturningtoAustraliawastoundertakedoctoralstudies.Iwasworkingforthestateeducationprovider,EducationQueensland,establishingIndigenousplaygroupsnorthofBrisbane.Aboriginalchildrenwerenottransitioningintoschoolsuccessfully,andtheplaygroupinitiativewastocreatesomeinformalpathwaystoencouragefamiliesintoschoolsaswellasoffersomeacademicsocializationtothechildren.Bothmotherandchildattendedplaygroup,andthegoalwasforparentstoseesafetyandpartnershipsinschoolsasanoptionforthem.TheplaygroupswerepurposelylocatedintheschoolssoAboriginalfamiliescouldfeelculturallysafeenteringschools.Idecidedtousetheplaygroupexperiencesinmyresearch.

IlearnedmoreofthechallengesofAboriginallifeand‘notbelonging’.IassumedIwouldofferplaygroupsandperhapsadvertisewithaposterorlocalnewspaperadvertisement,andthefamilieswouldattend.No-onecame.Aboriginalfamiliestypicallydonotsendtheirchildrentoschoolsuntiltheyarelegallyrequiredtodosoatthecompulsoryage.Ididnotrealizethesenseof"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

exclusionandunwelcomethatAboriginalfamiliesexperienceinschools.Ifoundthisbeliefwastrans-generational.

IrealizedIwaspartoftheproblem.OneoftheAboriginalgranniestoldmetheythoughtIwas‘tooposh’withmyniceclothesandhowIspoke.Afterall,Iwaswhiteandeducated.Iwasworkingwithagroupofblackwelfarefamilies.IlocatedalocalcommunitywomanasanIndigenousteacheraidetoruntheplaygroup.Thefamilieseasilyrelatedtothenewleaderandfeltmoreculturallysafeintheschool.ItevolvedwithtimeintoanAboriginalcommunitysocialgroup,notagovernmentprogram.

Isatonthegroundatplaygroupandtoldthemothersmystory.ItoldthemwhoIwas,whomyfamilieswere,wheremycountrywasandmylife‘inhiding’.IthoughttheymayidentifywithmewhentheysawwedidhaveAboriginalityincommon.IhadassumedtheyknewabouttheirAboriginality,butIwaswrong.ThefamiliessawthatIwasopentothem,butdespiteoursharedheritageIremainedanoutsider.IhadnotfacedtheracismandtheconstructionofAboriginalitywhichshapedtheirlives.Ineverclaimedinsiderstatuswiththisgroup,asthatissomethingonlythegroupcanassign.Overatwo-yearperiodtheybegantotrustmeandsharedtheirstorieswithme.Thisledtomyengagedresearcherrolewiththeplaygroupfamilies.

TheResearchQuest

Ihaddevelopedtrustwiththeplaygroupanddecidedtorequestitsuseasmyresearchsite.IndigenousresearchshouldgrowfromanissuethatimpactsAboriginalpeople,notaresearcher’sideaforadoctoralthesis.Iwasimbeddedwiththeplaygroupfor"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

anotherthreeyearstoundertakethisresearch.AsIndigenousresearcherssuchasMartin(2008),Rigney(1999)andSmith(1999)attest,Aboriginalpeoplearetiredofbeingthesubjectsofresearch,especiallywhentheyseesofewpositiveoutcomes.Itwasimportantformeasaresearchertodonoharm,toberespectfulandofferbenefittothecommunity.MyobservationsofhowdifficultitwasforAboriginalfamiliestocomeintoschoolsstartledme.Iwascuriousastowhatcausedtheirdisengagementfromschoolsandfromcreatingeducationalpartnershipswithteachersandschools.

TheplaygroupwasdevelopingintoaspaceofculturalsafetywithintheschoolfortheAboriginalfamilies.Engagementbetweenparentsandteachers,andcommunityandschoolsareknowntobekeydeterminantsofsuccessfulschoolingandlifetrajectoriesforAboriginalchildren(Malin2003).Inoticedrealemotionaldifficultiessuchasanxietyandavoidancefrommanyofthefamilieswhentheywerecalledupontointeractwithteachers,principalsandschooladministrators.Ihadseenthatoneplaygroupgrandmotherrefusedtogointotheschoolatall.Iftheteacherwantedtospeakwithheraboutherolderchildren,theywouldhavetogotoherhome.AnotherwouldnotgotoschoolappointmentsandhadtobeaccompaniedbytheAboriginalcommunityliaisonofficer.TheseexperiencesdemonstratehowWesternschoolingisaculturalmismatchforAboriginalfamiliesandchildren.Thealsodemonstratedhowemotionalandtraumaticschoolingmemoriestravelledacrossgenerations.Eventuallythefamiliescameintotheplaygroupattheschoolhappilyandengagedwitheachotherinpositiveways.Significantly,Inoticedthefamiliespresentedaspassiveanddisengagedifwhiteresearchersorobserversattended.Myquestwastounderstand"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

acrossgenerationswhattheexperiencesofschoolhadshapedtheirdisengagement.

Methodology

IownthatatthebeginningIwasinfluencedbymyWesternscholarshipandtraininginAustralianandAmericanUniversities.Idesignedmyresearchprocesswiththeassistanceofmynon-Indigenoussupervisorasaqualitativeethnographicstudyusinginterviewingtechniqueswithpredeterminedquestions.IcametoseethatWesternresearchwasinnatelyothering.Indigenousworldviewremainsthepointofdifference.IndigenousresearchparadigmsundertakenbyIndigenousresearchersarewithinthecommonlensofheritage,history,socialandculturallifeworld.Bycontrast,WesternresearchersviewtheIndigenouscontextthoughtheirownlenswhichbynatureisothering.

TheuniversityEthicsCommitteetook18monthstograntmyapproval.ItwasaprocessdesignedforWesternmodelsofresearchanddidnothavethecapacitytoworkoutsideofthatcontext.WhentheyreadIwasundertakingresearchwithanIndigenouscommunitytheywantedapprovalfromthelocalcommunitycouncilorhealthservice.Iexplainedthatthiswasnotarural,remoteDeedofTrustcommunity(aDeedofTrustcommunityistypicallyanex-missionwhichisnowadministeredbyanIndigenouscouncil).IwasundertakingurbanresearchinasmalltownnearthemajormetropolitanareaofBrisbane.AtthistimethevastmajorityofAboriginalfamiliesliveinsuburbanandurbancommunities.TherewasnodesignatedAboriginalentity,aswouldbefoundinremotecommunities.WhenIdidsubmita"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

letterfromthetraditionalownerandelder,theethicscommitteewantedadocumentonofficialletterhead.Shewasanindividualinthesuburbssurvivingonagovernmentpension,notaregisteredorfundedorganization.

AttheoralpresentationanddefenceofmyoriginalresearchproposalanIndigenouspanelmemberalertedmetohowWesternmymethodologyandliteratureremained.IreadmorebroadlyaboutIndigenousresearch,methodologiesandknowledge.MysupervisorfeltIneededstrongWesterndesign,theoriesandliteraturetovalidateadoctoralthesis.Iwaspositionedinachallengingspace,balancingtheuniversity’sneedforWesternliteratureandmethodologieswithAboriginallivedreality.Systemically,theuniversitydidnothavethecapacitytooffermeanIndigenoussupervisorandIwastotallyunpreparedforthechallenges.

Ifoundmyinitialattemptstoworkwiththefamiliesandgatherinterviewdatawasunsuccessful.Parents,whowerefriendlywithmeinaninformalcontext,wereuncomfortablewithmynewofficialroleofuniversityresearcher.Theypreferrednottoseparatefromthesupportofthegroup,orfromtheiryoungchildrentospeakwithmeintheadjoiningoffice.Familiesbecamepolitelydistant,andpleasantlynon-responsivetome.Themothersrespondedtomyinitialdatagatheringtosaythatschoolhadbeenapleasantexperienceandtheyhaddifficultiesdoingthework.No-onereportedinstancesofracismorotheringproblemsatschool.ThisdatasupportedtheWesternassumptionsthatAboriginalpupilswere‘theproblem’.Themothersrespondedtomyquestionsinnon-contestingways;notdrawinganyattentiontotheirnegativeexperiences.

Fromtheoutsetitwasapparentthatmyresearchprocessand"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

designwereWesternandinnatelyothering.IcametounderstandthiswasanAboriginalstrategyofinvisibility.Theyhademployedinvisibilityasasurvivaltechnique.Infrustration,Idecidedtosimplyattendplaygroupweekly,sothenewerfamilieswouldgettoknowmeandintimerevealtheirrealexperiences.Iwouldaddpatiencetomyresearchtools.HadInothadsharedcolonizingexperiencesandtimewithintheplaygroupfamiliesImaynothaverecognizedthisasstrategy,andreporteddatawhichreinforceddeficitviews.WhenLindaSmith(1999)calledforIndigenousresearcherstofirstdecolonizethemind,Icametounderstandwhatshemeant.IworkedwiththeadviceofEldersandre-configuredmyresearchplantoadesignwhichallowedthecommunityissuestoemerge.IalsohadtodosoinawaytohonourtheWesternuniversitytraditionofadoctoralthesis.Isoughttobalanceresearchstyles.Therewereemergingnewethnographyandnarrativemethodologieswhichcouldbewellusedinbothdomains(Clandinin2007).

TheInvisibilityofWesternAssumptionsinResearch

AsIhaddesignedastudyacrossgenerations,Ihadalwaysplannedtointerviewmystorytellersinageorder,thuslocatingeachgenerationwithinitstimeperiodandcolonizationexperience.Thisdesignrevealedhowcolonizationhaddisruptedfamilies.Iplannedtointerviewacrossthreeorfourgenerationswithineachfamily.Icouldnotlocatethatmanygenerationsinanyoneplaygroupfamily.Manyoftheplaygroupmothersdidnotknowtheirparents,grandparentsortraditionaltribalcountry.ItwasdifficulttofindolderAboriginalpeopleassofewAboriginalpeopleliveintooldage.AccordingtotheAustraliaBureauof"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

Statistics(2010)Aboriginalpeoplehavealifeexpectancyofatleast17yearslessthanotherAustralians.InpersonalcommunicationAboriginalmedicaldoctorsreportmorestartlingfigures:inQueenslandthemeanageofdeathofAboriginalmenis57–58years.

AsIbegantoheartheirstories,Idiscoveredthatallofthefamilieswereimpactedbytheassimilationpolicieswhichremovedchildrenfromtheirfamilies.Iredesignmystudyastrans-generationalratherthanwithinfamilygroupsorinter-generational.NothingaboutmyoriginalWesterndesignexistedasitdidnotreflecttheworldofAboriginalAustralians;itdidnotaccommodatetherealityofcolonizedIndigenouslives.Isawhowimportantitwasforthemtoremaininvisible.

Initially,theplaygroupmotherspreferredtobeinterviewedwithinthegroup,howeverovertimetheywouldseekmeouttogivememoredetailortellmeotherstories.Thestorytellersdidnotwanttobeidentifiedintheresearch.Ihonouredthisrequestanddidnotnamethemorthetown.Irealizedthestorytellersdidnotliketheuseofaudiovisualdevices.Ihadplannedtorecordtheirstoriesandhavethemprocessedbyatranscriptionservice.Instead,Ilistenedtothestoriesasaconversationalpartner,andjustmadeafewnotesatthetime.Thistechniqueallowedthestorytellerstobeopen.ImmediatelyafterwardsIwroteoutthestoriesfully.Ithenwordprocessedthenotestothestoryandrevisitedthestorytellersfortheirreview.

AsIhadremovedthepredeterminedquestions,Iaskedthestorytellerstotalktomeabouttheirschoolingexperiences.IexplainedIwantedtounderstandiftheirschoolhistoryaffectedtheirattitudestoschoolandeducation.TheElderandgrandparentstorytellerswerelessconcernedaboutbeingidentified.Infact,"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

twooftheEldershadpennedautobiographiesandtheywereaccomplishedstorytellers.Theytoldtheirstorieswithalongtimeframe,knowinghowtheirownexperienceshadshapedtheirlonglives.Whiletheyoungmotherswerereluctanttotellmetheirstories,theEldersweresoforthcomingthatIhadtoturnawayoffers.Iwasapproachedbypeoplefromalloverthestatewantingtotellmetheirlifestories.TheEldersoftenspoketomeoftheirparentsandfamiliessoIfoundIwascollecting100yearsofIndigenousfamilyhistory.ThiswasasmallstudyofonlyfivestorytellersforeachgenerationsoitdoesnotrepresentallofAboriginalAustralianhistory.

TwooftheElderswere‘missionbred’,whichisthetermincommonusagebyAboriginalpeopletodesignatethosewhogrewuponmissions.Onefamilywasforciblyremovedtoamission.AnotherElderinthesamemissionhadmovedwithherfamilytoescapethefearofbeingkilledorstarvedofftheirtraditionalcountry.Bothmissionizedstorytellersspokeofawfulandinhumaneschooling.Oneofthem,UncleHenry,spokeofhowthelittlegirlswerewhippedontheirbarelegs.Another,AuntyRuth,toldmehowacatofninetailswasusedonthemregularly,‘Weweretreatedlikeprisoners,butwewereonlylittlechildren’,shesaid.Shehadpublishedthestoryofherchildhoodmissionexperiences(Hegarty1999).ThemostpoignantimageofmissionschoolswasfromUncleHenry.Hedescribedhowattheendoftheschoolday,thechildrenwereforcedtolicktheirslatesclean.TheimageIseeisoflittleAboriginalchildrenforcedtoswallowwhitewords.

AnothertwooftheEldersspokeabouthavingtopassaswhitetohavelifeopportunities.OnefamilyreconstructeditselfasanItalianfamilyandusedanItalianname.AnotherElderspoke"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

abouthowsheplannedtohavethechurchfundhereducationandsendhertothecitytotrainasateacher.Evenwhenqualified,shewasnotallowedbyauthoritiestoworkinmainstreamschoolsandwassenttotheTorresStraitstoteachblackchildren.ThefinalElderstorytellerspokeaboutlifeinamainstreamschool.Shesaidthat‘theteachersequatedintelligencewithskincolour’.Shewastopoftheclassacademically,butshewasnotrecognizedforherscholarshiporcalledupontoanswerquestions.Sheexperiencedracismandwasoftenexcludedfromlessons.Shedecidedthatifsheremainedsilentandinvisibleintheclassroom,shewasnotexcludedfromlessons.

WhiletheEldergenerationspokeofhorrificexperiences,Iwasunpreparedforthestoriesthenextgenerationofstorytellersweretotellme.Thesewerethestoriesofthestolenchildrenwhowereintheirfiftiesnow.Theycalledthemselves‘ustakenawaykids’.WhiletheHumanRightsandEqualOpportunityCommissionhadinvestigatedthepracticeandpublishedtheirfindingsin‘TheBringingthemHomeReport’(1997),Ifounditsanitizedtherealityoftheirlivedexperiences.Therealhorrorwaswhathappenedtothechildrenafterremoval.OfthefiveIinterviewed,onlyonewasplacedinahomewhichofferedhimrespectifnotlove.HewasremovedatbirthfromaSydneyhospital.Themotherwasreleasedwithoutherson.Shecameeverydaytobegforherbaby.Shewasneverallowedintoseehim,andcommittedsuicidebythrowingherselfunderatrain.Alloftheotherintervieweesspokeofsexualabuse.ThisoccurredwhethertheywereplacedininstitutionsorprivateEuropeanAustralianhomes.

However,whilefamilylinesweredestroyed,andAboriginalculturenottransmitted,thechildrenwereneitherAboriginalnor"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

white.Theyhadnosecureculturalidentity.ThesepoliciessawAboriginalculturedestroyed.Consequently,fewcontemporaryurbanAboriginalpeoplehavelittleknowledgeoftheirtribes,languageandculturallore.IalsorealizednoQueenslandeducationalpolicyconsiderstheimpactofthetraumaexperiencedbythesefamilies.

OverthetimeIwasimmersedintheplaygroupIbecameoneof‘themob’.Iwasassignedtheroleofadvocateandstoryteller,andIretoldthestoriesIhadgathered.Theyoungestcurrentdaymotherswhoinitiallytoldmepleasantstoriesbegantosharetheirrealexperienceswithme.Themostenduringthemeswereofexclusionandracism.ThemothersinsistedIhearthestoryofonenon-indigenousmothermarriedtoatraditionalAboriginalman.Shehadfourindigenouschildren.AccordingtotheAustralianBureauofStatistics(2012)thecontemporaryandupwardtrendisforAboriginalpeopletomarrynon-indigenouspartners.Consideringthistrendherstorywasrelevanttothisstudy.Whenshesentthechildrentothereligiousschoolsheattendedhappilyasachild,issuesrelatingtoAboriginalityemergedalmostimmediately.ShefeltanyissuethatoccurredwasconstructedasaproblemoftheirAboriginality.

TheSilenceoftheChildren

Ihadplannedtoincludethechildrenasafourthgenerationofstorytellers.Theplaygrouphubbecameaspaceofculturalbelongingintheschool,andjustasitwasusualforEldersofthecommunitytodropby,theolderchildrencamebytoo.Ididnotidentifya‘child’sample;Ijustsaidthatanyofthechildrenwhowouldliketooffermeastoryaboutschoolorplaygroupwere"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

welcometodoso.WhenIattemptedtointerviewthechildren,Ireceivednothingbutpolitesmiles.Iusedclassicartanddrawingtechniquesaswellaspuppetstotalkaboutschool.Thechildrenenjoyedthegames,especiallythepuppets,butrevealednothingnoteworthytome.Theyweresilent,justasmyownchildhoodsilencewasimperative.Itwasatechniqueofinvisibility.

IponderedwhytheyoungestgenerationwasreluctanttospeaktomewhenIwasknowntothem.IamnotsurethatEuropeanAustralianchildrenwouldhavebeensoreluctant.IfIwereanon-indigenousresearcheronatimescheduleImayhaveconstructedthesilenceindeficitways.Imayhavesurmisedthechildrenlackedsocialandconversationalskills,orthattheyhadlanguagedelays.Ifeltdeeplybutinstinctivelythattherewassomethinggoingonherethatreallymattered.IreturnedtotheEldersstoriesofschoolingexperiences.Theyallsaidtheyfeltunwantedatschoolandtheylearnedtostrategizeinvisibilityandsilencetogainaneducation.

ChildwelfareandchildprotectionservicesremainanenduringissueforAboriginalfamilies.Aboriginalchildrenremainover-representedincurrentremovalsofchildrenintostatecare.Theyare10timesmorelikelytoberemovedthanotherchildren(AustralianInstituteofHealthandWelfare[AIHW]2013).Mostareremovedonthedesignationofneglect,whichisdirectlyrelatedtopovertyandAboriginalAustralianslivemarginalizedandimpoverishedlivesonanymeasure(AIHW2013).Throughtheplaygroupyears,Icontinuedtowitnesshowreluctantthefamilieswereifwhiteresearchers,visitorsorchildsafetyofficerswerepresent.Thefamilieswouldnotcomeiftheyknewauthoritiesorstrangerswereattending,ordisengagebysittinginsilenceatthebackoftheroomandleaveearly.There"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

werebigrisksassociatedwithauthorityfigureslikepolice,teachersandsocialworkers.

TheplaygroupchildrenwerenotinterestedinmeasIwassimplyanotheradultatthesessions.Itdidnotgivemeaninsiderstatustothem,evenifthemothersofferedit.Theparentsmayhaveunderstoodthat,butIsuspecttothechildrenIappearedjustlikeanyteacherintheclassroomortheprincipalintheadministrationoffice.Ilookedliketheenemy,orlikethesortofpersonwhomighttakethemaway.EvenwhentheAboriginalmothersencouragedthechildrentospeaktome,theydidnot.Theireyeswoulddartfrommetotheirmotherslookingtobereleasedtorunoutsidetoplaywiththebikesorcarsorclimbontheplayequipment.

Inthestudy,eachgenerationaffirmedexperiencesofdiscrimination,racism,andlowexpectationsatschool.Theyalllivedwithfearandanxiety.AccordingtopsychologistMichaelHalloran(2004)peopleneedculturalsecuritytocopewithlife.Whendenied,Aboriginalpeoplehaveenduredculturalgenocide.Theysurviveinaspaceofculturaltraumawhichmanifestsinbehavioursandillnesssimilartoposttraumaticstress(Halloran2004).Sincecolonization,Aboriginalcultureremainsinremnantstoalostpeople.

PoliciessincetheearlycolonialdesignationofTerraNulliushaveunderpinneddiscrimination.TheAustralianConstitutioncontinuestoallowdiscriminationagainstAboriginalpeople.ItaffectsallIndigenousAustralians(Aitkenson2004).ProfessorMarciaLangton(personalcommunication2011)callsforthewords‘raceandethnicity’nottobeappliedtoAboriginalpeople.ItisatimeforhealingandhumanrightsforallAustralianpeople.Nowhereisthismoreapparentinthehealth,welfareand"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

educationofAboriginalchildrenwhoaredeniedchancesequaltothatofotherAustralianchildren.TheplaygroupcreatedchangeforthecommunityinwaysIneverexpectedwhenIbeganit.Thehopeistheplaygroupfamiliescametogetherintheprocessofreconstitutionorbuildinganurbantribe,gainingpowerintheprocess(Foucault1990).ThemothersarecreatingthenewAboriginaltribewiththeirstoriesofchangefortheirfamiliesandchildren.InAustraliaincreasingnumbersofpeopleareidentifyingalongsidethegrowingnumberofwhiteAboriginalpeople.Theterm‘fairskinnedAboriginalpeople’wascoinedbytheAboriginalcommunityasmanyfamilieshavefairmembers.Therealchangeiscomingfromthegroundup,notfromthegovernmentdown.TheFirstPeoplearebuildingtribe,exercisingpowerandwritingnewstoriesaboutresilienceandresistanceandclaimingpowertocreatechange.

AlthoughmyresearchhadbeguntoconsiderthetransitionofIndigenouschildrenintomainstreamschoolIfoundtheresearchtouchedonmystory.Itwasanemotionallydemandingtask.Iheardofmurder,sexualabuse,houndingandmissionlifeIknewtobeassociatedwithmyownfamily.Irealizedwhatcolonizationhadmeantformymother’sfamilyandunderstoodmyforbears’lives.Iunderstoodhowimportantitwastobeinvisible,orpassforwhiteinAustralia.

References

Archibald,J.2008.IndigenousStorywork:EducatingtheHeart,Mind,BodyandSpirit.Toronto,Canada:UBCPress.

Atkinson,J.2002.TraumaTrailsRecreatingSongLines:The"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

Trans-GenerationalEffectsofTraumainIndigenousAustralians.Melbourne,Australia:SpinifexPress.

AustralianBureauofStatisticsandAustralianInstituteofHealthandWelfare2008.TheHealthandWelfareofAustralia’sAboriginalandTorresStraitIslanderPeoples(ABSCatalogueNo.IHW42).Canberra,ACT:AustralianGovernmentPublishingService.

AustralianBureauofStatistics(ABS)2012.NationalAboriginalandTorresStraitIslanderSocialSurvey(ABSCatalogueNo.4714.0).Canberra,ACT:AustralianGovernmentPublishingService.

AustralianInstituteofHealthandWelfare(AIHW)2013.Australia’sHealth2013:Australia’sHealthSeries.Canberra,ACT:Author.

Clandinin,D.J.2007.HandbookofNarrativeInquiry:MappingaMethodology.ThousandOaks,CA:Sage.

ClosingtheGap2009.ClosingtheGapClearinghouseAnnualReport2009–2010.CouncilofAustralianGovernments(COAG)AustralianInstituteofHealthandWelfareandAustralianInstituteofFamilyStudies.Canberra:AustralianGovernment.

Foucault,M.1980[1966].TheOrderofThings:AnArchaeologyoftheHumanSciences.(A.M.S.Smith,Trans.).London:Tavistock.

Halloran,M.2004.CulturalmaintenanceandtraumainIndigenousAustralia.MurdochUniversityElectronicJournalofLaw,11(4).Retrievedfrom:http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/journals/MurUEJL/2004/36.html,accessed:12April2012


http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/journals/MurUEJL/2004/36.html

Harris,J.2003.Hidingthebodies:ThemythofthehumancolonisationofAboriginalAustralia.AboriginalHistory,27,79–104.

Hegarty,R.1999.IsThatYouRuthie?Brisbane:UniversityofQueenslandPress.

HumanRightsandEqualOpportunityCommission(HREOC)1997.BringingThemHome:ReportontheNationalInquiryintotheSeparationofAboriginalandTorresStraitIslanderChildrenfromtheirFamilies.Canberra,Australia:HumanRightsandEqualOpportunityCommission.

Kumar,M.2000.Postcolonialtheoryandcross-culturalism:Collaborative‘signposts’ofdiscursivepractices.JournalofEducationalEnquiry,1(2).

Malin,M.A.2003.IsSchoolingGoodforIndigenousChildren’sHealth?(OccassionalPaperSeries:8).Darwin,NT:TheCooperativeResearchCentreforAboriginalHealth.

Martin,K.L.2008.PleaseKnockBeforeYouEnter:AboriginalRegulationofOutsidersandtheImplicationsforResearchers.Brisbane,Qld:PostPressed.

Paradies,Y.C.2006.Beyondblackandwhite:Essentialism,hybridityandindigeneity.JournalofSociology,42(4),355–67.

Pascoe,B.2008.Papertrail.VoiceoftheLand,36,14–16.Retrievedfrom:http://www.fatsilc.org.au/voice-of-the-land-magazine/vol-30–39–2005–2009/vol-36-march-2008/14-paper-trail-by-bruce-pascoe,accessed:15April2012.

Patton,M.2002.QualitativeResearchandEvaluationMethods(3rded.).ThousandOaks,CA:Sage.

Rigney,L.1999.Internationalizationofanindigenous


http://www.fatsilc.org.au/voice-of-the-land-magazine/vol-30–39–2005–2009/vol-36-march-2008/14-paper-trail-by-bruce-pascoe

anticolonialculturalcritiqueofresearchmethodologies:Aguidetoindigenousresearchmethodologyanditsprinciples.WíčazoŠaReview,14(2),109–21.

Sandri,R.2013.Weavingthepastintothepresent:Indigenousstoriesofeducationacrossgenerations.Unpublisheddoctoralthesis.QueenslandUniversityofTechnology,Brisbane.

Smith,L.T.1999.DecolonizingMethodologies:ResearchandIndigenousPeoples.London:ZedBooks.


PARTIIProblemsofRepresentationandRights


Chapter5ThePromisesandConundrumsof

DecolonizedCollaboration

EmmaCervone

Thetitleofthiseditedvolumehintsappropriatelyatthetemporaldimensionofthediscussiononengagedanthropologyandindigenousstudies.Thisdimensionisthepointofdepartureofmydiscussionontheimplicationsofpracticingaformofanthropologythathasoptedforpoliticallyengagedmethodologiesintheproductionofanthropologicalknowledgeaboutindigenoussocieties.Mygoalsarethreefold:firstly,tounderlinethesituatednatureofsuchdebatebyrevisitingthemostsalientmomentsthathaveledtotheaffirmationofethicalandpoliticalengagementinanthropologicalpractice(Haraway1988).Secondly,tosuggestwaysinwhichengagedanthropologyandindigenousstudiescancontributetolargerdebatesaboutepistemologyandmethodologyastheydevelopinthediscipline.Lastly,toconsidertheissueofdecolonizationandsuggesttwomajorimplicationsforthedecolonizationofananthropologicalpracticepremisedoncollaborationwithindigenousactors,scholarsandcommunities.MyreflectionsarebasedonmyeightyearsfieldworkexperienceinEcuadorduringwhichIworkedwithdifferentindigenousandnon-profitsorganizations,andonmypresentexperiencebothasamemberoftheanthropologicalacademiccommunityintheUSA


andasaresearcherwhocontinuestoengagewithcollaborativeresearchprojectswithindigenousorganizations.WhilemyexperienceinEcuadormademekeenlyawareofthecomplexityofindigenousstudiesincontemporarytransnationalandnationalcontextsandthechallengestheseposetotheconductingofanthropologicalresearch,myacademicexperienceintheUSurgedmetorevisitolderdebatesonobjectivity,subjectivityandpositionalityinthesocialsciencestoaffirmthevalidityofwhatformeinEcuadorhadalreadybecomealegitimatemethodologyandpractice,thatisananthropologicalpracticethatwebroadlyidentifiedas‘engaged’orcomprometida.1

HistoricalOverview

Thetemporaldimensionofthedebateposesthequestionsofwhyandunderwhatcircumstancediscussionsonengagementbecamerelevantinanthropology.Asearlyasthe1940sMargaretMeadunderscoredtheprofessionalresponsibilityofthedisciplineinmattersofpublicinterestandadvocatedavisibleroleofanthropologists(Mead1943).Yet,thecritiquetoanthropology’scolonialistrootsstartedattheendofthe1960swhenmanyanthropologistsfrombothdevelopedanddevelopingcountriesadvocatedforamorepoliticallyawareanthropologythatquestionedpowerrelationsandtookastandinfavoroftheoppressed.Theseweretheyearsimmediatelyfollowinganti-colonialstruggles,inwhichleftwingpartiesandideologiesindifferentpartsoftheworldwerequestioningpowerrelationsandeconomicexploitationbothatnationalandtransnationallevel.AtthistimeMarxist-inspiredintellectualssuchasGünterFrank"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

elaboratedthedependencytheorywhichsawindevelopmentandaidanewformofcolonialisminformingpostcolonialgeopolitics.Researchersindevelopingcountriesbackthen,includinganthropologists,feltcompelledtoadvocatethedecolonizationofanthropology(seeStavenhagen1971).IntheUnitedStates,CurrentAnthropologypublishedaspecialissuein1968inwhichBerreman,GjessingandGougharguedforamorepoliticallygroundedandengagedanthropology,onethatwouldchallengethemythofavalue-freesocialscience,thatwoulddestroythe‘sacredIvoryTowerofascienceforascience’ssake’(Berreman,GjessingandGough1968:394).Importantcontributionstothedebateonpowerdifferentialsinanthropologicalpracticeanditsconsequencesfortheproductionofknowledgealsocamefromfeministscholarship,whichcriticizedgenderbiasinthesocialsciencesanditsepistemologicalflaws.Byemphasizingtheroleof‘MantheHunter,’forexample,male-biasedanalysesofforagersocietiesdownplayedtheimportantrolethatwomenhadintheproductivesphere(Slocum1975:49).

Thepushtowardssuchcriticalreflectioncamealsofromdisenfranchisedgroupsandfromindigenousactivists.InLatinAmericaforexample,theparticipationofindigenouspeoplebecamepivotalinadvocatingamoreegalitarianandhorizontalrelationshipbetweenresearcher–researched.IntheDeclarationofBarbadosofJanuary1971,indigenousactors,progressivemembersoftheCatholicChurch,andsomesocialscientistsdenouncedtheparticipationofanthropologistsinstructuresofoppressionanddomination(IWGIA1971).Theemergenceofengagementinanthropologyrespondedtothedemandofindigenousactivistsandothersocialactorswhowereurgingforaclearpositioningofeveryresearcher.Allsuchcritiquescameto"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

questiontheconstructionof‘otherness’asanthropologicalknowledgeandmethodologieshaddefinedit.

Thisdebateistobeunderstoodaspoliticallyandethicallysituatedwithinaspecifichistoricalandculturalcontext.WiththecollapseoftheSovietUnionepitomizedbythedestructionoftheBerlinWallandtheconsequentdemiseofcommunismandsocialistideologies,thedisciplineturnedtowhathasbeendefinedasthepost-moderncritiquetoreasonandempiricaltruth.IntheUS,seminalworkssuchasWritingCulturecritiquedanthropologicaltextsbydeconstructingmodernistanthropologicaldiscourseoftruth.Instead,theauthorsofWritingCultureadvocatedamoreexperimental,reflexiveandsubjectivemethodologydebunkingtheillusionofobjectivityinanthropologicalknowledge.Inthefieldofindigenousstudies,thisclimateofdisciplinarycritiqueledtoanthropologicalinquiriesthataimedatgivingavoicetothosewhohadbeenrepresentedbydecadesofanthropologicalventriloquism.CurricularreformsinUSacademiesbecameparamounttoincorporatetestimonialnarrativesbasedonindigenousvoicesasimportanttoolsofinquiry(HuizerandMannheim1979,MorinandSaladind’Anglure1997,Muratorio1991,Pratt2001).2

ThecaseofRigobertaMenchú,theimpactofhertestimonialnarrativeinthepeaceprocessofGuatemalancivilwar,andthecontroversythatgeneratedintheUS,standasanillustrativeexampleofthisprocess.3Thevisibilityofthesepoliticalactorswithinacademicsettings,togetherwiththeadvocacyroleassumedbymanyanthropologistsindefenseofindigenousgroupsafflictedbypoliticalviolenceandviolationofhumanrights,waspivotalincreatingaspacefordiscussingthedecolonizationofanthropologyandindigenousstudies.The"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

collaborationbetweenindigenousactorsandanthropologistsalsohelpedinfosteringtheprocessofbothformationandvisibilityofmanyindigenousintellectualsindifferentacademicandnon-academicsettings.

Thesituatednatureofthediscussiononengagementandindigenousstudiesopensthedoorforhighlycontroversialdebatesinanthropology.ThemostexemplaryrecentcontroversyaroundthisformofanthropologicalpracticetookplaceinUSacademiaattheendofthecenturywhenthejournalistPatrickTierney(2000)publishedanexposéofAmericananthropologistNapoleonChagnonwhoworkedwiththeYanomamogroupintheAmazonbasinbetweenVenezuelaandBrazil.TierneyaccusedChagnonofunethicalconductinthefieldbyviolatingculturaltaboos,introducingweapons,instigatingintra-ethnicconflicts,collaboratingwithabiologistconductingmedicalresearchwithoutYanomamo’sinformedconsent,andevenofespionage.AlthoughTierney’saccusationsreferredtoresearchconductedbetweenthe1960sandthe1980s;theygeneratedafiercecontroversywithintheanthropologicalcommunityoftheUSandLatinAmerica.TheAmericanAnthropologicalAssociation(AAA)puttogetherataskforcetoinvestigatetheallegationsandpublishedareportthatconcludedthatChagnonhadindeedviolatedtheethicalcodesofthediscipline(seeAAA2003,Borofski2005).MembersoftheAAAworkinginUSacademiafoundthemselvesrevisitingdebatesfromthe1960sabouttheneedtodecolonializethediscipline.Theyfoundthemselvesdividedalongthelinesoftheobjectivity/subjectivitydebate.GrossandPlattner(2002),whoatthetimeoccupiedhighpositionsinresearchagenciesthatallocatedfundsforresearchprojectsinthesocialsciences,advocatedso-calleddetached"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

scholarshipoverfieldworkandscholarshipfeaturingcollaborativerelationshipbetweenanthropologistsandtheirfieldsubjects.Atthecoreoftheirargumentwasthecontentionthattheengagementoftheanthropologistwiththestudycommunityanditsmembersdefinedaslaypersons,canunderminetheintegrityofresearchandtransformanthropologicalinquiryintosocialwork,whichissupposedlyalessscientificundertaking(GrossandPlattner2002).4In2003agroupofAAAmembersorganizedareferendumthataskedallAAAmemberstovotetorescindtheTaskForcefinalreportallegedlybiasedagainstChagnon.ThosewhosupportedthereferendumdefendedthattheAAAhadnobusinesssanctioningtheconductofananthropologistasitscodeofethicshadtobeunderstoodasareferenceopentoreinterpretation.Two-thirdsofthevoterssupportedtherescissionoftheAAA’sacceptanceofthereport(seeGregorandGross2004,Lassiter2005),reconfirmingaprofounddivisionamongUSanthropologistsregardingpoliticalandethicalconcernsandtheirimpactsonknowledgeproduction.

Thisbriefhistoricaloverviewofcritiquesofpositivisminthedisciplineshowsthatanthropology,asallothersocialsciences(andscientificdisciplinesgenerally),isnotavalue-freeanddetachedwayofproducingknowledge.Ethnographyandwritingarenotsimplymethodsofcollectingdatabutactiveprocessesofknowledgeproductionthataresituatedpolitically,ethically,andintellectually.Inindigenousstudies,theincreasingparticipationofindigenouspeoplesaspoliticalactorsinnationalandtransnationaldebatesconcerningneo-liberalism,marketreforms,andotherinteractionswithnation-statesandfinancialinstitutionsmeans,amongotherthings,thattheyarenotuninformedsubjectsdetachedfromlargerethical,political,economic,andcultural"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

concerns.Contemporaryindigenousmovementsdemandself-determinationandprotectionfromincursionsupontheirsacredandcommunallands,asnationalandmultinationaleconomicinterestsseekaccesstocommoditiessuchasoil,rubber,metals,minerals,andgemsinindigenousterritories.Thesecontextscallintoquestiontheviabilityofadetachedresearcherwhoentersthefieldsiteandconductsresearchregardlessofthepoliticalimplicationsofsuchfactors.Whenworkingwithcontemporaryindigenouscommunities,anthropologistsoftenfinditnecessaryandinevitabletopositionthemselvesinregardsofsuchissuesandtoreframetheirrelationshipwithindigenousactors.Iarguethatdetachmentinsuchcontextscastdoubtsonthekindofethnographicknowledgethatethnographerswhopretendnottodefinetheirpositionalityinthefieldcanproduce(seeCalabróandTheodossopoulosinthisvolume).

CriticalReflectionsandContributions

Havingreaffirmedthesituatednatureofdebatesonengagement,Ireflectonthespecificitiesofthisformonanthropologicalinquiryinordertoidentifyitsstrengthsandweaknesses.Ratherthanpoliticalpropaganda,diverseformsofengagementandcollaborationhaveproduced‘excellent’scholarshipinanthropology,includingtheworkofanthropologistsengagedinactivistresearchandofthosewhoidentifythemselvesasminoritymembers.5Feminist,Afro-descent,Latino,queerstudiesscholars,indigenousscholars,anthropologistsfromso-calleddevelopingcountriesandactivistanthropologistshaveproducedseminalworkfortheunderstandingofsocialprocesseswheregender,"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

race,classtensions,andgeopoliticsaretightlyintertwinedandoftenoverlapping.6Inindigenousstudiesengagedanthropology,ratherthantreatingindigenousculturesandsocietiesasdiscreteandexoticobjectsofanthropologicalscrutiny,followsadifferentlineofinquiry.Collaborativeandengagedpracticesandmethodologieshavethepotentialofdecolonizinganthropologybyquestioningcolonialiststropessuchasotherandotherness,insiderandoutsider,firstworldandthirdworld.Theyfocusratherontheconditionsandcontextsinwhichindigeneitybecomeseitherajustificationforviolatingterritorialorhumanrightsinthenameofnationalandglobalprogress,orforresistingsuchabuses.Mypointofdepartureisthedefinitionofcollaboration,orcollaborativemoment,understoodasanepistemological,methodologicalandapoliticalone.

‘We’arenotalone.Intheircritiquesofthesupposedlyobjectivetruthofmodernistanthropology,feminist,anticolonialistandinterpretativescholarshiphavecometoexplodethefictionof‘thescientistofculturewhoworksalone’(LapovskyKennedy1995:26).Variousauthorsaddressedthisaspectofknowledgeproductioninanthropologybyquestioningthepossibilityofaccomplishmentsbuiltontheworksof‘lonestrangers’(Gottlieb1995,Rosaldo1989,Salzman1994).Suchnarrativereproducedthemythologyofthemaleadventurerfigureandtherolehehasplayedintheformation,accumulation,anddevelopmentofscientificknowledgeandspreadofideasinandfromtheWesttotherestoftheworld.IamthinkingoffiguressuchasforexamplegeographerAlexandervonHumboldt,whosewritingscanbeconsideredasaformofproto-anthropologyoftheSouthAmericanAndes.Theseepicaccountsextolthejourneyofadventurousmenwhodefiedtheunknownforthesakeof"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

scientificknowledge,butofferlittle,ifanythingaboutallthosewhoaccompaniedthemontheirexcursions.Inanthropologythis‘heroic’traditionwascontinuedbyequatingthe‘loneethnographer’tothescientistwhofacesanyhardshipinordertoproveandtesthistheories(Rosaldo1989:30,31,Sontag1966).Thefigureofthe‘loneethnographer’obscurestheinherentlyinteractiveprocessofknowledgeproduction.

Differentproposalsofcollaborationandcooperationinresearchpracticeandwritingemergedfromthesecritiques.Eversincethe1960scollaborationindifferentacademicsettingshashighlighteditsinterdisciplinary(aswellasinterdepartmentalandinterinstitutional)modeofdialogueandconversationthatanthropologistsentertainacrossdisciplineswithscientists,historians,sociologists,philosophers,culturalstudiesscholars,students(justtomentionafew)inordertoelaboratenewperspectivesonthefastchangingculturalandsociallandscapes.7MorerecentlyGeorgeMarcushasarguedthattheemergenceofnewscientifictheoriesaboutlife,genetics,andtheenvironmenthasmadethisformofdisciplinarycrosspollination(notjustfieldwork)evenmorerelevantanddistinctiveforanthropologicalresearch(2009,4–6).

Inthefieldofindigenousstudies,however,collaborationorthecollaborativemomentisunderstoodasbothepistemologicalandhighlypoliticalsinceitispremisedontheimperativeofdecolonizinganthropology.Inadditiontobeingepistemologicallyinevitable,asarguedabove,thecollaborativerelationshipanthropologistsestablishwithindigenousintellectualsandactivistspushestheboundariesofknowledgeproductiontoothermilieusbeyondacademia.Actorsfromindigenousforumsandorganizations,NGOsandothersettingsarenotjustinterlocutors"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

butinitiatorsofresearchendeavorswhosegoalsandagendasoftendifferfromresearchprojectscraftedwithinacademicsettings.Thefeedbackprocessandthesharingofoutcomesproducedinsuchendeavorsarereversed:theknowledgeandtheformsittakes(whetherabook,avideo,areport,aconferencepaper,etc.)aretestedinnon-academicsettingsandthenintroducedtoacademiatofulfillmanytimesthecareergoalsandacademicrequirementsofparticipatinganthropologists.Theseformsofcollaborationsareuniqueinforegroundingthepoliticalgoalsthattheanthropologicalknowledgeisintendedtoaccomplish(trainactivists,informpoliciesandpoliticaldemands,fosterchangeincommunities,facilitatenetworking,etc.).Therichnessofsuchanthropologicalengagementlays,amongotherthings,intheproductionofdifferenttypesoftextseachofwhichfollowsaspecificsetofcriteriathatoperateindifferentscales(localized,national,transnational)andsites(community,organizations,stateinstitutions,streets,academia).Eachofthesetextshasitsowninternalcoherence,logicandaudiencebutitalsoisapieceinamulti-textualformofinquiryandhermeneutics.Iamthinkinghereofacollaborativeresearcheffortwithindigenouscommunitiesandorganizationsthatcanleadtotheelaborationofdifferentproducts(forexampleavideo,abilingualtext,andanacademicpaper)allofwhichofferaverydifferentandyetinterrelatedperspectiveonthesameresearchtopic.

DuringmyfirstfieldworkinEcuadorIdidresearchincollaborationwithagrassrootsindigenousorganization,theIncaAtahualpaintheparishofTixán,intheChimborazoprovince.TheworkwedidtogetherfortwoyearsproducedasmallbilingualtextthatwassupposedtobeusedinlocalschoolsonthehistoryoftheIncaAtahualpa,severalvideosonlocalindigenous"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

traditionsmadebyoneoftheInca’sleaders,proposalsforadevelopmentprojecttoNGOs,andmorerecentlymyscholarlybook(seeCervone2012)andseveralarticlesthatwerepublishedinEcuadorandintheUS.Eachoftheseproductsfolloweddifferentparameters,weremeanttoreachdifferenttypesofaudiences,presentedadifferentperspectiveonthepoliticalprocessitrepresented,andfulfilleddifferentgoals.EachofthemthereforepresentedadifferentpointofviewandadifferentvisionofthepoliticalprocessexperiencedbytheQuichuasofTixán,offeringagoodsampleofthemulti-sidednatureoftheirexperience.

Thecollaborationbetweenengagedanthropologyandindigenousstudiescanproduceamulti-textualhermeneutics,wherethemulti-textualityisawayofinterpretingandrepresentingthecomplexandmultifacetedaspectsofagivensituation.Italsorepresentsandembodiesthedifferentandattimescontradictorypositioningoftheactorsinvolvedasaninherentelementofthecollaborativeprocessitself.8Thecomplexitythatcanberevealedbytheintertwiningofdifferenttextscanprovidetheethnographic‘grounding’thatDeepaReddyseesasimportanttomakesenseofafieldofinquirythatisotherwisedisjointedanddisconnected(Reddy2009:95).Morereflectionisneededontheintertwiningofsuchmulti-textualformsofknowledgeproductionandtheircontributionstothedebateonepistemology,ethicsandmethodologyinanthropology.Iarguethatsuchmulti-textualitycanaddressthecomplexityofthe‘global’world,understoodasaprocessofcultural,physical,socio-economicandpoliticalintertwininginwhichthemappingofinequalityissimultaneouslyeverpresentandshifting(IndaandRosaldo2007)."******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

However,collaborativemethodologieshavetheirownchallengesandpotentialweaknesses(Lamphere2003,HecklerandLangtoninthisvolume).Thepoliticalnatureofsuchcollaborationcanpresentpossibleethical,methodologicalandepistemologicaldilemmas.InhisstudyofracialambivalenceamongLadinosinGuatemala,CharlesHale(2008b)revealsthechallengesthathefacedasanactivistanthropologistalliedwiththeMayanindigenousmovementwhenembarkingonfieldworkpracticewiththesupposeddominants,theLadinos.Forhisstudyofracialpolitics,HaleconductedfieldworkwithLadinosoccupyingawidepoliticalspectrumwithrespecttoMayanactivism,rangingfromracialprejudicetoadeclaredcommitmenttoculturalequality.HalesuggeststhathisovertpositioningasaMayasupporterandtheomissionfromhisanalysisofthosevoiceswhodidnotgivepermissiontobedisclosedwereenoughtosafeguardbothhisethicalandactiviststand.Yet,evenifanonymous,theunwillingvoicesofLadinosarerepresentedinHale’saccount,revealingthatpoliticalcommitmentincircumstanceslikethosehedescribesmayclashwithprofessionalethics.Differentethicalstandardsseemtobeatplaywhenresearchiscarriedoutwiththosewhoretainpowerandprivilegesinsociety.TheproposalofRodolfoStavenhagen(1971)todecolonizeanthropologybydoingresearchonthe‘powerful’appearsmorecomplexthanexpected.

Anothertensioninherentinengagedanthropologyrelatestotheactualcollaborationinthefieldandthechallengesposedbythemotivationsoftheresearchersthatemergeintheirmanifestpositionality.Inthedebateonreflexivityinanthropologysomeanthropologistshaveaddressedtheriskoffallingintonarcissistandethnocentricself-referentialityandnavel-gazing(Fabian"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

2001,Friedman1994,Salzman2002,Sangren1988).Inengagedanthropologicalpractice,thechallengeistoavoidtheprojectionoftheresearcher’sidealsandhopesontothepoliticalprocessesunderanalysis.Inotherwords,generalprinciplesassumingofanti-colonialismandanti-oppressioncanbeariskybasisforcooperationiftheyleadtheanthropologistsandtheirresearchpartnersfalselytoassumethattheysharethesameunderstandingofthepathtobefollowedinthepursuitofjustice.RegardingindigenousmovementsintheLatinAmerica,howshouldweunderstandtheirstruggleforself-determinationinmulticulturalsocieties?Collaborativestudiesofsuchstruggleshighlightcomplexandoftencontradictoryunderstandingsofchange,democracy,andevenofhumanrights(Cervone2012,DeLaPeña2002,GowandRappaport2002,Hale1994,Rappaport2005).

Inthiscontext,whathappenswhensuchpossiblediscrepanciesandtensionsmakecollaborationinthefielddifficultorevenconflictive?Inotherwords,whathappenswhencollaborationshowsitsmultifacetedandrhizomicnature,whenitbecomes‘tooweakawordtodescribetheentanglementsthatarebynowthoroughlycommonplaceinculturalanthropology:entanglementsofcomplicity,responsibility,mutualorientation,suspicionandparanoia,commitmentandintimateinvolvement,creditandauthority,andtheproductionofreliableknowledgeforpartiallyarticulatedgoalssetbyorganizations,institutions,universities,corporations,andgovernments’(Kelty2009:205)?ParaphrasingKelty:iscollaborationa‘toofeel-goodortoofriendlytermforthecommitment,fightsandcompromises’thatalltheactorsinvolvedintheserelationshipsexperienceinthepursuitoftheirgoals(ibid.)?InrelationtoindigenousstudiesIbelieveengagementasaformofanthropologicalinquiryfocuses"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

onthecomplexityofglobalformsofdiscriminationandofferstheopportunityofreversingpowerrelationshipinanthropologicalpractice.Inotherwords,engagementisananthropologicalapproachthatisadequateto‘theproblemsofourtime’byrevealingthemultiplicityofactors,forcesanddimensions(local,national,andtransnational)thatfigureinthedefinitionofethnicidentitiesandinfluencetheidentificationofindigenouscultures(WolfinBerreman1968:395).Yet,likeotherformsofanthropologicalinquiry,engagedanthropologyhasnoformulaicanswerstoprovidetoitsdilemmasotherthannurturingself-critiqueandbeingsuspiciousofanysenseofaccomplishmentand‘feel-goodness.’

Finally,aperhapsmoreabstractquestionaboutanthropologicalepistemology.Ifweagree,asIthinkmanyofusdo,onthepossibilityofanthropologyintheplural,towhatextentisitpossibletoproduceanalternativeanthropologicalknowledgethatisnotlinkedtothetheoreticaldebatesandpurposesthathistoricallyhaveorientedthisdiscipline?Forexamplehowcanweapproachthestudyofidentitywhateverourethnicandculturalbackground,withoutreferring,eithertoaffirmortorefute,theoreticaldebatesaroundthattopic(essentialism,instrumentalism,constructivismandpost-constructivism)?Evenwhenengagementindebateswithindigenousscholarsandactivistschallengessuchtheoreticalapproaches,itdoesnotchallengeoneofthemajorepistemologicalpremisesthathistoricallyhasdefinedthediscipline.Onesuchpremisepositsthatanthropologyinvolvesculturaltranslation,initiallyneededtosupposedlyrenderintelligibletocolonialregimeswhatwasnotintelligibleabouttheirsubjects.Therelationshipsofpowerimplicatedinsuchrelationshavechangedbutthebasicpremiseof"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

translatingandmakingintelligibleoftenremains.Whethertocontrol,ortocorrectamisinterpretation,ortodenounceaninjustice,anthropologyworksanactoftranslationandofinterpretationthatoccurswithintheparametersofaEuro-centeredtheoreticalandepistemologicalnarrative.Arethere,then,onlydifferentpossibleanthropologicaltranslationsratherthandifferentanthropologies?Whatwouldanthropologybewithoutanactoftranslation?Iftranslationisanthropology’sstraightjacket,howcanwedecolonizesuchtranslations?

DecolonizingMethodologies:AnOpenField

InthewakeofSaid’sOrientalismtheanalysesofsocio-culturalimaginaries,whichaccompaniedthemanyremappingofgeopoliticalpowerstructures,haveidentifiedthemajorsourcesofinequalitiesinearlymodernexpansionsofcolonialandimperialregimes,andmorerecentlyintheglobalexpansionsoflatecapitalism.Althoughconstantlychallengedandredefined,suchinequalitiesandtheirsourcesendureandareevenreinforcedbycontemporaryglobalprocesses(Harvey2005).ScholarssuchWalterMignolo(2000),andAníbalQuijano(2000)haveanalysedsuchquestionsbyfocusingonthehistoricalprocessfromwhichtheideaoftheWestemergedtoproduceandperpetuatewhattheydefineasthe‘colonialityofpower’;thatis,aconceptualandterritorialsystemofinequalityinformingrelationshipsbetweenpeople,placesandideas.Suchasystemiswhatstillsustains,accordingtotheauthors,theexpansionoftheglobalcapitalisteconomyalbeitwithsignificantemergingshiftsingeopolitics.Intherealmofindigenousstudiesthedebateabouttheneedto"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

decolonizeanthropologicalknowledgehasfocusedonwhatTrouillotcallsthe‘savageslot’whichdefinestheinferiors’slot,subsequentlyredefinedandreproducedindifferenthistoricalandsocio-politicalcontexts.

InLatinAmerica,theprocessofpoliticizationofethnicidentityandtheanti-discriminationstruggleofindigenousmovementshasledtoashiftinanthropologicalresearchinterestsandmethodologies(Rappaport1994,17).Sincetheearly1990s,studiesofindigeneityhavehighlightedthehistoricalandpoliticalnatureofethnicidentityformationamongindigenouspeople.9UrbanandSherzer(1991)pavedthewayfornewstudiesofindigeneity,whichfocusonthecomplexandever-changingnatureofapoliticalprocessthatinvolvesbothindigenousactorsandnationstates.Contemporarystudiesofindigenouspeoplesexaminehowtheyengagewitheconomicpoliciesandsocialchangesatthenationalandtransnationallevelstonegotiatetheirpositionofsubordinationvis-à-visstatesandnonindigenousgroups.10

Thisshift,whichisnotrestrictedtoLatinAmerica,representsaresponsetotheepistemologicalnecessityImentionedabove.Italsoreflectsthecollaborativeturninasmuchasitunderscoresthepresenceandparticipationofpreviouslysilencedvoicesintheproductionofanthropologicalknowledge.Increasingnumbersofindigenousscholarshavebeenconcernedwithproducingtheirowninterpretationsabouttheirsocietiesbyfocusingontherevitalizationofvaluesandculturalsystemswhichhadbeendenigratedandmisrepresentedbydecadesofcolonialandpostcolonialgovernance(seeCONAIE1996,Harry2009,LaDuke1999,2005,Smith2012tonameafew).Thefieldsofeducationandpedagogy,andmorerecentlythefieldof"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

environmentaljustice,havebeenthemajorarenasinwhichthevoiceofindigenousscholarsandactivistshasbecomelouderandmoreassertive.OnepioneertextinthisrespectisLyndaSmith’sDecolonizingMethodologieswhichhaspavedthewayformanyindigenousscholarsandanthropologiststostartthinkingabouttheirownlearningprocessesandbreakingwithpedagogicalcriteriaimposedbythedominantnon-nativesocieties.Thedecolonizingimpactofsuchinterventionsistwofold:ontheonehanditledtotherecognitioninacademiaofthepresenceofindigenousscholarsandtotheacknowledgementofthevalidityandvitalityoftheirscholarship.11Ontheotherhand,ithasprovidedindigenouscommunitiesandorganizationswithnewtoolstoelaboratetheirownalternativemodelsofeducation,aswellasnegotiatetheiractiveparticipationinthedesignandimplementationofpoliciesandresearch.

Thecollaborativemomentoffersgreatopportunitiestodayforexperimentationwithnewteachingmethodologies,exposingstudentsindifferentacademicsettingstonewperspectivesandpointsofviewconcerningcontemporaryindigenoussocieties.Inthecontextfromwhichthisbookemerged,agroupofanthropologistsandindigenousscholarselaboratedaproposalforacollaborativeandco-taughtcourseonIndigenousAgencyandInnovationstobeofferedindifferentinstitutions,accordingtowhichvariousscholarsandactivistswouldofferalecturetoberecordedanddeliveredviapodcastorvialiveconferencecall.Itaughtthecourseinthefallof2010eventhoughtheproposedmethodologydidnotworkoutthewayitwasoriginallyplanned.12Ihadsomeinstitutionalsupportandasmallgranttofundthreeguestspeakerstotalkontopicsthatrangedfrombiocolonialism,tofoodsecurityandeducationindifferentindigenous"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

communities.Formanyofthestudentsitwasthefirsttimetheyhadmetand

listenedtoanindigenousspeakerandscholar.Theirdirectvoiceasactivistswhostruggleagainstencroachmentontheirlands,exclusionandracismintheireverydaylifehadaprofoundimpactonstudents’capacitytorelatetothoseissues.TheirinterventionsgeneratedinterestingdebatesonwhatitmeanstobeNativeAmericanandindigenoustoday.TherejectionofgeneticsamplinginindigenousterritorypresentedbyNativeAmericanactivistDebraHarry,forexample,sparkedalivelydiscussiononculturaldiversity,raceandpowerrelationsincontextsinwhichNativeAmericansandotherindigenousgroupshavebeentreatedassecondclasscitizenseversincetheformationofmodernnations-states.Thedirect,personalandhumanexperienceofthespeakersmadetheirstrugglecomealiveintheclassroom,withmixedreactionsfromthestudents.Some,whenpushedoutoftheircomfortzone,couldnotacceptthattheirownmodeloflifeandvaluesystemwerenotthesameoneembracedbythespeakers,andobjectedtothevalidityoftheirclaimsasbeingexclusionaryorevengoingagainsttheinterestofhumanityatlarge.Ifgeneticsamplingcanfostermedicalresearch,someofthemargued,whyareNativeAmericanshinderingthatprocess?Someothershadasortofepiphanyandclearlygraspedtheeminentlypoliticalnatureofindigenousclaims,whethertheytouchedupongeneticsamplingorfoodsecurity.

Thisexperienceconfirmedmybeliefthatsuchcollaborativepedagogicalmodalities,madepossiblebynewtechnologies,canrepresentanothersteptowardsadecolonizedanthropologicalpedagogyandacademia.


DecolonizationfromWithin

Decolonizingisacomplexinnerprocessthatinvolvespoliticalengagementonseveralfronts.Manydecolonizingeffortsandpracticesfocusontherelationshipbetweenindigenouspeoplesvis-á-visthestateandthenon-indigenouscitizensasawaytosupportanti-discriminatorypoliciesandstruggles.Iarguethatequalattentionneedstobeputontheperversemodalitieswithwhichracism,discrimination,andexclusionstillaffects(andinsomecasesalter)relationshipsandinteractionswithinindigenoussocieties(Harrison1997).IntellectualssuchasFrankFanon(2005,2008)andW.B.DeBois(1994),amongothers,havecogentlyhighlightedtheperniciousanddevastatingimpactsofracismonthosewhohavebeentargetedasinferior.Theeffectsofdecades,andcenturies,ofhumiliationandviolencehaveledtoaprocessofinternalizationofsuchannihilatingideasandpractices,whichperpetuateddiscriminationinternally.Theoutcomesoftheseinternalformsofviolencevaryaccordingtothespecificityofthecontextsinwhichtheytakeplace.IturntothecaseofviolenceagainstindigenouswomeninEcuador,onwhichIhaveworkedformanyyears,asanexamplethatcallsfortheneedofwhatIdefinedecolonizationfromwithin.

DebatesonviolenceagainstindigenouswomenintheirowncommunitieshavestartedtoemergeinEcuadorinthelate1990s.Eversincethenmanyindigenouswomenhaveorganizedtofightagainstsuchformsofviolencebuttheyfaceinsurmountablebarriersintheirquestforequalityandalifefreeofviolencewithintheirowncommunities.Theirstrugglesoonturnedintoahighlycontroversialissuewithinindigenouscommunitiesandorganizations(Cervone1998).Theacknowledgementofthose"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

negativeandproblematicpracticesisseenasdangerousfortheintegrityofamovementthathasmadeofthepoliticizationofethnicidentityapowerfultooltofightagainstdiscrimination.Howcananthropologycontributetosocialchangeinsuchacase,andparticipateinthedecolonizationofdecades,evencenturies,ofracistviolentpracticesthatpermeaterelationshipsofpowerwithinindigenouscommunities?

Thesequestionsmotivatedagroupoffeministresearchersandindigenouswomenactiviststocombinetheirworkandinterestsonissuesofgenderequalityinacomparativeandcollaborativeresearchprojectonindigenouswomen’srightsandindigenousjusticeinLatinAmerica.13Thiscollaborationofanthropologistsandindigenouswomen’sactivistsaimstoshadeanewlightontheroot-causesofgenderviolencewithinindigenouscommunities.AsamemberofthatgroupIexaminemyparticipationintheresearchprojecttodiscussthepotentialofcollaborativemethodologiestofosteraprocessofinternaldecolonizingpractice.

RecentscholarshipongenderviolenceintheEcuadorianAndeshighlightstheambiguitiesandcontradictionsinherentincontemporarydiscoursesonindigenousjusticeandgenderequality.14Studiesexaminetheinadequaciesthatindigenousjusticesystemspresentwhenfacedwithcasesofdomesticviolenceandabusesagainstwomen.Suchformsofviolenceareattributedtothesexismsofindigenousmalesandtotheconditionoftriplediscriminationthatwomenexperienceforbeingpoor,womenandindigenous.Althoughsuchcriticalinsightsareimportantcontributionstotheanalysisofgenderviolenceinindigenouscommunities,existingscholarshiponracializedsocietiesaswellasthecomplexpoliticalcontextinwhichsuch"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

issuesaredebatedrequireamorenuancedinterpretation.MycollaborationwithmyresearchpartnerandindigenousactivistCristinaCucuríwaspivotalinexploringtheproblemfromadifferentperspective.15CristinaandIdecidedtodelvemoreintotheroot-causesofsuchviolencebybuildingonaquestionthatCristina’sexperienceasanactivistbroughttothetable:Whydoindigenousmentreattheirwomensobadly?Webothdecidedthatitwasparamounttoourresearchtoalsocollectthepointofviewofmen.

InaseriesofinterviewsandlifehistorieswithQuichuaindigenouswomenandmenfromthehighlandprovinceofChimborazowestumbleduponthelegacyofpatternsofviolenceandabusethathadbecomepartofpeople’smemoryanddailylife.Manypeopleweinterviewed(elderlyandyoungerwomenandmen)connectedthedifferentformsofviolencethatwomen,andtocertaindegreeschildren,sufferintheirfamiliesandcommunitiestopatternsofabuseandrejectionagainstindigenouspeoplethatarestillcommoninEcuadoriansociety.Thosepatternsarelocallyentangledwithahistoryofpowerrelationsdatingbacktothebeginningofthe1900swhenindigenouspeopleinthehighlandswerelivinginastateofdefactoslaveryunderpowerfullandowners.Inthatcontextviolence,rapeandcorporalpunishmentfunctionedasmechanismstoimposeobedienceandcontrolandtoreproduceracializedhierarchiesbothlocallyandnationally.Themodernizationoftheagrarianstructureofthecountrythatcamewiththeagrarianreformssincethe1960sandtheeconomicpoliciesthataffectedtheruraleconomyeversincethendidnoteliminatepatternsofexclusionandprejudiceagainstindigenouscitizens(seeBecker2008,Bretón2012,Cervone2012,).Manymenweintervieweddenouncedthedifferentforms"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

ofdiscriminationtheystillfacedintheireverydaylifeinschools,oreverytimetheyhadtoapplyforaloan,enteredapublicoffice,orsellingtheirproduceinthemarketplace.Howtomakesenseofthevoiceswehadcollectedinourinterviewsandthemacrocontextofpolicies,politicsandchangesthathadseentheaffirmationoftheindigenousmovementanditsanti-discriminationstrugglewhilestillreproducingpracticesofracialexclusionandprejudice?

Bycombiningscholarshipandthepoliticalexperienceofmyresearchpartnerweworkedtointerpretsuchcomplexitiesinawaythatcouldbetheoreticallysoundandpoliticallymeaningful.Fanon’stheoriesontheinternalizationofracismproveespeciallyhelpfultounderstandourcase.Wearguedthattheviolencewomenexperiencetodaycannotbeunderstoodjustbyforegroundingsexistpracticesbutneedstobeconnectedtothehistoryandcontinuityofracistpracticesandprejudice.Therecurrenceofphysicalandpsychologicalviolence,ofdiscriminationandevenofsexualabusethatemergedinourinterviewsatteststhatviolencehasmadeitswaywithinindigenoussocietiesasalegitimatewaytosanctionobedienceandexertcontrolintomaritalrelationshipsandchildren’supbringing.

Wealsoagreedwiththeotherstudiesontheparadoxoftherecentmulticulturalturn.Whiletheconstitutionalrecognitionofindigenousculturaldiversityreinforcestheperceptionofcohesionandharmonyaspositivevaluesofindigenouscultures,suchperceptionmakesthefightagainstinnerformsofviolenceandexclusionmoredifficulttosustain.16AccordingtoCristina,understandingviolenceagainstwomeninabroaderframeworkofracistviolencecanalsohelptoincorporatewomen’spolitical"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

agendawithinalargerandmoreoverarchinganti-raciststruggleundertakenbytheindigenousmovement.

Itisimportantfordecolonizingmethodologiesandpedagogies,therefore,toreflectonthecompleximplicationsofracismanddiscrimination,andontheprocessofinternalizationonmanylevelsbothexternal(oftenundetectedinnon-indigenousadvocacy)aswellasinternaltoindigenoussocieties.InEcuadorthishasprovedtobeaverydifficulttaskduetothelevelofpoliticizationoftheindigenousmovementoverthedecades.Leadershipwithinthemovementbyindigenousmenistheresultofanationalpoliticalculturethathasdelegitimizedandrenderedinvisiblefemalepoliticalparticipation.Thisleadershippatternmakesitverydifficultforwomentoimplementanti-violenceagendasintheirowncommunitiesandtohaveindigenousauthoritiesparticipatetocontrolit.17Engenderedpatternsofindigenouspowerandleadershipendupreproducingthesamepatternsofdiscriminationandexclusionimposedbythedominantwhitesociety.Ananti-racistframeworkcanofferawindowofopportunitythatcouldleadtonewformsofjusticewithinindigenouscommunitiesaimingtoeradicateanyformofviolence.Itis,Cristinasays,achallengingpathbutnotanimpossibleone.

Insuchcontexts,collaborativeresearchismorecomplexandmultifacetedthananticipated,renderingthepositioningoftheresearchermoreproblematic.Internalcontradictionsaddanotherlayerofcomplexitytotheresearchers’supportofindigenousmovements’anti-discriminationstruggles.Howdowe,scholarsandactivistsalike,accountforthecontroversialknowledgethatwebelievecanhelpsocialchange?Howdoweaccountforthepersonalsafetyofourresearchpartnerswhoareinvolvedinsuchcomplexrealms?Again,Ibelievethatanthropologycan"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

contributebychallengingassumptionsof‘feel-goodness’incollaborativemethodologiesontheonehand,andbyproducingcriticalknowledgethatisskepticalofeasyrenderingofpoliticalengagementsandsolidarity.

ConcludingRemarks

Engagement,likeanyotherformofanthropologicalpractice,isnotanunproblematic,universallyvalid,orflawlessformofinquiry.Itisimperativethatdebatesaboutthefutureofcollaborationarefosteredandsupportedtogetherwiththeconstantsearchfornewepistemologiesandmethodologies.Severalpointsfordiscussionarisefromtheexaminationofthevalidityandlimitationsofthecollaborativemoment.Forinstance,thesituatednatureofthismoment:Howmightsuchengagementandformsofcollaborationevolveandchangeonceindigenousactors,suchastheQuichuasinEcuador,becomeinvolvedinnewformsofgovernanceandpoliticsintheirowncountries?Howwouldtheredefinitionoftheirpositioninsocietyimpactoncollaboration,cooperation,andpositionality?Whatkindsofethical,methodologicalandepistemologicalconcernsshouldbeconsideredwhentheagendasandinterestsofdifferentindigenousactorsandactivistsdiverge?Likeothersocialsciencedisciplines,anthropologyfacesnewchallengesposedbytheincreasingcomplexityinherentinglobalizedsocieties,wheredistinctionsbetweenpowerlessandpowerfulareoftenblurredandwheresystemsofstratificationcombineclass,ethnicity,race,gender,andgeographyinvaryingandmultifacetedways.Howdoalltheseoldandnewsocialidentitiesandstructuresimpacton"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

questionsofpositionality,epistemology,andethics?Theanthropologicalprofessiontodayfacessuchopen-endedquestions.Theyarebestaddressedbytakingintoconsiderationthedifferentperspectives,experiences,andpointsofviewsofthemanyvoicesinvolvedinthecollaborativemomentaswellasthemultitextualnature(thatIhighlightedearlier)oftheknowledgeproducedincollaboration.

References

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——1991b.ArticulaciónDobleyEtnogénesis,inReproducciónyTransformacióndelasSociedadesAndinasvol.1,editedbySegundoMorenoandFrankSalomon.Quito:AbyaYala,197–212.

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Barre,M.C.1983.IdeologíasIndigenistasyMovimientosIndios.Spain:SigloXXI.

Becker,M.2008IndiansandLeftistsintheMakingofEcuador’sModernIndigenousMovements.Durham,NC:DukeUniversityPress.

Berreman,G.D.,Gjessing,G.andGough,K.1968.SocialResponsibilitiesSymposium.CurrentAnthropology9(5),391–436.

Borofsky,R.(ed.)2005.Yanomami:TheFierceControversyandWhatWeCanLearnfromIt.Berkeley,CA:UniversityofCaliforniaPress.

Botasso,J.andGnerre,M.(eds)1989.DelIndigenismoalasOrganizaciónesIndigenas.Quito:AbyaYala.

Bretón,V.2012.Toacazo.EnlosAndesEquinoccialestraslareformaagraria.Quito:FLACSO—AbyaYala.

Brodkin,K.,Morgen,S.andHutchinson,J.2011.AnthropologyasWhitePublicSpace?AmericanAnthropologist,NewSeries,113(4),545–56.

Cervone,E.2002.EngenderingLeadership.IndigenousFemaleLeadersintheEcuadorianAndes,inGender’sPlace:FeministAnthropologiesofLatinAmerica,editedbyL.Frazer,J.HurtigandR.Montoya.NewYork:Palgrave,179–96.

——2007.BuildingEngagement:EthnographyandIndigenous


CommunitiesToday.TransformingAnthropology15(2).JohnWiley&Sons,97–110.

——2012.LongLiveAtahualpa.IndigenousPolitics,Justice,andDemocracyintheNorthernAndes.Durham:DukeUniversityPress.

Colloredo-Mansfeld,R.1999.NativeLeisureClass.ConsumptionandCultureCreativityintheAndes.Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress.

CONAIE1989.LasNacionalidadesIndígenasenelEcuador.NuestroProcesoOrganizativo.Quito:AbyaYala-Tincui.

D’Andrade,R.1995.MoralModelsinAnthropology.CurrentAnthropology36(3),399–408.

DelaPeña,G.2002.SocialCitizenship,EthnicMinorityDemands,HumanRightsandNeoliberalParadoxes:ACaseStudyinWesternMexico,inMulticulturalisminLatinAmerica:IndigenousRights,Diversity,andDemocracy,editedbyR.Sieder.NewYork:Palgrave,129–56.

DuBois,W.E.B.1994.TheSoulofBlackFolk.NewYork:DoverPublishers.

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115–35.Marcus,G.E.1986.ContemporaryProblemsofEthnographyin

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——1994.CumbeReborn:AnAndeanEthnographyofHistory.Chicago,IL:UniversityofChicagoPress.

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Stoll,D.1999.RigobertaMenchúandtheStoryofAllPoorGuatemalans.Boulder,CO:WestviewPress.

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TransformationinSouthernPuertoRico.PhDdissertation,DepartmentofAnthropology,UniversityofIllinoisatUrbana-Champaign.

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Urban,G.andSherzer,J.1991.Nation-statesandIndiansinLatinAmerica.Austin,TX:UniversityofTexasPress.

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TX:UniversityofTexasPress.Weismantel,M.1988.Food,Gender,andPovertyinthe

EcuadorianAndes.Philadelphia,PA:UniversityofPennsylvaniaPress.


1Ianalyzethisdebateextensivelyinthe(2007)article‘BuildingEngagement:EthnographyandIndigenousCommunitiesToday,’inTransformingAnthropology,vol15(2),97–110,2007,JohnWiley&Sons,Inc.Thischaptercontainssomeexcerptsfromthisarticle.

2Alsoknownas‘culturewars,’suchreformsindifferentacademicsettingintheUSwerepromotedbyprogressivescholarswhosoughttoquestionthestudyof‘highculture,’whichcontemplatedthestudyofWesternclassicliterature,byadoptingfirstpersontestimonialaccountsthatreflectedthelifeofdisenfranchisedandexcludedpeoplefromthenewworld.SeeHuizerandMannheim(1979)andPrattinArias(2001).

3Thepoliticsofthe‘culturewars’unleashedacontroversyaroundthetestimonialaffirmationbyindigenousactivistRigobertaMenchúandtheaccusationsformulatedagainstherbyanthropologistDavidStoll.FormoreinsightintothiscaseseeArias(2001).

4Ontheobjective–subjectivedebateinanthropology,seeCurrentAnthropology36,1995,particularlythecontributionbyD’AndradeandScheper-Hughes.SeealsoFabian(2001),Hymes(1972),Roscoe(1995),Salzman(2002)andSutton(1991).

5Irespondheretothediscussionon‘excellence’inanthropologyinGrossandPlattner(2002).

6Forexample,seeAbu-Lughod(1991,1987),Alonso(1995),Aretxaga(1997),Gordon(1998),Gordon,GurdianandHale(2003),Hale(2008a,1997),Jacob-Huey(2002),Limón(1991),Mascia-LeesandSharpe(2000),Rahier(1999),Rappaport(1990),Torres(1995)andTrixandSankar(1998).

7IntheUSMarcus(2009)hasreformulatedcollaborationasanepistemologicalandmethodologicaldimensionthatfollowedthereflexiveturninUSanthropologicaldebates.IntheUSacademicdebatesofthecollaborationofanthropologistsandculturalstudiesscholars,amongothers,ledtothepost-moderncritiqueepitomizedbyWritingCulture.

8AcontroversialcaseofindigenousjusticeduringmyfieldworkinTixánisgoodexampleofthiscomplexity.Inthatcasecorporalpunishmentwasmaderedundantduetolocalorganizationscompetingforpoliticallegitimacy,andthatgeneratedapassionatedebateamongindigenousactivistsandtheirsupportersonthepotentialcontradictionsofsuchlocal‘ancestral’practicesandtheprinciplesstatedbyhumanrightsconventionsthattheindigenousmovementsrefertointheirstruggles(seechapter5inCervone2012).

9Abercrombie(1991a,1991b),Barre(1983),Botasso-Gnerre(1989),Cervone(2012),MariaElenaGarcía(2005),Gustafson(2009),Mattiace(2003),Pallares(2002),Postero(2007),Rappaport(1994,2005),Sawyer(2004)andWarren(1998),amongothers.

10Colloredo-Mansfeld(1999),Kearney(1996),Lagos(1994),Meisch(2002),Nash(2001),Orlove(2002),Weismantel(1988)andWarrenandJackson(2003).


11However,thedecolonizationofanthropologyandacademiaistobeunderstoodasaworkinprogresssince,asKarenBrodkin,SandraMorgenandJanisHutchinson(2011)argueinthecaseoftheUS,academiaremainsmostlya‘whitepublicspace.’

12Difficultyinthesynchronizingofacademiccalendarsandresourcesmadetheco-teachingparticularlychallenging.Yet,Ibelievethistypeofproposalsshouldberevisitedandimplementedasviableformsofcollaborativemethodologies.

13TheprojectisrunbyCIESAS,MexicoandcoordinatedbyRachelSieder.14SeePicq(2012),Pequeño(2009).15CristinaCucuríisQuichuafromChimborazoandthepresidentandco-founderof

theREDCH,NetworkofIndigenousWomen’sOrganizationsofChimborazo.Shealsoparticipatedinthenationalelectionsforcongressin2009withthePachakutikparty.TheREDCHpoliticalstruggleforwomen’srightswaspivotalinhavingindigenouswomen’srighttopoliticalparticipationrecognizedinthenewconstitutionof2008.

16ThenewEcuadorianconstitutionof2008sanctionstherighttoculturalandethnicdiversityofindigenouspeoplesandtheirrighttoself-determination.

17Somecasesofdomesticviolenceinvolvemaleleaders.SeecaseinPicq(2012).


Chapter6UrbanAmerindiansandAdvocacy:Toward

aPoliticallyEngagedAnthropologyRepresentingUrbanAmerindigeneitiesin

Manaus,Brazil

J.P.Linstroth

InBrazilmanyanthropologistsareactivistsandadvocatesforindigenousrightsandcauses.ThispraxisisquitedistinguishablefromNorthAmericanandBritishanthropologicaltraditions.AsRamos(2012:490)explains:‘generationsofBraziliananthropologists…believethatacademicworkandpoliticalengagementgohandinhand’.SuchactivismandadvocacyformanyBraziliananthropologists‘reflectsonthecharacterofhis[orher]research,his[orher]choiceoftopics,oftheoreticalapproaches,fieldworkstrategies,andethnographicwritings’(Ramos1990:455;seealso,Ramos2000,2003).TheDepartmentofAnthropologyattheUniversidadeFederaldoAmazonas(UFAM)inManaus,Brazil–whereIwasavisitingprofessorin2009–wasnoexceptiontothisnormofpoliticalinvolvementwithindigenesthroughoutBrazil.1TheBraziliananthropologistsatUFAMwerealwaysinvitingvariousAmerindiangroupstomeetings,conferences,andseminars,whichattimesincludedthemedia.UFAManthropologistsmanytimeswerealsoinstrumental


innegotiatingwithgovernmentorganizations,dealingwithnon-governmentalorganizations(NGOs)andinaddressingconcernssuchashealthandeducationaswellasbeinginvolvedinlegalissuesonbehalfofindigenouspeoples.

ItwasinthisatmospherethatIwassituatedasananthropologistwhereengagingonmultiplelevelswithBrazilianIndianswastheubiquitousstandard.Iwasthereforetobeanengagedanthropologistbyaccidentbecauseofthesecircumstancesandbecauseofthenatureoflocalindigenouspolitics.TheexpectationwasformetocollaboratewithurbanAmerindiansinManausinsomewaysoastoreciprocatetheinformationtheywouldprovideme.Onthisbasis,IwasintroducedtovariousIndiansbyaUFAManthropologistandlaterbyapriest/linguistoftheIndigenistCatholicMissionaryCouncil(ConselhoIndigenistaMissionário,CIMI)withthepremiseofmypotentialityasapoliticalallywhomightdisseminatetheircause,theirconcerns,andtheirproblemstoawiderEnglish-speakingpublic.

AtthebeginningoffieldworkIwasfirstintroducedtoaSateré-Mawéfamilybymyanthropologistcolleague–agroup,bytheway,whohadbeenstudiedextensivelybyanthropologistsandanthropologystudentsalikeatUFAM–andtherebywhowereaccustomedtotheins-and-outsofethnographicinquiry.MyfirstactofengagementwashelpingthisurbangroupofSateré-Mawérepairtheroofoftheirbarracão(thatched-roofhut)sinceithadbeenburnedbyaracistwhiteneighbourasanallegedwarningagainsttheirpresenceintheneighbourhood.(Aswillbedemonstratedbelow,racismagainstindigenouspeoplesinManaushasbolsteredtheirethnicidentityindefiningdifference.)Myacquaintancewiththelinguist/priestallowedmetogain"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

accesstoseveralotherurbanAmerindiansinthecity.Theseincluded(asidefromSateré-Mawé):Apurinã,Kambeba,Kokama,Mura,Munduruku,Tikuna,andTukano.2InworkingwiththeseurbanAmerindiansIrealizedsoonenoughthatIwasa‘politicalobject’tothem,someonewiththepotentialofadvocatingtheirviewsabroadtoaninternationalaudienceandasstrategicpotentialfortheircause.3

Theconceptof‘anthropologistaspoliticalobject’isworthexamininginmoredetail(asIdosobelow)foritframesmyadvocacyforurbanAmerindianpoliticsinManausandtheirengagementwithmeasopeningpoliticalpossibilitiesforthem.Sincethe1990stheconceptof‘engagement’inAmericananthropologicalpublicationshasbeenwidelycirculated.4Asatopicofinterest,publicengagementhasalonghistoryofantecedentsinculturalanthropologythroughtheworksofFranzBoas,MargaretMead,andRuthBenedict(LowandMerry2010)aswellastosomeextentinsocialanthropologythroughEdmundLeach’seffortstomakeanthropologymorerelevantandmorepertinenttocurrentaffairs(Hannerz2003).AsSanfordandAngel-Ajani(2006:3)claim:‘anthropologistshaveraisedethicalissuesrelatingtoadvocacyandpoliticssincetheearlytwentiethcentury’.

ForthepurposesofthischapterIlimitadefinitionofanthropologicalengagementsolelyinrelationtoactivismandadvocacyasitpertainstomyownfieldworkandinthemannerofmyinteractionwithmyinformants.5MyviewisborrowedfromCharlesHale(2006:97)whereinI‘affirmapoliticalalignmentwithanorganizedgroupofpeopleinstruggleandallowdialoguewiththemtoshapeeachphaseoftheprocess[ofresearch],fromconceptionoftheresearchtopictodatacollection’.Itisa"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

dialogue‘inwhichanthropologists…offertheirservicestonativestruggles’(Wright1988:366).Specifically,myunderstandingisclosetoBruceAlbert(1997:56)asheremarks:

anthropologistsfindthemselvesfacedwithtwoethicalandpoliticalobligations,whichwereeludedbyclassicalethnography,butareunquestionablenowadays:ontheonehand,beingaccountableintheirworktopeoplewhoweretraditionallyonlythe“objects”oftheirstudies;ontheother,assumingtheresponsibilitytheirknowledgeentailsforthesepeoples’resistancestrategiesvis-à-visthedominantnation-states’discriminatoryanddespoilingpolicies.

Longgonearethedaysofbenignpaternalismofwhitemaleanthropologistsservingcolonialadministrationsovertheirnativesubjects,or,forthatmatter,the‘benevolentautocracy’ofthelikesofRadcliffe-BrownovertheAndamanese(Tomas1991:76–7).AsPaulSillitoe(2007:157)explains:‘itisnolongertenable–ifiteverwas–forustorepresentthelifewaysandbeliefsofothers.Mostpopulationsareabletorepresentthemselves’.

WhenstatingthatIwasconsidereda‘politicalobject’bytheIndiansIbecameacquaintedwithandworkedwith,Iamassertingthepoweroftheirsocialagencyinregardtomeandtheirintentionsformyethnographicfieldworkamongthem.6InassessingthistypeofengagementIwillattempttotheorizewhatanthropologicalengagementmeansindealingwithcontemporaryindigenousgroupswhoarepoliticallymindedandmotivated.IndoingsoIamfullyawarethatpoliticalengagementisfraughtwithproblemswherebyit‘isboundtobeconflictiveandunclear;onehastomakedecisions,aboutwhattoadvocatefor,onwhosebehalf,whicharebasicallyvaluejudgements,eveniftheseareinformedbyanthropologicalknowledge’(Wade2010:157).Or,asJacksonandWarren(2005:556–7)haveputit,‘ethnographic"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

practicethatbridgesinquiry,activism,andparticipatoryapproachestotheproductionofculturalknowledgeraisescomplexquestions,epistemologicalandethical,answerstowhicharenotexactlyaroundthecorner’.

Someanthropologistshaveevenarguedthatadvocacyisbasically‘incompatiblewithanthropology’(HastrupandElsass1990:301)andlatelytheBraziliananthropologistAlcidaRitaRamos(2008:480–81)hascalledfora‘disengagement’ofanthropologistsamongnativesas‘these“others”areatlastaffirmingtheirfullagencyasproducersofanthropologicalknowledge’throughautoethnographies(seeNichol,thisvolume,formoreonindigenouspeoples’suspicionsofanthropologicalresearch;alsoseeSandri,thisvolume,foranindigenousacademicperspectiveonknowledgeproduction).

Ingeneral,theorizingaboutengagementinanthropologyhasbeenwidelydiscussedinNorthAmericanculturalanthropologybutisvirtuallyabsentinBritishsocialanthropology.Relevantquestionstodayare:whatdoengagementsmeanwithindigenouspeoples(anthropologistsandindigenes)?Howmuchpoliticalengagementwithnativesactuallycompromisesanthropologicalobjectivity?Doesananthropologistnegatehisacademicstandardsinbeingpoliticallyengagedandbytakingonapoliticalstance?Whatdoesengagementtellusaboutsocialagency,intersubjectivities,interethnicdialogues,andreciprocity?

InrelegatingthepowerofinquirytotheBrazilianIndiansIcollaboratedwithandworkedamongst,Iallowedthemtodecidethedirectionofmyresearchandwhatmyinvestigationmeanttothem(seeCalabrò,thisvolume,forindigenouscollaborationandparticipationwithanthropologyprojects).AfterallanythingIpublishedwouldbegivenbacktothem,intheformofarticles,"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

bookchapters,andeventuallyintheformofafuturemonograph.InassertingthattheseAmazonianIndianslivinginthecityofManaushavesocialagencyIdrawfromtheconceptualizationofAlfredGell(1998:16),whenheremarks:‘agencyisattributabletothosepersons…who…areseenasinitiatingcausalsequencesofaparticulartype,thatis,eventscausedbyactsofmindorwillorintention,ratherthanthemereconcatenationofphysicalevents’.ThesocialagencyoftheseurbanAmerindiansexemplifiestheirconsideredinputinthemannerinwhichananthropologicalstudycouldbeusedtotheiradvantageandthereforetheirintentinregardtomyself.Itshouldbenotedsuchintentionsindealingwithanthropologistswerenothingnewtothem.Afterall,mostBraziliananthropologiststheyknewprovidedforthemstrategicadvantagesinthepastandalsoinanon-goingbasistowardgovernmentagenciesandintheprojectoftheirrecognition.Hence,inthisrespect,Braziliananthropologistsinmanywaysarepoliticalobjectsaswellinthepoliticsofindigenismandinindigenist[interethnic]relations.7

Inrecognizingindigenousagency,Iamnotneglectingmyowninthisinterethniccollaboration(ordivide).IwasalltooawareoftheroleofanthropologistintheFoucauldiansenseofpowerandknowledgeinassociatingwithIndians.8Anotherdilemmawaslanguage,whatTalalAsad(1986:156)calls‘unequallanguages’andinthiscaseofPortuguesetoEnglishandevenAmerindianlanguagestoEnglishinregardtobothBrazilianIndiansandBraziliananthropologists.Forthelatter,notmanyworksofBraziliananthropologistsarereadbyNorthAmericanorBritishanthropologistswiththeexceptionofanthropologistswhoactuallyworkinBrazilandthoseBraziliananthropologistswhohavepublishedinEnglishsuchasAlcidaRitaRamos,Eduardo"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

ViveirosdeCastro,andManuelaCarneirodaCunhaandrecentlyAparecidaVilaça,amongothers.Inaddition,andinregardtounequalpowerrelationsbetweentheurbanIndiansandmyself,Iwasalsoacutelyawareoftheeconomicdisparitiesbetweenus(theirmarginalizedandimpoverishedconditionandmyrelativelywell-offstatus).AlloftheseissuespointtoethicaldilemmasforAmericanandEuropeananthropologistsworkingwithindigenouspeoplesinthethirdworldandcollaboratingwithnon-AngloanthropologistsinregionssuchasLatinAmerica.RestrepoandEscobar(2005),forexample,havesuggestedanewepistemologicalapproachinthinkingof‘worldanthropologies’and‘otheranthropologies’(knowledgeproductionofotheranthropologistsaroundtheworld)asopposedtothedominantanthropologies:American,British,andFrench.

TodayindigenistrelationsofanthropologistandIndianarethereforeoftendeterminedandreinforcedbytheintentionsofthelatterbutalsointheformer’scompetenceofaidingIndians,inmutualtrust,andsometimesinthebifurcatingaimsoftherelationship.Whereasforanthropologiststhepurposesofsuchrelationshipsalsoencompassacademicprojectsandempiricaldata-making,whileforIndians,atleastfortheurbanIndiansinManaus,thereisthepoliticsofbeingrepresented,andtherepresentativenessofanthropologyactingaspoliticalvehicle.AssuchthespecialroleanthropologyandanthropologistsplayinIndianliveshasbeenacontinuouslyevolvingrelationship,andinManaus,Brazil,inconcertedcommitmentforurbanAmerindianssinceatleastthe1990s.Thisisaparticularintersubjectiveassociation,whichaswillbeexplainedbelow,alsohasbeenevidentatthenationallevelfordeterminingindigenousaffairs.AccordingtoTurner(1991:300–301)contactsofanthropologists"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

withtheKayapo(anotherBrazilianIndiangroup)havemadetheKayapoawareof‘thepotentialpoliticalvalueoftheir“culture”intheirrelationswiththealiensociety…’.AnthropologistshaveinessencetaughtIndians,andinthiscaseBrazilianIndians,tovaluetheirculture,whichhashadatremendouseffectonthehistoryofindigenouspoliticsinBrazilfromthebeginning(atthenationallevelsincethe1970s).9Althoughlocalpolitics,asanywhereelse,aredeterminedbylocalissuesandthoseinManausconcerningurbanIndiansareparticulartotheproblemsoccurringinthecity,thenationalindigenousmovementattimesinfluencesthelocal,especiallyinformingPan-Amerindianidentities.TobesituatedinthecityofManausinthestateofAmazonasasananthropologistwithBrazilianurbanAmerindiansistobesituatedintheirpoliticsofrecognition,whichmeanstakingapoliticalstanceagainstthediscriminationandracismofwhitesociety(brancos)andagainstgovernmentalagenciessuchastheNationalIndianFoundation(FundaçãoNacionaldoÍndio,FUNAI)andtheNationalHealthFoundation(FundaçãoNacionaldeSaúde,FUNASA).TheselocalIndianpoliticsmirrornationalindigenouspoliticsinBrazilasindigenousstrugglesforrecognitionexistwithBraziliansocietyingeneralandagainstgovernmentagenciesalloverBrazil.

MyengagementwiththeseurbanIndiansmeantinmanywaysthatIwouldactastheirsurrogateinexpressingtheirconcernstoforeignEnglish-speakingaudiences,arolethatanthropologistsknowalltoowell.Yetindoingso,Iwassupposedtoraiseawarenessaboutrecognizingtheirindigenousrights,whichmayinturnpressuretheBraziliangovernmenttoofficiallyacknowledgetheirpresence,actontheirbehalf,andtohavethesamerightsasIndiansintheinteriorofAmazonia.Hence,this"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

chapterwillbeaboutexpressingurbanAmerindians’concernsaboutthediscriminationandracismtheyfaceagainstBraziliansocietyandformanyreasonsagainsttheBraziliangovernment.Anthropologicalengagementofthissortisaboutexposingpastwrongsofindigenouspeoplesandtheirongoingconflictswiththenon-indigenouspopulationformorethan500years.

Yetanthropologicalengagementofthistypealsoentailssomethingelse,itisagive-and-takearrangement.Itisaboutreciprocity.10ThisisanexchangerelationshipbetweenIndianandanthropologistoverbroaderpoliticalrecognitionfortheformerandinformationforthelatter.Thesearevalues,whichemergein‘action’,suchasindigenouspeoplesprovidingtheanthropologistwithinformationwherebyhe/shewillinturnactthroughpublicationorthroughotherformsofmediation(film,internetwebsites,etc.).Thevalueisthroughthe‘actofgiving’onetotheotherinan‘open’formofreciprocitywhich‘impliesarelationofpermanentmutualcommitment’(Graeber2001:45,220).ThedesireoftheanthropologistaspoliticalobjectisastrategiconefortheseurbanIndiansfortheyknowthatanthropologicalknowledgeisapowerfultoolandtheanthropologisthimself/herselfmayprovideaccesstoNGOs,governmentagencies,andthemediatotheircause.SucharelationshipisnotmaterialisticincontrasttoAmerindianscovetingWesterngoodsasiscommonthroughoutAmazonia(seeHugh-Jones1992).Itis,however,aboutsharingandsomewhatabout‘goodgifting’commonamongAmerindiansthroughoutLowlandSouthAmerica(OveringandPasses2000:xiii–xiv).Itisaninterethnicrelationshipinthemannerofaninformalcontract.Fieldresearchofthiskindofanthropologicalengagementmakesknownthe‘unrepresented’andunderrepresented(DreschandJames2000:"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

23).Engagementoftheanthropologicalvarietyisenmeshedwiththemutuallyreaffirmingintersubjectivitiesofaspecialtypeofinterethnicrelationship,whilecompromisingobjectivityittakesonmoralconcernsforfairlyrepresentingindigenousagencyandtheirintentionsforanthropologicaloutcomes.11

ThepurposeofthischapterthereforeistoprovideanoverviewofurbanAmerindianidentityinManaus,Brazil,andtheirstrugglesforrecognition(seeSillitoe,thisvolume,formoreon‘representativenessofindigenousrepresentatives’).12InthisdiscussionIwillanalysetheautobiographicalmemoriesofdiscriminationandracismofurbanAmerindiansandexplainhowthesetraumaticmemoriesareparticularforindigenouspeoplesinrightinghistoricalwrongsandinsignifyingtheirindigeneityincontrasttoBraziliansocietyaswellaspointtosometheoreticalinterestsaboutindigenoustrauma.MyanalysesofmemorymovebeyondwhatCharlesHale(2006:113)hastermedthe‘socialmemoryofstruggle’.Inmyviewindigenouspeoplesandindigenousmovementsbasepartoftheirstruggleforrecognitiononmemoriesofracismanddiscrimination.Thesearenotsimplypoliticalmemoriespassedontosuccessivegenerations.SuchmemoriesasIwilldescribebelowexhibittheparticularinterethnicandracialencounterindigenouspeoplehavesufferedformorethan500years.Insum,memoriesoftraumaservetodelimitthemfromwhitesociety(osbrancos)andexpresstheiridentitydifferencesfromthenon-indigenous.Indeedthismicrocosmofmemoriesofdiscriminationandracismareglobalindigenousconcernsaswell.

Inthenextsection,IwilldescribetheurbanAmerindianpopulationlivinginManaus,Brazilandtheirsocio-culturalcharacteristics."******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

Figure6.1Tuxaua(leader)Paulo,Sateré-Mawé,dressedupinfullregaliainthecityofManaus2009

Note:Suchurbanindigenousdressonspecialoccasionsisnottraditionalbutusedasastrategyforrecognition.

UrbanAmerindianPopulationinManaus

Atpresent,thereareapproximately896,917indigenouspeopleslivinginBrazil(0.47percentofthetotalpopulation)(IBGE,InstitutoBrasileirodeGeografiaeEstatística2010).Ofthisnumberapproximately572,083ofthemstilllivetraditionallyon612indigenousreserves(from291ethnicgroups,speaking180"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

differentlanguages,onapproximately106millionhectaresoflandor12percentofthetotalBrazilianlandmass).Theremainderoftheseindigenouspeoplesdonotbelongtoanyparticularindigenousreserveinthehinterlandandsomeresideinurbanareas(approximately324,834)(seeHemming2003;Luciano2006;IBGE2010).

InManaustherearebetween15,000and35,000Amerindians(BernodeAlmeida2008b:32).13Amerindiansmovefromtheinteriortothecityforsomeofthefollowingreasons:forbettereconomicopportunities,includingcomfortssuchaselectricityandrunningwater;forbettereducationfortheirchildren;forhealthreasonsandaccesstomedicalfacilities;forsocialrelationstobewithaffinalandconsanguinealkin;andlastly,becauseofunhappinessonthereservationandsocialproblems.UrbanAmerindiansarenotcompletelycutofffromtheirkinintheAmazonianinterior.Mostmaketripsbacktotheirvillagehomecommunitiestovisitrelativesatleastonceayear.SomevisiteverythreeorfourmonthsandrelativesoftheAmazonianinteriorarefrequentvisitorstotheirurbanAmerindianrelatives.14

OnemayaskhowdoAmerindianssurviveinthecity?OftheurbanAmerindiansImet,theyareresourcefulinpoolingmoney.Indigenouscommunitiesinthecityalsohelpnewarrivalsfromtheinteriorbyprovidinglodgingandfoodfornewfamilies.Commonstrategiesforsurvivinginthecityincludesellingartisanalcraftsandsomeofthehusbandsofindigenouswomenworkasdaylabourers,oftenonconstructionjobs.15TheotherprincipalsourceofincomeistheBrazilian‘FamilyStipend’(BolsaFamilia),whichisasocialwelfarefundtohelpimpoverishedfamilies.

WemaythinkofurbanAmerindiansintermsoftheir"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

‘emergentidentities’becauseofthevariationamongthemasnewcomersorlong-termresidentsofthecity(OliveiraFilho1999a:107).Theiridentitiesshiftandchangewiththeircommunityassociationsandmarriagesandonemustnotthinkoftheirethnicityashavinganyprimordialorfixedqualitieswhatsoever(seeBanks1996;Jenkins1997).InManausonemayencountersecondandthirdgenerationsofAmerindianswhoonlyspeakPortuguese,andstillotherswhoarefluentinbothPortugueseandtheirnativetongues.TherearenostrictmarriagerulesperseforexogamyamongtheurbanAmerindiansasinthepast.WhereasforexogamousunionsonemayfindmarriagesbetweenMundurukuandSateré-MawéofSouthernAmazonia(ratherthanbetweentheSateré-Mawé’sownpatrilinealclansforexample)andincontrasttotheexogamousunionsbetweenthedifferentgroupsofIndiansfromNorthwestAmazonia.16Therearemanymarriageunionsbetweencaboclos(whitesofindigenousdescent)andIndiansandmanychildrenoutofwedlockaswellandevenbetweendifferentpartners.17SomeoftheurbanAmerindianspracticeSeventhDayAdventism,othersCatholicism,andstillothersBaptism,orsomeotherProtestantPentecostalreligion(seeVilaçaandWright2009foranelaborationaboutAmerindiansandChristianityinBrazil).Mostoftheseself-identifiedAmerindianslivinginthecityarenotrecognizedbyFUNAIsimplybecauseIndiansareonlyconsideredtobeIndianiftheyliveintheAmazonianinterior.OnceanAmerindianpersonmovesorlivesinthecitytheyarenotofficiallyrecognizedbecausestereotypicallytheyhavebecome‘civilized’(civilizados)accordingtoFUNAIandBraziliansociety.18Thisalsomeansthattheydonotshareallthesamebenefitsastheirindigenouskinoftheinterior."******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

Figure6.2BrazilianmilitarypoliceaccostingIliana,Sateré-Mawé,atLagoAzuloccupationsite,11March2008

TheurbanIndiansofManausareprimarilyorganizedbytheirvariouscommunitiesandassociationsrepresentingvariousindigenousgroupssuchasTukanosorSateré-Mawé.19Suchassociationsandcommunitiesarenotdevoidofinterethnicproblemsandpoliticalinfightingbetweenthem.ThereiscontinualdisagreementamongsuchindigenouscommunitiesbutwhenconfrontingtheBraziliangovernmentallethnicgroupscometogetherandprotestasawholeintheirconfrontationsasaPan-Amerindianmovement.

ThepoliticsofrecognitionforurbanIndiansiscloselyentwinedwiththeirmemoriesofracismanddiscriminationtheyhaveexperiencedinManaus.Aswillbedescribedbelow,suchmemoriesalsobecomeanimpetusforindigenousactionandtheformationofpoliticalmovements.


MemoriesofDiscriminationandRacismamongUrbanAmerindians

ToaddressissuesofdiscriminationandracismintheurbanenvironmentofManaus,itisimportanttodiscussthedemographicsignificanceofthepopulation.InAmazonasstateabout70percentofthepopulationisconsideredtobepardaoreuphemistically‘brown’,averybroadracialtermwithoutconsideringancestryordescent(IBGE2010).20ItissafetostatethattheoverwhelmingnumberofpardosinthestatecorrespondwithapardapopulationinManauswherethemajorityinthestatereside.21ItmaylikelybeassumedthatmanyofthesepardosareactuallyalsocaboclosbecauseoftheprevalenceofindigenousdescentintheregionandbecauseofsuccessivemigrationstothecityfromtheAmazonianinteriorofBrazilsincethe1970sfromthe‘FreePort’era.22

AccordingtoJonathanWarren(2001:339)acaboclois‘anindividualofpredominantorsalientindigenousdescentwhoinculturaltermsisconsideredtobeonlylooselyconnectedtoIndians(a“detribalized”Indian)’.YetsuchpersonspresentcertainparadoxesasmuchofthepopulationinManausembracewhiteculturewhilstnegatingtheirindigenousheritage.23AsAlcidaRitaRamos(1998:77)asserts:‘Thecabocloistheembodimentoftheparadoxcontainedinthecivilizingproject:theefforttowipeoutIndiannesswhileclosingthedoorstotheirfullcitizenship.Whatisleftinthewakeofsuchambivalenceseemstobenoone’sconcern’.Notionsofracismarepassedonfromthecolonialeraofthe‘rubberboom’tothepresent,makingthenegationofone’sindigenousancestryinManaussomethingofthe


norm.AmerindianstomostManauaransareconsideredinstereotypicalterminologyas‘backward’,‘lazy’,‘uncivilized’,‘children’,‘heathens’,‘nomads’,‘primitives’,andas‘savages’(seeOliveiraFilho1998:61;Ramos1998:15–47).24SuchdiscriminatoryclassificationwasevidencedbythemanyconversationsmywifeandIhadwiththeso-callednon-indigenousinManaus.RejectingindigeneitywasnormalsoasnottosufferthestigmasandbarbsofracismofeverydaycitylifeforbeingassociatedwithIndiannessorbeinganIndian.If‘theBraziliansarecivilized–theIndiansshouldbewild.Anythinginbetweenissheerpretense.ThesecaboclosareIndianswhoplayatbeingbrancos[whites]butconvincenobody’(Ramos1998:77).Manausisanindigenouscityandaspacewherepardosandcaboclosarethemajorityofthepopulation.Manausisalsoanurbanlandscapeofnegation,ofdenyingindigenousheritage,whereself-declaredIndiansmustassertandreinforcetheiridentitiesinordertobeheardandrecognizedbythemajority.

ItisinthisatmospherewhereoneencounterstheurbanAmerindianofManaus.DuringmytimeinManaus,andasImentionedabove,IwasabletointerviewAmerindiansfromeightdifferentethnicgroups:Apurinã,Kambeba,Kokama,Munduruku,Mura,Sateré-Mawé,Tikuna,andTukano.Allofthepeoplerepresentingtheseindigenousgroupstoldmetheirstoriesaboutracismanddiscriminationtheyexperiencedinthecity.AsidefromtheusualstereotypesofAmerindiansinBraziliansociety,tomanyBrazilianstheveryideaandimageoftheurbanIndianissimilarinmanywaystothediscriminatoryviewabouturbanIndiansintheUnitedStates:

Thewords“urbanIndian”immediatelybringtomindanimageofapoor


full-bloodIndianlivinginacitywhohasbeenvictimizedbyurbanization.Heisundereducatedorlackssufficienttrainingorskills,andseemsoutofplaceinthecity.Instantaneouslythe“Indian”isidentifiedwithdeprivedAfrican-AmericansandunderprivilegedHispanic-Americans.Hishomeisenvisionedasonesimilartotheprojectsinghettoesordilapidatedapartmentsinbarrios.(Fixico2000:26–7)

InBrazilsuchastereotypicalvisionmaybereplacedwithAfro-Brazilianandghettoeswithfavelas.AsWarren(2001:173)declares:

Indians,then,arenotimaginedascatchingthesubway,drinkingsoda,pilotingairplanes,usingcreditcards,watchingtelevision,andsoon.Theyarealsonotthoughtofasbeingdoctors,collegestudents,janitors,maids,factoryworkers,orlawyers.Indiansarenotconsideredtoberesidentsofurbanshantytowns,beachfrontresorts,suburbanhomes,orplantationestates.Toliveintheseso-calledcivilizedspaces,tobeintheseallegedlymodernoccupations,topossessthelatestconsumergoodsoftheglobaleconomy,renderssomeonenon-Indian.Suchapersonisraciallypositionedasmoreno,pardo,orAsian–butnotIndian.TobeanauthenticIndian,onemustlivelikeaprimitiveinatraditionalmanner.Onemustembodytheantiselfofcivilization,whichinBrazilmeanslivinginahutinthemiddleoftheforest,naked,andwithnocontemporarytechnologicalconveniences.

InManaus,urbanAmerindians,asBernodeAlmeida(2008a:14–15)declares,arepartofthepoorandexcludedpopulationsofthecitybutwemustbecarefulnottotreatthemasthe‘exoticizedpoor’(seealsoBernal2009).Warren(2001:21)describestheIndiansheencounteredinsoutheastBrazilas‘posttraditional’as‘theexperienceofthedramaticshatteringoftraditionandtorefertoalonging,anorientation,thatinvolvesanactiveattempttorediscover,recuperate,andreinvigoratethatwhichhasbeendismembered’.YetmanyurbanAmerindiansinManausarenotsimplyAmerindianstryingtorevivetheirculturebutalsooneswhowishtomaintaintheirculturewithinanurbanenvironment"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

hostiletothenotionofindigeneity.InManaussomesecondandthirdgenerationAmerindianswanttolearntheirnativelanguageandareactiveparticipantsintheCIMIprogramsoflanguagerevitalization,whileotherIndiansarefluentintheirnativetonguesandtrytocreatespaces,suchaswomen’sassociations,inwhichtotalkintheirlanguageandmakeartisanalcrafts.ThepressuresinManausnotonlyfollowthenationalstereotypesadmiringwhitenessandwhiteculturebutthediscriminationexperiencedbymostself-declaredurbanAmerindiansisoneharkingbacktotherubberboompast.Thecolonialpastandtherubberboomerainthelatenineteenthcenturyandearlytwentiethcenturycreateda‘spaceofdeath’,‘wheretortureisendemicandwherethecultureofterrorflourishes’(Taussig1987:4).Thedebt-peonagesystemenslavedIndiansaspartofforcedlabour,creatingan‘economyofterror’andhadadeleteriouseffectwhereby‘ritesofconquestandcolonyformation,mystiquesofraceandpower…insteadboundIndianunderstandingsofwhiteunderstandingsofIndianstowhiteunderstandingsofIndianunderstandingsofwhites’(Taussig1987:51,109).Inotherwords,whitefearsofso-calledIndiansavageryweretransformedbywhitesintowhitesavagerythroughthecivilizingabusesandterrorbywhitesagainstIndiansaspartoftherubbereconomy.ThewhiteimaginationaboutIndiansthereforeidealizedacommitmentbywhitestogrotesqueactsofviolenceagainstIndianstherebypervertingandreversingtheroleofsavageryasthetransformationoftherubbertradersandrubberbaronsintomonsters.ItmaybearguedsuchpastvisionsofracismaboutAmerindiansarestillinthepresentandformpartofthestereotypicalvisionofmanynon-IndiansinManaus.ThisiswhyIarguethatthediscriminationandracismexperiencedbyurban"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

Amerindianstodayisaformof‘negativecirculation’atonceembodyingtherubberboompastinthepresentandatthesametimeasreifyingthenegativestereotypesofanti-civilizationandtheoppositionofIndiannesstowhitesociety.Partiallytoo,thevisionembodiesnationalistidealsofpositivismandtheoriginsofBraziliannationalismandthecivilizinggoalsoftheBraziliannationassuggestedbythemottoonthenationalflag‘OrderandProgress’(OrdemeProgresso)(Hemming2003:14–15).

Whenconfrontedwith‘white’society,attendingmeetings,conferences,orotherpublicvenues,suchasprotests,mosturbanAmerindiansIknewwoulddressupandadornthemselvesbypaintingthemselvesandtheleaderswouldweartheir‘headdresses’(cocares)andotherfeatheredandartisanaladornments(seeGraham2002;andConklin1997).25Atofficialmeetingsandinpublicvenuesthiswasespeciallyimportant,astheAmerindianswereabletodemarcateandembodytheirindigeneityinanurbanenvironmenthostiletoIndianness.Thiswasastrategytonegatethecirculationofdiscriminationbutalsotocelebratetheirindigeneity.26On19April,orthe‘DayoftheIndian’(DiadoÍndio)(anationalcommemoration),andonotherfestiveoccasions,wereperiodsintimewhenurbanAmerindiansfeltobligedtodressupanddifferentiatethemselvesbydisplayingtheirself-declaredstatusasIndiansinManaus.AsOliveiraFilho(2004:28)articulatesthisisa‘politicalritualwhereitisalwaysnecessarytodemarcatethebordersbetween“Indians”and“whites”’.27Hence,displayingone’sindigeneitywithpaintandadornmentsmaybeconsideredaspartofthe‘neo-indigeneities’,asthenewformsofembodyingindigenousidealswhenconfrontedwiththewhiteworld.Indeed,makingthedistinctionbetweentheIndianworldandthewhiteworldwaseverpresentin"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

thenarrativesoftheurbanAmerindiansIspoketoonaregularbasis.ManyoftheSateré-MawéIknew,forexample,referredto‘whites’ascariuá(orkariwá).28Theydescribedwhitesas:‘tothemselves’,‘eachtotheirown’,‘notsharing’,‘uncaring’,‘selfish’–andcomplainedaboutthecrimeinthecityofManaus.TomanyindigenouspeoplelifeinthecitywasmuchmoredifficultthantheAmazonianinteriorbecauseoftheneedformoneyandthewaypeopleactedtowardthem.

InmyviewIwoulddescribeandarguethaturbanAmerindianslivinginManausare‘post-modernIndians’incontrastto‘posttraditionalIndians’,thoseIndianswithanadmixtureofnon-indigenousheritagewhohavealsolosttraditionalcustomsandlanguage(Warren2001),or‘hyperrealIndians’,theidealizationofanIndiantobeinapristineandnoblestateperpetuatedbysomeNGOsandothers(Ramos1994,1998).ThereasonurbanIndianslivinginManausare‘post-modern’isthattheyacceptcertainaspectsofmodernlife(e.g.televisions,VCRs,takingthebus,usingtheinternet)butrejectotheraspectsofit,theselfishnessofwhitesforexample.Theymayascribetowearingheaddresses,bodyornament,andbodypaintatmeetingsandconferenceswithwhitesoratprotestsagainstwhitesbutthenreturntoWesterndressintheireverydaylives.29Tooutsiders(non-Indians)urbanIndianswereoftenregardedasimpostorsorascivilized,asmentioned,becauseoftheiracceptanceofmodernity.Indianslivinginthecity,asIknewthem,critiquedwhitesocietyandwereabletodeconstructitintheirtermsasanti-Indianandmanytimesasracist.TheiracceptanceofsomeaspectsbutnotothersofBraziliansocietymadethemabletonavigatetheiridentityininnovativeways,adeconstructiveposition,andtooutsidersastheanomalyofIndianinthecity.UrbanAmerindians"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

oftenplayedintotheiranomalousstatusthroughtheirassociationsandcommunities.AsmanyofthemkepttheircustomssuchasthetucandeiraritualfortheurbanSateré-Mawéandinmanycasestheirnativelanguagesdidnotmakethemposttraditionalbutrathertheyarerepeatedlyreifyingalteritiesofnovelindigeneitiesthroughself-awarecontrastsandstrategies.30UrbanAmerindiansmaybetraditionalyetmodernandatthesametimedeconstructwhitesocietyasinferiortoIndiannessandevenmanipulatesomeaspectsofwhitesocietytotheirpoliticalgainsasin‘anthropologistsaspoliticalobjects’.

ThefollowingareexcerptsfrominterviewsIconductedwithseveralurbanAmerindiansinManausin2009.31SuchviewsencapsulatethevaryingexperiencesofracismbyurbanAmerindiansandexemplifydifferentIndiansentimentsaboutbeingdiscriminatedagainstduringdifferenttimesintheirlives.Itmaybearguedthatsomeofthetraumaofdiscriminationmayberegardedasepisodicandaspoignantremindersofparticulardifficultperiodsinthepastandothertraumaformsofdiscriminationashavinganeverydayquality,asbeingcontinual,chronic,andpartoflivinginthecity.Ireferredtothesetypesoftraumaelsewhereas‘synchronictrauma’(episodic)and‘diachronictrauma’(recurrent)becauseofthecognitiveeffectsofmemoryontheindividualandhowtraumaticeventsaccessdifferentmemoryformsviatime,particularity,andwithacuteandchronicqualities(Linstroth2009:168–70).Bothsynchronicanddiachronictraumasinrealityexemplifyonetypeoftraumaasawhole.WhileracismagainstanIndianindividualisdescribedasoccurringataparticularpointintime(synchronic),allformsofracismagainstIndianshavedevelopedandcontinueovertime(diachronically).Memoriesofdiscriminationandracismtherefore"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

arerememberedasmuchfortheirparticularityatagivenmomentinthepastasfortheirre-occurrenceovertime.

InquotingbelowurbanAmerindianmemoriesofdiscriminationandracismIamreferringtothemasautobiographicalmemoriesfollowingMauriceBloch(1998:116)andinparticularhow‘peoplerecallthepast,eitherinthepresenceofothersorintheimaginedpresenceofothers,inheardorsilentsoliloquies’.However,recentlyfollowingBloch’s(1998)bookoncognitionandmemory,somepsychologistshavesinceclarifiedwhatismeantbyautobiographicalmemoryinamoreprecisemannerthanBloch.AccordingtoConway(2002:53):

Autobiographicalknowledgerepresentstheexperiencedself(orthe“me”),isalwaysaccessedbyitscontentand,whenaccessed,doesnotnecessarilygiverisetorecollectiveexperience.Instead,recollectiveexperienceoccurswhenautobiographicalknowledgeretainsaccesstoassociatedepisodicmemories.

ThenarrativesbelowareallexemplarsofautobiographicalknowledgethroughepisodicmemoriesinrelationtotheracismurbanAmerindianshaveexperiencedwhilelivingamidstwhiteBraziliansociety.

***

InterviewwithPaulo(SeeFigure6.1),29yearsold,Tuxaua,aleaderofonegroupofSateré-MawéinManaus,23March2009

Paulo:OtherIndianswhentheyarrivedinthatepoch[1960s–1970s]hidtheirIndianidentity,butwenevernegatedourraceasIndians,wealways


remainedIndians,nevernegatingourrace…wekeptlearningandthisstruggletobeindigenous,welearnedaboutthelaw…behindthisstruggleandourstruggleisalwaysTupana[God].JPL:Howdoyouviewthe“white”world(osbrancos)?Paulo:Inthisworldtoeachtheirown,nohelp…thereisnohelp,individualism,theindigenousworldisnotlikethis.Itisorganizedanotherwaytohelpone’srelatives.JPL:HowdoyouviewdiscriminationinManaus?Paulo:Youfeelsad,ithurtsthespirit,itmakesyousad…butgiventimeandonceyoubetterunderstandit,itmakesyouwanttofightharder…youuseitasamediumtofight.Theysaytous:“whatareyoudoinghere,livingintheslums,youareIndians”…butwehaveourartisanalcrafts,andourculture,thetucandeiradance…sowebeganinvitingthepublic[tothetucandeira],especiallypublicschools.Therewerefewpeopleatfirstbutthisincreasedtomore.Thosepeoplewhodiscriminatedagainstusbegantothinkdifferently.NowtheybegintovaluetheSateré-Mawéculture.WedothistodemonstratetheSateré-Mawéculture,forpeopletounderstandit.Ithasbecomemuchbetterbutit[discrimination]stillexists.

ItisclearPaulo’snarrativedescribeshowheandotherSateré-Mawéofhisfamilymaintainedtheiridentitydespitediscrimination.HeremindsushowheandhisfamilymigratedtothecitybutkepttheirAmerindianidentity.HisnarrativealsodescribeshowheasaleaderfoundawaytomaketheSateré-Mawémoreacceptabletothebroaderpublicbyholdingasacredrite-of-passageritual,thetucandeiradance,andopeningittothepublic.Byallowingotherstoseethesacredritualthenpeopleunderstandtheirculture.DespitethisinMarch2009(asmentionedintheintroduction)someunknownneighboursburnedtheroofofthebarracão(thatched-roofhutstructure),whichisapoignantreminderofthediscriminationfeltbyhiscommunity,ComunidadeAndiráandtheirstruggleswithcitylife.


InterviewwithDavi,27yearsold,Sateré-Mawé,24March2009

TheysaytheIndiansbelongintheforest,thisiswhattheytellus…[commentingondiscriminatoryremarkshehasheard].

InterviewwithYolanda,20yearsold,Sateré-Mawé,24March2009

Therewasatimewhenwewereverydiscriminatedagainst…Yeswhenwewereinschool,they[otherstudents]usedtocallusnamesandtheneighbourstoobutnotnow,no…thewhitemandoesnotthinkaboutpeople…

InterviewwithIliana,23yearsold,Sateré-Mawé,25March2009

WhenIwaslittletherewasdiscriminationatschool.Weheardthingslike“therearetheIndians,theybelongintheforest”,andwiththeteachertoo…OnetimeIwastoldbyateacher:“Indiansarenotworthanything”,peoplesayingthingslikethattome.ThosearethethingsIremember.

InterviewwithRaquel,27yearsold,Munduruku,marriedtoaSateré-Mawé,30March2009

Ourchildrenareverydiscriminatedagainstwhentheygotoschool,especiallywhentheygotoschoolpainted[adornmentduringtheirfestivities]andthiscausesshame…thenafterawhilewestartedhavingourfestival[tucandeiraritual]here…thentheydiscriminatedagainstusless.


Davi,Yolanda,Iliana,andRaquel’snarrativestellusdifferentstories.DavicommentsuponpainfulremarksofdiscriminationaboutAmerindiansbelongingintheforest.Suchverbaltauntsreflectthepainfulmemoriesmanyurban-Amerindianshavetocontendwithwhilelivinginthecity.Yolandaalsorememberswhentheneighbourscalledhernamesandwhenshewasteasedatschoolasachild.Ilianaalsorelatestoapainfulmemorysheexperiencedinschool.Raqueldiscusseshowsometimesherchildrenarediscriminatedagainstatschool.Suchmemorieshavebothsynchronicanddiachronicqualities.Thatis,patternsofdiscriminationandtheirassociatedmemoriesareparticulartocertainperiodsoftime–episodes–inoppositiontosomememories,whichareformedfromaneveryday,continualprocessofdiscriminatoryactions.YetwhethermemoriesareepisodicorpartofacontinualoccurrenceoflivinginthecityasIndian,arereallyexemplarsofthesame,memoriesofdiscriminationandracism.Thesearememoriesexperiencedfromparticulartimesandareacutelyrememberedbutthediscriminationsuchastauntingbyneighboursandatschoolmusthavebeenusualoccurrencesthateachofthem(ortheirchildren)hadtoendureonaregularbasis.ThisiswhyIhavearguedthatmemoriesmayhavesynchronicanddiachroniceffectsoftrauma(Linstroth2009).

InterviewwithIliana(SeeFigure6.2),15April2009

[DescribingtheincidentwhichoccurredatLagoAzulon11March2008;theIndiansoccupiedapieceoflandnearManausashomesteaders.Theywerecalled‘invaders’andwereforcedoff"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

thelandbytheBrazilianMilitaryPolice.]

AtthatmomentIwasangry…Iwaspregnantwithchildandholdingmybabywhenthey[militarypolice]startedpushingme…Iwasangrybecausethey[militarypolice]werechokingmyhusbandwithabaton…theyhitmeonthearmandstartedpushingme…they[militarypolice]saidtome:“YouarenotanIndian,whatareyoudoinghere?”“‘YouarenotanIndian”.They[militarypolice]saidthepeople[Indians]were“civilized”,andthatpeople[Indians]wereinvaders…They[militarypolice]cametothrowusofftheland.Iwasangrywhentheyhitmyarm…theytoldustoleave…thatphotoappearedinthenewspaper[referringtoaphotooftheincident]…thisoccurredon11thofMarch,2008…theyneedtorespecttheIndiansandwhattheysay…Iremembercrying…wehadstayedthere10days.

Itwasreportedthatabout150militarypolice(PolíciaMilitar,PM)armedwithbatons,shields,rifles,teargas,andpepperspraydispersedthe200AmerindiansstakingclaimtothevacantlandknownasLagoAzulIIonthedayof11March2008.ManyoftheIndianswerearrestedthatdayaswell,includingsomenon-indigenous,tryingtostakeclaimstothevacantlandareaofapproximately180,000m2.Thenewspapersreporteditasan‘Indianinvasion’ofvacantlandswithsome17ethnicgroupsparticipatingfromManausincluding:Tikuna,Dessana,Sateré-Mawé,Kanamari,Kokama,andBaniwa(seeDiasdaCosta2008:213–24).TheactionsbythepoliceagainsttheAmerindianlandgrabbersreachednationalattentionwithTVGloboandmanynewspapersinManausreportingtheevent.Iliana’sphotoappearedprominentlyinthenewspaperasshefoughtwiththepolicewhilecarryinghersmallchildandwhilepregnantwithanotherchild.SuchpoliceabuseissymptomaticofthegeneralfeelingsagainstAmerindianslivinginthecityingeneralas‘detribalized’,‘civilized’,‘landless’andsoforthasdescribedabove.Eventually,FUNAIinvestigatedtheincidentconcerning"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

whetherornotpoliceabusehadoccurred.AsaresulttheAmazonasStategovernmentpaid59familiescompensationforthetroublecausedbythepolicewithavalueofR$10,000(approx.$4,600USDtoday)(DiasdaCosta2008:224).ClearlythoughIliana’sstoryencapsulatesthetraumaandsufferingofenduringpolicebrutalityon11March2008.

InterviewwithAlberto,52yearsold,Apurinã,4May2009

[Hedescribeshowhewashitwhenhewasyoungbynon-indigenouspeopleinManaustryingtosurviveinthecity.Hisfatherhaddiedandhisunclelefthiminthecityduringhisadolescencetofendforhimselfandfindhisway.]

I,Isuffered…InApurinã[culture]whentheydonotlikeyoutheyleaveyou…They[hisuncleandotherkin]tookmetothewhitecity[Manaus],alltoeachhisown…Inthestreetstheycalledmedogandhitme,paff!…Listen,Isufferedagreatamount…Ilearnedhowtowork.Ididnotknowwheretogo…whathappenedtomyfatherandgrandfather,theysufferedtoo[also,relatestotheoppressiveworkduringtheRubberBoomeraandtheworkofhisgrandfather]…Nowitisbetterandtodaypeopleinthestreettreatmewithrespect…Ihaveapresenceinfrontofwhitepeople…manypeoplethinkoftheApurinãasinthepast[referringtopastdiscrimination]…Torememberissuffering,alotofsuffering,youdonotknowwhichroadtotake…duringmyadolescentyearsIwentthroughalotofsuffering…Formethingshavegottenmuchbetterwithwork,family,learning…

OfthepeopleIinterviewed,Albertoexperiencedsomeoftheworstsufferingimaginable.Asanadolescenthewasorphanedinthecityandhadtofendforhimselfasastreetchild.Herelatedtomestorieshowheusedtobebeatenandhowmuchhesuffered."******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

Hismemoriesalsoextendtohisgrandparent’sgenerationandtherubberboomerawhenhispeople,theApurinã,sufferedtraumafromthattime.

InterviewwithNeva,26yearsold,identifiesasbeingKokamawithherhusband’sgroup,hermotherisApurinãandfatheriscaboclo,13May2009

Unfortunately,therestillexistsprejudicetoday…InthepastwewerelikeBlacks,nowno.Itisveryawfulprejudiceandveryuglyalso…wearealsoprejudicedbythegovernment[FUNASA]becausewedonotgetproperhealthcarefromthem…MarriagesbetweenIndiansandIndiansisgoodbecausethewhitesdonotunderstandourcultureunfortunately.

InterviewwithEstefania,22years,Kokama,herfatherisMura,motherisKokama,13May2009

IseediscriminationasreallyawfulbecauseweareIndians.Discriminationisugly…discriminationisabigthing.Thesethingsareopeninghowpeoplearethinking.Therearemoreopportunitiestoday…thewhitesdiscriminateagainsttheIndiansstill…

ThestoryofthesetwoKokamawomendescribestheirviewsondiscriminationandasstillexistingfortheurbanAmerindians.Likemanyoftheotherinformants,mostdescribeprejudicebeingbetterintoday’stimesthaninthepast.Evenso,theyrecognizedifferencesbetweenwhattheycallthewhiteworldandIndianculture.


InterviewwithLara,19years,Tukano,29May2009

WhenIwasachildtherewasalotofdiscriminationattheschool.ClassmatesdidnotlookatmeinanicemannerwhileinschoolbutthingshavebeguntochangeasIhavebeeninvolvedintheindigenousmovement…[askedhertoexplainapersonalincident].WhenIwasintheprimary,publicstateschool,therewasateacherwhoknewIwasindigenous.Shewasatraditionalteacher,awhiteteacher.ShetoldmeIdidnotunderstandanythingbecauseIdidnotspeakPortugueseverywell.Soshedidnottreatmeverywellandneitherdidmyclassmates.ThentherewerefightswithmyclassmatesandthenafterthatIdidnotidentifywithbeingindigenous.WhenIlearnedPortugueseitwasbetter…ithappenedwhenIwas9yearsold…

Lara’sexperiencewithdiscriminationisanotherchildhoodmemory,whichhappenedadecadeearlier.ShewasnottreatedwellbytheteacherbecauseshedidnotspeakPortuguesewell.Shealsonegatedherindigenousidentityforawhileoutofshame.Suchincidents,Ibelieve,alsoenforcenotionsurbanAmerindianshaveaboutwhitesocietyandthemajoritypopulation.Suchsufferingalsoemboldensindigenousidentityaswell.

***

InsummarizingthesememoriesofracismanddiscriminationasexperiencedbyurbanIndiansinManaus,Iassociatetheirrecollectionswithacertaintypeoftraumaknowntoindigenouspeoplesthroughouttheworldformorethan500yearssincecolonialtimesandcontinuingtodayinpostcolonialstates.However,thewordtraumaisanevocativeconceptandreallyarecentinventionbypsychiatristsandpsychologistsinEuropeandNorthAmericaasthefascinatingbookbyDidierFassinandRichardRechtman(2009),TheEmpireofTrauma,explainsindetail.Theiremphasisisseekingthetruthabouttheoriginsofthe"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

conceptionoftraumaasembeddedinthe‘moraleconomyofcontemporarysocieties’andthemannerinwhichtraumahasbeencreatedsuchaspost-traumaticstressdisorderanditspoliticization(FassinandRechtman2009:276).Theseauthorsask:‘…sincethisreality[oftrauma]hasonlyrecentlybeenrecognized(thatistosay,identifiedandlegitimized),ourquestionis:whatdoesthissocialrecognitionchange,formenandwomentoday(whethervictimsornot),intheirvisionoftheworldanditshistory,andintheirrelationshipswithothersandwiththemselves?’(FassinandRechtman2009:8).Theanswerisinwhattheytermtobea‘politicsoftrauma’.ThisisanevocativeideabutIsuggestitmayapplytoindigenousrightsandindigenousidentityinaverydifferentwaythanwhatFassinandRechtmanhaveenvisionedthephrasetomeanthroughtheirWesternheuristicapproach.

WhileIagreewiththemthattraumaitselfismore‘amoralthan…apsychologicalcategory’,and‘ratherthanaclinicalreality,traumatodayisamoraljudgement’theiranalysesfallshortinrepresentingthe‘primaryagency’ofsocialactorsthemselves,especiallynon-WesternpeoplesinrelationtoWesternsocieties(FassinandRechtman2009:284).32BythisImeanthemannerinwhichtraumatizedpeoplessuchasIndians,whosetraumatizationthroughdiscriminationandracism,alsoinstigatesinthemtobecome‘intentionalbeings’inusingexperiencesoftraumaasamodeofprovocationagainstBrazilianwhiteoppressors.WhatIamarguingisthatstigmatizingtraumaintheformofdiscriminationandracismactuallyreinforcesindigenousidentities.ItmakesthemintentonovercomingdefamatoryremarksandmalicioustreatmentbyBrazilianwhitesocietyaswellascreatingacounterpointinwhichtoestablishtheirdifferenceandethnicity.The‘politicsoftrauma’forindigenous"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

peoplesinManaus,becauseoftheirexperienceswithracism,literallybecomesapointofdepartureinmaintainingtheirpoliticalmovementsagainstwhitesociety.Forexample,inJune2009some300urbanIndiansandsomeIndiansfromtheinterioroccupiedthefederalcompoundoftheNationalHealthFoundationfor16daysinprotestforbetterhealthcareofIndiansinthecityandonthereservations.ThisdemonstrationmarkedtheIndians’resolvetosurmounttheperceivedwrongsbythenon-Indianpopulationwhocontrolthegovernmentanditsagencies.UrbanAmerindiansthereforearenotpassivevictimsoftrauma,rathertheirepisodicmemoriesofracismandthosememorieswitheverydayqualitiesofstructuralviolence,serveasremindersastowhytheymustbepoliticallyactive,actinconcertinPan-Amerindianism,andprevailoverwhiteBraziliansocietyandthegovernmentwiththeintentofdiminishingindigenousrights(seeScheper-Hughes1992oneverydayviolenceandstructuralviolenceinBrazil).AfterallinterethnicconflictsbetweenIndiansandwhiteshavebeencontinualforcenturiesinBrazilandelsewhereinLatinAmerica,and,asinthepast,Indianshaveresistedthemaltreatmentofwhites,sometimessuccessfullybutmostlyineffectivelyuntilrecently.

IndigenoustraumaoftodaystemmingfromracismandasexperiencedbyIndiansisnotsimplyamoralcategoryinwhichtojudgeBraziliansociety,orthelocalManauaranpopulation,itispartofaninheritedcomplexofpastsignifiersofinterethnicrelationsoveralongperiodoftimeinBrazil,andjustanewerformofoppressionfromamultitudeofhistoricaltraumaticexperiencesthroughdeath,genocide,ethnocide,slavery,missionization,debtpeonage,landseizure,anddevelopment,andsoforth.TraumaforIndiansisimbuedwithawholehistoryof"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

hate,inequalities,othering,andterrorinrelationtowhitesociety.Therefore,IviewthepoliticizationoftraumaforIndiansasliterallyhavingpoliticalconsequencesforthemandasameansinwhichtoaddresstheinequalitiesofinterethnicrelations.IndigenousmovementsinBrazilandthroughoutLatinAmericaintheircurrentformsarethemanifestationsofthepoliticizationoftrauma,ofovercominginter-ethnicstrifeandasameansofcreatingdissidentawareness.Indigenousprotestsandpoliticalmovementsmaygenerallyberegardedlikecivilrightsmovementsasovercomingoppressionwiththeirantecedentsinadistantpast.

Ifdiscussingtraumaistakingamoralstancethenthemoralitiesofdifferencemustbeconsidered.ThemoraleconomythatFassinandRechtman(2009)speakofhasmoretodowithaWestern,andindeedaFrenchperspective,onthemoralityoftraumawithoutmuchconsiderationfornon-Westerners’moralitiesasjuxtaposedagainstWesternsocieties.WhattheWesthasconceptualizedas‘trauma’anditsrecentacceptanceinpsychiatricandpsychologicalparlancedoesnotbegintoencapsulatetheterriblehistoryofdisturbingexperiencesofindigenouspeoplesinaword.Itcannot.Assuch,traumaasjustaword,andananalyticalterm,cannotundothehistoricalmemoriesofterrorforindigenouspeopleswroughtbyinterethnicconflictwithwhitesociety.

Conclusions

Insummary,mypoliticalengagementinadvocacyforurbanAmerindiansinManaus,Brazilmaybecharacterizedasmoreby"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

accidentthannotinthesenseofnotknowingapriorithatmyfieldworkshouldfollowsomeBraziliananthropologists’leadsinadvocatingforIndianrights.PriortofieldworkIdidnotknowabouttheindigenouspoliticsinManausorforthatmatternotmuchaboutIndiangroupslivinginManausaslittleisknownaboutthesecitydwellingIndiansoutsideBrazil.Also,IdidnotknowofthemanyyearsofactivismandadvocacyofanthropologistsintheDepartmentofAnthropologyattheUniversidadeFederaldoAmazonas(UFAM)whohadbeenworkingforthepoliticalrightsofurbanAmerindiansandAmerindiansthroughoutBrazilforyears.Iwasanovicebycomparison.

TomanyIndiansIencounteredIwasanoddityfromNorthAmericabutwiththepossibilityofbeingstrategicallyimportanttothemintheirindigenouspoliticsforreachingawiderEnglish-speakingaudience.Inthismanner,aswithotheranthropologistacquaintances,Ibecamea‘politicalobject’totheminapositivesense.Iwassomeonewhomightprovetobepoliticallyusefultothemovertime.AnthropologistswhobecomepoliticalobjectstoIndiansserveasanexampleofwhatengagementmightentailfortheinterethnicrelationshipofanthropologistswithpoliticallymindfulIndians.

InmyviewpoliticalengagementwithindigenouspeoplesnotonlyentailsadvocacybutalsoevokesamultiplicityofrelationsbetweenanthropologistandIndian.Itimpliesaninterethnicandintersubjectiverelationship,whichisalsoreciprocal.Indians,ontheonehand,useBraziliananthropologistsfortheiradvantageingainingaccesstogovernmentalorganizations,NGOs,andaddressinghealthandeconomicneedsandinnavigatingjudicialissues.(Inthissense,Ifitinwithamodelofatypeofa"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

professionaltheywerealreadyaccustomedtodealingwith.)Anthropologists,ontheotherhand,seekempiricaldatainwhichtotheorizeanthropologicallyaboutIndians.Engagementisthereforeamutualdialogueandmayinvolveindigenouspeoplesdeterminingthedirectionofanthropologicalinquiryanditsoutcomes(asinmycase).InmyparticularstudytheurbanIndiansofManausweremostconcernedwithmypromulgatingtheirpoliticstoabroaderaudienceandmypropagatingtheirmemoriesofracismanddiscriminationfromthemistreatmentofBraziliansocietyandBraziliangovernmentagencies.

ThereasonforwritingthisessayisthusinsupportofurbanAmerindianslivinginManausandtodemonstratetoothersthediscriminationandracismtheyhaveexperienced.WritingssuchasthischaptermayaddtothededicationandworkofBraziliananthropologistswhohavesuccessfullyadvocatedfortherightsandrecognitionofurbanIndiansinManaus,acontinualprocess,andespeciallyinnegotiatingwithgovernmentalagenciessuchasFUNAIandFUNASA.

ThiswritingcontributionhoweverattemptedtomovebeyondmererecognitionoftheIndiansandtheircauses.Rather,italsoanalysedtheindigenoustraumaexperiencedthroughdiscriminationandracismandhowtraumamayberegardedasacatalystforovercominginterethnicstrifewhileatthesametimedefiningindigeneityinjuxtapositiontoBraziliansociety.Autobiographicalknowledgeandepisodicmemoriesofcertaininstancesofracismblendwithoverallexperiencesofracismindailylife,makingsuchnegativeexperienceschronicorasIhavearguedelsewhereasformsof‘synchronic’(episodic)and‘diachronic’(reoccurring)traumas(Linstroth2009).Therefore,thesedistressingepisodesanddisturbingstructuresofviolence"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

maybeunderstoodasrecenttraumasforindigenouspeoples.YetasIhavearguedheresuch‘trauma’hasnothingtodowithitsconceptualizationintheWesternhistoryofpsychiatryandpsychologybutrathertraumaasameretermisonlyastartingpointforunderstandingthehistoriesofviolenceperpetratedbywhitesocietyagainstIndiansformorethan500years.RacisttraumaisjustamodernmanifestationofinterethniccrueltyofwhitesoverIndians.AsIarguedFassinandRechtman’s(2009)notionofthe‘politicsoftrauma’maybereinterpretedforindigenouspeoplesasthosetraumas,whichpoliticallyinstigateinIndianswaysinwhichtomaintaintheirpoliticalmovementsandresistancetowhitesociety.AnotherdifferencebetweenFassinandRechtman’s(2009)studyandmineisanunderstandingthatIndians(unlikeothervictims)arenotsimplyvictimsoftraumaasmaybedescribedinWesternpsychology.Moreprecisely,IndiansIknewhave‘primaryagency’asintentionalbeingsofovercomingmaltreatment.Indiansalsodonotfitintotheso-called‘moraleconomy’oftheWestwherevaluejudgementsaremadeabouttheseverityoftraumaorwhetherornotitexists.Insteadwhatmustbeconsideredareothernon-WesternmoralitiessuchasthoseofIndiansjudgingwhitesandinwhichIndiansufferingmayleadtoresistance.Thereisfromanon-WesternperspectivetheconflictiveinterethnichistorybetweenIndiansandwhites,acomplexhistoricalpicturewhereinoppressionbywhitesagainstIndianshasbeenthenormforcenturiesandlongbeforetheconceptualizationofwordsliketrauma.Afterallnomerewordscanexpressthehistoryofhatred,violence,oppression,andgenocideexperiencedbyIndiansinBrazilandthroughoutLatinAmerica.Perhapslisteningto,engagingwith,andadvocatingforindigenouspeoplesandtheirstrugglesiscertainlyagoodstart"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

albeit,inmycase,amodestone.

Acknowledgements

MygratitudeextendstotheJ.WilliamFulbrightForeignScholarGrant(2008–2009)(Award#8526)andtheirsupportofmyresearchinManaus,Brazilin2009.Also,IwouldliketothanktheUniversidadeFederaldoAmazonas(UFAM)forallowingmetobeavisitingprofessorduringtheSpringTermof2009.Mostespecially,IammostgratefultoRaimundoNonatoPereiradaSilvaandJoséExequielBasiniRodrigueswhosehospitalityandfriendshipascolleaguesatUFAMIwillalwaysremember.IamalsogratefultoRonaldMacDonell,thepriestandlinguistatCIMIforhisfriendshipandsupportduringmyfieldworkinManaus.Additionally,Iamgratefultothefollowingpeople:RobinWrightoftheUniversityofFlorida;WolfgangKapfhammerofPhilippsUniversityMarburg,andespeciallyforWolfgang’scommentsontheearlystagesofthisessay;CliffordBrownandMichaelHarrisofFloridaAtlanticUniversity;andPeterBrewerofBarryUniversity.MostofallIwishtothankmyresearchpartner,ValeriaPereira-Linstroth,forhertirelesspatience,supportandlovethroughoutourfieldworkperiodinManaus.ThedataIgatheredwouldnothavebeenpossiblewithoutherpresenceinthefield.IamalsogratefultothestaffofFloridaAtlanticUniversity’sHonorsCollege,JohnD.MacArthurCampusLibrarywiththeirtirelesshelpinaccessingresourcesforthischapter.Lastly,thisarticleisalsodedicatedtoalltheurbanAmerindianswhobefriendedValeriaandmeduringourfieldworktogether,especiallytheSateré-Mawé,buttoalltheindigenouspeoplewe"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

metfromtheethnicgroups:Apurinã,Kambeba,Kokama,Munduruku,Mura,Tikuna,andTukano.WordsareinsufficienttoexpressourtruegratitudetoalltheAmerindianslivinginManauswhoopenedtheirdoorstousandtoldustheirstories.

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OliveiraFilho,J.P.1998.Muitaterraparapoucoíndio?umaintrodução(crítica)aoindigenismoeàatualizaçãodopreconceito,inATemáticaIndígenaNaEscola:NovosSubsídiosparaProfessorsde1oe2ograus,editedbyA.LopesdaSilvaandL.D.B.Grupioni.SãoPaulo:GlobalEditoraeDistribuidoraLtda,61–81.

——1999a.Aproblemáticados‘índiosmisturados’eoslimitesdosestudosamericanistas:umencontroentreantropologiaehistória,inEnsaiosemAntropologiaHistórica,editedbyJ.P.OliveiraFilho.RiodeJaneiro:Editora,UFRJ,27–47.

——1999b.Entrandoesaindoda‘mistura’:osíndiosnoscensosnacionais,inEnsaiosemAntropologiaHistórica,editedbyJ.P.OliveiraFilho.RiodeJaneiro:EditoraUFRJ,124–51.

——1999c.Cidadania,racismoepluralismo:apresençadas


sociedadesindígenasnaorganizaçãodoestado-nacionalbrasileiro,inEnsaiosemAntropologiaHistórica,editedbyJ.P.OliveiraFilho.RiodeJaneiro:EditoraUFRJ,192–208.

——2004.Umaetnologiados‘índiosmisturados’?:situaçãocolonial,territorializaçãoefluxosculturais,inAViagemdaVolta:Etnicidade,PolíticaeReelaboraçãoCulturalnoNordesteIndígena,editedbyJ.P.OliveiraFilho.RiodeJaneiro:ContraCapaLivrariaLtda,13–42.

Overing,J.andPasses,A.(eds)2000.TheAnthropologyofLoveandAnger:TheAestheticsofConvivialityinNativeAmazonia.London:Routledge.

Ramos,A.R.1990.EthnologyBrazilianstyle.CulturalAnthropology,5(4),452–72.

——1994.ThehyperrealIndian.CritiqueofAnthropology,14(2),153–71.

——1998.Indigenism:EthnicPoliticsinBrazil.Madison,WI:TheUniversityofWisconsinPress.

——2000.Anthropologistaspoliticalactor.JournalofLatinAmericanAnthropology,4(2),172–89.

——2003.Advocacyrhymeswithanthropology.SocialAnalysis:TheInternationalJournalofSocialandCulturalPractice,47(1),110–15.

——2008.Disengaginganthropology,inACompaniontoLatinAmericanAnthropology,editedbyD.Poole.Oxford:BlackwellPublishing,466–84.

——2012.Thepoliticsofperspectivism.AnnualReviewofAnthropology,41,481–94.

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Smith,G.1999.ConfrontingthePresent:TowardsaPolitically"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

EngagedAnthropology.Oxford:Berg.Spencer,J.2010.Theperilsofengagement:Aspacefor

anthropologyintheageofsecurity?CurrentAnthropology,51(2),289–99.

Susser,I.2010.Theanthropologistassocialcritic:Workingtowardamoreengagedanthropology.CurrentAnthropology,51(2),227–33.

Taussig,M.1987.Shamanism,Colonialism,andtheWildMan:AStudyinTerrorandHealing.Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress.

Tomas,D.1991.Toolsofthetrade:TheproductionofethnographicobservationsontheAndamanIslands,1858–1922,inColonialSituations:EssaysontheContextualizationofEthnographicKnowledge,editedbyG.W.Stocking.Madison,WI:TheUniversityofWisconsinPress,75–108.

Turner,T.1991.Representing,resisting,rethinking:HistoricaltransformationsofKayapocultureandanthropologicalconsciousness,inColonialSituations:EssaysontheContextualizationofEthnographicKnowledge,editedbyG.W.Stocking.Madison,WI:TheUniversityofWisconsinPress,285–313.

Twine,F.W.1998.RacisminaRacialDemocracy:TheMaintenanceofWhiteSupremacyinBrazil.NewBrunswick,NJ:RutgersUniversityPress.

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Warren,J.W.2001.RacialRevolutions:AntiracismandIndianResurgenceinBrazil.Durham:DukeUniversityPress.

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1Manaustoday,withitsnearly2millioninhabitants,isacityalmostentirelybuiltassquatterspaces,spreadingoutwardfromthecitycentreoftheportareatotheoutmostreachesofthecity’sneighbourhoodsoverthelast40yearsfromthefreetradeera.Likemanymarginalurbanspaces,especiallyfortheurbanizedpoorofManaus,thereisaconnectiontoaneverydaysenseofviolenceorstructuralviolencebecauseoftheroutinizationofpovertyandracism(seeFarmer2005:40;andScheper-Hughes1992:19,507–8).

2ThepriestallowedmetouseCIMIofficesinManausforinterviewssosomeofthesegroupswerecontactedthere.

3Itisbeyondthescopeofthischaptertoexplainthecurrentandpasteconomic,political,andsocialorganizationaswellasthecosmologicalmythsandworldviewsoftheseAmerindians.MostsecondaryreferencematerialabouttheseindigenouspeoplesrepresentsthoseIndianslivingintheinteriorratherthaninthecity.IntheurbanenvironmenttheIndianshaveadaptedtochangesoflivinginthecity,somekeepingcustomsandlanguage,otherslosingthem.

4Theconceptof‘engagement’inanthropologymaybeattributedtoavarietyofsources,especiallyfromAmericananthropologists.Someoftheseincludethefollowing:Wright(1988);Scheper-Hughes(1995);Smith(1999);Kirsch(2002);Lamphere(2003);Hale(2006,2008);SanfordandAngel-Ajani(2006);Sillitoe(2007);Lassiter(2008);Kellett(2009);Sawyer(2009);LowandMerry(2010);Susser(2010);Johnston(2010);González(2010);Herzfeld(2010);Howell(2010);J.L.Jackson(2010);Spencer(2010);Clarke(2010);Ali(2010);Smart(2010);Mullins(2011);Baer(2012);Linstroth(2012);andMahmood(2012).

5LowandMerry(2010)describeseveralinclusivedefinitionsfor‘engagement’.Theseare:1)sharingandsupport;2)teachingandpubliceducation;3)socialcritique;4)collaboration;5)advocacy;and6)activism.

6TerenceTurner(1991:310)phrasesitdifferently.InreferringtotheKayapoIndiansofBrazilhesays,‘asananthropologist,inshort,IhadbecomeaculturalinstrumentofthepeoplewhosecultureIwasattemptingtodocument’.

7Indigenismisactuallyacomplexconcept.AccordingtoRamos(1998:6):‘itisapoliticalphenomenoninthebroadestsenseoftheterm.Itisnotlimitedtopolicymakingbyastateorprivateconcernortoputtingindigenist[interethnic]policiesintopractice…Whatthemediawriteandbroadcast,novelistscreate,missionariesreveal,humanrightsactivistsdefend,anthropologistsanalyse,andIndiansdenyorcorroborateabouttheIndiancontributestoanideologicaledificethattakesthe“Indianissue”asitsbuildingblock.LurkingbehindtheimagesoftheIndiancomposedofthiskaleidoscopicassortmentofviewpointsisalwaysthelikeness–or,moreappropriately,unlikeness–oftheBrazilian.Indianasmirror,mostofteninverted,is…arecurrentmetaphorintheinterethnicfield.Inotherwords,IndigenismistoBrazilwhatOrientalismistotheWest’.Forabroaderdiscussionofindigenismandindigenouspeoplesintermsofa


globalmovementandhumanrights(seeNiezen2003).8AsFoucault(1980:51–2)explains:‘…Ihavebeentryingtomakevisiblethe

constantarticulationIthinkthereisofpoweronknowledgeandofknowledgeonpower…Theexerciseofpowerperpetuallycreatesknowledgeand,converselyknowledgeconstantlyinduceseffectsofpower’.

9Evenso,itwasreallywhentheCatholicChurchbeganorganizingindigenousmeetingsthroughoutthecountrybeginninginthe1970sthattheindigenousmovementinBrazilbeganinearnestwithofcoursethesupportofBraziliananthropologists.

10Indiscussingreciprocityandcollaborationwithindigenouspeoples,Hale(2008:503)maintainsthat:‘threespecificconditionsofpossibilityconstitutedtheemergenceofreciprocalrelationsofcollaborationbetweenwhiteanthropologistsandindigenouspeoples:risingindigenousmilitancyinnationallevelstrugglesforcollectiverights;racialtensionsbetweenIndian-and-mestizo-ledpoliticalinitiatives;andchangesinthesensibilitiesofUSbasedanthropologytowardaspecialemphasisonclose,horizontalrelationswith‘subaltern’researchsubjects’.

11Formoreon‘intersubjectivities’and‘subjectivity’seeBiehl,Good,andKleinman(2007).

12PartofthepoliticalstruggleofurbanAmerindiansinManaussuchasrecognitionofgreaterhealthrightsisleftoutofthisdiscussionforthepurposeoflength.Additionally,thisdiscussiondoesnotlinkotherindigenousmovementsthroughoutLatinAmericatoManauranindigenouspoliticsorevenBrazilianPan-Amerindianpoliticsbecauseofwordlimitations.Suchdiscussionswillbepublishedelsewhere.

13AnIBGE2010estimateforIndiansinManauswasonly3,837.14AccordingtoFUNAIin2008thefollowingethnicindigenousgroups(altogether

62groups)liveinManaus(althoughsomegroupsaremorepoliticallyvisiblethanothers):Apurinã,Issé,Katawixi,Marimam,Parintintin,Tuyúca,Arapáso,Jarawara,Katukina,Marubo,Paumari,Waimiri-Atroari,Juma,Katwena,Matis,Pirahã,Wai-wái,Banavá-Jafí,Juriti-Tapuia,Kaxarari,Mawaiâna,Pira-Tapúya,Wanana,Baniwa,Kaixana,Kaxinawá,Sateré-Mawé,Warekena,Barasána,Kambeba,Kaxhysana,Siriána,Wayampi,Baré,Kanamari,Kobema,Mayoruna,Tariána,Xeréu,Deni,Kanamanti,Kokama,Miranha,Tenharin,Jamamadi,Dessana,Karafawyána,Korubo,Miriti-Tapuia,Torá,Yanomami,Hi-Marimã,Karapanã,Kulina/Madijá,Munduruku,Tukano,Zuruahã,Hixkaryana,Karipuna,Maku,Mura,andTikuna(Maximiano2008:97).

15Manyhusbandsofindigenouswomenarecabocloorpardo(ofindigenousdescentbutnotnecessarilyself-identifiedassuch)andarenotasactiveintheindigenousaffairsofthecommunity.(Thesemenaremostlyidentifiedaswhites–brancosinsteadofpardosandcaboclos–eitherbecauseoftheirunawarenessoftheexactnessoftheirindigenousorigins,oranunwillingnesstobeassociatedwithbeingIndian.)

16Marriagerulesamongthedifferentgroupsareknownbutmostlyinthepastand


intheinterior.17AcabocloisanethnictermfortheadmixtureofIndianswithwhites.18WarrenhasalsodiscoveredthatFUNAIdoesnotassistIndiansintheSoutheast

ofBrazilforthesamereasons.Ashestates(2001:113):‘…Iamarguingthatthegovernmentassistanceisnotsubstantive.Aswehavelearned,eveninthosecaseswheresignificantamountsofmoneyhavebeenallocatedforcertainservices,oncefunneledthroughFUNAIthe“real”benefitsarescant.Moreover,thesocialservicesthatactuallymaterializetendtodosoinsuchahaphazard,distorted,andineffectivemannerthatitisoftenastretchtorefertothemasbenefits’.

19SomeoftheseindigenousassociationsinManausarethefollowing:AACIAM–AssociaçãodeArteeCulturaIndígenadoAmazonas;ACIBRIN–AssociaçãodasComunidadesIndígenasdoRioNegro;ACIMRN–AssociaçãodasComunidadesIndígenasdoMédioRioNegro;ACINCTP--AssociaçãoComunitáriaIndígenaAgrícolaNhengatu;ACIRI–AssociaçãodasComunidadesIndígenasdoRioIçana;ACIRU–AssociaçãodasComunidadesIndígenasdoRioUmari;ACIRX–AssociaçãodasComunidadesIndígenasdoRioXié;ACITRUT–AssociaçãodasComunidadesIndígenasdeTaracuá,RioUapéseTiquié;AIM–AssociaçãodosIndígenasMunduruku;AISMA–AssociaçãoIndígenaSateré-MawédoRioAndirá;AMAI–AssociaçãodasMulheresdeAssunçãodoRioIçana;AMARN–AssociaçãodasMulheresIndígenasdoRioNegro;AMIK–AssociaçãodasMulheresIndígenasKambeba;AMISM–AssociaçãodasMulheresIndígenasSateré-Mawé;AMITRUT–AssociaçãodasMulheresIndígenasdeTaracuá,RioUapéseTiquié;APN–AssociaçãoPoterihnarã-numiá;CAFI–CentroAmazônicodeFormaçãoIndígena;CGTSM–ConselhoGeraldaTriboSateré-Mawé;CGTT–ConselhoGeralddaTriboTicuna;CGTT–ConselhoGeraldaTriboTicuna;CIKOM--CoordenaçãoIndígenaKokamadeManaus;CIM–ConselhoIndígenaMura;CIMAT–ConselhoIndígenaMundurukudoAltoTapajós;MIK–MovimentoIndígenaKambeba;MPIVJ–MovimentodosPovosIndígenasdoValedoJuruá;OIBI–OrganizaçãoIndígenadaBaciadoRioIçana;OPAMP–OrganizaçãodoPovoApurinãdaBaciadoRioPurus;OPIAM–OrganizaçãodosPovosIndígenasdoAltoMadeira;OPIMP–OrganizaçãodosPovosIndígenasdoMédioPurus;OPIPAM–OrganizaçãodosPovosIndígenasParintintindoAmazonas;OPITTAMP–OrganizaçãodosPovosIndígenasTorá,Tenharim,Apurinã,Mura,ParintintinePirahã(BernodeAlmeidaandSalesdosSantos2008:9–10).

20InthestateofAmazonas68.9percentareparda(IBGE2010).FewauthorshavediscussedracisminrelationtoBrazilianAmerindiansbutmostnotablyareOliveiraFilho(1998,1999a,1999b,1999c,2004);Ramos(1998);AlbertandRamos(2000);andWarren(2001).MostauthorswhowriteaboutracisminBrazildiscussAfro-Brazilians.Someoftheseauthorsinclude:Bailey(2009);Davis(1999);Hanchard(1994,1999);Marx(1998);Nascimento(2007);Ribeiro(2000);Sansone(2003);Seigel(2009);


Sheriff(2001);andTwine(1998).21AsOliveiraFilho(1999b:128–9)rightlypointsoutthecensuscategoryforpardo

is‘problematic’,becauseitis‘anoperationalcategory–artificial,arbitrary,andwithappearanceofbeingtechnicallyscientific’.Hegoesontostate:‘Thecensuscategoryof“pardo”pretendstoindicateexactly–forthepossibilityofitsmeasurement–asituationofmixturebetweendifferentgroupsofcolour.Ifitisaprimordialobjective,itisnonethelesspointingtotheexistenceofmixture–orthatisanintersectionbetweendifferentcategories–itisthereforethenonlypossibletounderstandthereasoningfornotincludingthevarioustypesofmestizos’(OliveiraFilho1999b:135).

22Aftertherubberboomerainthenineteenthcentury,Manausdidnotexperienceaneconomicresurgenceagainuntil1967withtheBraziliangovernmentproclaimingita‘freeport’(ZonaFranca),meaningBrazilianscouldflytothecitytobuytax-freeimportedgoodsand‘manufacturersenjoyedgeneroustaxconcessions’(Hemming2003:460).PeoplemovedtoManausindrovesbecauseofthisneweconomicstimulus.‘AsaresultManausgrewexplosivelyfromsome150,000peoplein1965,to600,000adecadelater,and1,100,000attheendofthe[twentieth]century’(Hemming2003:460).AsFerreiradeMeloandFreitasPinto(2003:46)explain,newmigrantstothecityhaveunrealisticexpectationsaboutManausasimaginingaplacewith‘manyoptions’andhavenumerousfantasiesaboutthespecialmeritsoftheurbanenvironmentpriortomovingtothecity.

23LocalsocietymagazinesinManaussuchasTopLineactuallypromotewhiteidentityandphotographicallywhitenthecomplexionsofsomeofthesocietyphotostomakepeoplehavelighterskincolour.SuchnewsmediafocusonwhitenessandwhitebeautyisdominantinBraziliansociety.ForanAmazoniancitylikeManausthepromotionofwhiteaesthetics,includingtheconsumptionofmaterialgoods,makesitsimilartootherBraziliancities.WhatisdissimilarisManaus’historyoftherubberboomeraandthenegativeattitudesingeneraltowardIndians.TheironyofcourseisthatagoodproportionofthepopulationinManaushaveindigenousancestry.

24ForurbanAmerindians,theywereconsideredtobe‘civilized’,‘detribalized’,and‘mixed’,addingtothepejorativesaboutthemseealsoOliveiraFilho(2004).

25Itshouldbereiteratedthatso-calledwhitesocietyinManausisreallythemajoritypardapopulation,manyofwhomarereallycaboclos.

26InpersonalcommunicationwithWolfgangKapfhammer,helikewiseaffirmsthisstrategyofurbanAmerindianregalia.

27Manytimesduringmyinterviews,theurbanAmerindianswouldfeelitnecessarytodressup,especiallyifIwasfilmingthem.FormoreperspectivesondressandAmazonianindigeneity,seeEwartandO’Hanlan(2007).

28InTupi-Guaraniwhitemenorthewhiteraceissimplycari.Thesewordsareprobablyderivedfromthelinguageral(generalTupilanguage),Ñe’engatú.ThislanguagewasstandardizedbytheJesuitsinthesixteenthandseventeenthcenturiesin


theBrazilianAmazon.29OtheranthropologistshavealsocommentedonhowIndiansmanipulatetheir

imagesforwhitesocietyandtheirusesofmodernWesterntechnologiesasrelationalstrategies(seeConklin1997;Turner2002).

30Thetucandeiradanceisarite-of-passageritualforyoungmentodancewithglovedhandscontaininghundredsofstingingbulletants(Paraponeraclavata).

31AllthenamesofintervieweesarepseudonymsinordertoprotecttheidentityofAmerindianinformants.

32HereIamdefining‘primaryagency’fromAlfredGell(1998:20).Hestates:‘primaryagents,thatis,intentionalbeings…distributetheiragencyinthecausalmilieu,andthusrendertheiragencyeffective’.


Chapter7OldWineinNewBottles:Self-

determination,ParticipatoryDemocracyandFree,PriorandInformedConsent

JayanthaPerera

Introduction

SoonaftertheSecondWorldWar,theUnitedNations(UN)usheredinaneweraininternationallaw.DecolonizationinAsiaandAfrica,thespreadofuniversalconceptssuchasequality,justiceandequity,andanemerginganti-racistconsciousness(Anaya2007)createdanenablingenvironmenttowidenthescopeofinternationallawanditsapplication.TheUNCharterof1945embodiedthekeyprinciplesofinternationallaw,andoneofthemwastherighttoself-determinationofpeoples.Article1(2)oftheCharteroutlinesthepurposeofinternationallawasdeveloping‘friendlyrelationsamongnationsbasedonrespectfortheprincipleofequalrightsandself-determinationofpeoples,andtotakeotherappropriatemeasurestostrengthenuniversalpeace’(emphasisadded).Therighttoself-determinationofpeopleswasre-emphasizedin1966bytheUNthroughtheInternationalCovenantonEconomic,SocialandCulturalRights(ICESCR)andtheInternationalCovenantonCivilandPoliticalRights(ICCPR).


ThecommonArticle1ofthetwoCovenantsstatesthat‘allpeopleshavetherightofself-determination.Byvirtueofthatrighttheyfreelydeterminetheirpoliticalstatusandfreelypursuetheireconomic,socialandculturaldevelopment’.Inaddition,Article3ofICESCRstatesthat‘PartiestothepresentCovenant…shallpromotetherealizationoftherightofself-determination,andshallrespectthatright,inconformitywiththeprovisionsoftheCharteroftheUnitedNations’.

Despitethepresenceofthisenablinglegalframework,stateshavebeenreluctanttouseitatthesub-nationalleveltorecognizetherighttoself-determinationofindigenouspeopleswholivewithinstateboundaries.Thisattitudeatleastuntilthe1960swassupportedbytheUNbecauseofthefearintheinternationalcommunitythatnegotiationsonboundariesofpeoples’territorieswithinnationstates(predominantlyformedonde-colonizedterritories)coulddisintegratesuchstates,upsettingthefragilestate-centredinternationalpoliticalsystem.

Duringthepastfourdecades,severalindigenousmovementsinLatinAmerica,NorthAmerica,AustraliaandAsiahavere-focusedtheattentionoftheUNontherighttoself-determinationofindigenouspeoples.AttheUN,theiragitationledtotheestablishmentoftheWorkingGrouponIndigenousPopulationsin1982,PermanentForumonIndigenousIssuesin2000,andtheExpertMechanismonRightsofIndigenousPeoplesin2008.Moreover,suchagitationspavedthepathtotheapprovaloftheIndigenousandTribalPeoplesConvention,1989(ILO169)andtheUNDeclarationontheRightsofIndigenousPeoplesof2007(UNDRIP).Moreover,suchagitationshaveencouragedmultilateralandbilateraldevelopmentagenciestorecognizeindigenouspeoples’rightsashumanrightsandtoincorporate"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

themintheircorporatedevelopmentpoliciesandstrategies.Theseagenciesformulatedcorporatepoliciesonindigenouspeoplesandethnicminorities,recognizingtheirrighttodistinguishthemselvesfromthemainstreamsocietyandtoreceiverecognitionforancestrallands,culturalheritage,andcontrolovernaturalresources.

Statesgenerallyinterprettherighttoself-determinationofindigenouspeoplesasarighttoabetterlife,andopportunitiesforimprovinglifechancescouldbefoundindevelopmentinterventionsofthestate.Meanwhile,indigenouspeoplesinterpretthescopeofrighttoself-determinationasculturalindependenceasaseparatepopulationwhichownsancestrallands,preservesindigenousknowledge,andcontrolsnaturalresourcesonsuchland.Thetensionbetweenthestate’sdeterminationtointegrateindigenouspeoplesintothemainstreampopulation,andindigenouspeoples’demandtobetreatedasseparatepopulationswithspecificrights,posesachallengetointernationallaw.Ithassofarfailedtoresolvethistension,althoughsomeprogressinindigenouspeoples’participationindevelopmentandinsharingdevelopmentbenefitsisevident.AsCraven(1995)pointedout,internationallawarguablyrecognizesdifferentneedsofindigenouspeoplesparticularlyasregardstheirculturalidentity.Howevertheoutcomeofsuchstate-sponsoredengagementofindigenouspeoplesindevelopmentdoesnotamounttorealizingtheirrighttoself-determinationguaranteedintheUNCharter.

Thischapterfocusesontherelationshipbetweentherighttoself-determinationand‘free,prior,andinformedconsent’(FPIC),aprocessthathaswidelybeeninvokedtoclaimthatindigenouspeoplescouldenjoytherighttoself-determinationatleastina"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

limitedsenseiftheymeaningfullyparticipateindecision-makingwhichwillculminateindecidingwhethertogiveornottheirconsenttoadevelopmentinterventionthatwoulddirectlyaffectthem.TheFPICispremisedontherightstobeinformed,consulted,andparticipateindecision-makingindevelopmentprojectsthataffectindigenouspeoples,andtherighttosharedevelopmentbenefits.TheserightsembeddedinFPICenableindigenouspeoplestodemandastatetoobtaintheirpriorconsenttoacquiretheirancestrallandsorhaveanyimpactontheirculturalresources,indigenousknowledge,orlimittheircontrolovernaturalresources.TheUNPermanentForumonIndigenousIssues,2000articulatedFPICas‘aprocessundertakenfreeofcoercionormanipulation,involvingself-selecteddecision-makingprocessesundertakenwithsufficienttimeforeffectivechoicestobeunderstoodandmade,withallrelevantinformationprovidedandinanatmosphereofgoodfaithandtrust’(Tugendhatetal.2008:1).

ThechapterexaminestheusefulnessofFPICinresolvingthetensionbetweenstatesovereigntyandindigenouspeoples’righttoself-determination.ItalsolooksintotherolethatanthropologistsandindigenousscholarscouldplaytoimproveFPICasadevelopmentplanningframeworkanditsapplicationbyusingtheirrichmethodologicalandtheoreticalperspectivesonindigenouscommunities.Thechapterpointsoutthatplannersoflarge-scaledevelopmentinterventionscouldseekadviceandassistancefromanthropologistsandindigenousscholarstoidentifyaffectedindigenouspeoplesofsuchdevelopmentinterventionsandtostudytheirclaimsoverancestraldomainsandculturalrights.Theycouldalsointerpretdomesticpolicies,customarylawsandtraditions,andrecordanddisseminate"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

indigenousknowledge.TheAsianDevelopmentBankrecentlyreiteratedtheimportanceofengaginganthropologistsandindigenousscholarsindevelopmentinterventions.‘IndigenousPeoplesdonotautomaticallybenefitfromdevelopment,whichisoftenplannedandimplementedbythoseinthemainstreamordominantpopulation.SpecialeffortsareneededtoengageIndigenousPeoplesintheplanningofdevelopmentprogramsthataffectthem,inparticular,developmentprogramsthataresupposedlydesignedtomeettheirspecificneedsandaspirations’(2009:55).Forthispurpose,theprojectownersordevelopershaveto‘retainqualifiedandexperiencedexperts’(ADB2009:58)tostudytheimpactofsuchinterventionsonindigenouspeoples,prepareplansbasedondetailedfieldwork,implementdevelopmentplans,andmonitorandevaluatehowwelltheseplansareimplemented.Anthropologistsandindigenousscholarscouldperformthesetasks.

Self-determinationasanIndigenousPeoples’Right

Therighttoself-determinationispremisedontheidealthatallhumanbeingsareequallyentitledtocontroltheirowndestinieswithoutexternalinterference.Ittakesasitsscopemultiplepatternsofhumanassociationandtheirinterdependency(Xanthaki2009).Itisacollectiverightofapopulationtoinfluenceandshapedecision-makingprocessesandactionsthataffectitsidentity,economy,culture.However,duringthedecolonizationprocess,undertheauspicesoftheUN,‘thechoiceastothepoliticalfutureofcolonizedpeopleswasnotgiventotheindividualpeoplesconquered,buttotheinhabitantsofterritories"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

colonizedbyEuropeanconquerors,withintheboundariesofthelinesofdemarcationdrawnbythecolonizers’(Wiessner2008:1150).Asaresult,‘autonomy’ofindigenouspeoplesinsuchstatesisanunsettledissueininternationallaw.However,whetheranindigenouspopulationenjoysautonomyoveritsownaffairsincludingancestrallandwithintheboundariesofasovereignstateisapoliticalandlegalquestionthathashithertobeendecidedsolelybythestateapparatus(Schrijver1997;Anaya2007;Xanthaki2009).

ILOConvention169of1989

TheILOConvention169focusesontherelationshipbetweenthestateandindigenouspeoples,andtheimportanceofprotectingindigenouspeoples’decision-makingrightsregardingtheirownpriorities,ancestralproperty,andwell-being.Article7(1)oftheConventionstatesthatthey‘shallhavetherighttodecidetheirownprioritiesfortheprocessofdevelopmentasitaffectstheirlives,beliefs,institutionsandspiritualwell-beingandthelandtheyoccupyorotherwiseuse,andtoexercisecontrol,totheextentpossible,overtheirowneconomic,socialandculturaldevelopment…Theyshallparticipateintheformulation,implementationandevaluationofplansandprogrammesfornationalandregionaldevelopmentwhichmayaffectthemdirectly’.Thisbestowsonindigenouspeoplessomemeasureofcontroloverthepaceandextentofdevelopmentinterventionsthatdirectlyaffectthem.Byusingthisright,theytoobecomeaccountablefortheoutcomeofdevelopmentinterventionsandwillalsohavetodevelopstrategiestobenefitfromthem.AlthoughtherightsincludedinArticle7(1)seemvery"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

empowering,indigenouspeoplecancontroldevelopmentinterventionsthatdirectlyimpactonthem‘totheextentpossible’.Thephrase‘totheextentpossible’createsaloopholeinlawandweakenstherightsundertheArticle.Thestatedecidesthescopeofthisphraseandcoulduseittomakeinroadsintoancestraldomainsofindigenouspeopleswithouttheirpriorconsent.Suchinroadsnotonlychallengesthecoreideaofself-determinationofindigenouspeoples(Sillitoe,thisvolume),butmoreimportantly,candivestthemoftheirancestraldomainandculturalheritagethroughinvoluntaryresettlement,commercializationofindigenousknowledgeandcommercialdevelopmentofnaturalresources(McGee2009;ADB2009).Moreover,althoughindigenouspeopleshavetherighttoparticipateindevelopmentprogrammesthataffectthem,theycannotvetoorchangethemiftheyarelikelytoaffectthemadversely.Thisisbecauseinternationallawrecognizes,andnationallawsemphasizethatthestateisresponsibleforregulatingpropertyandnaturalresourcesintheinterestsofallofitscitizens.

Indigenouspeoples’righttoliveontheircustomarylandisrecognizedbyArticle16(1).Itstatesthat‘…thepeoplesconcernedshallnotberemovedfromthelandswhichtheyoccupy’.ButArticle16(2),(3),(4)and(5)provideexceptionstothisright.Article16(2)states‘wheretherelocationofthesepeoplesisconsiderednecessaryasanexceptionalmeasure,suchrelocationshalltakeplaceonlywiththeirfreeandinformedconsent’.However,iftheaffectedindigenouspeoplesdisagree,thestatecanremovethemfromtheirancestralland,onlyafter‘followingappropriateproceduresestablishedbynationallawsandregulations,includingpublicinquirieswhereappropriate’.Apublicinquiryopensupstateaccountability,andtheparticipation"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

ofindigenouspeoplesintheenquirylegitimizestheirstatusastheownersoratleasttheusersofsuchland.Butsuchproceduresexcludethevetopowersoftheaffectedindigenouspeoples,asILO169recognizesstatesupremacyandterritorialintegrity.Thisweakensthecloselinkrecognizedbyinternationallawbetweenindigenouspeoplesandtheirancestralland.Moreover,suchstatepowersunderminethepossibilityoftreatingindigenouspeoplesasaseparatesub-populationwithintheterritoryofanationstate.

Indigenouspeoples’righttocontrolnaturalresourcessuchasmineralsontheirancestrallandsisacontroversialissueinmanystatelegalsystems.Article15(1)ofILO169statesthatindigenouspeoples’rightstonaturalresourcesintheirancestrallandshallbe‘speciallysafeguarded’andthattheyhavearighttoparticipateindecisionsregardingthe‘use,managementandconservation’ofsuchnaturalresources.ButaccordingtoArticle15(2),thestatecanretaintheownershiptomineralorsub-surfaceresourcesfoundinancestrallandsofindigenouspeoples.Thestatewillalsoprepareproceduresonhowtoconsultthepeoplestoascertainwhetherandtowhatdegreetheirinterestswouldbeprejudicedoradverselyaffectedbeforeundertakingorpermittinganyprogrammesfortheexplorationofsuchresourcesontheirlands.TheArticlefurthersaysthat‘thepeoplesconcernedshallwheneverpossibleparticipateinthebenefitsofsuchactivities,andshallreceivefaircompensationforanydamageswhichtheymaysustainasaresultofsuchactivities’.However,astatecanjustifytheextractionofmineralsorcontrollingofwaterandforestresourcesonsuchlandbyclaimingsuchnaturalresourcesbelongtotheentirenationandshouldbenefitallofitsmembers.Insuchasituation,theprobabilityofaffectedindigenouspeoplesreceivingfaircompensationisveryslim."******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

Inrecentyears,theincreasingfrequencyofconfrontationsbetweenindigenouspeoplesandmultinationalcorporationsindicatethecompetingownershipclaimsregardingnaturalresourcemanagement.InIndia,forexample,theOrissaStategovernmentstronglybackedtheplanofamultinationalcorporationcalledVedantaResourcesplc(UK)andtheOrissaMiningCorporationtoextractbauxitefromtheNyamgiriHillsintheStateofOrissawhichishometomorethan8,000DongariaKondhstribalhouseholds.Thetribalcommunityconsidersthehillsasitsancestraldomainwhichissacredtothem.TheiragitationagainstthetakeoveroftheselandsformininghasbeensupportedbytheChurchofEngland,ashareholderofthecorporation,theAmnestyInternationalandtheMarlboroughEthicalFund.TheChurchofEnglandsoldoffitssharesatVedantaResourcesplc.AllofthemdemandedthatVedantaResourcesshelvesitsminingplansintheNyamgiriHillsandadvisedtheOrissaStategovernmentnottoallowVedantaResourcestomineinthehillsuntilitobtainsthetribalcommunity’sinformedconsent.Meanwhile,thecentralgovernmentofIndiasuccumbedtolocalandinternationalpressureagainsttheprojectandsuspendedit,basedonthereportoftheForestAdvisoryCommitteewhichconcludedthattheminingintheproposedprojectareawilldeprive‘twoPrimitiveTribalGroupsoftheirrights…andshakethefaithoftribalpeopleinthelawsoftheland…’(Saxenaetal.2010:9).Thisisarareoccasionwherethestatesuccumbedtopublicopinion.Thedecisionofthecentralgovernmentaffirmedthatindigenouspeopleshavesomerightsovernaturalresourcesfoundintheirancestrallands.


UNDeclarationonRightsofIndigenousPeoplesof2007

TheUNDRIPof2007tooseeksto‘…affirmthefundamentalimportanceoftherighttoself-determinationofallpeoples,byvirtueofwhichtheyfreelydeterminetheirpoliticalstatusandfreelypursuetheireconomic,socialandculturaldevelopment’(PreambletoUNDRIP).ButithasnotresolvedtheambiguitiesandproblemsleftunattendedbytheILO169.TheArticle4ofUNDRIP,forexample,inthespiritoftheILO169,limitstherighttoindigenouspeoples’righttoself-determinationtointernalandlocalaffairs.Itstatesthat‘Indigenouspeoples,inexercisingtheirrighttoself-determination,havetherighttoautonomyorself-governmentinmattersrelatingtotheirinternalandlocalaffairs,aswellaswaysandmeansforfinancingtheirautonomousfunctions’.

Article26ofUNDRIPstatesthatindigenouspeopleshave‘therighttothelands,territoriesandresourceswhichtheyhavetraditionallyowned,occupiedorotherwiseusedoracquired’.Ithoweverdoesnotspecifywhetherindigenouspeopleshaveownershiprights,ratheritadoptsabroadapproachthatincludesseveralkindsofpossessionincludingownership.However,Article10comesclosesttoindigenouslandtitle.Itguaranteesthat‘norelocationshalltakeplacewithoutthefree,priorandinformedconsentoftheindigenouspeoplesconcernedandafteragreementonjustandfaircompensationand,wherepossible,withtheoptionofreturn’.ButArticle28(1)weakensandcontradictstherightsguaranteedbyArticle10byintroducingthepossibilityofacquiringoroccupyingofsuchlandwithoutobtainingtheirfree,prior,informedconsent.Insuchinstances,asperArticle28(2),theyareentitledtocash-for-landorland-for-"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

landcompensation.Compensationforacquiredlandispremisedonthelegal

principleofpublicpurpose.Itderivesfromtherightofeminentdomainofthestate–thepowerofthestateoritsagenttoacquireanypropertyforapublicpurpose,withorwithoutthepermissionofthepropertyowner.Itdoesnotdistinguishbetweenprivatepropertyandpeoples’property,andtheonlyconcessionavailableforlandthusacquirediscompensation,asdeterminedbythestate.InSouthAsia,BritishrulersinthenineteenthcenturyincorporatedthisrightofthestateintocountrylegalsystemsofitscoloniesbyenactingtheLandAcquisitionActof1894.OncenewnationstatessuchasPakistan,Ceylon(SriLanka),Indiacameintobeingasaresultofthedecolonizationprocess,eachofthemretainedtheLandAcquisitionActasthekeylegalinstrumentforacquisitionofprivateproperty.

TheissueoftheownershipofnaturalresourcesonancestrallandsofindigenouspeopleswasalsonotresolvedbyUNDRIP.Article32(2)statesthatthestatewill‘consultandcooperateingoodfaithwithindigenouspeoplesinordertoobtaintheirfree,priorandinformedconsentbeforeapprovinganyprojectthatrelatestodevelopment,utilizationorexploitationofmineral,waterorotherresources’.ComparedwithILOConvention169,UNDRIPisnotaprogressivepieceofUNlegislation.Asanon-bindinglegalinstrumentitreiteratesandreaffirmsthepowersofthestateanditsterritorialintegrity.Article46sealsthesuperiorityofthestatevis-à-visindigenouspopulationsbystatingthatnothinginUNDRIPshouldbeinterpretedasa‘righttoengageinanyactivity’,contrarytotheUNCharteror‘construedasauthorizingorencouraginganyactionwhichwoulddismember,orimpair,totallyorinparttheterritorialintegrityor"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

politicalunityofsovereignandindependentStates’.Whiledevelopinghumanrightsofindigenouspeoples,

internationallawcontinuestoreiteratethestatesupremacyanditsinherentpowerandrighttocontrolitsterritorialintegrity.Thusstatesovereigntycanoverrideindigenousrights,especiallyindigenouslandandresourcerights(Gilbert2006).Inthiscontext,theinclusionoftherighttoself-determinationinILOConventionof169andinUNDRIPseemstooambitiousandprematureinthecontextofthegeneralpolicyadoptedbytheUNanditsvariousagenciesthattherighttoself-determinationshouldonlybeavailabletothewholepopulationofastate,nottosub-populationsorpeoples.Thedegreeofautonomyorself-ruleofindigenouspeoplesvariouslyknownas‘tribalsovereignty’and‘indigenousself-government’cannotbeascertainedfrombothILOConventionof169andUNDRIPbecauseoftheirlackofclarityandaspirationalcontent.

JurisprudenceoftheRighttoSelf-determinationofIndigenousPeoples

Thepropositionthatindigenouspeopleshavearighttoself-determinationmainlyspringsfromtheconceptofaboriginaltitle.Aboriginaltitle,inasense,insinuatesatypeofsovereigntyheldbyagroupofindigenouspeoplesoveraterritorybeforethearrivalofcolonizers.Itisalsolinkedwiththepropositionthatwhenacolonizersclaimedsovereigntyoveraboriginalland,suchsovereigntymeanttheimperium(righttogovern),butnotthedominium(righttoown)oversuchaboriginalland.Accordingto


thislegalframework,thedominiumoverancestrallandcouldhavebeenretainedbytheindigenouscommunities,unlessitwasexpresslyextinguishedbyastatuteorbyavoluntarysaleorcession.Althoughthisisaneatlegalconstruct,itsproofisdifficult,andtheonusrestssolelyontheindigenousgroupwhichchallengesthestatesupremacy.Howeverinrecentyears,courtsinseveralcountrieshaverecognizedtribalsovereigntyinalimitedsense,althoughinternationallawisstillgrapplingwiththemeaningofconceptsofautonomy,self-rule,andself-determination.

IntheUnitedStatesv.Wheeler(1978),theSupremeCourtheldthattribeswere‘self-governingsovereignpoliticalcommunities’beforethearrivaloftheEuropeans.Theyhold‘inherentpowersofalimitedsovereigntywhichhasneverbeenextinguished’,althoughtheynolongerpossessthefullattributesofsovereignty.ThecurrentUSlegalpositionregardingaboriginaltitleandrighttoself-determinationiswellsummarizedinSanManuelIndianBingoandCasinov.NationalLaborRelationsBoard(2007).Inthiscase,theUnitedStatesCourtofAppealintheDistrictofColumbiaCircuitdeclaredthattheprincipleoftribalsovereigntyinAmericanlawexistsasamatterofrespectforIndiancommunities.Inthiscontext,thelawrecognizestheindependenceofthesecommunitiesasregardsinternalaffairs,therebygivingthemthelatitudetomaintaintraditionalcustomsandpractices.Buttribalsovereigntydoesnotamounttoabsoluteautonomy.Thecourtalsoobservedthattribalsovereigntyisstrongestwhenitisbasedonatreatyorwhenthetribalauthoritiesactwithinthebordersofthereservationinmattersconcerningonlytribalmembers.

TheAustralianHighCourtinMabov.Queensland(no.2,"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

1992)declaredthattheconceptofterranulliusishistoricallyinvalidandincompatiblewithmodernstandardsofhumanrightsandjustice.Itrecognizedthatcommonlawnativetitlehadco-existedwithcolonialoverridingtitleoftheBritishCrown.However,inWestAustraliav.Ward(2002)andinWilsonv.Anderson(2002),theHighCourtconfirmedthatthenativetitlemaypartiallyortotallybeextinguishedbycompetingtitlesgrantedbytheCrownsuchaspastoralandminingleases.

InCanada,theConstitutionActof1982statedthat‘theexistingAboriginalandtreatyrightsoftheAboriginalpeoplesofCanadaareherebyrecognizedandaffirmed’.Byvirtueofthisprovision,nativerightsexistingatthetimeoftheadoptionoftheAct,whetherderivedfromthecommonlaworatreatyareprotectedbytheConstitution.TheCanadianConstitutionguaranteesindigenouspeoples’righttogovernthemselvesregardingmattersthatareinternaltotheircommunities,integraltotheircultures,identities,traditions,languagesandinstitutions,andwithrespecttotheirspecialrelationshipswiththeirancestrallandsandnaturalresourcesfoundonthem.TheSupremeCourtofCanadainSparrowv.theQueen(1990)statedthatsuchnativerights,thoughexist,arenotabsoluteandcouldbeoverriddenbythestate.ButtheSparrowjudgementestablishedtheprinciplethat‘whendealingwiththerightsofAboriginalpeople,theirrightsaretobetakenseriously,sensitivelyandinsuchamannerastomaintainthehonouroftheCrowninitsfiduciaryrelationshipwiththem’(Issac1993:214).

InSamatav.StateofAndhraPradesh(1997),theSupremeCourtofIndiaheldthat‘scheduled’areas(areasrecognizedbytheIndianConstitutionaswherevulnerabletribalcommunitiesarepredominant)shouldbeconsideredasaseparatecategoryofland."******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

Thereforethosewholiveordependonsuchlandshavespecificsocialandenvironmentalinterestsinthemanditisthedutyofthestatetorespectandprotectsuchinterests.TheCourtalsoobservedthat‘thetribalshavefundamentalrighttosocialandeconomicempowerment…Tribalpeoplecanexploitmineralsinthe“scheduled”areaswithoutdisturbingtheecologyorforestlands,eitherindividuallyorthroughcooperativesocietieswithfinancialassistancefromthestate’.Itfurtherheldthatwhereatotalprohibitiononthetransferoflandsdoesnotexist,thestatecanallowprojectdeveloperstointroducedevelopmentinterventions.Buttheymustsetasideatleast20percentofthenetprofitsoftheprojectasapermanentfundtomeettheaffectedtribalpeople’sdevelopmentneedsandtopayforreforestationandmaintenanceoftheecology.

Aspirationsforself-determinationandadesiretoplayameaningfulroleindevelopmentdecision-makingwhichwouldaffectthemdirectlyarewidelysharedbyindigenousgroupsallovertheworld.However,theyarefarfrombeingrealizeddespitefavourablejudicialactivismnotedinseverallandmarkjudgementsdiscussedabove.Themajorobstaclethatindigenouspeoplesencounterinrealizingself-determinationisthepowerfulclaimofthestateforsovereigntyandterritorialintegrity.BothILOConvention169andUNDRIPhavesuccumbedtothisclaim.Asaresult,therighttoself-determinationofindigenouspeoplesisstilllargelylimitedtotheirrighttobeconsultedandinformedaboutdevelopmentprogrammesthatwouldaffectthem.Suchalimitedmeaningofself-determinationiscurrentlycouchedunderthelabelof‘participatorydemocracy’.


ParticipatoryDemocracy

Participatorydemocracyisaframeworkofdialogueforthestateandindigenouspeoplestonegotiatehowtoresolveterritorialandsovereigntyissuesthatcontaminatetheirrelationship.Italsofacilitatesindigenouspeoples’participationindecisionmakingandinsharingdevelopmentbenefits.Thusparticipatorydemocracyframeworkgives‘thoseconsultedachancetomaketheirviewsknownandtoinfluencethedecision’(TomeiandSwepston1996:42).

Inthecontextofinternationallaw’srecognitionofterritorialintegrityandstatesupremacyoverindigenouspeoples’righttoself-determination,indigenouspeoplesnowdemandstate’srecognitionoftheircollectiverightstoancestraldomains,livelihoodstrategies,andculturalsurvival.Thisdemandfocusesonsharingandinclusionratherthanondominationandexclusion.Butmanystatesstillbranditas‘indigenouscommunalism’claimingthatitclasheswithastate’sdevelopmentstrategiesandinterventions.Theyalsopointoutthatindigenouscommunalismwouldalsoclashwithmodernindividualismthatunderpinspropertylaws(Schrijver1997;Anaya2007).

Theonlyconcessionthatastateisgenerallywillingtoconsideristoinformindigenouspeoplesandconsultthembeforeinitiatingdevelopmentinterventionsonlandwheretheyliveandearntheirlivelihood,butwithoutgivingthemanyvetopowerovertheinterventions.Ontheotherhand,non-stateactorssuchasNGOSandindigenousactivistsoverthepasthalfcenturyhavebeentryingtocarveoutmorerightsforindigenouspeoplesregardingtheirancestraldomains,livelihoodsandcultural


resources,andtheircontrolovernaturalresources.TheyalsohavehelpedtheUNandinternationaldevelopmentagenciestoestablishproceduralrightsofindigenouspeoplesregardingconsultationanddisclosureofinformationpertainingtodevelopmentinterventions,initiatedorsupportedbythestate.FollowingtheUN,severaldevelopmentdonoragenciessuchastheWorldBank,AsianDevelopmentBankandInternationalFinanceCorporationhavealsoincorporatedsomeoftheserights,especiallyFPIC,invaryingdegreesintotheircorporatesocialsafeguardpolicies.

DevelopmentofFPICinInternationalLaw

TheConvention169offersguidelinesastohowtoapplyFPICindevelopingapartnershipbetweenindigenouspeoplesandthestateindecision-makingandinsharingbenefitsofdevelopmentinterventions.Articles6.1(a)oftheConventionstatesthatgovernmentsshall‘consultthepeoplesthroughappropriateproceduresandinparticularthroughtheirrepresentativeinstitutions,wheneverconsiderationisbeinggiventolegislativeoradministrativemeasureswhichmayaffectthemdirectly’.Article6(2)statesthatconsultations‘shallbeundertakeningoodfaithandinaformappropriatetothecircumstances,withtheobjectiveofachievingagreementorconsenttotheproposedmeasures’.FPICasaframeworkfordialogueamongthestate,indigenouspeoplesanddevelopmentagentsfitswellwiththe‘consultationmechanism’suggestedinArticle6(2).Itrecognizesthevulnerabilityofindigenouspeoples,asitrecognizestheneedforspecialtreatmentofindigenouspeoplesasaseparate"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

population.Itexpectsthestatetoprovidefullinformationaboutinterventionsandtoallowindigenouspeoplesortheirrepresentativestoparticipateindecision-makingonimportantpolicy,administrativeanddevelopmentissuesthathavedirectimpactthem.Itemphasizesthatagreementorconsentcouldbeachievedonlyifallpartiesareequalindecision-makingandpossessfullinformationabouttheissuesathand.

TheILO169emphasizeson‘agreement’,anditdoesnotgiveindigenouspeoplestherighttovetoastate-sponsoreddevelopmentproposal.‘TheConventionspecifiesthatnomeasuresshouldbetakenagainstthewishesofindigenousandtribalpeoples,butthisdoesnotmeanthatiftheydonotagreenothingwillbedone’(ILO2003:16).ThisisratherastrangestatementgiventhefactthattheConventionexpectsandencouragesindigenouspeoplesortheirrepresentativestonegotiatewiththestateonhowitcouldprotecttheirrights.Negotiationimpliesroomforchangeortoarriveataconclusionacceptabletobothparties.Ifthisspaceisnotavailable,therelationshipbecomesasymmetricalwiththestatehavingtheupperhand.Thestatemightcompensatepeoplesforusurpingtheirrightsorestablishapublicinquiryintotheallegedbreachofcustomaryrights.Butthestatecouldproceedwithaninterventionwithorwithouttheconsentoftheaffectedindigenouscommunity.Whatismorerevealingisthatduringthepast30years,onlyafewstateshaveestablishedformalconsultativeproceduresorframeworkstoengageindigenouspeoplesindevelopmentinterventions.Asaresult,consultationsaregenerallyone-sidedanddominatedbyastateofficialorprojectofficerwhooutlinesaplannedinterventiontoagroupofvulnerableindigenouspeoplesexpectinglittleornoinputfrom"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

them.Suchconsultationsreduceparticipatorydemocracytonothing.Atbest,theytaketheformofafavourfromthestatethanarightoftheaffectedindigenouspeoples.

TheUNDRIPconsolidatedmostaspectsofFPICfoundinvariousinternationallegalinstruments.Itspreamblestatesthat‘…Statewillapplyanyrightithasoverindigenouspeoplesonlyinconsultationwiththemandwithoutharmingthembutprovidingwindowsforopportunitiesforbenefitsharing’.TheUNDRIPattemptstobalanceindigenouspeoples’rightsandthestate’sduties,particularlywithregardtonationaldevelopment.Inabroadsense,itsfocusismoreonaccommodatingindigenousrightsthanemphasizingstate’ssovereignty.However,asinthecaseoftheILO169,ittoodoesnotbestowonindigenouspeoplestherighttovetoadevelopmentinterventionorthepowertodemandthestatetocheckinterventionalternatives;atbest,itamountstoconsultationandlimitedparticipationindecision-making.ThusFPICcontinuestobea‘procedural’rightratherthana‘substantive’right.Asaresult,itcannotbedefinedasauniversalconcept:itistooimprecise,andthereisnowell-establishedlegalmechanismtoenforceitininternationallaworindomesticlegalsystems.

CurrentUsageofFPICinDevelopmentInterventions

TheFPICisbeingusedintwodifferentforms.First,itisbeingusedasamandatoryconsultationprocess.TheWorldBankusesFPICtomeanfree,priorandinformedconsultation.ThusFPICconnotesconsultationthat‘occursfreelyandvoluntarily,withoutanyexternalmanipulation,interference,orcoercion,forwhichthe"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

partiesconsultedhaveprioraccesstoinformationontheintentandscopeoftheproposedprojectinaculturallyappropriatemanner,form,andlanguage’(WorldBank2005).ThismeansthatFPICisaprocessthatrequiresaniterativeseriesofdiscussions,consultations,meetingsandagreementbetweenthestateandindigenouspeopleswhowillbeaffectedbyadevelopmentintervention,supportedbytheWorldBank.

ThesecondformofFPICisaconsent-seekingprocess.TheAsianDevelopmentBankhasusedthekeyword‘consent’insteadof‘consultation’initsIndigenousPeoplesPolicyof1998andalsointheSafeguardPolicyStatementof2009(ADB1999,2009).IntheSPS,bothconsultationandconsentareused,reservingconsenttothreedevelopmentproject-relatedactivities,namely,commercialdevelopmentofculturalresources,physicaldisplacementofindigenouspeoples,andcommercialdevelopmentofnaturalresources.TheFPICintheformofmandatoryconsultationismuchweakerthanFPICasaconsent-seekingmechanism,as‘consultation’lacksprecisionandasaresult,isdifficulttobeenforced,whereas‘consent’ispreciseandcouldbeascertained.

Both‘consultation’and‘consent’emphasizetheimportanceofmeaningfulconsultationthatestablishesaqualitativemeasurecalled‘broadcommunitysupport’inachievingFPIC.Thusmeaningfulconsultationhasbecomeaprocesswithatargetedoutcome,thatis,broadcommunitysupporttoanintervention.Ifthereisnobroadcommunitysupport,thedeveloperhastoworkwiththecommunityuntilitisachievedthroughgoodfaithnegotiations.However,meaningfulconsultationasincaseoftheWorldBankorconsentasincaseofADBneedsnottobeachievedfully.Bothbanksintheirsafeguardpoliciesstatethat"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

‘broadcommunitysupport’couldexistevenifsomeindividualsorgroupsobjecttotheprojectactivities.Thisisoneoftheweaknessesthatprojectauthorities,localgovernments,fieldworkersordesignatedofficialscouldusetocircumventtheFPIC.Culturalerosionandabjectpovertyinindigenouscommunitiesfacilitateeasyimpositionofcentralizeddecision-makingthatworkagainsttheFPICprocessfromoutside.AsRosariopointedout‘mostIPcommunitiesdonothavelong-termdevelopmentplans.Theyliveonday-to-daybasismerelytryingtosurvive.Intheabsenceofsuchplans,itishardtoseehowthetribesinvolvedcanreallymakeinformeddecisionsandaskappropriatesafeguardsandsharedcommitments’(2008:1).Insuchsituations,theprojectofficialsanddevelopmentplannerstaketheroleofdeterminingwhetherthereisa‘broadcommunitysupport’totheproposeddevelopmentinterventionwithoutassessingthedegreeofcommunitysupportforit.

Ascorporatesafeguardpoliciesonindigenouspeoplesindicate,multi-lateralandbi-lateraldevelopmentagenciessuchastheWorldBank(2005),ADB(2009)andInternationalFinanceCorporation(2012)andJICA(2010)haveprogressivelybeenmovingtowardsacceptingthatdevelopmentinterventionscouldharmindigenouspeoples,theirculture,rights,andthereforespecialactionplansshouldbeinplacetoprotectthem.Forexample,ADBemphasizesinitsSafeguardPolicyStatementthat‘Indigenouspeoplesareincreasinglythreatenedasdevelopmentprogramsinfringeintoareasthattheytraditionallyown,occupy,use,orviewasancestraldomain’(2009:55).Internationaldevelopmentagenciesnowcategoricallyinsistonindigenouspeoples’agreementorconsenttoseveralspecificimpactsontheircommunity,economyandculture.ADBstatesthat‘the"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

borrower/clientwillsubmitdocumentationoftheengagementprocesstoADBforreviewandforADB’sowninvestigationtoassureitselfoftheexistenceofbroadcommunitysupportfortheprojectactivities.ADBwillnotfinancetheprojectifsuchsupportdoesnotexist’(ADB2009).TheWorldBank,IFCandJICAtoohavesimilardeclarationsintheirsafeguardpolicies.

FPICandAnthropology

Identificationofindigenouscommunitiesthatareaffectedbydevelopmentinterventionsisthekeytoaseriesofsubsequentactivitiestoensurethattheirrightswillbesecured.Theformulationofcomprehensivesocioeconomicprofilesofaffectedindigenouscommunities,screeningofproposeddevelopmentinterventionsforpositiveandnegativeimpactsonthem,anddevelopmentofsuitableconsultingmechanismsamongthestate,developmentplanners,andindigenouspeoplesaresomeofthekeyactivitiesthatfacilitatetheidentificationofaffectedindigenouscommunities,theircontrolovernaturalresourcesandculturalsystems.Inthisregard,internationaldevelopmentagenciesandrepresentativesofindigenouspeoplesinpartnershipwithstateshavedevelopedseveralguidelinesandbestpractices.Theseguidelinesandbestpracticescouldbecategorizedintofourkeyareas.Thefirstistheformulationofacomprehensivemethodologytodeterminewhetherornotaparticulargroupofpeople,whoareabouttogetaffectedbyadevelopmentintervention,fallsintothecategoryofindigenouspeoples.Thesecondisafulllegalrecognitionofcustomarylandrightsofindigenouspeoples.Thethirdistherecognitionoftherightsof"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

indigenouspeoplesregardingdevelopmentprojectssuchasconsultation,participationandprojectbenefitsharing.Thefourthistheprohibitionofphysicaldisplacementandrelocationofindigenouspeoples.

Expertswithwidefieldexperienceinprojectplanning,implementationandmonitoringarerequiredtooperationalizetheaboveguidelinesandbestpracticesindevelopmentinterventions.InternationaldevelopmentagenciessearchforsuchexpertsinacademiaandtheNGOsector.Oftentheyfinditdifficulttorecruitthem(Sandri,thisvolume).Thisgapcouldefficientlybefilledbyanthropologistsandindigenousscholarswhopossesssufficientacademictrainingindevelopmentandfieldexperienceindevelopingcountries.Theycouldassistgovernments,developmentagenciesandNGOsindevelopingrobustmethodologiesforFPIC,andinreportinggroundrealities–socioeconomicandpoliticalvulnerabilitiesofindigenouspeoples.Theycouldalsorecommendhowinternationaldevelopmentagenciescoulddeveloptheirsocialandenvironmentalsafeguardpoliciestoaddresstheabovefourcriticalissues,andfindbettermethodologiesforconsultation,consent-seekingandensuringfullrecognitionofcustomarylandrightsofindigenouspeoples.Asimilarrolecouldbeplayedatthecountrylevelbythoseanthropologistsandindigenousscholarswhoworkatstateagenciessuchasenvironmentaldepartments,universitiesandNGOs.

Conclusion

Therighttoself-determinationofindigenouspeopleshastobe"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

understoodwithinaframeworkwhichispremisedontwopillars:thecompleteandpermanentsovereigntyofthestate,anditsterritoriality.Anyclaimofasubpopulationwithinthestatetoancestrallandornaturalresourcesissubjecttoreviewbythestate,atenetupheldbyinternationallaw.Asaresult,therighttoself-determinationofindigenouspeoplesislargelyconfinedtoconsultationandparticipationindecision-makingprocesseswhichdirectlyaffecttheirlivelihood,identityandculture,andtotherighttodemandthatthestateobtaintheirfree,prior,andinformedconsent(FPIC)incaseadevelopmentinterventionleadstotheirphysicaldisplacement,exploitationofindigenousknowledge,orusurpationoftheircontrolovernaturalresources.Howeverthefailuretoobtaintheirconsentdoesnotautomaticallyresultintheabandonmentorterminationofaproposeddevelopmentintervention;thestatemayproceedwiththeintervention.

ThedevelopmentofFPICasarightandamethodologyforseekingconsenthastakenplaceinparalleltothegrowthofresponsibilitiesofthestatetowardsindigenouspeoples.ButwhetherFPIChasevolvedtobecomeanindigenousrightitselfisdisputedininternationallaw.Infact,FPICstillremainsmoreasanaspirationandamethodologythanalegalprincipleininternationallaw.Itisprimarilyaninstrumentthatindigenouspeoplesortheirrepresentativescouldusewhentheylackpoliticalandeconomicweighttodefendorprotectthemselvesfromexternalinterventions.Itsapplicationtootherpopulationsandcommunitiesinsimilardevelopmentcontextsisanunsettledlegalissue(McGee2009).

Althoughinternationallawhasmadesomeprogressduringrecentdecadestoprotectindigenouspeoples,itisquestionablewhetherinternationallegalnormsandinstrumentsapplicableto"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

indigenouspeoples’rightshavebeentranslatedadequatelyatthenationallevel?Itisalsoquestionablewhetherineffectaccommodationofinternationallegalnormsandinstrumentsindomesticlegalsystemshasbroughtsubstantialchangestotherightsandwelfareofindigenouspeoples?Despitethetranslationofsomeinternationallegalinstrumentsintonationallawsasinthecaseoftheenactmentofthe‘ScheduledTribesandotherTraditionalForestDwellers(RecognitionofForestRights)Act2006’inIndia,statesaregenerallyreluctanttoaccommodatesuchinstrumentsintheirdomesticlaws.Thisisbecauseofthesensitivityof‘indigenouspolitics’asincaseoftheChittagongHillstribesinBangladeshwhichdirectlychallengestatesovereigntyanditsterritorialintegrity.

ThepossibilityanddesirabilityofelevatingFPICtothelevelofarightofindigenouspeoplesimmediatelyconfrontseveralobstacles.Oneobstacleisitslackofprecision.TheheterogeneityofaffectedpeoplesresultsinattributingdifferentmeaningstoFPIC.Second,generalizing‘legitimacy’ofconsentofgivenbyacommunitytoaparticularinterventionisdifficult,becausepowerstructuresofdifferentcommunitieswillvary,andsomeofthemcouldtaketheformofhorizontalratherthanhierarchicalalliances,therebylimitingtheeffectivenessofcommunityleadersasrepresentativesofthecommunity.Third,uncertaintyregardingwhetherconsensus,evenifobtained,wouldallowacommunitytohandoverorsellitsancestraldomaintooutsidersforthepurposeswhicharenotrecognizedincustomarylawsandculture.SupremecourtsinseveralcountriessuchasIndia,Philippines,andSouthAfricahavediscussedthisissueatlength,butthereisnoconsensusininternationallaworindomesticlegalsystemsregardingthekeyissueofthetransferabilityofancestrallandto"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

non-indigenousgroupsandpersons.TheFPICseekingprocessprogressivelytendstopushthe

boundariesofindigenouspeoples’righttowardsaformoflimitedself-determination.FPIC,asageneralUNstandard,providesaneffectivesphereforindigenousgovernance.FPIC,asaprocedurallaw,bringssomehopetoindigenouspeoples,particularlywhenstate-sponsoredresourceexploitationanddevelopmentpolicyignorethelegitimacyofindigenousinstitutionsandinterests.Inthiscontext,theroleofFPICiscontentious,asitmightbeseenasaproteststrategythatchallengesstatesovereignty,notablyitscontrolovernaturalresourcedevelopmentandmanagement,allowingindigenouspeoplestonegotiatetheconditionsundersuchdevelopmentandmanagementcantakeplacein‘their’territory(Marschkeetal.2008).Thisappearstoruncountertothestate’sassertionthatithasexclusiveandpermanentsovereigntyoverallnaturalresourcesinitsterritory,andthatithastherighttousethemforthebenefitofallcitizensofthestate.

TherecognitionoftherightstoknowandtobeinformedenshrinedinFPICtogetherwiththerighttodemandthatpriorconsentshouldbeobtainedforanydevelopmentactivityfromindigenouspeopleswhomightgetaffectedfromitprovidesthefoundationforaformidableprotestagainstadevelopmentinterventionespousedbyamulti-nationalcompany,asincaseofVadantaplcGroup(UK),discussedabove.Investorsindevelopmentinterventionsvaluecertaintyandstability,especiallyinextractiveindustriessuchascoalminingandintimberlogging.Suchcertaintyandstabilityisabsentinremoteareaswhereminesandforestsarelocated.Thesearethelandsoverwhichindigenouspeoplesclaimtheirancestralrights.Indeedinvestorsfearagitationandstrikesunderminingtheirinvestments.Moreoverdelays"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

arisingfromprotestscanmeanhugecoststocompanies.Insuchasituation,thedemandforconductingFPICcouldbeusedbyaffectedindigenouspeoplesasastrategytobuytimeordiscouragethosewhoproposedtheintervention.Incountrieswhereindigenouspoliticshavereachedanadvancedstage,suchasthePhilippines,indigenousmovementsuseFPICintheirstruggletogainlegalrecognitionfortheirrightstoancestralterritories.ManystatesthereforeperceiveFPICasa‘potential’indigenousvetoonnationaldevelopmentprojects.

Anthropologicalandindigenousscholarshipcanplayakeyroletoprotecttherightsofindigenouspeoplesincludingtheirculturalrightsandcontroloverindigenousknowledgeandnaturalresources.Manyinternationaldevelopmentagenciesactivelyseeksuchscholarshipandexpertiseinidentifyingindigenouspeoples,theirancestraldomains,culturalpracticesandnaturalresourceswhicharevitalfortheircommunalandspiritualsurvival.Inthiscontext,anthropologists,developmentplanners,andinternationaldevelopmentagencieswillhavetoworktogether.Inthispartnership,anthropologistsandindigenousscholarswillhavetodevelopnewmethodologieswhichwouldenabledevelopmentplannerstoscopethedevelopmentimpactsofinterventionsonindigenouscommunities,tocheckthepresenceorabsenceofbroadcommunitysupportforsuchintervention,andtoprepareastrategytoensurethattheytoogetprojectbenefitsasplanned.

References

ADB(AsianDevelopmentBank)1999.PolicyonIndigenousPeoples.Manila:AsianDevelopmentBank.


ADB(AsianDevelopmentBank)2009.SafeguardPolicyStatement.Manila:AsianDevelopmentBank.

Anaya,J.S.2007.IndigenousPeoplesinInternationalLaw.Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress.

Craven,M.C.R.1995.TheInternationalCovenantonEconomic,Social,andCulturalRights:APerspectiveonitsDevelopment.Oxford:ClarendonPress.

Gilbert,J.2006.IndigenousPeoples’LandRightsUnderInternationalLaw:FromVictimstoActors.NewYork:TransnationalPublishersInc.

HindustanTimes2012.Retrievedfrom:www.hindustantimes.com(storypage),accessed:13September2012.

InternationalFinanceCorporation(IFC)2012.PerformanceStandard7–IndigenousPeoples.Washington,DC:WorldBankGroup.

InternationalLabourOffice2003.ILOConventiononIndigenousandTribalPeoples1989(No.169):AManual.Geneva:InternationalLabourOffice.

Isaac,T.1993.Balancingrights:TheSupremeCourtofCanada,R.v.Sparrow,andthefutureofAboriginalrights.TheCanadianJournalofNativeStudies,13(2),199–219.

JapanInternationalCorporationAgency(JICA)2010.GuidelinesforEnvironmentalandSocialConsiderations.Tokyo:JICA.

Kymlicka,W.1999.TheorizingIndigenousrights.UniversityofTorontoLawJournal,49,281–93.

McGee,B.2009.Thecommunityreferendum:Participatorydemocracyandtherighttofree,priorandinformedconsenttodevelopment.BerkeleyJournalofInternationalLaw,27(2),570–635.


http://www.hindustantimes.com

Marschke,M.,Szablowski,D.andVandergeest,P.2008.Engagingindigeneityindevelopmentpolicy.DevelopmentPolicyReview,26(4),483–500.

Rosario,R.2008.Free,Prior,andInformedConsent(FPIC):DoesitgiveindigenouspeoplesmorecontroloverdevelopmentoftheirlandinthePhilippines?(UnpublishedM.C.P.(Master’s)thesis),DepartmentofUrbanStudiesandPlanning,MassachusettsInstituteofTechnology,USA.

Saxena,N.C.,Parasuraman,S.,Kant,P.,andBaviskar,A.,2010.ReportoftheFourMemberCommitteeforinvestigationintotheproposalsubmittedbytheOrissaMiningCompanyforbauxitemininginNiyamgiri.AReportsubmittedtoMinistryofEnvironmentandForests,GovernmentofIndia,NewDelhion16August2010.

Schrijver,N.1997.SovereigntyoverNaturalResources:BalancingRightsandDuties.CambridgeStudiesinInternationalComparativeLawCambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.

Tomei,M.andSwepston,L.1996.IndigenousandTribalPeoples:AGuidetoILOConventionNo.169.Geneva:InternationalLabourOrganization.

Tugendhat,H.,Couillard,V.,Gilbert,J.andDoyle,G.2008.Business,HumanRightsandIndigenousPeoples:TheFree,Prior,InformedConsent,apapersubmittedtoJointCommitteeonHumanRights,HouseofCommons,London.

Wiessner,S.2008.Indigenoussovereignty:AreassessmentinthelightoftheUNDeclarationontheRightsofIndigenousPeoples.VanderbiltJournalofTransnationalLaw,41,1141–76.


TheWorldBank2005.OperationalPolicy4.10–IndigenousPeoples.Washington,DC:TheWorldBank.

Xanthaki,A.2009.Indigenousrightsininternationallawoverthelast10yearsandfuturedevelopments.MelbourneJournalofInternationalLaw,10(1),27–37.


Chapter8The(Non-Legal)GuidetoMeaningfulRecognition:ACaseStudyfromtheCanningBasin,WesternAustralia

TranTran

ThelawsandcustomsoftheKarajarri,TjurabalanandNgurraratraditionalownershavebeenrecognizedunderAustralianlawinnativetitledeterminationsovertheCanningBasinaquifer.Over10differentlanguagegroupshavetraditionalconnectionstotheCanningBasinareawhichextendsfromthelowerKimberleyinWesternAustraliatotheGreatSandyDesertinSouthAustralia.EthnographicevidenceaccumulatedthroughouttheCanningBasinidentifieskeytraditionalownerswithrightsto‘speakfor’country,withtheirknowledgeofsongandceremonydescribingtheimportanceofancestralbeingsinformingandprovidingatemplateforrelationshipswithwater.

CentraltothenativetitleoftheKarajarri,TjurabalanandNgurraratraditionalownersisadherencetolawsandcustomsbasedontheroleofpermanentfreshwatersprings–orjilas.Jilasarecriticalinsupportingplant,animalandhumanlifeinthearidanddesertlandsoftheCanningBasin.TheconsequencesofnativetitlerecognitionforwatermanagementareapparentintheformalandculturalroleoftheKarajarri,TjurabalanandNgurrara


peoplesinlookingaftercountry.AsdescribedbyKarajarriwomanAnnaDwyer,theconceptofcountryisholisticandincludesalllivingthingsandtheinterconnectionsbetweenthem(Dwyer2012).Inspeakingabout‘mycountry’,or‘mymother’scountry’traditionalownersasserttheirdecision-makingauthorityovertraditionallandsandwaters.ThisauthorityiscondensedthroughthenativetitleprocessintolegallyobservablelawsandcustomsrecognizedaccordingtotherequirementsofSection223oftheNativeTitleAct1993(Cth)(NativeTitleAct)–thestatutoryschemefortherecognitionandprotectionofnativetitleunderAustralianpropertylaw.

RecognitionofIndigenouslawsandcustomshasbeenuniversallyunderstoodasbeingcentraltoassertingIndigenousauthorityandachievingself-determinationthroughpolitical,socialandeconomicindependence(UNDRIP2007).TheNativeTitleActwasenactedfollowingtheAustralianHighCourtdecisionofMabov.Queensland(No.2)(1992)HCA23whichrecognizedthatAustralia’sIndigenouspeoplescontinuetomaintaintheirownrobustlawsandcustoms,andthattherightsandinterestsflowingfromthesetraditionsarecapableofprotectionunderAustralianpropertylaw.However,duetoitslaterecognition,nativetitleisvulnerabletoextinguishmentorimpairmentbygovernmentactionsincludingforcedremovalfromtraditionallandsandaggressivesocialinterventionsaffectingAboriginalwork,homeandculturallife(Strelein2009;Martin,BaumanandNeale2011).Nativetitlerecognitionrequiresproofofculturallinksfrompresovereigntytothepresent–ademandingthresholdforthosecommunitiesmostaffectedbyformergovernment‘interventions’thatareoftencitedbystategovernmentpartiesasproofofthecessationofculturalpractice."******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

However,despitethechallengesofachievingnativetitlerecognition,22percentofAustraliaisnowcoveredbynativetitlelands(NationalNativeTitleTribunal2013).

AsthenumberofnativetitledeterminationsthroughoutAustraliagrows,traditionalownersareseekingtoenforcetheirrightsandinterestsagainstexternaldevelopmentpressures,includingwaterdevelopment.FromtheperspectiveoftheKarajarri,TjurabalanandNgurrarapeoples,interconnectedconceptssuchaslanduse,waterplanningandallocationareframedaswaysoflookingaftercountry.Yettheseactivities,whilecharacterizingIndigenousandnon-indigenousengagementwithlandandwater,existforgovernmentsasdiscreteareasofpolicy-makingandlegislation(McFarlane2004).Withinthisframework,traditionalownersonlyhavearoleas‘stakeholders’,apositionthatdoesnotequatewiththeresponsibilitiesoftraditionalcustodianship.

TheCanningBasintraditionalowners,andinparticulartheKarajarrihavestruggledtohavetheirdecisionmakingauthorityrecognizedinwaterplanningprocessesdespiteachievingtherecognitionoftheirnativetitlelandsforalmost20years(Tranetal.2013;Edgar2011;Weir2011).TheprotracteddevelopmentofIndigenousrightsandinterestsinwatercannotberesolvedwithoutfirstunderstandingthebasisofourownlaws,inordertoconceptualizeandreconcilenon-indigenousandIndigenousinterests,prioritiesandlegaltraditions(Nakata2006).Thatis,thestruggleoftheKarajarritraditionalownersreflectsourowninabilitytodecolonizeourthinkingandenabletraditionalownerstobetterengagewithandinfluencewaterallocationanduse.

InthischapterIarguethatIndigenousrelationshipstowatercannotfitintotherules,lawsandprocessesthathavebeen"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

imposedupontheirown,withoutengagingwithnativetitle–notonlyasalegalconceptbutasanexpressionofcontemporaryIndigenousworldviews,culturesandidentities.Engagingwiththeseidentitiesformsnotonlyasymbolicelementofrecognition,butgoesonestepfurthertowardsstrengtheningconnectionsbacktocountry.ThisiswhereIfitintothestory:theKarajarri,TjurabalanandNgurrarapeoplesandtheKimberleyLandCouncilwantedtoknowwhattheimpactofwaterplanningwouldbeontheirnativetitleandIwantedtoknowhowtraditionalownerscanbetterasserttheirauthorityandknowledgewithinthewaterallocationprocess(thelegislationforwhichhasbeeninplacebeforenativetitlewasrecognizedbyAustralianpropertylaw).Thischaptercontainsmyreflectionsonwhyweremainconstrainedbythelaw(andtheknowledgelegitimatedbyit)andmoreimportantlyhowwecanlimitthecumulativeimpactoftheseconstraintsontheKarajarri,TjurabalanandNgurraratraditionalowners.

OnePlace:ManyNarratives

TheCanningBasinisthesecondlargestundergroundaquiferinAustralia,coveringover161,000squarekilometres–anareathatislargerthanEnglandandWalescombined.TheBasinsupportsirrigatedagriculture,suppliescommunitytownwaterandisthesubjectofsignificantgasdevelopmentproposals(Doust2013;seealsoPaul,GeorgeandGardiner2013).TheroleoftheCanningBasininAustralia’senergysecurityoftentakesprecedenceovertheroleofjilasandfreshwaterflowsinmaintainingthehealthofKarajarri,NgurraraandTjurabalancountry."******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

ThelandsoftheKarajarri,NgurraraandTjurabalantraditionalownersareinterconnectedviatheundergroundwaterflowsoftheCanningBasin.Permanentfreshwaterplaysanimportantroleinecologicalrenewalandregeneration,andislinkedtocreativebeingsthatinhabitthelandscape.Thelossofwaterinoneareacouldseverelycompromisethehealthofkeyculturalsiteslocatedseveralkilometresaway.Indigenousknowledgesoftheseinterconnectionsarebasedonassociationsbetweenlandscapesandancestralbeingsthatformapartofthebroaderknowledgeeconomyoftheregion.Thisknowledgeincludesdetailedunderstandingoftheinteractionsbetweenplants,animals,landscapesandpeopleandisexpressedthroughthelawsandcustomsoftheKarajarri,NgurraraandTjurabalanpeoples(BarberandJackson2012;Tran2013;Toussaint,SullivanandYu2005).FortheCanningBasintraditionalowners,competitionoverwaterisnotonlyamatterofaccesstoavolumeofwater;itisalsoamatterofsustainingandprotectingculturalandlegaltraditionsthatarelinkedtocountry.

LawsbasedonconnectionswithwaterarealsocoretotheKarajarri,TjurabalanandNgurrarapeople’snativetitledeterminations,hardfoughtandhardwonbythetraditionalownersandtheirlegalrepresentatives,theKimberleyLandCouncil.TheKarajarriareoneoffivegroupsbasedintheBidyadangaAboriginalcommunity,formerlyaCatholicmissionlocated200kilometressouthofBroome.Thecommunityhasapopulationofabout800residentsconsistingoftheMangala,Juwaliny,YulparijaandNyangumarta,whoweremovedfromtheirtraditionallandstoliveontheBidyadangamission(Edgar2011).TheKarajarrihavethreeseparatedeterminationsinanareacoveringover33,000squarekilometreswithamixofexclusive"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

andnon-exclusivepossessionnativetitlewhichincludesthetownsitewheretheKarajarriareaminoritypopulation(Edgar2011).

FortheKarajarri,nativetitlerecognitionreinstatestheformaldecisionmakingpoweroftraditionalownersincludingtheabilitytocontrolaccesstotheland.Thisdecision-makingpower,however,doesnotapplyto‘non-exclusive’areassuchpastoralleaseholdings,whererightsaresharedwithnon-indigenousparties.TheoriginalKarajarriclaimwasdrivenbyanagreementbetweentheWesternAustraliangovernmentandWesternAgriculturalIndustriestoinvestigatethefeasibilityoflarge-scalecottonirrigationintheLaGrangesub-basinnestledwithintheCanningBasin.TheseproposalssparkedconcernsforthejilasonKarjarricountry,leadingtothelodgementandsuccessfuldeterminationoftheirnativetitleclaims(Weir,StoneandMulardy2011;Weir2011;Bagshaw2003;Yu1999).

ThetraditionallandsoftheNgurraraandTjurabalanpeoplesislocatedfurthereastintheGreatSandyDesert,anareathatdidnotexperienceintensiveEuropeaninfluences,untilthe1950s.TheTjurabalanandNgurrarapeopleshavehadlimitedinvolvementinwaterplanningasextensivedevelopmenthasnotoccurredontheirtraditionallands.HoweverthearearemainsunderthreatfrompotentialgasdevelopmentoccurringintheCanningBasinthatcoulddamagetheinterlinkedundergroundaquifersintheregion.

TheNgurrarapeoplearetheholdersof76,000squarekilometresofexclusivepossessionnativetitlerecognizedinKogolov.StateofWesternAustralia(2007)FCA1703.ThewordNgurrarameanshomeandtheNgurrarapeople’srecognizedrightsandinterestsincludetherighttopossess,occupy,useandenjoythelandtotheexclusionofallothers,andrightstouseand"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

enjoytheflowingandundergroundwatersfortraditionalactivitiesframedas‘huntingandfishing’.TheseinterestshavebeenrecognizedbasedontheNgurrarapeople’sconnectiontowaterwhich,liketheKarajarriformedthekeybasisoftheirnativetitleevidence(Vachon2006).

Furtherinland,theexclusivenativetitlerightsandinterestsoftheTjurabalanpeoplewererecognizedinNgalpilv.WesternAustralia(2001)FCA1140over26,000squarekilometresofland.ThedeterminationreemphasizedthesurvivalandresilienceoftheTjurabalanpeople(atpara.23)whohadoccupiedtheareaforthelast22,000years.ThedeterminationalsocoincidedwiththeestablishmentoftheParakuIndigenousProtectedArea,whichcoverstheinlandParukulakesystem(‘LakeGregory’),akeyculturalandecologicalsiteofimportance.

FortheKarajarri,TjurabalanandNgurraratraditionalowners,nativetitlerepresentsaturningpointintheirrelationshipwiththeWesternAustralianstategovernment.Thisrelationshipbeganwithanassumptionthatnon-indigenouspeoplewerewithintheirrightstoclaimthelandsandwatersoftheKarajarri,TjurabalanandNgurrarapeople.Theirtraditionalcustodianshipisbasedonknowledgeofwaterplaces,yetearlyexplorerdiariesandpublicationsrecalltheviolenceandcoercionimposeduponAboriginalpeoplestorevealtheirknowledgeofundergroundwaterflows.DavidCarnegiedescribesinhisjournalhowhecapturedanddeprivedAboriginalguidesofwatersoastocoercethemintorevealingthelocationoffreshwatersprings(Carnegie1898:260–61).Similarly,AlfredCanning,whosunkwellsinthedesertfromWilunabetween1908and1910,inanattempttoestablishaninlandstockroute,commissionedchainsandneckpadlocksspecificallyforAboriginal‘guides’.Canning’sconduct"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

resultedinaRoyalCommissionwherehewasaccusedofandeventuallyacquittedofcrueltyandkidnap(‘Treatmentofnatives:ThechargesagainsttheCanningExpedition’1908).ThelegacyoftheseattitudescontinuetodaywithimportantAboriginalsitespossessingEuropean-coinednamessuchasGodfreyTankandBrendonPoolasopposedtoWartikarrapunguandWajanturumanu,astheyareknowntotheTjurabalantraditionalowners(Watson1988).ThisearlierexplorationalsopavedthewayfortheappropriationofIndigenouslands,facilitatedbyforcedremovalsandrestrictionsonemploymentandmobility.ThesemeasurescollectivelysupportedpastoraldevelopmentthroughouttheKimberley,especiallyalongthecoastonKarajarricountryandalongtheFitzroyRiver(Watson1988).

Today,Indigenousresidencyonnativetitlelandsisexceptionallydiverseandhasbeeninfluencedbytheseformerpolicies.ManyoftheCanningBasintraditionalownerscontinuetoliveintowncentressuchasBroome,FitzroyCrossingandHallsCreek,aswellassmallerAboriginalcommunitiesincludingBidyadanga,Jarlmadanga,Mulan,BalgoandRingerSoak.Oneconsistentandkeypriorityfortraditionalownersafterthedeterminationofnativetitleistobebackoncountryandtocareforit(Streleinetal.2013).Caringforcountryisa‘holisticaspectofimprovinghealthforAboriginalpeople’derivedfrom‘culturalconnectionto,andlandmanagementpracticesonCountry’aswellas‘sourcingandconsumingnaturalfreshfoodsandidentifyingandgatheringbushmedicinesfordirectusetoassisthealingandtoimprovegeneralhealth’(GriffithsandKinane2011:25).Theseactivitiesaresupportedbynativetitlerecognition,whichhasformallyhandedoverlandmanagementresponsibilitiestotraditionalowners.Thestatutoryschemeofthe"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

NativeTitleActrequiresnativetitletobeformallymanagedbycorporateentitlesknownasRegisteredNativeTitleBodiesCorporate(RNTBCs)(seefurtherBauman,StreleinandWeir2013).Thesecorporatestructures,originallyintendedtofacilitatenon-indigenousinterestsovernativetitlelands,aregenerallylocatedinremoteareasthattypicallyexperiencehighlevelsofpovertyandlimitedeconomicdevelopment(Martin,BaumanandNeale2011).RNTBCsseektopursueeconomicdevelopmentactivitiesthatare‘“culturallyfriendly”andthatsupportandmaintainculture,languageandenvironment’yethavelimitedcapacitytodoso(Tran,StaceyandMcGrath2013:19).

Thelimitedcapacityofnativetitleholdersisinterlinkedwiththebroader,andoftciteddisparitybetweenIndigenousandnon-indigenoussocioeconomicindicators,reflectingthesustainedpoliticalandsocialmarginalizationofAboriginalandTorresStraitIslanderPeoplesinAustralia(ABS2008).ThisimageoflimitedcapacityandaninabilitytoassertrightscontrastswiththebroadersocialdemographicsoftheCanningBasintraditionalowners.TheKimberleyhasoneoftheyoungestpopulationsinAustraliawithamedianageof23yearscomparedto35yearsforthenon-indigenouspopulation(ABS2011).Thisageprofileofayoungerandemergentworkforcenecessitatesthecreationofopportunitiestoengageincommunitydevelopmentandgrowththatarehighlydifferentiatedfromtheagingpopulationofnon-indigenousAustralia.Unsurprisingly,rareandvitalopportunitiesenablingyoungergenerationstostrengthenandmaintainconnectionstocountryhavebecomehighlysuccessfulandarenowemulatedinexistingfederalgovernmentfundedinitiativessuchasWorkingonCountry.WorkingonCountryreflects,inalimitedway,Indigenousconceptsoflookingaftercountryand"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

providespracticalresourcestoreturntotraditionallands(seefurtherKerins2012).

TheKarajarriandtheNgurrarapeopleshaveestablishedrangerprogrammesthatareworkingwithfederalandstategovernmentfundingtobuildwatertanksandpumpsontraditionallandsinordertofacilitatenotonlylandmanagementaccessbutalsothedevelopmentofinfrastructuretoreturntotraditionallands.EngagementinlandandwatermanagementisakeyaspirationandfocusformanytraditionalownersandaccesstocountrycorrelateswiththeabilityofAboriginalgroupstoimprovehealthandwellbeing.Accordingly,whilenativetitlehasformallybroughttheCanningBasintraditionalownerstothetabletheycontinuetostrugglewiththepracticalrealityofadministeringvastlandareaswithoutsecurefundingandsupportthatisconsistentwiththiskeyaspiration(Baumanetal.2013).Withoutthisfundingandsupportcriticalconnectionsbetweenstayingoncountryandmaintainingcultureandidentitycouldbeseriouslyeroded.

ChallengestoMeaningfulRecognition

ThelegalintricaciesandinadequaciesofcurrentpolicyandlegalmechanismsforrecognizingIndigenousinterestsinwaterplanningandregulationhasbeendiscussedelsewhere(seeforexample,TanandJackson2013).TheconsistentmessagethatflowsfromthisliteratureisthatthelawsofAustraliahabituallyexcludeIndigenousrelationshipstowater;confiningpolicyfocustoagriculturalproductionand,asaconsequence,disempowersIndigenousknowledgesandvaluesystems(Weir,Stoneand"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

Mulardy2011).TherehasbeenrecentinvestmentinresearchtobetterunderstandIndigenousrelationshipstowaterandwhatthismeansforwaterplanning.However,Indigenouslegaltraditions(andthelaws,customsandpracticesthatinformthem)willnotnecessarilytranslateintoequivalentconceptsinwaterplanning(Tran2013).

ThepositionoftheCanningBasintraditionalownersisconstrainedbyseveralpracticalandconceptualfactorsincluding:limitedfundingandpolicysupport;thewayinwhichnativetitleisrecognisedbyAustralianlaw;theartificialseparationofeconomicandculturalinterests;theneedforprooforevidencethatcanfurtherentrenchperceptionsofwhatisandisnottraditional;andtheparadoxcreatedbyattemptingtogiveandretainauthorityatthesametime.

ThesuccessfulassertionofIndigenousprioritiesrequiresspecificknowledgeandskillstonegotiatewaterplanningprocessesandtounderstandtheconceptof‘allocations’.Asdiscussedabove,theKarajarri’sabilitytoengageinformalplanningprocesses,andthushaveanopportunitytoinfluencedecisionmakingiscurtailedbyalackoffundingandpolicysupport(Bauman,StreleinandWeir2013;Tranetal.2013).TheparticipationoftheKarajarriisfurtherimpactedbyamultitudeofotherpressingpriorities,includingnegotiatinghousing,buildingeconomicresilience,dealingwiththelossoffundingforthecommunity,poorhealthandpoverty(Edgar2011).Traditionalownersarefurtherexcludedfromthewaterallocationprocesswheretheyareunlikelytohavethefundsorinfrastructuretopurchaseortakeadvantageofcommerciallicenses.IntheLaGrangeBasinforexample,connectionsbetweenpeopleandplacearenotaprimaryfactorindetermininglegalrightsorinterests"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

(GovernmentofWesternAustralia2010a).Ratherrightstowateraredistributedbasedonacommercialfirstcome,firstservebasis.

Conceptuallimitationsrelatetohownativetitlerecognised.TheNativeTitleActrequiresIndigenouspeoplestoassertthemselvessuccessfullywithinexistingregulatoryframeworks.Innativetitle,recognitionofIndigenousinterestsisnecessarilycontingentoncompliancewiththedemandsoftherecognitionprocess(French2009).Karajarriknowledgeorauthorityisnotrecognizedintheirnativetitledetermination,onlyrightsandinterests‘tohunt,fish,gather’.Inotherwords,NativeTitlelawonlyrecognizesphysicalactivitiesratherthanthelawsandcustomsfromwhichtheyarederived(French2002).Thisprocessforcescomplexrelationshipstolandandwatersintoimpoverisheddefinitions,which,whensatisfied,accordtraditionalownerswithproceduralrightstoprotecttheirnativetitlerightsandinterests.Theseproceduralmechanismsrequirethatnativetitleholdersreceivenotificationaboutwaterextractionsbutdonotdirectlyenabledecisionmakingabouthowmuchandbywhomwatercanbeextracted(GovernmentofWesternAustralia2010a;seealso2010b).Notificationisusuallyaletterornewspaperadvertisementwhichcanoftenbemissedornotactionedforasubstantialperiodoftime.Moreover,itisunrealistictoexpectanativetitleholdertophysicallycollectmail(whichisfurthercompoundedbytheremotecontextinwhichRNTBCsoperate)interpretnotificationletters,knowthehydrogeologicalandculturalimpactthiswillhave,beabletopresenttheseimpactstothebroadertraditionalownergroup,andthenwritealetterinresponse.

Legaldivisionsalsoimpactonhoweconomicclaimsaredealtwith.Economicinterestsareconsideredseparatelytocultural"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

interests–thisdivisionismadeclearbytheneedtoassociateIndigenousculturalneedswithinexistingconceptsofflowallocationfromtheconsumptiveandnon-consumptivepools.Forexample,thewaterplanningdocumentsfortheLaGrangeaquifer,assumethattheprovisionsoftheNativeTitleActwouldprotectnativetitleandthatwaterallocation,planninganduseisseparatetotherecognizedinterestsoftraditionalowners(GovernmentofWesternAustralia2010a).WhileprovisionswithintheNativeTitleActsuchasSection211providefortherecognitionofculturalrights1anysubstantiveIndigenousclaimstowaterneedtofitinwithexistinglandandwatermanagementregimes,ortraditionalownersneedtomakeacasefortheprioritizationoftheirinterestswhichofteninvolvesintensivenegotiationsorcostlylitigation.TheonusisontheCanningBasintraditionalownerstoseekresolutionofIndigenousclaimstowaterviawatermanagementlegislationandpolicyandadvocatefortheirinterestswithinexistingwaterplanningprocesses.Thisrequirementhastwoconsequences:themarginalizationofIndigenouslegaltraditionsandthereaffirmationoftheauthorityofcurrentwaterplanninginstitutions.

Wheretraditionalownershavesoughttoasserttheirclaims.themostcommonroleofanthropologyinnativetitlehasbeentoputIndigenousrelationshipsbetweenpeopleandplacebeforelegalinstitutionsintheformofevidence(Martin,BaumanandNeale2011).TherequirementsofproofunderSection223oftheNativeTitleAct,entrenchesanthropologyintoapracticethatisbackwardlooking(Martin,BaumanandNeale2011)despiteitsroleintherecognitionandprotectionofrights.Forexample,legalrecognitiondemandsdefinitivestatementsaboutclaimgroupcomposition(Bauman2006;Correy2006).Further,thelegal"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

inquiryofnativetitleinvolvestheestablishmentofIndigenouscommunitiesasfaraspre-Europeancontact!Thisonerousburdenofproofoncesatisfied,demonstratesculturalsurvivalandvitalityyetalsoworkstoentrenchperceptionsofwhatis‘traditional’.Onaverageanativetitleclaimtakesoversixyearstofinalise(NationalNativeTitleTribunal2012).Unsurprisingly,achievingnativetitlerecognitionrequiresspendingsignificanttimecollectingevidencewithkeyseniortraditionalownersinveryremoteareas,involvesrecordingknowledgerelatedtowaterplacesandconnectingthisknowledgetofamilygroupsinordertodemonstrateandsuccessfullyclaimnativetitle(McIntyreandBagshaw2002).Thisrecordedknowledgeisthenconvertedintoevidenceinalegalclaimprocessthatcanoftenoccludethecomplexitiesoftraditionalownership.IntheirreflectionsontheKarjarrinativetitleclaimprocessMcIntyreandBagshawnote:

Inessence,[theKarajarri]findthemselvesinapositionofcontraveningtheirownculturalrules,beliefsandpracticesbydisclosingtounqualifiedpersonstheirmosttreasuredreligiousinformationforthesolepurposeofobtainingbasicrightstothecountrywhichtheybelieveis,andalwayswas,theirs.Moreover,theydosoinacontextinwhichthereisahope,butnoguarantee,thatthesignificancetothemoftheevidencewillbeunderstoodbytheCourt,andthattheevidencewillenhancetheprospectsoftherightstheyareclaimingbeingrecognized…Thedifficulties,ifnottheveryrealanguish,attendingthisprocessneedtobeclearlyunderstoodandrespectedbyallparties,ifjusticeistobeadequatelyserved.(2002:7)

Innoothercontextareindividualsrequiredtohavetheirpersonalandculturalconnectionscomeunderpublicscrutinyinordertoestablishtheiridentitiesorlegitimacyinexchangeforwhatisoftenperceivedaslimitedrights.Whileanativetitleclaimisalegalnecessity,itisalsoaculturalprocessfortraditionalownerswhorevisitanddemonstrateculturalknowledgeofthe"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

physicalandspiritualcharacteristicsofwaterbasedonstories,songandceremony(Koch2013).However,theveryformofthisevidenceimbuesIndigenousclaimswithmythicalqualitiesthatarenotcapableofencompassingexplicitcommercialinterests(forfurtherdiscussionseeStrelein2009).Withinthiscontext,relationshipstowaterbecomedistilledimagesofhunting,collectingbushfoods,conductingceremonywithoutanyconnectiontotheidentities,lawsandtraditionsthattheseactscomefromandsustain.AsaconsequenceIndigenousinterestsareperceivedasmythicalorcustomaryratherthanbeingaproprietaryinterest(Sullivan,Pampila,PajimanandKordidi2011).

Theuniquenessofnativetitleisalsoseenasalimitingfactor.ManycritiquesofIndigenousinterestsinwaterarebasedontheassumptionthattheprotectionofIndigenousculturalrights(includingtangiblepropertyrights)requiresaformofexceptionalism,placingtherecognitionofIndigenousrightsoutsideofmainstreamlaw(Carpenter2009).EquallytherehavebeensubstantiallegalandanthropologicalcritiquesoftheinadequacyofpropertylawtodescribeandprotectIndigenousinterests(Menzy2007).Ourownembeddedassumptionscaneasilyreducerichandtexturedculturalrelationshipsintoseeminglymutuallyexclusive‘commercial’or‘cultural’interests(Carpenter2009);andincreatinggreatercertaintyastothepreciselegalnatureofnativetitlerightsandinterests,wecurtailourabilitytoarticulatetheuniqueanddiverserelationshipsthatAboriginalandTorresStraitIslanderpeoplehavewiththeirtraditionallands(Strelein2009).Thisparadoxisreplicatedinwaterplanningprocessesthatseektoengagewithnativetitleholdersandtheirrecognizedrightsandinterests."******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

TheexperienceoftheCanningBasintraditionalownersreflectshowdebatesoverculturalrightsaretooreadilynarrowedintowaysinwhichIndigenousprioritiescanfitintoformallaw.Thereareobviousproblemswithsuchanapproach:Indigenoustraditions,whilepossessingtheirowninherentlegitimacyareforcedintolegalisticconceptsinordertoachieverecognition.Further,weendupinapositionwhereIndigenoustraditionsarejudgedaccordingtotheformulationsofourownlegalinstitutionsandprocesseswhileatthesametime,paradoxicallytryingtopayrespecttotheiruniqueness.Ultimately,theneedtocomplywiththelawinordertoachieverecognitionpreventsself-determineddevelopment,byrestrictingdecisionmakingoverwater.ThisapproachisnotonlycontrarytothepoliticalrecognitionoftheneedforcontrolovereconomicresourcestoovercomeIndigenousdisadvantage(AustralianBureauofStatistics2008;KimberleyLandCouncil2009;SteeringCommitteefortheReviewofGovernmentServiceProvision2011),butalsooverlooksthatrecognitionofIndigenousinstitutionswhichgivelegitimacytotheknowledgestructures,conceptsandexistenceofthepeoplesdefinedbyit.

Legalargumentspursuedthroughthenativetitleprocessneedtoovercomedistinctionsmadebetweenlawandcustom,andtraditionandcommerce,distinctionsthatoftenbecomeunclearinreality.WeknowthesedistinctionsexistinthecontextoftheCanningBasin,asexistinginstrumentsinWesternAustraliacurrentlyenablewaterextractionforminingpurposes.Inparticular,waterlicencesprovidedforminingaredeemedtobevalidalthoughtheyaregrantedoutsidethewaterplanningprocess(Tran2013).ThereissimilarscopetorecognizeIndigenousinterestsoutsideofthenarrowframeworkofwaterplanning."******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

However,underlyingthecurrentlimitationsofrecognitionisadistinctionmadebetweenwhatisandisn’tAboriginal;whatisandisn’taproprietaryinterest;whatisandisn’talegitimateformofknowledgeortruth(seealsoTheodossopoulosthisvolume).Iftheissueisnotlegal,howdowenavigatetheconceptualchallengesathand?

NegotiatingWith(in)EstablishedInstitutions

Thedisparitybetweentheconceptionsofwaterplannersandtheprioritiesoftraditionalownersiscommonlyconceivedofintermsofculturaldifference.However,asnotedabove,thereisaself-generatingparadoxthattheCanningBasintraditionalownersarerequiredtonavigate.Thelanguageofthelawandequallyitspractice,attributesspecializedmeaningtowordsandconcepts,constitutingaspecificknowledgeeconomyandorder(Dimock2001;Moore1973).Questionsofprooforlegitimacybecomefundamentaltotheaffirmationofthisorderwhich,demandsacertainstandardofcredibility.However,theknowledgeeconomyofnativetitleisoftenlimitedtodistinctiveformsoflegalandanthropologicalpractice,whichonlyskimstherealityexperiencedbynativetitleholders(Martin,BaumanandNeale2011).ThecomplexandintimaterelationshipspossessedbytheKarajarri,TjurabalanandNgurraratraditionalownerscannotbefullyarticulatedbylegalprocesses,especiallywherethelogicofIndigenousknowledgesareexcludedintheassessmentofthelegalityorlegitimacyofIndigenousrelationshipswithcountry.

GreaterIndigenousengagementhasbecomeafocalpointinthemidstofgrowingconcernsoverpressuresimposedbyclimate"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

change,sustaineddroughtandthedeclineoftheMurrayDarlingBasin.AllthesefactorshaveattractedwaterplannerstotheseeminglyvastreservesoftheCanningBasin,thepoliticalframingsofwhich,untilrecently,havebeenaboutresourceextractionanduse(Tran2013).Thisincreasedattentionhasalso,concurrently,drawnattentiontotheroleandscopeofIndigenousknowledges(Wallington,RobinsonandHead2012).ThesetrendsareconsistentwiththeNationalWaterInitiative(NWI),anagreementestablishedin2004betweentheAustralianfederalandstategovernmentsinordertoprovideaframeworkforwaterreform.

UndertheNWIwaterplanningandallocationneedstoaccountfornativetitlerightsandinterests.Stategovernmentagenciesareresponsibleforwaterplanningwiththeauthoritytoallocatewateraccordingtoestablishedplans;creatingmarkedvariationsbetweenjurisdictionsandbetweenIndigenousgroups(NationalWaterCommission2011).Further,stategovernmentshavearguedthatthelawenablingnativetitlerecognitionhasbeenimposeduponthemandtheirabilitytoregulateindependentlyonmattersoflandandwater,fuellingreluctanceto‘treatnativetitlewithjustice’(StreleinandTran2013:48).

Whileaimingtobeinclusive,currentwaterlawinWesternAustraliadoesnotaccommodateorprotectIndigenousrightsandinterestsnordoesitincorporateexistingIndigenousaspirationstomanageandlookafterkeywatersitesasahighpriority.Martin,BaumanandNeale(2011:3)arguethat‘thereisanincreasingdisjunctbetweenthecontemporaryworldviewsandaspirationsofAboriginalpeoplesandthelegalconstructionofnativetitle’.Thesecontemporaryworldviewsencompassaspirationstolookaftercountry,whileatthesametimebuildcommunityresilience"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

andenablesocialdevelopmentthroughthecreationofindustriesonrecognizednativetitlelands.

ThediverseandmultipleaspirationsoftheCanningBasintraditionalownersareconfusedbypolicymakerswhoareaccustomedtothetoneestablishedbynativetitlerecognitionwhichcharacterizesnativetitleholdersas‘traditional’.Forexample,theKarajarri,wanttoengageintheirownhorticulturalenterprises(includingrevivingasuccessfulmarketgarden)(Edgar2011)andarguethattheirentitlementstowatershouldbeconsideredattheoutsetofwaterplanning(Tran2013).Asnotedearlier,thedesireoftheCanningBasintraditionalownerstoprotecttheircountryisseenbytheWesternAustralianstategovernmentasanenvironmentalorculturalconcernexcludingthemfromallocationsforcommercialinterestsorforcingthemtocompeteonacommercialscale.

TheinherentcontradictionsoftheslowdecolonizationofAustralia’spropertylawsareapartoftherealityoftheCanningBasintraditionalowners.Centraltotheenactmentofitsnativetitleregimeforrecognition,theAustraliangovernmentsoughttorecognizeandaddressthemarginalizationofitsIndigenouspeoplesyetremainedconstrainedbyitsownneedtomaintainthelegitimacyofexistingAustralianlawsandpolicies.WeneedtoacknowledgeconnectionstocountryasthefoundationofIndigenousidentities,andweneedthisacknowledgementtobereflectedinthelawsandpoliciesthatimpactontheabilityoftheKarajarri,TjurabalanandNgurraratraditionalownerstolookaftercountryandculture.

CurrentwaterplanningiscomplicitininstitutionalizingIndigenousknowledgeswithinawesternplanningframeworkandassumesthatpre-determinedformsofparticipationwillbe"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

sufficientfortheinclusionofIndigenousprioriesandperspectivesindecisionmaking.However,wheretheseinstitutionsfordecisionmakingaredominatedbyaknowledgeeconomyexcludingIndigenousknowledges,itisdifficulttoseehowparticipationwillbesufficienttocounterthepolicymarginalizationoftheCanningBasintraditionalowners.

TheNativeTitleActrequiresIndigenousknowledgestohavebeenmaintainedfrompre-contactuntilthepresentandtraditionalownershaveshowntheirstrengthandresilienceinmeetingthesedemands,yettheyfacetheimpositionofnewstandardsinordertobenefitfromtheirnativetitle.Theselaterstandardsrequirecommercialingenuity,businessknowledgeandcommunitydevelopmentexpertisesuddenlyandwithoutadequateresourcingorsupportinordertomaintainandprotecthardwonnativetitlerightsandinterests.WeconceiveofandexpectIndigenouspeopletoliveintwoworlds–amisnomerinandofitself.ThroughourestablishedinstitutionswewanttheKarajarritraditionalownerstoanswerletters,readreportsandassertthemselvesaccordingtoestablishedstandards.Thisapproachdoesnotmakesenseifwearehonestaboutthefactthattheparadoxestheyfaceareofourmakingtosupporttheauthorityandlegitimacyofourownlawsandplaceintheworld.

Conclusion

TheperceivedconstraintsofthelawtorecogniseIndigenousclaimsforbothculturalandeconomicrightsreflectestablishedworldviewsabouttheorderofthingsorsetofrelationshipswithinsociety.Indigenousstrugglesoverwaterrightsarea"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

recurringthemeinthehistoryoftheAustraliannation,yetuntilMabohadnotbeengivenseriousconsideration.UnderlyingthemarginalizationoftheCanningBasintraditionalownersfromthewaterplanninganddecision-makingprocessisnon-recognitionofthelegitimacyofrecognizednativetitle,notonlylegally,butasabroaderreflectionoflegitimateIndigenousknowledges,practicesandpriorities.Incontrast,non-indigenousinstitutions,ormoresimply,waysofdoingthings,arenotsoeasilychallengedastheydonotneedtopassexaminationinordertoberecognized.

ThispositionreflectsAustralia’scolonialinheritancewherethenon-recognitionofIndigenousrelationshipstowaterareapartofthebroaderpolitical,cultural,socialandeconomicmarginalizationofFirstPeoples.ParalleltotheemerginglegalrecognitionofIndigenousrelationshipstocountry,recognitionofthechallengesofclimatechange,waterscarcityandecologicaldegradationhascreatedanopportunityforanalliancebetweenIndigenousandnon-indigenouspeoplerecognizingsharedvalues.

However,Indigenousclaimstocountryareseenasathreattotheintegrityofcurrentframeworksofwatermanagement.Themechanismsinplacelargelyfavournon-indigenousinterestsandscarcelyconsiderthevalueofwaterinensuringthehealthofcommunities,countryandpeople.Indigenousclaimstocountryareseenasjustanothersetofintereststhatneedtofitintotheexistingregimeforrecognition.SowhilethereisaperceptionthatIndigenousgroupsaregivenpreferentialtreatment,therealityisfarfromthis,withmanyIndigenousgroupshavingminimalimpactonhowtheircountryismanaged.

Inherentwithinsuccessfulparticipatoryprocessesistheabilityofdifferentpartiestonegotiateoneanother’svaluesystems.ThisleadstothequestionofhowIndigenouswaysof"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

seeingthingscanbebetterrepresentedwithinwaterallocationandplanningframeworks.DefragmentingIndigenousrelationshipstocountryrequiresrecognitionofourownprejudicesandhabitsaswellasthecontradictionsweseektomaintainthroughourlegalinstitutions.Thisisnotonlyaconceptualplea;thereareamultitudeofpracticalbenefitsthatflowfrominvestinginandrecognizingthesocialandequitybasedcostsofpoorpolicydecisionsthatexcludeAustralia’sFirstPeoples.

References

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——2008.NationalAboriginalandTorresStraitIslanderSocialSurvey,cat.no.4714.0.Canberra:ABS.

Bagshaw,G.2003.TheKarajarriClaim:ACase-StudyinNativeTitleAnthropology.Sydney:UniveristyofSydney(OceaniaMonographNo.53).

Barber,M.andJackson,S.2012.IndigenousWaterManagementandWaterPlanningintheUpperRoperRiver,NorthernTerritory:HistoryandImplicationsforContemporaryWaterPlanning.Darwin:CSIRO(ReporttotheNationalWaterCommissionandtheDepartmentofSustainability,Environment,Water,PopulationandCommunities).

Bauman,T.2006.Nationsandtribes‘within’:EmergingAboriginal‘nationalisms’inKatherine.TheAustralian


JournalofAnthropology,17:322–36.Bauman,T.,Strelein,L.M.andWeir,J.K.2013.Navigating

complexity:Livingwithnativetitle,inLivingwithNativeTitle:TheExperiencesofRegisteredNativeTitleCorporations,editedbyT.Bauman,L.M.StreleinandJ.K.Weir.Canberra:AustralianInstituteofAboriginalandTorresStraitIslanderStudies(AIATSIS)ResearchPublications,1–26.

Carnegie,D.W.1898.ExplorationsintheinteriorofWesternAustralia.TheGeographicalJournal,11,258.

Carpenter,K.A.2009.Indefenseofproperty.YaleLawJournal,118:1022–125.

Correy,S.2006.ThereconstitutionofAboriginalsocialitythroughtheidentificationoftraditionalownersinNewSouthWales.TheAustralianJournalofAnthropology,17,336–47.

Dimock,W.C.2001.Rulesoflaw,lawsofscience.YaleLawJournal,13,203.

Doust,K.2013.Naturalgas(CanningBasinjointventure)agreementbill2013secondreading.Availableat,http://www.parliament.wa.gov.au/Hansard%5Chansard.nsf/0/42143b07d64d96e848257b91000fb98c/$FILE/C39%20S1%2020130618%20p1587b-1598a.pdf.Accessed10December2013.

Dwyer,A.2012.Pukarrikarta-jangkamuwarr–StoriesaboutcaringforKarajarricountry.TheAustralianCommunityPsychologist,24,7–19.

Edgar,J.2011.Indigenouslanduseagreement–buildingrelationshipsbetweenKarajarritraditionalowners,theBidyadangaAboriginalCommunityLaGrangeInc.andthegovernmentofWesternAustralia.AustralianAboriginalStudies,2,50.


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French,R.2002.TheroleoftheHighCourtintherecognitionofnativetitle.WesternAustralianLawReview,30,129.

——2009.Nativetitle–Aconstitutionalshift?PaperpresentedattheUniversityofMelbourneLawSchool,24March2009.

GovernmentofWesternAustralia2010a.LaGrangeGroundwaterAllocationPlan(WaterResourceAllocationandPlanningSeriesReport25).Perth:DepartmentofWater.

——2010b.KimberleyRegionalWaterPlan:SupportingDetail.Perth:DepartmentofWater.

Griffiths,S.andKinnane,S.2011.KimberleyAboriginalCaringforCountryPlan.Broome:NulunguResearchInstitute,UniveristyofNotreDame.Availableat:http://www.nd.edu.au/downloads/research/kimberley_aboriginal_caring_for_country_plan.pdfAcessed10November2013

Kerins,S.2012.CaringforCountrytoWorkingonCountry,inPeopleonCountry,VitalLandscapes,IndigenousFutures,editedbyJ.C.AltmanandS.Kerins.Annandale:FederationPress,26–44.

KimberleyLandCouncil2009.KimberleyIndigenouspeoplecallforemergencysummittoaddressdisadvantage.Availableat:http://uploads.klc.org.au/2013/02/090305-Call-for-Emergency-Summit.pdf.Accessed14October2013.

Koch,G.2013.WeHavetheSong,SoWeHavetheLand:SongandCeremonyasProofofOwnershipinAboriginalandTorresStraitIslanderLandClaims.Canberra:AustralianInstituteofAboriginalandTorresStraitIslanderStudies(ResearchDiscussionPaperNo.33).

McFarlane,B.2004.TheNationalWaterInitiativeandacknowledgingIndigenousinterestsinplanning.Paper


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deliveredtotheNationalWaterConference,Sydney,29November2004.

McIntyre,G.andBagshaw,G.2002.Preservingcultureinfederalcourtproceedings:Genderrestrictionsandanthropologicalexperts.Land,Rights,Laws:IssuesofNativeTitle,2(1),1–12.

Martin,D.,Bauman,T.andNeale,J.2011.ChallengesforAustralianNativeTitleAnthropology:PracticeBeyondtheProofofConnection.Canberra:AustralianInstituteofAboriginalandTorresStraitIslanderStudies(ResearchDiscussionPaperNo.29).

Menzy,N.2007.Theparadoxesofculturalproperty.ColumbiaLawReview,107,2004–46.

Moore,S.F.1973.Lawandsocialchange:Thesemi-autonomoussocialfieldasanapprorpriatesubjectofstudy.LawandSocietyReview,7,719–46.

Nakata,M.2006.Australianindigenousstudies:Aquestionofdiscipline.TheAustralianJournalofAnthropology,17,265–75.

NationalNativeTitleTribunal2012.NationalReport:NativeTitle.Perth:NationalNativeTitleTribunal.

——2013.Determinationsofnativetitle.Availableat:http://www.nntt.gov.au/Mediation-and-agreement-making-services/Documents/Quarterly%20Maps/Determinations_map.pdfAccessed10December2013.

NationalWaterCommission2011.TheNationalWaterInitiative–SecuringAustralia’sWaterFuture.Canberra:NationalWaterInitiative.

Paul,R.,George,R.andGardiner,P.2013.AReviewoftheBroomeSandstoneAquiferontheLaGrangeArea.Perth:


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SteeringCommitteefortheReviewofGovernmentServiceProvision2011.Overcomingindigenousdisadvantage:Keyindicators.Canberra:ProductivityCommission.

Strelein,L.M.2009.CompromisedJurisprudence:NativeTitlesinceMabo.Canberra:AboriginalStudiesPress.

Strelein,L.andTran,T.2013.Buildingindigenousgovernancefromnativetitle:Movingawayfrom‘fittingin’tocreatingadecolonisedspace.ReviewofConstitutionalStudies,18(1),19–48.

Strelein,L.M.,Tran,T.,McGrath,P.F.,Powrie,R.andStacey,C.2013.AustralianInstituteofAboriginalandTorresStraitIslanderStudies(AIATSIS)submissiontotheNativeTitleOrganisationsReview.Canberra:AustralianInstituteofAboriginalandTorresStraitIslanderStudies.Availableat:http://www.deloitteaccesseconomics.com.au/uploads/File/AIATSIS%20Part%20B.pdfAccessed10June2014.

Sullivan,P.,Pampila,H.B.,Pajiman,W.B.andKordidi,D.M.2011.TheKalpurtuwatercycle:BringinglifetothedesertofthesouthWestKimberley,inCountry,NativeTitleandEcology,editedbyJ.Weir.Canberra:ANUEpress.Availableat:http://press.anu.edu.au//apps/bookworm/view/country,+native+title+and+ecology/8681/ch03.htmlAccessed10July2013.

Tan,P.L.andJackson,S.2013.Impossibledreaming–DoesAustralia’swaterlawandpolicyfulfilIndigenousaspirations?EnvironmentalandPlanningLawJournal,30,132.

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Tran,T.2013.Wateriscountry,countryisculture:ThetranslationofIndigenousrelationshipstowaterintolaw.PhDthesis,UniveristyofDundee.

Tran,T.,Strelein,L.M.,Weir,J.K.,Stacey,C.andDwyer,A.2013.NativeTitleandClimateChange.ChangestoCountryandCulture,ChangestoClimate:StrengtheningInstitutionsforIndigenousResilienceandAdaptation.GoldCoast:NationalClimateChangeAdaptationResearchFacility.

Tran,T.,C.StaceyandP.McGrath2013.BackgroundReportonPrescribedBodiesCorporateAspirations.InReporttoDeloitteAccessEconomicsfortheFaHCSIAReviewofNativeTitleOrganisations.

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Vachon,D.A.2006.Theserpent,thewordandthelieoftheland:ThedisciplineoflivingintheGreatSandyDesertofAustralia.PhDthesis,UniversityofToronto.

Wallington,T.,Robinson,C.andHead,B.2012.Crisis,changeandwaterinstitutionsinsouth-eastQueensland:Strategiesforanintegratedapproach,inRiskandSocialTheoryinEnvironmentalManagement,editedbyT.MeashamandS.Lockie.Canberra:CSIROPublishing,185–98.

Watson,H.1988.Noteventhecattle,inRaparapakularrmartuwarra:Allright,nowwegosidetheriver,alongthat


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sundownway:StoriesfromtheFitzroyRiverdrovers,editedbyP.Marshall.Broome:MagabalaBooks,106–19.

Weir,J.K.2011.Karajarri:AWestKimberleyexperienceinmanagingnativetitle.Canberra:AustralianInstituteofAboriginalandTorresStraitIslanderStudies(ResearchDiscussionPaperNo.30).

Weir,J.K.,Stone,R.andMulardy,M.2011.Waterplanningandnativetitle:AKarajarriandgovernmentengagementintheWestKimberley,inCountry,NativeTitleandEcology,editedbyJ.Weir.Canberra:ANUEpress.

Yu,S.1999.NgapaKunangkul(LivingWater):ReportontheAboriginalCulturalValuesofGroundwaterintheLaGrangeSub-Basin.WesternAustralia:TheWaterandRiversCommissionofWesternAustralia.


1TherecentHighCourtdecisionofKarpanyv.Dietman(2013)HCA47affirmsthebroadscopeforthepotentialapplicationofSection211(para.45–8).


PARTIIIChallengingtheDominanceoftheAcademy


Chapter9IntegratingAfricanProverbsintheEducationofYoungLearners:TheChallengeofKnowledgeSynthesis

GeorgeJ.SefaDei[NanaSefaAtweneboahI]

IrecognizeIndigenouspeoples’strugglesworldwideandtheimperativeforstudentsandresearchersofIndigenousknowledgetoshowmorethanintellectualsolidarity.IsupportthisstrugglefrommyriadpositionsasaWestern-trainedsocialanthropologist,activisteducatorandtraditionalElder[enstooledasaChiefinGhana].Tothisend,Iseektopushtheedgesoftheintellectualenvelopeandconsidersometroublesomeissues.ArguingforthevalidationandlegitimationofIndigenousknowledgesontheirowntermsandforustobemindfulofthelimitsofusingtheEurocentricgazetoassessthem.Atthesametime,IammindfulofthepossibilitiesofWesternscientificknowledge,albeitcriticalofitstendencytoappropriateotherknowledgesandallthewhilenotgivingcreditto,andmasquerading,itsunderstandingsasuniversal.

ThischaptercontendsaparticularviewofschoolingandeducationinNorthAmericanandAfricancontexts.Yet,theissuesthatitraisesarepertinentforschoolinginothercontexts(for


example,LatinAmerican,Caribbean,AsiaandEurope).Partofalargerpoliticalandintellectualproject,itre-visionsschoolingforyouthinpluralisticcontexts.Itdiscussesthepossibilitiesofaccentuatingthepedagogicandinstructionalroleofcontemporaryyounglearners’knowledgeofAfricanIndigenousphilosophiesasexpressedthroughproverbs.Atthesametime,Isoundacautionregardingtheobjectiveofknowledgecollaborationsandintegrationsthattrulyallowfortheengagementofmultipleknowledgesystemsintheacademy.

ThechapterengagesAfricanproverbsasaformofepistemology;anIndigenousknowledgeandknowinggroundedona‘long-termoccupancyofaplace’(i.e.,theland),andderivedfromexperientiallearningandtheinter-relationshipsofsociety,cultureandnature.TheaimindiscussingthespecificGhanaianandKenyanproverbsistoaffirmsuchlocalculturalknowingsaspartofanIndigenousAfricanphilosophywhoseteachingsrestsonclearassociationswiththeland/MotherEarthandtherelationsofculture,societyandnature.Itissuchteachingsthatinformtheeducationofthecontemporarylearnerwhenproverbs,stories,folktales,mythsandmythologiesareembracedintheAfricanandotherIndigenouscontexts.Inthediscussionthechapteralsobringsupsomecontentiousissues,particularlyregardingtheintellectualdimensionsofcollaborativeresearchandthecontradictionsandconcernstudiesofIndigenouswaysofknowingpresentus.

ItwillbeshownthatAfricanproverbs,andbyextensiontraditionalAfricanknowledgeandpedagogy,‘seektopromotevaluesthatrelatetocharacterbuilding,impartingadvice’totheyounginwayscontrasting‘markedlywithWesternknowledgeandpedagogy,whichseekfurtherunderstandingofhowtheworld"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

worksandhowwemightmanage/controlit,whilepayinglittleattentiontoproducingmoralpersons’(AnonymousReviewer2013).Clearlytherearedifferencesinvaluesystemsaroundtheworld,andwhatcomprisesamoralanduprightcharacterinAfricamaydifferinsomenotableregardsfromEuropeanjudgments.AstrikingexamplethatcomesthroughinsomeAfricanproverbsisthewayinwhichAfricanculturestressesthenotionof‘community’andjudgespersonsbywhattheycontributetothecollectivityorthesocialgrouptowhichtheybelong.ThiscontrastsstronglywiththewayEuro-Americanculturepromotesthe‘individual’withself-interestmotivatingbehaviour,andmeasuringsuccessaccordinglywithalargematerialisticcomponentandasanindividualaccomplishment.ItisopinedthattheWestmayhavesomeimportantlessonstolearnfromAfricanknowledgesystems,givengrowingproblemswiththeWesternindividualisticapproachtolife.Questionsofhowdowecollectivelybuildcommunitiesandcreateglobal‘communitiesoflearners’withsharedconcernsaboutsocialjustice,equity,loveandpowersharingarewhatmakesushuman.Theideathatwearesimplyaseaofindividualshaslimitationsinthedevelopmentofcommunitiesandsharedresponsibilities.WhiletheindividualisarespectednotionwithinAfricancommunitiestheprivilegedunderstandingisthattheindividualonlymakessenseonlyinrelationtothecommunitytheyarepartof.Inotherwords,whatisvaluedisthe‘cooperativeindividual’whoisnourishedandsustainedbytheircommunitiesasopposedtothe‘competitiveindividual’whoseeshimselforherselfandundulyoverburdenedbythecommunityandshiesawayfromcollectiveresponsibilities.

InmostAfricancommunitieswehaveproverbialteachings"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

aboutcommunityandindividual,theenvironmentandthenature:cultureinterface.Theyalsocovercharacter,probity,accountabilityandhonesty,teachingsaboutgovernanceandleadership,andrightsandresponsibility.Thereareproverbialteachingsaboutmaterialwealthandostentation,poverty,aswellas,workethicsanddivisionoflabour.Theyhavetheirinstructionalandpedagogicrelevancefortheeducationofyouth.Proverbshelpdealwitheverydayproblemsandchallenges.Eachproverbhasitssuitableoccasiontobeevoked,offeringhopeanddirectionforthefuture.Whenevokedinappropriately(inanimproperculturalorsocialcontext)thereiscommunitydisdainandsanctionwhichmayincluderidiculeandlaughter.Africantraditionalcommunities’proverbsareinhighesteemgiventheireducationalpurposesandteachingmorals,character-buildingqualitiesaswellastheirunderstandingoflocalculture,traditionandhistory.Asproverbssimilartomythologies,riddles,folktales,traditionalculturalsongsandstories,representaphilosophyoflife,andsomesanctitysurroundsactivitieswhereevoked.Proverbsplayakeyroleinthenarrationofsuchlocalculturalknowings.Forexample,manytraditionalstoriesandsongsarerepletewithproverbs,andwisesayingsthatcanbeseenasaformofmemorandumoracalltoaction(seeDei2012a,b).Proverbialoffersaforumofsocializationaroundgender.Ithelpskeepcommunitiesandpeoplestogether.

TheCulture,SchoolingandPedagogy

Theculture,pedagogyandeducationliterature,whetherwrittenfrompsychological,sociologicaland/oranthropologicalpointsof"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

view,reinforcestherelevanceofthelinkageofthesefields(Dei2012b,d).Forexample,Clifford(1986)andGeertz(1993)inanthropologydemonstratehowknowledgeisembeddedwithinparticularculturalcontextsandresistsappealstomasternarratives,transcendentexperiences,orauniversal‘humannature’.Thisrecognitionofthespecificitiesofknowledgeisnotintendedtodenythesharedunderstandingsembeddedinlocalculturalknowledgesfromvariedcommunities,butitchallengesclaimsthatoftenmasqueradeas‘universal’.Thisappealtouniversalwaysofknowing,ignoringthediversityofhumanexperiencesandcultures,reliesonpowerframeworkstoprivilegesomeformsofknowledge(forexample,dominantWesternwaysofknowing).Thesescholarsarguethatcultureinformsallhumanexperienceandiscentraltoknowledgeproductionthatofferculturesandculturalknowingsareimportantstartingpointsinthesearchforknowledge.Withinpsychology,Rogoff’s(1981,2003)workalsodetailsthemarkeddifferencesinhumandevelopmentacrosscultures,asindividualsdevelopasparticipantsintheircommunities.Thisengagementisnecessarilydynamicandrefusestheviewofcultureasstaticandashavingthesameeffectoneachindividual.Thedynamismofcultureisitselfaproductofsocialinteractionsthatthemselvesshapeunderstandingofculture.Suchinteractionsmayencompassthesynthesisofknowledgeasengagedinbyandfromdifferentcommunities.Wertsch’s(1985,2002)studiesfurtherexaminethecomplexrelationshipsbetweenindividualsandculture,especiallyinhowtheytakeuptheformulationofacollectivememory,throughthecomplexinteractionsbetweenthemandtheirculturalandhistoricalcommunities.Tappan(2006)extendsWertsch’sideas(whichactuallycanbetracedbacktotheEnlightenmentthinker)around"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

culturalmediationtoexaminemoraldevelopmentastheaccumulationofculturaltoolsandmoralmediationmeans,whichallowtheindividualtooperateandmakechoicesaspartofthecommunity.Ineachoftheseaccounts,cultureisthestartingpointfordiscussionsonknowledgeproduction,identity,anddevelopment(seealsoCole1992,2006).Itisthecomplexengagementsoftheindividualwithinandwiththeabstractionofculturethatshapeswhotheyareandhowtheycometoknowtheworld.

Ifculturalsystemsconstituteawayofknowingandunderpintheprocessofcoming‘toknow’,thechallengeofknowledgeintegrationiscentral,thatishowwecometoknowandactresponsiblyinourcommunities.Waysofschoolingandeducationinourcommunitiesarecrucial.Forexample,howdoweteachaboutculture,localknowledgesystems(i.e.proverbs,riddles,folktales,culturalsongs)toacknowledgeandhighlightthechallengesofworkingwithmultipleknowledge?Howdoweaseducatorsengagethepowerissuesembeddedinlocalculturalknowledgesystems?Howdowepresenteducationinwaysthataffirmslocalspecificitiesandsharedcommunitiesofknowledge?Whatisourunderstandingofculture?Whatisthelinkbetweencultureandpedagogyandhowdowetheorize(notsimplyassume)thislinkage?Investigatingthelinkbetweenculture,pedagogy,schoolingandknowledgethroughAfricanIndigenousphilosophies,involvingproverbs,folktales,riddles,storiesandsongspresentsopportunities.

Cultureisaboutcosmologyandaworldview.Cultureisalsoabouteverydaysocialpractice.Itevokesspiritualityinthesenseofdefiningwhatitmeanstobehuman,tounderstandpersonhoodandwhatitistohaverespectfortheworldofthelivingandthe"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

dead.TheAfricanuniverseisgenerallyspiritualizedandseekstoestablishacommunionwithnature.

Culturalparadigmsshapetheconstructionofparticularknowledges,aswellasexperiencesofschooling.Forexample,Indigenousphilosophiesunderlinethesalienceofcultureinproducingunderstandingsandframesofreferences,includingwhatmulti-centricepistemesoffer.Whiletheadvancementofanyoneculturalperspectivecannotbeuniversallyandunproblematicallyprivilegedoverothers,itisnecessaryforustointerrogatetheculturalgroundingsofknowledgesystems.InIndigenousAfricanphilosophiestheideathattheelementsoftheuniverseareinterrelatedandintertwined(forexample,mental,physical,andspiritual,material,political,economicinterrelations,etc.)isentrenched.Localculturalknowledgesasabodyofepistemologyconnectplace,spirit,soulandbody.Thewholenessofknowledgeisexpressedinthenexusofbody,mind,spiritandsoul,aswellastheinterrelationsofcultureandnature.Culturalknowledgesreflectsocietalunderstandingsofland,history,culturalandidentityinterrelations.Theselfandcommunityarerepresentedandengagedthroughtime,historyandeverydayexperience.Acceptingtheroleofcultureinknowledgeproductionandmakingsenseofourworld,underscorestheneedtoworkwiththenotionof‘centredness’ofthelearnerinherorhisownlearninginordertoengageknowledge.AculturallygroundedperspectivethatcentresAfrican/Indigenous/Asianetc.peoples’worldviewshelpslearnersresistthedominanceofhegemonicperspectives.

Inschools,wheretheexperiencesandhistoriesofmarginalizedgroupscanbedeniedordevalued,thereisaneedtocentretheagencyofthemarginalizedaslearnersrootedintheir"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

ownhistories,storiesandexperiences.Aculture-centredparadigmprovidesaspaceforstudentstointerprettheirexperiencesaccordingtotheirworldviewsandunderstandingsratherthanbeingforcedtodosothroughthedominantoccidentallens.Thereisalessonforthedominanttooinappreciatingwhatotherculturalperspectivescanofferineducatingthelearner.Whileweneedto(re)constructanIndigenousoutsideofthatidentityconstructedandimposedwithinthecontextsofEuro-Americanhegemonythatofdominantidentitymustalsocriticallyinterrogatetheirvaluesandculturalframesofreferencefortheiromissions,negationsandblindspots.Africanculturalvaluesconveyedinlocalproverbsofferrelevantphilosophical,pedagogicandinstructionallessons.Acentrallessonistheideaofacommunityoflearnersthatemergefromaworkingknowledgeof‘communitybelongingness’and‘theessenceofsocialinterpersonalandgrouprelations’.

Theforegoingalsoshowsthatclearlycultureandschoolingarelinked.Inconventionalschooling,moreoftenthannot,theroleofcultureineducationismisunderstood,takenasa‘problem’ora‘deficit’ineducationalanalysis.WithinthecontextofNorthAmericanschooling,criticaleducatorshaverepeatedlyarguedthatcultureandtraditionsarenotsomethingonlycertaincommunitiespossess(forexample,racialized,immigrantorIndigenousandAboriginalones).Wecannotassumeanyconcernsaboutschoolingareattributableto‘aproblemofculture’.Workingwiththenotionof‘problematicdifference’,seenthroughthelensofcultureanddifference(specificallyrace)isamajorcontributingfactortohumanmisunderstanding.Weneedtounderstandculture(likeraceandotherformsofdifference)criticallyandinallitscomplexities.Itispartofour"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

collectivehumanexistenceandwemustengagewithitinapositive(i.e.solution-oriented)waybypayingattentiontoitsstrengths.Insteadofdefiningcultureforothers,wemustunderstandhowlocalcommunitiesunderstandtheircultureandusesuchknowledgetothinkthroughcontemporarychallenges.

StudyContextandMethod

Since2007–8,Ihavebeeninvolvedinon-goinglongitudinalresearchinGhana,NigeriaandKenyaexaminingIndigenousAfricanphilosophies(specificallyknowledgesystemsembeddedinlocalproverbs,songs,folktalesandstoryforms)fortheirpedagogicandinstructionalrelevanceinyoutheducation.1Between2007and2009,overadozenfocusgroupdiscussionswereorganizedtogetherwithworkshopsessionswithstudent-educatorsandteachesdrawnlargelyfromGhanaand,tosomeextent,NigeriaandKenya.Over85individualinterviewsconductedwith25educators,20Elders/parents,and40studentsdrawnfromthelocaluniversities,secondaryschoolsandcommunitycolleges.

From2009to2012continuingresearchhasincludedastudyoflibrarydocumentsandarchivalcollectionsonNigeria,KenyaandGhanaianIndigenousculturalknowledgesystems(forexampleparables,proverbs,riddles,songs,andfolktales).InNigeria,Iworkedwithlocalundergraduateassistants,collegeinstructorsandresearchconsultantstoundertakeextensiveinterviewswith10Elders(asculturalcustodians),twentyeducatorsandtwentystudentsattheAdeniranOgunsanyaCollegeofEducationinOtto/Ijanikin,andLagosStateUniversity,"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

Nigeria.Wealsoconductedclassroomobservationsatthetwoinstitutionsandheldaseriesoffocusgroupdiscussionswitheducatorsandstudents.Inthesummerof2012,wefocusedonbasic/elementaryeducation,vocationalpolytechnictraining,andcommunity-basedculturalactivitiesthatcontributetoculturalsocializationandeducationofKenyanyouth.DuringthisphasewestudiedtheliteratureattheUniversityofNairobiandEgertonUniversityinEgoro,Nakurudistrictonlocalproverbs,folktales,songsandotherfolklore.Weinterviewed30communityEldersandparents,aswellas10studentsatthebasic/elementaryschoollevel,and10studentsatavocational/polytechnictraininginstituteintheEmbudistrict.WealsointerviewededucatorsattheKenyaninstitutionsandconductedfocusgroupdiscussionsandworkshopswithstudyparticipants.Ihadtrainedresearchassistantsworkingthroughoutthislongitudinalstudytodocumentproverbs,riddlesandfolktalesfromEldersinlocallanguageswithEnglishtranslations.Theprimaryfocusofthisworkhasbeentounderstandtheuseandmeaningsoflocalproverbsandtheirinstructional,pedagogicandcommunicativevalues,especiallyteachingsaboutidentity,self-worth,respectforself,peersandauthority,andtheobligationsandresponsibilitiesofcommunitybelonging.

Inthischapter,IfocusspecificallyondatarelatingtothedocumentationofGhananandKenyanIndigenousproverbs.Itengageswiththeinterviewdataonproverbsandtheirteachingsasculturalcustodians–Elders,parents,studentsandcommunities–explainthem.Itattemptstofleshoutsomeofthedeeplyembeddedmeaningsoftheseproverbsfortheeducationofcontemporarylearners.InAfricancontexts,thereisagrowingbodyofworkdealingwiththebroadthemeof‘Indigenous"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

philosophies’,includingtextsthatdocumentproverbs,fables,parables,tales,mythologiesandtheirculturalmeaningsandinterpretations(see,forexample,AbubakreandReichmuth1997;Kalu1991;Kudadjie1996;Ogede1993;Opoku1997,1975;Pachocinshi1996;Yankah1989,1995).ManyIndigenouscommunitieselsewherealsoutilizeproverbs,parables,folktalesandmythologiestoconveyknowledgeontheinterfaceofsociety,natureandculture(seeAbrahams1967,1968a,1968b,1972;Dorson1972;Taylor1934;WolfgangandDundas1981).WeknowthatAboriginal(andMaori)traditionsfocusmoreonstorytellingthanproverbsandfables.Yet,inAboriginal(andMaori)epistemologyweseehowstorytellingconveyspowerfulmeaningssimilartothoseencodedinproverbsand,parablesinotherIndigenouscontexts(Firth1926).Thesestoriesgiveacriticallearnerapowerfulsenseofpedagogic,instructionalandcommunicativerelevance.Forexample,Johnson(1993,2003)showsOjibwaymythologyasrich,complexanddenseinmeaningandmystery.HisworksprovideasuccinctunderstandingofOjibwaylife,legends,andbeliefs.Likestoriesandmyths,proverbsoftenevokeanactofself-reflectionfromthelearner/listener.Aspowerfulknowledgeforms,proverbsofferadeeperlevelofunderstandingandappreciationofthecommunity’splace.AsthewritingsofChamberlain(2003),EastmanandNerburn(1993)andStiffarm(1998),amongmanyothers,pointoutinthecurrentglobalizedandtransnationalworldwhere‘migration,Diaspora,andresettlementareeverydayaffairs’andwherewecontinuallyencountercompetingclaimstoland,resource,knowledgeandpower,proverbscanbehelpfultoalllearnersinappreciatingourcommonhumanity.

Thequestionishowdoweworkwiththeteachingsofsuch"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

Indigenousphilosophiestoinformschoolingforcontemporarylearners?HereIhighlightsomerelevantproverbsthatengageIndigenoustheoriesandphilosophies,mostexistingtextsonAfricanIndigenousproverbsofferingbriefanalysis.Ifocusonproverbsthatspecificallyaddresstraditionsofmutualrespect,self-discipline,personalandcollectiveidentity,characterbuildingandmorality,citizenshipandcommunitybelonging,respectforEldersandauthority,searchforpeaceandsocialharmony.

UsingProverbsasPedagogyandInstruction

ItisnecessarytoacknowledgedifficultiesintranslationintoEnglishandcautionaboutsituatingAfricanproverbsinWesterncontexts.Thelocalcontextsinwhichthese‘wisesayings’areevokedconditiontheirunderstanding.TheaimistodrawonthemeaningsoftheproverbsandwhattheyteachyouthtohighlightthepedagogicandinstructionalroleofproverbsinAfricanIndigenousphilosophies.Theteachingsprimarilyhighlightindividualresponsibilitytothecommunityandtherelevanceofknowingoneself,herorhisrelationshiptopeers,andthewidercommunity.Theteachingsareintendedtohelpandguidetheindividualineverydayinteractionswhetherinschoolsorthewidercommunity.Adultstellyouthsuchproverbsintheirearlyyearstoinstilastrongsenseofselfwithpurposeandpride.

ItisshouldbenotedthattheinterpretationsoftheproverbsofferedinthischaptercomefromthelocalEldersandculturalcustodianswhotoldtheseproblemstousasresearchers.Theinterpretationscontainfarmorelessonsthanareevidentfromthedirectreadingtheproverbsalone.Thisisbecauseitisgenerally"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

acceptedinAfricanculturesthatproverbsaswisesayingsaretobeinterpretedinwaysthatmeetchallengesofboththetellerandlistener,givenasocialcontext.Consequently,theinterpretationsoftheproverbsofferedareacombinationofstudysubjects’ideasandtheanalysisofwhataneducationalresearcherbornwithinsuchlocalcommunitiescananddoesmakeoftheproverbsinlightofthelessonsthatthetellersoftheseproverbswantandwishtoconveytotheiraudience/listeners.

AkanofGhanaProverbs

Aboabibekawoanaofiriwontomamu.Theinsect/antthatbitesyouisalwaysfoundinyourowncloth.

Thisproverbteachestheyounglearnerthatwhilefriendsandthoseclosetoyoumaybeasourceofsupportandhope,theycanalsobetreachery.ThisAkanproverbisacautionarymessage.Trustisintegraltobetrayalwithitsintimateconnectiontorelationalexpectations(Fitness2001).Forexample,Boondefinesinterpersonaltrustas‘theconfidentexpectationthatapartnerisintrinsicallymotivatedtotakeone’sownbestinterestsintoaccountwhenacting–evenwhenincentivesmighttempthimorhertodootherwise’(Boon1994:88).Clearly,trustingothersexposesustotheriskthemtakingadvantageofus.TheAkanproverbwarnsustobemindfulofthosewechosetotrustbecausetheyaretheonesverypeoplewhocanletusdownwhenweleastexpect.Thelessonhereistotakecautiontoavoid.

Seabofrahununsahwohworoawonnempanyinfodidi.Whenachildlearnstowashhis/herhandswell,sheorheeatswiththeElder.


Children,inAkantradition,aretooimmaturetounderstandandappreciatetheartandetiquetteofeatingwithEldersfromthesamebowl.Culturally,itisanactofpromotiontosharethesametablewithElders,particularlyasinapatriarchalsociety.TheEldersusuallyenjoythefinestpartofameal.EatingwithEldersisanopportunitytosharethebestpartofthemeal.Metaphorically,itindicatesthatone’sopinionissoughtonmattersrelatingtothefamilyandcommunity.However,thisopportunityisnotaccordedtoeverychild.Thecoretestistoknowhowtowashone’shands.Traditionally,handwashingisnotjustfollowingWesterndemandstomeethygienicdemands.MostAkanfoodsareeatenwiththehands,and,knowinghowtowashone’shandsisnecessarybothforone’ssafetyandthatofothers.Poorhand-washingposesadangernotonlytooneselfbutalsootherswhosharethemeal.Theritualofhandwashinginvolvessoapycleanwater,andtoweltodryone’shands,andisdoneinacoordinatedmanner.Itrequiresdiscipline,strongwillandnohaste.Sinceweeatwhenwearehungry,onemaynotbepatientenoughtocarryoutthisritualwithsufficientcare.Ifahungrychildisdisciplinedenoughtogothroughthisritualsuccessfully,s/hedeservestobetreatedasanadult.

Handwashingsymbolizesthelongtermoverimmediatepleasure.Foryoungstersitrelatestocontrolofdesiresortemptations,theconsiderationofother,andultimatelybettermentofsociety,recognizingtheimportanceofthinkingandactingcollectively.Discipline,strongcharacterandrespectforoneself,peers,family,Eldersandthoseinpositionsofpowerandauthorityarekeyaspectsofmaturity.Onceyouthsdemonstratethesequalities,eventhoughyoung,theyareinvitedtojointhecompanyofadultsandEldersinsociety.Furthermore,Elderswelcome"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

youthswhohaveshownthesequalitieshavesomethingtoteachandcontributetosociety.TheyouthhavedemonstratedacharacterofmaturityandarethusjustifiedforbeinginthecompanyoftheEldersnotwithstandingthejuniorage.

Abofrabonwanawonboakyekyedea.Achildcrackstheshellofsnailsandnotthatofthetortoise.

InAkantradition,childrenareexpectedtoperformcertainrolesandadultsassymbolizedinthisproverb.Breakingtheshellofasnailisnotasdifficultasbreakingthatofatortoise.Whilethesnailrequireslittlestrengthandlessharmfultools(stones),thetortoiserequiresmoreforceanddangeroustools(sharpaxe).Evenanadultneedspatiencetobreaktheshellofatortoise.Thisproverbteachestheimportanceofknowingone’slimitations.Youshouldactaccordingtotheexpectationsofyourage.Humilitycomeswithrecognitionofourlimitations.Ascouragewithoutprecautionisoftenasteptowardsdisaster,knowingone’slimitationsshouldnotbeviewedasasignofweaknessbutwisdomactiontoensurepersonaland,attimes,collectivesafety.Youthsarecuriousandadventurous,andshouldproceedwithcautionandacknowledgetheirpersonallimitationstoavoidunwanteddanger.Societyestablisheslimitationstoensureindividualandcollectivewellbeing.

Akokosasedenara,enyeakromafe.Nomatterhowwellthefowldances;thehawkcannotbepleased.

Enmityexistsbetweenthehawkandthefowl,suchthatthehawkcaninnowaybepleasedwiththeactionsofthefowl.Thehawkmustalwaysfindfaultwiththefowl,maintainingthetensethat"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

existsrelationshipbetweenthem.Thisproverbstressesthatwecannotpleaseeverybodywemeetandthattherearecertainpersonsinourliveswhoremindusthatnotallcanbeourfriends.

AccordingtoAbrahamMaslow’sHierarchyofNeeds,acceptanceandloveareessentialforhumangrowthanddevelopment.Withoutthese,onecanfeelasenseoflonelinessanddepression.Oneofthechallengesoflifeistogaintheapprovalandacceptanceofothers.Sometimes,thedesiretobeacceptedintoagroupcanpromptyouthsactunwisely.Theyneedtounderstandthatnoteverybodywilllikeoracceptthem,whichisthemessageofthisproverb.Itteachesthattobesuccessfullife,theymustignoredetractorsandfocusonintheirownachievementsandbattlethroughlife.Theproverbconcentratesonmaintainingone’sstrengthofpurposeinthefaceofcritics.

Benkumdwarenifananifasoedwarebenkum.Thelefthandwashestherighthandandtherighthandwashestheleft.

ReciprocityisacorepillarofAkancommunity.Communitycannotbeestablishedandrelationshipbuildingwillbeindangerwithoutreciprocation.TheAkanexplaintheessenceofreciprocitythroughthemetaphorofbathing.Theleftandrighthandshavemasteredtheartofreciprocityinwashingareanother.Inthisneo-liberaleraofmeritocracywithitscultofindividualism,itisnecessarythatyoungpersonsaretaughtaboutthecultureofreciprocity.Wemustteachthatarecannotactwithonlyselfishinterestsinmind.Insteadwemustrecognizethatwearewherewearebecauseothershavelearnttocarryusontheirshoulders.Wemustacknowledgethatwhateverwegaininlifeisduetothecollectiveeffortsofothers,andlearnthatwealsohave


aresponsibilitytogivebacktosociety.Ourcurrentapproachtoeducationisasaselfishinvestment.

Whileittakescommunityinvestmentmakesone’seducationpossible,thedirectbenefitsoftengototheindividual.Thisproverbreferstotheessenceofcommunity,withmutualinterdependenceandco-operation,responsibilityandaccountability,betweenindividualsandgroups.Ifonegoodturndeservesanother,thismeansthatone’sactionsreverberatenotonlyontheselfbutontheirfriends,peers,andfamily.Contrarytothedominantconceptionofmeritocracy,successisnotanindividualaffair.Thecommunitycontributestoanysuccess.Thelessonforschoolingisinteachingthatsuccessmustbeinclusiveofschoolandsociety.Successisnotsimplyaquestionofone’sacademicachievementsbuthowsuccesscontributestothecommunitybuilding,socialandinterpersonalrelations.Inotherwords,individualsuccessshouldreflectonthewidercommunity,thusdistinguishingbetweenthe‘competitiveindividual’whodeniesorshiesawayfromthecommunity,andthe‘cooperativeindividual’whoembracesandissimultaneouslyenrichedbythewidercommunity.

Yennsankokoromotinhonboepo.Onecannotbypassthethumbtotieaknot.

ThethumbinthisproverbrepresentstheCreatorandimpliesthatnoonecandoanythingwithouttheCreator’shelp/guidance.Thelessonhereistoask,howcanonefollowthepaththatleadstoourgoalsinlife?Alllearnersneedtoknowwhatittakestoreachsetgoals.Wecannotneglectnorfailtopayattentiontothosewhoareinstrumentalinhelpingusdoso.Thethumbisalsosaidto


representtheChief,highlightingtheimportanceoftheIndigenousinstitutionsorrespectingthoseinauthority.Theproverbteachestheimportanceofrespectingtothosefromwhomwecanlearn,andalsoneedtorecognizeandappreciatethosewhohaveprecededusinourendeavours,whohavehelpedcarvethepathwefollow.Weshouldlethistorybeaguild,thewisdomandforesightofourforebearsinformingpresentandfuturecourseaction.

Furthermore,thisproverbteachesthatachildcanneveroutgrowher/hisparents.Youthsneedadultstoguidethemthroughlife.Italsoteachesthatwemustdofirstthingsfirst,takingtimetoensurethatallisdoneinacorrectmanner.Itstressestheimportanceofrecognizingwhereweareandappreciatingitforwhatitis,beingpatientwithourselvestoachieveourbest.

KiembuofKenyaofProverbs

KenyunaKenyuciocanagirinuri/nda.Littlekeptwillenrichyou.

ThisKenyanproverbspeaksaboutfrugalityandavoidingmaterialostentation.Itteachesthatthesearchforwhatmattersinlifeismorethanmaterialpossessions.Itencourageshumilityandappreciationofthenon-materialthingsinlifesuchasgiving,andsharing,ratherthanthesearchformaterialpossessions.Whilenotagainstmaterialthingsperse,thisproverbteachesaspiritofgenerosity,andcommunityinterdependence.Itexhortslearnerstobecommunity-mindedandtoshareknowledgeandvaluecollectivehelp.Thisspiritofsharingknowledge,ratherthan


keepingittooneself,enrichesthelearningexperienceforall,allhavesomethingtooffer.Today,competitiveschoolingencouragesstudentstoprotecttheirknowledge,wantingtoberecognizedasintelligentandworthyofreceivingtheA+andbeingcalledthe‘bestandbrightest’.Butyounglearnersshoulddevelopasenseofinterdependenceandrecognizethatsuccessisacollectiveaccomplishment,notanexclusiveindividualone.Theproverbalsobringstheethicofequity,responsibilityandcaringforothersintoschoolingandeducation.Itspeakstotheimportanceofsacrificetoo:awillingnesstogowithoutforthepurposeofservingothers,ararequalityinourconsumerdrivensociety.Itremindsustobepatientandworkhardforwhatwewant.

Vurambaroniyang’ondu.Theonlygoodearwaxcomesfromthesheep.

Thisproverballudestothefactthateducationistheonlywaytocometoknow.But,sucheducationisnotsimplyschoolknowledge.Infacttheproverbsteachersusthatbrightpeoplecouldaswellbepeoplewhomightnotbeintheformalclassroomandyethaveacquiredrelevantknowledgethroughcommunityeducation.Theproverbdoesnotargueschoolingisnotrelevantbuttorecognizethereismoretogoingtoschoolthatacquiringknowledge.Theproverbteachesabouttheimportanceofcommunityeducationandhowyounglearnerscanfollowtheexampleofthosewhohaveexperiencedlifebutmightnothavenecessarilygonetoschool.Ineffect,theeducatedhassomethingtolearnfromtheordinarypersoninthestreet.Thisproverbalsoteachesthatthosewhoclaimtobeeducatedmustfirststartwith


theirowncommunityknowledge.Toacquiregoodeducation,itisnecessarytoadvanceahigherpurposeoflifeandsocialexistence,whichratherthanpromotingruggedindividualism,buildsonsenseofcommunityresponsibilityandsolidaritytoachievesharedgoalsanddesires.Thisproverbsuggeststhattheeducatedissomeonewithvisionandcreativityandnotnecessarilyformalbookknowledge.Younglearnersneedtotakeinitiativesandbecomelearnersoftheircommunitiessuchthatotherswilllookuptotheminsocietyas‘educatedpersons’.Furthermore,thecommunityknowledgeexemplifiedbyordinaryfolksincommunitiescanofferlessonsaboutformaleducationtothoseinschools.

Muregaakathwandaregagaagikunjiwa.Alwaysadmitgoodadvice.

InKenyanculturewhenanyone,getsintotroublewiththelaw,itissaidtheyhavefailedto‘admit’togoodadviceintheirlives.ThisKiembuproverbacknowledgestheimportanceofkeepingthecompanyofthosewhocanadviseaboutrightsandwrongs.Toadmitgoodadviceistobedisciplined,respectful,community-minded,andtoappreciateandreciprocatetheeffortsofothers.Theproverbalsoteachesyoungpeopletolearnandadmitmistakesthroughaspiritofhumility;strongpersonsadmittotheirmistakesandacknowledgethattheyhavereceived‘badadvice’.Oneshouldwelcomeandseekoutgoodadvicefromthoseexperiencedinlife(forexample,Elders,parentsandguardians).Itissaidthatyouthswhofailtoheedtotheadviceoftheirparentswillbetaughtbytheoutsideworld.Youcanonlybeadvisedifthereisapreparednesstolearn,andElderswelcomeyouths,who


arepreparedtolistentotheoldergeneration.Inotherwords,youngerpersonsmustshowapreparednesstowelcomegoodadvicetoearnthecompanionshipofElders.

Kamwingocagandiri/ngimi.Youdomorewhenyouaremany.

Thisproverbrefersthepowerofcommunityoverindividuality.Itpointsthatweachievemorewhenweworkcollectivelythanindividuallythatthe‘community’isstrongerthanthe‘individual’.Italsoalludestosocialresponsibility,noonebeinganisland,collectivescomprisingaseaofindividualsboundedtogetherbysharedpurposeandexistence.Theimplicationisnotthattherearenodifferencesorcontentions,butinacommunityofdifferences,wemaintaincollectivestrengthinoursharedsenseofbelonging.Wehaveanexpectationandaresponsibilitytolookbeyondourindividualdesires,aspirationsandconcernstoupholdthesocialvaluesandethicsofourcommunities.Whatanindividualaccomplishescanneveroutweighwhatthecommunityaccomplishes.Theproverbremindslearnerswhodisplayselfishandindividualisticbehaviour,believingtheyareonlyresponsibletothemselvesandtheirownaccomplishments,thattheyhaveobligationstocommunities.Italsoteacheshowindividualactionshaveconsequencesforthecollective.Educationalsuccessisnotachievedthroughtheindividualeffortofthelearneralonebutinteractionwithacommunityoflearners.Successreflectsonthecommunityasawhole.Inrespecttoschoolingthissayingteachesthateducationalsuccessisachievedforallthroughthesharedeffortsofthecollective(i.e.teachers,students,parentsandadministrators).Itencouragesustomoveawayfromblaming


individuallearnersforeducationalfailuretoanalysethecollective,systemicandinstitutionalresponsibilityforit.

Mwikarivakuvinamundumukurundavotagwa.He/shewhostaysclosertotheElderlypersonwillnotbedefeated.

Thisisapowerfulproverbwithdeeplyembeddedteachings.Onegetsknowledgeaswisdom.ItmeansthathewhoisclosetotheElderlygetsalotofknowledgeandwisdomsuchthatheisabletosurviveandthuswillneverbedefeated.Theproverbalsoexhortsthelearnertoseekknowledge,stressingthatknowledgedoesnotcometotheidlerbutthosewhoarewillingtoseekit.Yet,suchknowledgeisnothingifitdoesnothelponetoimprovetheworld.Oneacquiresknowledgeandthenactonit(forexample,solvehumanproblems).Throughthisprocessknowledgebecomeswisdom,testingthatlearnersknowtheiridentities,history,cultureandsenseofpurposeinlife.Intraditionalusage,thisproverbdistinguishesbetweenknowledgeastheacquisitionofideasandwisdomasbeingadeptinone’ssocietyworkingwithknowledgetotransformlives.InIndigenousAfricanphilosophies,thisproverbaccentuatesthelocaldistinctionbetween‘goingtoschool’and‘receivingeducation’aswellastheconcernover‘toomuchschoolingbuttoolittleeducation’.‘Goingtoschool’doesnotnecessarilytranslateistoacquiringwisdomwhichistheabilitytoapplywhatwelearntodealwithcontemporarychallenges,problemsandthepossibilitiesandlimitationsoflife.ThetraditionalAfricancultureconsidersthelearnerwhoacquiresknowledgebutfailsinthisengagementtoan‘educatedfool’.Pedagogically,thisproverbbringsapurposeandobjectivetoeducation,focusingonthesocialrelevancyinschooling.It


promotessocialresponsibilityandethics.

Njambandieiwekwao.Agoodnamekeepssomebody.

Thisproverbreferstotheimportanceofcultivatingagoodnameforoneself,stressinghowwemakeandcreateourownhistories,whichreflectthetotalityofourlivedexperiencesandaccomplishments,testimonialsoflivingsouls.Oneleavesalegacyleadingagoodandmorallifeworthyofbeingrecalledasalessonforothers.Toleaveafootprint,theindividualmusthaveapositiveimpactandaccomplishmentsthatfriends,peersandcommunitywillremember.Thisproverbteachesthatoneisnotforgottenifonemakesagoodnameforoneselfandone’scommunity,atestamenttoone’ssocialexistence.Itteachesyouthtoleadexemplarylives,besociallyresponsible,respectfulandsupportgoodcauses,tobegoodcharacterandmoral,disciplinedpresence,respectforself,peers,Elders.

DiscussionandAnalysis

Theseteachingshavelessonsforallyouthstodaynotwithstandingwheretheylive.Educatorscanintegratetheseideasintoclassroomteachingalongsideconventionalknowledge.Theymayhelpyounglearnerstomakesenseoftheireverydaypracticeandsocialexpectations.Learnersneedtodevelopasenseofresponsibilitytothemselves,peers,communitiesandsocietyatlarge.Itrelatestotheproblematicof‘knowledgeintegration’and‘knowledgesynthesis’.Thesynthesisofseveralknowledge


systemsisaloftyideawithpossibilities(seeNakata2007on‘culturalinterface’),butalsobringschallenges.Whatistheobjectiveofengagingwithmulti-centric/multipleknowledgeineducatingthelearner?ThisquestionrelatestothemainstreamingofIndigenousknowledges.Atrans-disciplinaryapproachtothesynthesisandcollaborationofmultipleknowledgesystemsmusttrulyrupturepowerrelationsinknowledgeproduction.ItcannotbeanecessaryintellectualexerciseforstudentscomingtoacriticalconsciousnessoftheirresponsibilitiesasinparticularIndigenousandnon-IndigenouslearnersstruggletoshedourselvesfromthedominanceofWesternideologies.TheWorldBank/IMFtookakeeninterestinIndigenousknowledges,inthe1990s,tofurtherthecapitalistmodernistdevelopmentagendainlocalcommunities.Wecanquestionthesynthesisofknowledges,ifitsimplyservesacademicandcorporatecapitalinterests.WeneedtoaskifknowledgesynthesisandcollaborationiswhatourIndigenouscommunitieswant?

Ontheonehand,ifweseektomaintainthecurrentlyexistingparallelbodiesofknowledges[notsynthesisorintegration],howdowechallengethedominanceofEurocentricknowledgeanditstendencytodevalueotherbodiesofthoughtandlocalcommunities?Wemayhavetoensurethatourworkhascommunityrelevanceandseekchange.Thisisdifficultinacademiawhereweareexpectedtoseparatescholarshipfromourpoliticalactivism.AsIndigenousscholarswedonotstandapartfromourlocalcommunities.Afterall,theyhelpsustainusinaharshworld.Inthiscontext,Iwanttointroducetheideaof‘embodiedconnection’toIndigenousknowledgeandtrans-disciplinaryresearchwhichrealizesthatcollaborativedimensionsinvolvemorethanspeakingandwritinginanintellectually"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

detachedwayfromtheknowledgeweproduce.WhatIamsuggestingisthatwenotonlydiscusshowour

embodiedknowledgesspeakaboutoursocialrealities,butalsoaddressquestionsofresponsibilityandethicsintheuseofknowledge.ThesurvivalofIndigenouscommunitiesdependsonself-autonomy,self-determination,landrights,equityandjustice.TheseissuesmustengageIndigenousknowledgescholarship,asmembersofthecommunitieswestudy.Wemustseektoco-produceknowledgewithourcommunitiesinwaysthatfundamentallyshiftestablishedwaysofknowledgeproduction.

Therearelimitstointerculturaldialogue.MyworkoninclusioninCanadiancontextshastaughtmetobecriticalofinter-culturaldialogueasagatewaytosocialinclusion.Weneedtotroubletheblandtalkof‘inclusion/diversity’withpointedcritiquesofpower,accountabilityandtransparency.Wemustbeginbyasking:inclusionintowhat?HowdoIndigenousknowledgesandmainstreamknowledgesengagein‘dialogue’inanacademywitha‘spiritualprooffence’(Shahjahan2007;seealsoMasseri1994)thatisdeniedspiritualityas‘anti-intellectual’?Weknowthatmanyofouracademiccolleaguesshiverwhenwesaywearehavinganintellectualconversationwiththe‘spirit/spiritual’,withemotionsandintuitions!Insearchingfor‘multi-epistemicspaces’(Cajete2000)andbecoming‘border-crossers’(Mignolo2002)wemustsearchforwaystovalidateIndigenousknowledgesintheirownrightandnotthroughtermsofengagementsetupbydominantWesternscholarship.

Elsewhere,Ihaveadvancedthenotionofcreating(Suahunu)a‘trialecticspaceintheacademytostructuredialogue’(Dei2012c).‘Suahunu’isanAkanconceptstressingcomingtolearnandknowandtoactresponsibly.The‘Suahunu’trialecticspace"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

involvesadialoguebetweenmultipleparties,asortof‘dialogicencounters’withanepistemiccommunity,acommunityofsharedintellectualleaningandpoliticalpraxis.Itisconstitutedasaspacewherelearnerscanopenlyengagethebody,mindandspirit/soulinterfaceincriticaldialoguesabouttheireducation.Itisalsoaspacethatnurturesconversationsthatacknowledgetheimportanceandimplicationsofworkingwithaknowledgebaseaboutsociety,culture,andnaturenexus.Suchspacescanonlybecreatedwhenweopenourmindsbroadlytoenvisionschoolingasanopportunitytochallengedominantparadigmsandacademicreasoning.

Anotherissueofregardingpowerrelationsanddynamicsisthe‘incommensurabilityofcertainknowledges’,whichrelatestophilosophicaldifferencesbetweenthem.Theseposesomedilemmas:asAndreotti,AhenakewandCooper(2011)argue,ifIndigenousscholarspresentIndigenousknowingsas‘toodifferent’theyriskbeinginterpretedasmaking‘nosense’andthereforenotcountingas‘knowledge’.Or,iftheypresenttheirknowingsassimilartodominantwaysofknowing,thentheymaybeperceivedasaddingnothingnewtoEurocentricknowledge.

Thesearchfor‘epistemologicalpluralism’hastoacknowledgesomefundamentaltensions,andcontradictionsintranslatingIndigenousknowledgesandepistemologiesintoWestern,i.e.non-Indigenouslanguages,categoriesandtechnologies.Forexample,howdoweasIndigenousscholarsusethecoloniallanguage(inthiscaseEnglish),Western‘terminologiesandlogics(forexampleepistemology,ontology,axiology)andtechnologies(alphabeticalwriting,digitalscripts)’toaddressissuesrelatingtoIndigenouswaysofknowing(Andreotti,AhenakewandCooper2011:44)?Thereisaninherent"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

paradoxinIndigenousscholarsbeingobligedtocommunicateaboutIndigenousknowledgeinwaysthatare‘intelligibleandcoherent…toreadersandinterpretersinthedominantculture’(Andreotti,AhenakewandCooper2011:45).Also,whatIndigenousscholarsaretodowhentheirtranslationsoftheirwaysofknowingasareperceivedbyourowncommunitiesasa‘perversion,corruptionor[even]unfairappropriationofIndigenousepistemologies’(Andreotti,AhenakewandCooper2011:45)?The‘politicsofknowledgesynthesis’needstoaddressthereisthedifficultyofworkingwithIndigenouswaysofknowingthatdonotfitthe‘parametersofacceptability’establishedbyso-calledmodernknowledge(seealsoAndreotti,AhenakewandCooper2011:42;Santos2002).

Iendwiththiscaution.Theconcernsraisedaboveshouldnotstopusfromthetaskathand,workingforknowledgecollaborations,integrationandperhapssynthesis.Butweneedtoexercisecaution.TheAkanofGhanasay:‘Theonewhohasbeenbittenbyasnakeisalwaysafraidoftheworm’.Similarly,theYorubaofNigeriasaying:‘Itistheadamantflythatfollowsthecorpsetoitsgrave’.

ToreiteratethischapterhassoughttopresentaviewonIndigenousknowledgescholarshipusingAfricanproverbs.ThecentralargumentisAfricanknowledgeandtraditionalteachingstresstheimpartingofvaluesthatmakeforgoodcharacter,aswellasknowledgeandeducationthatfocusesonfurtheringunderstandingofourworlds.However,thereisaquestionofdifferenceinthecoresocialvaluesprivilegedbetweencultures.Forexample,theemphasisastowhatmakesagoodandmoralcharacterisdifferentindifferentcontexts.ThechaptermakesacontrastbetweenthecommunityvaluesofAfricanculturesthat"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

highlighttheinterestsinthecollectivityandthoseoftheWestthatprivilegeindividualself-interest.Arguably,theWestandlearnersinthecurrentEuro-AmericanschoolsystemhavemuchtolearnfromAfricanphilosophiesofeducationinthisrespect,astheindividualisticfocusoftheWesthasseriouslimitationsinbuildinghealthy,sustainableschoolingcommunitieswitha‘communityoflearners’.

Acknowledgements

IhavesomanyGhanaian,Nigerian,KenyanandCanadianlocalresearchassistantsandconsultants,students,parentsandElderstothankandIamafraidIwillmisssomeveryimportanthelpersaswell.InNigeriathereisLateefLayiwola,JoyOdewumi,ChinyereEze,ProvostHakeemOlatoKunboAjose-Adeogun,TolaOlajuwon,DrAO.K.Noah,nottomentionthemanystudentsandeducatorsattheAdeniranOgunsanyaCollegeofEducationinOtto/Ijanikin,LagosState,andtheLagosStateUniversity,Lagos.InKenyaIwanttothankparticularlySamuelNjagi,GraceMakumi,MoodleyPhylis,andthestudentsandeducatorsatEggertonUniversity,Ngoro,NakuruandtheUniversityofNairobi,GichuguPrimarySchool,KandoriYouthPolytechnicintheEmbuarea,Kenya.InGhanaspecialthankstoAnaneBoamah,OseiPoku,KateArabaStevens,DanielAmpaw,EbenezerAggrey,PaaNii,AlfredAgyarko,ProfessorKolaRaheem,andthemanystudents,educatorsatlocaluniversitiesandparentsandElderswhogenerouslygavetheirtimeandexpertisetoensurethesuccessofthefieldstudy.AttheUniversityofTorontoinCanadaIamgratefultoDrPaulAdjei,"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

DrLindsayKerr,HarrietAkanmori,JenniferJaguire,IsaacDarko,YumikoKawano,JadieMcDonnell,DrBathsebaOpini,ShaistaPatel,MiniTharakkal,andMichaelNwalutu.IamparticularlythankfultoYumikoKawanoforhercontinuedassistanceinrespondingtoreviewers’andeditorialcomments.FinallyIwanttothanktheSocialScienceResearchCouncilofCanadaforcontinuedfundingofthisproject.

References

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——2012b.‘Interrogatingdemocraticeducation’asglobalcitizenshipeducation:Thinkingoutdifferently.PaperpresentedonthepanelsessiononRe-Imaginingthe‘GlobalCitizenship’Discourse:AViewfromtheContextsofDevelopingCountries.OrganizedfortheAnnualMeetingoftheAmericanEducationalResearchAssociation(AERA),Vancouver,BC,April13–17.

——2012c.‘Suahunu’:Thetrialecticspace.JournalofBlackStudies,43(8),823–46.

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——2003.TheCulturalNatureofHumanDevelopment.NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress.

Santos,B.2002.Towardamulticulturalconceptionofhumanrights,inMoralImperialism:ACriticalAnthology,editedbyB.Hernandez-Truyol.NewYork:NewYorkUniversityPress,39–60.

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1Theinitial2007/08studywasfundedthroughacontractgrantfromtheOntarioLiteracyandNumeracySecretariat(LNS)forastudyon‘MoralandCharacterEducationinOntario:LearningfromAfricanProverbs’focusingonGhanaandCanada(seeDei2010).ThestudywaslaterextendedwithSocialSciencesandHumanitiesResearchCouncil(SSHRC)fundingforalongitudinalandmorecomprehensivestudyinvolvingGhana,NigeriaandKenyaforthefielddocumentationoflocalAfricanproverbsandworkingwithCanadianeducatorstohighlightthepedagogic,instructional,communicativevaluesinyoutheducation.


Chapter10IndigenousPeoples’AmazonianSustainable

DevelopmentProject

PriscillaSettee

IamaFirstNationsCreewoman,whosecommunityoforiginisinremotenorthernSaskatchewan,Canada.Iamthefirstgenerationtograduateuniversityandteachthere.IhaveusedthatpositionofprivilegetoopendoorsforotherIndigenouspeople,notablystudentsandcommunitypeople.Inthelate1970smyteachingpositionwithCanada’sfirstandonlyIndigenousuniversityopeneddoorsformetovisitandlearnfromotherIndigenousnationsinLatinAmerica.WhileIwasalecturerforSaskatchewanIndianFederatedCollege(laterrenamedFirstNationsUniversityofCanada)ItravelledforsixmonthstoremoteIndigenouscommunitiesfromMexicotoEcuadorandlivedamongmanytribalgroups.IwasdrawntoLatinAmericabecauseofmyinterestinthemanytribalgroupsandIfeltasenseofcommonalitywiththem.Itwasaneye-openingexperiencethathasdefinedwhoIamandtheworkIdo.IcouldnotlearnfrombooksonlywhatIlearnedinthejunglecommunitiesofthemanyIndigenousnationswhostoriestouchedme.Thesewerestoriesofgenocide,displacementfromhomelandsanduntoldstoriesofhumansufferingthatwouldlaterbepartofmyexperienceanddiscoursewithininternationalforasuchastheUnitedNationsand


globalizationeventsimpactingIndigenouspeoples(Settee2011).IamaproductofthestruggleforIndigenousself-determinationstartedbymyelders,decadesago,intheIndigenizationofprimary,secondaryandpost-secondaryeducation.AsaneducatorIbelievethatweasIndigenouspeoplespossessknowledgesthathavesustainedourcommunitiessincetimeimmemorialandthatthisorganicknowledge,whichfindssimilarexpressionsinotherregionsoftheworldcanbeagifttohumanity.Ialsobelievethattheseknowledgeshavebeenexpropriatedandnotacknowledgedorcompensatedasinthecaseofscientificbiopiracy.MyPhDdissertationandsubsequentbooktellsthosestoriesfromthePacific,SouthAfricanregionsaswellasCanada.Iconsidermyselfachange-makernowinthatIndigenousstruggleasafacultymemberintheDepartmentofNativeStudieswhereasmallcohortoffacultymemberscarveoutanicheinalargewesternuniversity.Aninternationalistatheart,inlateryearsmypersonaleducationalcuriosityandresearchexpandedfromLatinAmericatootherregionsoftheworldincludingthePacific,AfricaandIndia.ItwasanaturalfitformetoorganizeanddeveloptheIndigenousPeoplesandSustainableDevelopmentProject(IPSDP),thesubjectofthischapter,thatIfeltwouldbenefitIndigenouspeoplesfromboththeAmazonjungleandlatertheAndeanhighlandsofPeru.Iadmittooperatingfromahandicapofhavingtoolittletimeandopportunity,tosupportthedevelopmentoftheprojectfromthegroundupasIdidnotliveinthecommunitywheretheprojectexistedandmycommandofSpanishwaslimited.Iwasalsoteachingfulltimebackinmyhomeuniversity.Despiteitsinnovativequalities,Ibelieveoneofthegreatestweaknessesoftheprojectisthatalocalcommunityonthegrounddidnotdevelopitandperhapsdespitegreat"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

intentions,itwasthoughtof,framedandintroducedtotherecipientcommunity.Thisinitselfisalessonindevelopmenteducation.

InNovember2005,myofficeattheUniversityofSaskatchewanenteredintoaoneyearworkingrelationshipwiththeUniversityofSanMarcos(USM).TheUniversityofSanMarcosinPeruexperiencedproblemsattractingandretainingIndigenousAmazonianstudentsandsoembarkedonacollaborativeprojecttoaddresstheseissues.InitiallycalledtheProjectfortheFormationofIndigenousAmazonianProfessionalsandLeadersfortheSustainableDevelopmentoftheIndigenousCommunitiesoftheAmazonRegionofPeru,itlaterbecameknownasIndigenousPeoplesandSustainableDevelopmentProject(IPSDP).ItprovednecessarytoseethePeruvianIndigenoussituationwithinthebroadercontextofwesternimperialism,colonization,anddevelopment,andtheabrogationofinternationalIndigenoushumanrights.ThischapterputsoutapedagogicalframeworkthatreflectsanIndigenousworldview,tosuggestsomefuturedirectionsforIndigenouseducationinPeruandbeyond,focusingparticularlyontheplightofwomen.ItdocumentsthegainsthatIndigenouspeopleshavemadewithintheinternationalarena,inordertofocusonconditionswithintheirhomelands.Finally,thechapterexaminessomeoftherangeanddepthofknowledgethatiscurrentlyinjeopardybecauseofthedeteriorationofIndigenouslandsandculturesbroughtonbywesterndevelopment.Itaimstocontributetotheongoingstruggleforsocial,economicandpoliticaljusticethatIndigenouspeoplesarecurrentlyengagedin.

ThesethoughtsreflectknowledgegainedthroughseveraldecadesofteachingatCanadianuniversities,aswellassome35"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

yearsofactivismwithintheIndigenousworld,bothlocally,inCanada,andglobally.AcentralcomponentoftheresearchistherecognitionoftheseriousplightofIndigenouswomen.ThispaperderivesfromarequirementforadoctoralresearchscholarshipreceivedfromtheCentreforEconomicStudiesinLimaPeru.

Inmyexperience,Universitiesandarchitectsofpublicpolicyoftenignore,orareunawareof,theknowledgethatIndigenousstudentsbringfromtheirhomecommunities.DespitethismarginalizationIndigenouspeopleshaveachievedagreatdealintheirdifficultstruggleforrecognition.

OnmyfirstvisittoLima,thesightofayoungmomclutchingherbabywithonehand,whileusingaragtocleanthewindshieldsofpassingvehiclesatmidnightinthestreetsofLima,hasforeverbeenetchedinmymindasanimageoftheconditionsIndigenouswomenarefacinginPeru.

Anindelibleimagefromasecondtripinvolvedamomholdingherbabywithherhandoutstretchedagainstthebackdropofhigh-risebuildingsoftheLimaskyline.ThisIndigenouswoman,inherdustytraditionalclothing,sittingonatrafficmeridiansurroundedbyarushoftraffic,wasananachronisticspectreofextremepovertywithinthebustlingcapitalistLimaeconomy.Anotherdisturbingscenewasthatofyounggirls,somenomorethaneightyearsold,inthestreetsatnightseekingoutmenwhowouldgivethemmoneyforsex.TheseimagescanbefoundanywhereintheAmericas,areflectionofthedesperatefaceofgrindingpovertyamidstextremewealth,ofhowparticularlywomenandchildrenarevictimizedbypoverty,andareminderoftheneedtolinkIndigenousdevelopmentgoalstotheacademy.


ProjectPartners

TheIndigenousPeoplesProgram(IPP)oftheExtensionDivisionattheUniversityofSaskatchewanservesmanyfunctionsinIndigenouslanguageretention,knowledgeandculturebyofferingcommunitydevelopmentcourses,leadershiptraining,conferenceorganizing,andpublishing.TheIPPwastheinitiatorandafoundingmemberoftheCanadianIndigenousLanguagesandLiteracyDevelopmentInstitute(CILLDI),whichiscommittedtodevelopingandpromotingUniversitylevelIndigenouslanguage/knowledgecourses.IhaveservedasdirectorofIPP,andasanadvisorinmanyregionsoftheworld,workingwithIndigenouspeoplesonhumanrights,landrights,andsovereigntystruggles.MyMEdfromtheUniversityofManitobalooksatIndigenouscontributionstothefieldofwesternscienceandmyPhDfromUniversityofSaskatchewanexaminesthecontributionsofIndigenousknowledgesystemsofSouthAfrica,thePacificregion,andNorthAmericanFirstNations.Withthisrichandvariedbackground,IPPwasanexcellentpartnertoexploretheissueofIndigenousstudentuniversityretentioninPeru.

TheUniversityofSanMarcos(UNMSM)wasfoundedon12May1551,isanacademiccommunityandatthetimethisarticlewaswrittenitcomprisedof31,695undergraduate,3,495graduatestudents,3,271facultyand979administrativestaff.ItislocatedinLima,Peru.

PeruvianIndigenousHigherEducation


Peruisamultiethnic,multicultural,andmultilingualcountrywithapopulationtodayof26million,ofwhichmorethan40percentisIndigenous.TheAmazonianIndigenouscomprise3.19percentofthisnumber,andtheyarethepoorestcommunityinPeru.ThePeruvianAmazoncovers74.4percentofPeru’sterritory.Ithasgreatdiversity,bothecologicalandcultural,with65differentethnicgroupsin1,450nativecommunities‘’withatotalpopulationofover320,000.Theyoccupy59percentoftheAmazonregion.Currently,theIndigenouspeoplelivinginthePeruvianAmazonlackfinancial,professionalandtechnicalresources.ThePeruvianAmazonianIndigenousculturesandregionalidentityareseverelychallengedbythesustaineddevelopmentwhichisoccurring(Inter-AmericanDevelopmentBank1997;WorldBank/Barclay1998;WorldBank2000;Smith2003).

InPeruonlyasmallnumberofAmazonianyoungpeoplehaveaccessto,andbenefitfromauniversityeducation,andthisimpactstheirhomecommunities.Atthebeginningoftheproject,114AmazonianIndigenousstudentsdrawnfrom14ethnicgroupswerestudyingatUSM,butmanyofthemlacktheacademicskillsnecessarytosurvive.TheuniversityisaforeignandisolatingexperienceformanyIndigenousstudents.Issuessuchasalackoftheeconomicmeanstoprovidesafehousing,goodnutrition,medicalcoverage,booksandschoolsuppliesposeproblemsforthestudents.Theseallcontributetothesuccessorfailureofthestudents.AddedtothesechallengesisthelackofanationalpolicyinPeruforIndigenousdevelopmentorbilingualinterculturaleducationfortheIndigenouspeople,andcurrenteducationpoliciespayvirtuallynoattentiontothepositionoftheIndigenouswoman(WorldBank/Barclay1998).Despitesome"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

smallbutsignificantefforts,Indigenouseducationremainslargelyneglected(WorldBank/Barclay1998).

DiscriminationagainstIndigenousLife

IndigenousPeruviansliveassecond-classcitizensandexperiencediscriminationandhumanrightsabuses,evenwithintheirtraditionalterritories.ThisisabarriertohumanrightsandtothedemocraticdevelopmentofPeru:

ThedailyexperienceofethnicdiscriminationmustbeunderstoodinthecontextoftheparticularcharacteristicsofPeruviansociety.Itisnotsimplyaquestionofcondemningextremecases,becauseethnicdiscriminationiscontainedinawebofimperceptibledailyeventstowhichwearequiteaccustomedbutwhichinrealityunderminethedevelopmentpotentialofthosediscriminatedagainst.(AcostaandCiurlizza1997:21)

Accordingtothesamereport,manysectors,includinggovernment,avoidthesubjectofdiscriminationagainstandsubordinationofIndigenousPeruvians.

Fromthemostopenrepressiontogovernmentattitudesofpaternalism,theinsertionofindigenouspeopleintheofficiallifeofPeruhasneverbeencomplete.Thereistheproblemofopenexclusion,butthereisalsooneofattitudesderivedfromthedeepsocialandethnicconflictwroughtbytheSpanishConquestinPeru.(AcostaandCiurlizza1997:28)

Varese,forinstance,referstothepowerlessnessofIndigenousPeruviansasadirectlackofpoliticalanddecision-makingpower.

Therefore,suchfactorsasthesocio-economicsituationofthenativesocietywithinthenationalframework,anditsdifferentialaccessorlackofaccessto


themeansofcontrolofpoliticalanddecision-makingpowernecessarilyenterintomyanalysis.(Varese1972:3)

GaleanoassociatesthesituationinPeruwiththemarginalizationofallLatinAmericancountriesunderthepoliticalandeconomicdominationofglobalgovernmentandcapitalism,particularlytheUnitedStates.

WhathappenedtoLatinAmerica’sindustrialbourgeoisiewaswhathappenstodwarfs:itbecamedecrepitwithouthavinggrown.Ourbourgeoisoftodayareagentsandfunctionariesofprepotentforeigncorporations.Truthcompelsustoadmitthattheyneverdidanythingtodeserveabetterfare.(Galeano1997:208)

ImperialismcontinuestobenefitthedevelopedcountriesatthecostoftheautonomyandsovereigntyofIndigenouspeoples.IfdevelopmentdoesnotbenefitIndigenouspeoplesthentheyareviewedasobstaclesortheyareseenasbeinginthewayofprogress.EvenaidisproblematicforIndigenouspeopleswhichcreatesmorerequirementsandrestrictionsthanbenefits.

Itisreadytogiveusits“help”intheformofloansthatincreasethevolumeofourunpayableexternaldebt.Nevertheless,aftersomefiftyyearsofthefunctioningoftheglobaldevelopmentsenterpriseonenotesthatnoonehasachievedthehopedforbenefits,apartfromtheWest,whichhasmadeconsiderablefinancialgains.(Grillo1998:192)

ThemarginalizationfacedbyIndigenousPeruvianscontinuesintohigherlearning.ItmaybethatthereisnotyetacriticalmassofIndigenouspeoplesidentifyingwiththeirculturalrootswithintheseinstitutions.AttitudestoIndigenouslanguagesillustratediscriminationagainstIndigenouspeoplesinPeru,asdothoseregardingtheircontributionstothenationalidentity.(Garcia


2003)WhencommentingonthefactthatIndigenousparentswouldrathersendtheirchildrentheAllianceFrancaiseortotheNorthAmericanInstituteinCuzcoratherthanQuechua-languageschools.

IfQuechuawereprivilegedthesituationmightbedifferent,andwemightevenwantourchildrentoreadandwrite,theconditionsfortheimprovementofourchildren’seducationarestilldeterminedbyourreality.(Garcia2003:8)

ThisdiscriminationiscertainlynotmanifestbecauseIndigenouspeopleshavenotbeenactive‘ontheground’andwithincommunity,(fortheyhavebeen)butperhapstheirstoriesandactionsneedtoinfluencedifferentspheres,suchasuniversities,asCunninghamnotes.

Becausewhatwedoeverydayisofnouseifwedon’tcreateinstitutionsthatprovidefollowupandsustainabilitytoourachievements.Itisnotenoughtofindagovernmentofficialwithgoodintentionsifthereisnochangeinthelaws,ifnodefinedpublicpoliciesremainininstitutions.Thisiswhatdetermineschange.(Cunningham2004:19)

ThecurrentmarginalizedpositionofPeru’sAmazonianIndians,similartomostAmericanIndians,hashistoricalrootsfeaturingexploitationanddomination.Formorethan500years,EuropeanssawthisregionasonethatprovidedrawmaterialforEuropeanindustries(Smith1982).Indiansoftheregionprovidedlabourfortherubberindustry,neverasownersbutalwaysaslabourers.Thedominationcontinuestothepresent.‘Nowherehaveindigenouspeoplebrokenfreeofthatdominationtore-establishtheirownindependentstateandcivilization’(Smith1982:20).

Stavenhagen(1999)seesdevelopmentoftheAmazonregion


isintimatelylinkedtotheEthnicQuestion,thatistosay,thelongstruggleoftheAmazonianIndigenouspeopleandtheirorganizationsfortheirautonomousdevelopment,andthecontrolandmanagementoftheirlands,territoriesandnaturalresources(WorldBank/Barclay1998).TheirregionalandnationalorganizationshavetheirownvisionofIndigenousdevelopment.In1998theAmazonianIndigenouspeopleelaboratedtheirNationalStrategicVisiontotheyear2005.TheArahuacpeopleoftheCentralRainforesthavetheirRegionalStrategicVisiondrawnuptotheyear2010(WorldBank1998,2002).WhiletheprojectandthispaperdonotdelveintothedetailsofbothdocumentsclearlybotharecentraltogoalofIndigenousdevelopmentonthegroundandwithinhigherlearning.

AccordingtotheWorldBankCountryStudy:PovertyandSocialDevelopmentinPeru,Indigenous(native)peoplesarethemostvulnerableandmarginalized,duetounequaldistributionofservicessuchashighereducationandhealthcare.

Thedistributionofsocialandanti-povertyexpenditureshasbeendisappointing.Thedistributionof7.6billionsoles(about40percentofthetotalpublicbudgetin1996)ismildlytiltedtowardsthebetteroffinPeruviansociety;i.e.,thepoorestobtainlessoftheseexpendituresthantheirpopulationshare.Inlargepartthisisduetotheanti-poordistributionofhighereducationandhospitalexpenditures.SeveralspecializedGovernmentprogramsreachonlyasmallproportionofthepooranddirectpublictransfersplayasignificantlysmallerrolethanprivatetransfersdo.(PovertyandSocialDevelopmentinPeru1999:vii)

ThisdiscriminationagainstthepoorhasworsenedthepovertyofIndigenouspeoples,andthesituationhasbeendeterioratingovertime,ratherthanimproving.


Andwenowfindthateveneconomicallythenativepopulationhasfallenfurtherbehind:whilein1994anIndigenousfamilywas40percentmorelikelytobepoorthananon-nativefamily,in1997theywerealmost50percentmorelikelytobepoor.(PovertyandSocialDevelopmentinPeru1999:2)

RecentnationallegislationchangestotheConstitutionignoretherightsoftheIndigenouspeopleandthespiritofILOConvention169ratifiedbyPeru(WorldBank/Barclay1998:40–41).TodayAmazonianIndigenouspeoplesdonotevenenjoyaccesstomuchoftheirtraditionalterritoriesbecauseofmineralexploitationandlumberextraction.(WorldBank/Barclay1998:38)HinderingtheiraccesstonaturalresourcesmakesitdifficultforAmazonianIndigenouspeoplestocontinuetopractisetraditionaleconomiesutilizingtraditionalknowledge.

ItisimportantforAmazonianstudentstoknowthehistoryoftheirregionanditsrelationtointernationalaffairs,situatedwithinanongoingpaternalistcolonialmindset.Itisequallyimportantforthemtolearnthestrengthsoftheircultureandtheiridentitywithinthewidersociety.ItiswhenIndigenouspeopleseetheirpersonal,political,economicandsocialsituationswithinthebroadercontextofdominationthattheybecomecriticallyawareofthereasonsfortheirmarginalization,theimpactofpoliticaldominationandseeeducationasapotentialtoolforliberation.

OnelongtermgoaloftheUSMprojectistohelpalleviatepoverty,througheducationofnotonlystudentsbutthepublicsectoraswell,inordertoraiseawarenessabouttheIndigenoussocio-economicandculturalconditions.AsecondgoalistherecognitionoftheknowledgebasethatisaninherentpartofIndigenouscultureandtheirbasisforsurvival.


IndigenousKnowledgeinCanadianandGlobalContext

Oneofthegreatestoversightsinbothhighereducationandpolicyformulation,asitrelatestoIndigenouscommunities,hasbeenthelackofrecognitionandtherebytheexclusionofIndigenousknowledge.Therearemanydefinitions,ofIndigenousknowledge,dependingonwhetheroneisascholaroriscommunity-based.Asabodyofknowledge,IKhasgainedcurrencyinthelast20yearsamongresearchersandgovernmentalagenciesaswellascivilsocietyorganizations.Africanscholar,OdoraHoppers(2010:9)definesIKSasonethatincludes,technology,philosophy,education,legal,social,economicandgovernancesystemsparticularlythoseofliberationstruggles.IndigenouspeoplesviewIKassomethingthathassustainedcommunitiessincetimeimmemorial.InCanada,DakotaelderKenGoodwillarguesthatIndigenousknowledgeisvalidinitsownrightanddoesnotneedtobevalidatedbyotherknowledgesystems.CollectivityiscentraltoIndigenousbeingintheAmericas,andthecollectivityofIndigenousknowledgeisreflectedinmanyoftheceremoniesandteachings.AboriginalscholarsandlocalpeopledescribeIndigenousknowledgewithlabelsthatreflectancientknowledgeforcommunitylife,well-beingandsharingvalues.IntheCanadianCreelanguagethisiscalledpimatisiwin.Acorevalueismiyo-wicehtowinwhichmeanshavinggoodrelations.IndividuallyandcollectivelypeoplearedirectedbytheirIKheritagetostriveandconductthemselvesinwaysthatcreatepositiverelationships.TheCreerefertotheconceptofallmyrelations,whichextendstoallofhumanityandalllivingthings,


astheyarerelatedandmustbecaredforbyoneother.OverthelastfourdecadesIndigenouspeopleshaveworkedtocreateinternationalconnectionswhichallowustoexchangestoriesfromourvariedcommunities’Indigenousknowledgebases,andtobuildstrategiesforthemutualstrengtheningofouroftenisolatednations(Settee2007).TheCanadianInternationalDevelopmentAgencydefinesIKasfollows:Indigenousknowledgerepresentstheaccumulatedexperience,wisdomandknow-howuniquetocultures,societies,and/orcommunitiesofpeople,livinginanintimaterelationshipofbalanceandharmonywiththeirlocalenvironments.Thesecultureshaverootsthatextendintohistorybeyondtheadventofcolonialism.Theystandapartasdistinctivebodiesofknowledge,whichhaveevolvedovermanygenerationswithintheirparticularecosystem,andtheydefinethesocialandnaturalrelationshipswiththoseenvironments.Theyarebasedwithintheirownphilosophicandcognitivesystem,andserveasthebasisforcommunity-leveldecisionmakinginareaspertainingtogovernance,foodsecurity,humanandanimalhealth,childhooddevelopmentandeducation,naturalresourcemanagementandothervitalsocio-economicactivities(CIDAdocument,nodate).SomeseeIKasalasthopeinimplementingasustainablefuture.Weknowour‘development’literatureoverlooksIK.

OthershavedefinedIndigenousknowledgeaslocalknowledgethatisuniquetoacultureorsociety,outsidetheformaleducationalsystem.Itisthebasisfordecisionmakinginhealth,agriculture,foodpreparation,naturalresourcemanagementandeducation.Communities,ratherthanindividuals,holdthisknowledge.Itisembeddedincommunitypractices,ritualsandrelationshipsandisdifficulttocodify.IKispartofeverydaylifeStandingConferenceofEastern,Centraland"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

SouthernAfricanLibraryAssociations(Snyman2002:101).FewIndigenousnationsenjoymuchsupportfromtheirnationstatesandinsteadareforcedtospendtimenegotiatingwithgovernmentstoensurethatbasichumanrightsaremet.

Currentlysomeresearchanddevelopmentagenciesrequireconsiderationofwomen’sIndigenousknowledge.WomenoftheAmericasarefrequentlyattheforefrontofidentifyingthechallengesandsolutionstoIndigenouscommunitylifeandnationhood.Itiswomenwhokeepthehomefrontsandcommunitiesintact,oftenindesperatecircumstances.Withinthelastdecadetheglobalnetworkof‘IndigenousWomenoftheAmericas’hasorganizedfourconferencesfornetworking,discussionandplanningforthefutureoftheircommunities.InApril2004IndigenouswomenoftheAmericasmetattheOneContinent,OneSpiritconferenceinLimaPerutomapoutaplanofAction.Womenfrom22North,CentralandSouthAmericancountriescametogetherforthethirdsuchmeeting.ThedirectoroftheUNPopulationFundforLatinAmericaandtheCaribbeanidentifiedissuessuchasmaternalhealth,thereductionofmaternalandinfantmortality,universaleducation,educationforgirl-children,overallpoverty(whichisnowcritical),HIV/AIDSandtheenvironment(Saavedraetal.2004:15).

InmyexperienceafterdecadesofworkingwithIfeeltheyhaveaclearunderstandingofboththerootsofpovertyandmarginalization,aswellasavarietyofsolutionstotheproblems:

FromtheperspectiveofIndigenousPeoples,theimpactgeneratedbyglobalizationisdevastatinganddeeplynegativesinceitinvolvesviolationofterritories,degradationofnaturalresources,forcedrelocationofcommunities,desecrationofholyplaces,dailyinjusticeshowntowardstheirclaims,discriminationandlackofrespectfordiversityandfortheirrights.


Theeconomicpoliciesofthisworldshownohumanface.(Saavedraetal.2004:45)

Peruisknownasoneofthegreatcentresofagricultureandfoodproductionintheworld,attributablelargelytoIndigenouspeoples.ThereistremendousopportunitytoutilizerelatedIndigenousknowledge,especiallyinthecontextofhigherlearningandpolicydevelopment.Manyoftheworld’sfoods,suchaspotatoes,beans,cornandsquash,aswellasmanyplantswithmedicinaluses,originatedfromthiscountry.ThisinformationneedstoberecognizedandtaughtasofficialcurriculumtoIndigenousPeruvianstudents,andindeedtoallstudents.Indigenouspeopleswerethefirsttodevelopthe‘planting’method(asopposedtotheOldWorld‘broadcasting’method)ofplantingseeds(Weatherford1988).Cornwasadaptedtogrowwithaprotectivehusk,whichsavedthecornseedsfrombothdroughtandinsects.Priortotheirmoveawayfromdependenceuponwheat-basedfoodtopotatoandotherfoodsfromtheAmericas,manyOldWorldpeoplediedinfamine,whenwheatcropsfailedduetodiseaseanddrought.PotatoeswereagiftdevelopedbyPeruvianIndians.InthetinyjunglecommunityofGenaroHerrera,SouthAmericanIndiansareteachingscientistshowtocultivateawidevarietyofyams,potatoes,andtubers.TheseWestern-trainedscientistshavenoknowledgeofmanyoftheseplants;‘ThescientistsworkingatGenaroHerrerastrivetounravelthecomplextechnologyofnativeagricultureandfoodprocessingasmuchastheystrivetounderstandmoreaboutthebiologyoftheplantsthemselves’(Weatherford1988:82).Similarly,the‘CenterofIndigenousCulturesofPeru’inLimahas,for20years,beenmakingaconcertedefforttorevitalizeand,


insomecases,reintroduce,manyIndigenousfoods,includingheritagepotatoesandbeans,throughtheirfoodsecurityprojects.Still,Indigenouspeoplesstruggletohavetheircontributionsacknowledgedandcompensated(Settee2007:8).

TheImpactofGlobalizationonIndigenousKnowledgeSystems,CommunityRightsandCommunityDevelopment

ItisnecessarytoviewthesituationofPeruvianIndigenousinrespecttothelargerpictureofglobalization,inwhichIndigenouslandshavebeenexploitedfortheirresources,resultingindevastatingconsequencesforthepeoples’well-being.SuchexperienceshavemobilizedIndigenouspeoplestofightfortraditionalconceptsofsustainabledevelopment.MinorityRightsGroupInternationalstatesthat,withoutthefullparticipationofIndigenouspeoples,thegoalofimplementingstrategiesforsustainabledevelopmentcannotbemet.TheculturesoftheIndigenouspeoplesoftheAmericaspromotethepreservationoftheenvironmentandsustainableuseofnaturalresources.Theysensethattheirveryexistenceisunderthreatwhilesecuringfewbenefitsifanytolandstheyhavelongoccupied.

Thenegativeeffectofharmfulandunwantednaturalresourcedevelopmentonthesecommunitiesisstrikingandconstitutesaclearviolationoftheirhumanrights.Insomecases,itisnowathreattotheirveryexistence.(Lennox2012:12)

Recentlytheweightofinternationaltreatiesandcontractual


obligationstoglobalfinancialinstitutions,hascontributedtothedeteriorationinthedevelopmentperformanceofalargeareaoftheworldoverseveraldecades.Oftenthemostvulnerableareblamedforthefailuresofthedevelopmentpolicyestablishment.Itisimperativetohelpdevelopingcommunitiesmeetthechallengesbydesigningnationalpoliciesconsistentwiththeirstagesofdevelopmentandcapacitiestoimplementthem.

IndigenousPeoples’GlobalParticipationandNetworks

SincethefirstUnitedNationsWorldSummitonSustainableDevelopmentinRiodeJaneiroin1992,Indigenouspeopleshaveparticipatedinmanyinternationalsustainabledevelopmentandbenefitssharingevents,includingthedraftingoftheConventiononBiologicalDiversity(CBD),whichwasestablishedin1992toaddressbiodiversityconcerns.Itisaworkinprogressandhasbeensignedonbyover100countries,includingPeruandCanada,butnottheUnitedStates.Thedraftingprocesshasbeencharacterizedbyunequalpartnerships.ThewealthiestG7countrieshaveaccesstoandarerepresentedbylawyers,paidgovernmentofficialsandlargecontingentsofsupportstaff,whichensuresthattheirinterestsarewellrepresented.EventhoughtheUSisnotasignatoryitwieldsconsiderablepowerwithintheprocess.TheIndigenouspeopleshavefewresourcestoattendandparticipatefullyinthemeetings,andhaveevenfewerofficialdelegationstonegotiatetheirrightsandconcernswithintheConvention’sframework.PeruparticipatesintheUnitedNationsforumonIndigenouspeoplesandhasratifiedILOConvention"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

169.PeruisalsoasignatoryoftheInternationalTreatyonPlantGeneticResourcesforFoodandAgriculture.However,thisdoesnottranslateintospecificpoliciesfortheconservation,protectionandexploitationofPeruvianorotherIndigenouspeoples’biogeneticresourcesandtraditionalknowledge.

SincemeetinginNovember1997inMadrid,Spain,IndigenousPeopleshavemetregularlyonamoreorganizedbasistoexpresstheirconcernswiththeConventiononBiologicalDiversityandmoreparticularlyArticle8(j).Article8(j)whichstatesthatagovernment:

subjecttoitsnationallegislation,respect,preserveandmaintainknowledge,innovationsandpracticesofIndigenousandlocalcommunitiesembodyingtraditionallifestylesrelevantfortheconservationandsustainableuseofbiologicaldiversityandpromotetheirwiderapplicationwiththeapprovalandinvolvementoftheholdersofsuchknowledge,innovationsandpracticesandencouragetheequitablesharingofthebenefitsarisingfromtheutilizationofsuchknowledge,innovationsandpractices.(ConventiononBiologicalDiversity2001:8)

ThisistypicalofmuchofthewordingoftheConventiononBiologicalDiversity(CBD)thatputsIndigenousconcernssecondarytonationstates’interests.BecausetheyarenotrecognizedaspartiestotheCBD,IndigenouspeopleslackfullparticipationrightsinrelationtothedraftingprocessoftheConvention.IndigenouspeopleshavefurtherconcernsthattheCBDdoesnotrecognizetherelationshipthatexistsbetweenIndigenouspeoples,theirknowledge,theirlands,andbiodiversity.Withthenationstatesandtheinterestsoftransnationalcompaniescontrollingthem,Indigenouspeopleshavelittleornocontrolovertheirlandsandnaturalresources.PartiestotheConventiondonotaddressbiopiracy(theftofflora"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

andfauna)oruncontrolledaccesstogeneticresourcesonIndigenouslands.Thereisnolinkagebetweenarticle8(j)andotherinternationalinstruments,whichaddresstherightsofIndigenouspeoples(forexampletheDraftDeclarationontheRightsofIndigenousPeoples).Suchconcernsledtotheestablishmentoftheopen-endedworkinggrouponArticle8(j)andrelatedprovisionsoftheCBD,withthemandatetoestablishguidelinesandmechanismsfortheirapplicationandimplementation.ItsothermandateincludespromotinginternationalcooperationbetweenIndigenouspeoplesandnationalgovernmentsandinternationalorganizations.Theworkinggroupalsoaddressestheimplicationsofmattersofpriorconsent,fairandequitablesharingofbenefitsandinsituconservationonIndigenouslands,meaningtheprotectionofspecieswithinIndigenouscommunities.

ItisproposedtoprotectIndigenousknowledgeusingtheconceptofintellectualpropertyrights.Buttheideathatintellectisacommodity,whichcanbeownedandprotectedthroughlegalmeans,isunacceptabletoIndigenouscommunities.TheTradeRelatedIntellectualPropertyRights(TRIPS)AgreementoftheWTOhascausedmuchdebateamongIndigenouspeoplesaroundtheworld.Ontheonehand,Indigenouspeoplesbelievethattheymustbepresentwheretheprotectionoftheirknowledgethroughnon-Indigenousmethodsisbeingdiscussed.Butontheotherhand,thepremiseofprotectingtheirknowledgethroughpropertyrightscontradictscommunityrights.Whilerecognizingthattheirknowledgeisbeingexpropriatedbyoutsideinterests,Indigenouspeoplesaskhowcansomethingcollectivelikeknowledge,andwhatisinextricablyattheheartofwhatmakescommunity,beownedprivately.ForthemostpartIndigenouspeopleshave"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

chosentoparticipateinordertohavetheirviewsunderstoodbecausetonotdosowillinevitablyresultinunderminingtheirsovereigntyandrightstotheirnaturalresources.FromapersonalCreeperspectiveIhavepresentasaninvitedmemberoftheCanadianCBDdelegationandhavefacedfrustrationwithothermembersoftheofficialdelegationwhoclearlymakeapointofrecognizingCanada’sinterestsbeforetheinterestsofCanadianIndigenouspeoples.

AttheinternationallevelIndigenouspeopleshavebeenmobilizingtoeducatethemselvesandothersabouttheinternationaldevelopmentprocessandassociatedfinancialagenciessuchastheWorldBank,theWorldTradeOrganizationandthevariousinternationalagreementswhichtheybelieveareattherootofunderdevelopmentontheirlands.Althoughmorerecentlythepaceofworkhaspickedup,Indigenouspeopleshavebeeninvolvedinresearching,organizingandvoicingtheirconcernsaboutconditionsintheirhomelandssincebeforethefirstSummitonSustainableDevelopmentinRiodeJaneiroin1992,(Settee1996).IndigenouspeopleshaveworkedontheDeclarationontheRightsofIndigenousPeoples,whichrepresentsthevoiceofover400millionIndigenouspeoplesglobally,forovertwodecades.Althoughitisnotlaw,policymakersmustgivefullconsiderationtotheDeclaration,asitrepresentstheaccumulatedhumanrightseffortofmanyIndigenouspeoplesglobally.AttheUnitedNationspreparatorycommissionsinNairobiandBali,Indigenousrepresentativesproducedpaperscalled‘IndigenousPeoples’CaucusStatementsfortheMulti-StakeholderDialogueonGovernance,PartnershipsandCapacity-Building’and‘IndigenousPeoples’CaucusOpeningStatementonCapacity-building’.Bothstatements"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

addresstheglobalsocialandecologicalcrises,powerrelationshipsbetweenthestateandIndigenouspeoplesandtheproblemofunsustainabledevelopment.Otherissuesincludetheneedforcapacitybuildingandself-governanceforIndigenouscommunitiesandtheneedtobuildonpriorwork.

Thecontemporaryworldischaracterizedbydeepimbalancesinoursocialrelations,ofgrossinequalitiesbetweennationsandwithinsocieties,manifestedbyhugedisparitiesinconsumptionofnaturalresources;internationalgovernancegivesdisproportionatepowertothesameeconomiceliteandtheirinstitutionsofchoice–theWorldTradeOrganizationandtheinternationaleconomicandfinancialinstitutions–todecidethefuturesofourchildren.(IndigenousPeoples’CaucusOpeningStatementonCapacity-Building2002:12)

ThestatementcallsforrespectofIndigenouspeoples’territoriesandself-determination,sustainabledevelopmentatalllevels,theneedtoaddressself-developmentandcorporateaccountability,andculturalandintellectualpropertyrightsinregardstoIndigenoustraditionalknowledge.

InSeptember2003,attheparallelforumtotheMinisterialMeetingoftheWorldTradeOrganizationinMexico,theconcertedeffortsoftheleastdevelopedcountriesputtheprocessofworldtradenegotiationsonhold.InanamazingdisplayofdoggeddeterminationtheystoppedthedevelopedcountriesfromwhatLDCreferredtoasanundemocraticprocessuntilfurthernegotiationscouldaddresstheirconcerns.Manycivilsocietyorganizationswerepresenttowitnessandsupporttheevent.AtthelaterCancunmeetingIndigenousrepresentativesfromavarietyoforganizationsandNGOsdevelopedastatementthatoutlinedtheirconcerns,whichincludedmanyoftheissuesdiscussedabovethatIndigenouspeopleshavebeenraisingat"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

internationalmeetingsforsometime.

WhichWayForward

ItisapparentfromthevariousactivitiesanddeclarationsthathavebeenproducedthatacriticalmassofIndigenouspeopleshaveaclearideaofthelackofdemocraticprocessesthatgreatlyimpacttheircommunitiesandtheyarepreparedtochallengethem.Onewaythatweasacademicscanlendsupportandtakeleadershipistoaddresssomeoftheseissuesinourclassroomsandinourresearchandwriting.TheUSMisonewaythatthenorth(Canada)wasabletolendsupportthroughagovernmentfundeduniversitydirectedproject.

TheUSMprojectwasthree-pronged:firstly,toassiststudentstobecomebetterstudentsbyraisingtheirawareness;secondly,toraiseawarenessthroughpublicanduniversityworkshopsintendedforprofessors,aswellasstudents;thirdly,tomakestudentsawareofthewealthofIndigenousknowledgethattheybringfromtheircommunities.

Theprojectsoughttoachievetheseobjectivesbystrengtheningthe‘IndigenousAssociationofUniversityStudentsofthePeruvianAmazon’throughaStudents’CentreforAmazonianIndigenousstudents.Thiscentrewouldbeadefenderoftheirstudentrightsandalocustopromotetheirreflection,discussionandexchangeonkeythemeslinkedtoIndigenouspeoples,theregion,andtheAmazonBasin,aswellashemisphericAboriginalthemes.ThishelpedenrichandupdateAmazonianIndigenousstudentsontherealityofIndigenouspeopleoftheAmazonandtheentireregion."******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

ChallengesandLessonsLearned

OnatechnicallevelitbecameapparentthatthelogicalframeworkelaboratedfortheprojecthadanapproachtotheproblematicoftheAmazonthatwasinadequateandnotadaptedtotherealityofthestudents.Thelevelsofspecificobjectives,resultsandactivitiesdidnotshowacoherentapproachwiththeeducationalculturalandsocioeconomicrealityoftheAmazonianindigenousstudents.Themajorityoftheresourcesassigneddidnotmatchwiththegoalsoftheprojectandwerereassigned.Thissituationcouldhavebeenpreventedhadthehostcommunity/communitiesbeeninvolvedwiththedevelopmentoftheprojectfromthebeginning.Thegoalswereadaptedtomeettheneedsofthestudents.Workshops,seminarsandfocusgroupsweredevelopedtodealwithleadership,attitudinalchangeandsustainabledevelopmentofthenativecommunities.

Whiletheywereinvited,itwasdifficulttogettheConsultativeCommitteemadeupofAAUPI,AIDESEP,PRATECandCILAtorespondtorequestsformeeting.Againtheywereaddedaftertheprojectproposalwasdevelopedandtheprojectbetweenbothuniversitieshadbegun.

Despitethesemajorandacknowledgedoversightsstudentswereassistedinveryfoundationalandmaterialways,suchasfood,clothingandhousing.Inaddition,academicassistancessuchastutorialsforstudentswereverysuccessful.Tutorswouldworkasguidesofthestudents,toeasetheirtransitiontotheeducationalsystemandtoorientthemintheirstudies.Finally,withoutanyformalevaluationandwithmylimitedabilitytobepresentattheprojectsiteanumberoflessonswerelearnedthatwouldserveas


lessonstosimilarprojects.DespitethefactthattheCanadiangovernmentprovidesfundingforsimilarprojects,basedonthisexperience,timeneedstobespentwiththeIndigenouscommunitiestolearnwhatitistheywantfortheirchildrenintermsofhigherlearning.Asimilarprocessneedstobeundertakenwiththehostuniversitywithinthetargetedcountry.Itwasclearfromthebeginningthattheorganizationsthatwereinvitedwerenotinterestedasitwasnottheirprojectandtheyspentlittletimesupportingit.ThiswastrueforboththecommunitybasedIndigenousorganizationsaswellastheadministrativebodiesandfacultymembersofUSM.DespitethefactthatIwasoneoftheco-directorsandthatIamIndigenousdoesnotnecessarilytranslateintomakingaprojectworkinanotherlargelyIndigenousnationsuchasPeru.SomeofthemethodsandmaterialsusedinthedevelopmentofCanadianIndigenouseducationcouldnotsimplybetransplantedintoanotherIndigenouscommunityintheworldgiventhelimitedtimeandlanguagebarriers.InmanyCanadiancommunitieswhereeducationaltransformationhasoccurreditisbecauseIndigenouscommunityleaderstooktheinitiativeandfolloweditthroughdespitetheoftendiscouragingandunwelcomingmessagesfromuniversityspaces.Indigenousleadershadadesirefortheiryouthtobenefitfromhigherlearning.ItcontinuestoadvancebecausetheIndigenousacademicpoolisgrowinganddevelopingsomedynamicinitiativesoftenagainstalloddssuchasshrinkingbudgetsandgrowingpressuresofglobalization.Thelargerareasofcurriculumchange,actionresearchandIndigenizationoftheacademywerenotevenbroachedintheUSMproject.Tousetheanalogyitwaslikefittingroundpegsintosquareholes.Ibelievethatthiswaslargelyduetothefactthatwhiletheonsite,Peruvianco-director"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

washighlyeducated,shewasneitherIndigenousnorwassheanacademicmemberoftheUSM.Shedidnothavethebackgroundtoleadamajorpedagogicalinitiativealthoughshemadesomegoodrecommendationsbasedonherobservationsforactionsthatwouldsupportthestudents.SometimewasneededtodevelopacohortofuniversitybasedfacultythatcouldworkasalliesinmakingtheacademymoreuserfriendlyforIndigenousstudentsandtosuggestwaysthattheUSMcouldrespondtoIndigenousneeds.Manyworkshopswereorganizedintendingtoeducate‘thenative’butrarelyweretheIndigenousstoriesworkshopsattendedbyuniversityfaculty.GiventhemarginalizationofPeru’sIndigenousandlowratesofuniversityattendance,itisapparentthatthisuniversityisnotservingIndigenous.However,withoutaformalevaluationofwewillneverknowhowmanyliveswereimprovedandhowmanyfellbythewayside.OnethingiscertainandgiventheecologicalandpoliticalclimateofPeru’smulti-Indigenouscommunities,reflectiveofmanyotherplacesintheIndigenousworld,aninformalbrandoflearning,teachingandpoliticalactivismisrising.Whethertheformalinstitutionssuchasuniversitiesarereadyremainstobeseen.

TheprojectbegantotelltheIndianstoryanditisapparentthatsomuchmoreneedstobelearnedfromthe‘Indigenous’ofPeru.WeneedtohearfrommorestoriesofhopeandrebirthasCook-Lynstates:

DoestheIndianstoryasitistoldnowendinrebirthofNativenationsasitdidinthepast?Doesithelpinthedevelopmentofworthyideas,propheciesforafutureinwhichwecontinueastribalpeoplewhomaintainthelegaciesofthepastandasenseofoptimism?(Cook-Lynn1998:134)


Note

AfterphaseonetheIndigenousPeoplesProgramwastherecipientofsecondphasefundingfortheprojectIndigenousPeoplesandSustainableDevelopment.ThesecondphaseoftheprojectexpandedtoincludetheAndeanregion.

References

Apfell-Marglin,F.andPRATEC(TheAndeanProjectforPeasantTechnology)(eds)1998.TheSpiritofRegeneration:AndeanCultureConfrontingWesternNotionsofDevelopment.NewYork:ZedPublishers.

Acosta,G.andCiurlizza,J.1997.DemocracyinPeru:AHumanRightsPerspective.Lima,Peru:InternationalCentreforHumanRightsandDemocraticDevelopment.

ConventiononBiologicalDiversity2001.SecretariatoftheConventiononBiologicalDiversity,HandbookoftheConventiononBiologicalDiversity.London:Sterling(VA);EarthscanPubs.

Cook-Lynn,E.1998.AmericanIndianIntellectualismandtheNewIndianStory,inNativesandAcademics:ResearchingandWritingaboutAmericanIndians,editedbyD.A.Mihesuah.Lincoln,Nebraska:UniversityofNebraskaPress,111–38.

Freire,P.1970.PedagogyoftheOppressed.NewYork:HerderandHerder.

Galeano,E.1997.OpenVeinsofLatinAmerica,FiveCenturiesof


thePillageofaContinent.NewYork:MonthlyReviewPress.Garcia,M.E.2003.ThePoliticsofCommunity:Education,

IndigenousRights,andEthnicMobilizationinPeru.LatinAmericanPerspectives,30(1),70–95.

Grillo,E.F.1998.DevelopmentorDecolonizationintheAndes?TheSpiritofRegeneration:AndeanCultureConfrontingWesternNotionsofDevelopment,editedbyF.Apfell-MarglinandPRATEC.NewYork:ZedPublishers,124–45.

IndigenousPeoples’Caucus2002.OpeningStatementonCapacityBuildingoftheIndigenousPeoples’Caucus.AdeclarationbytheIndigenousPeoples’Caucus.

Inter-AmericanDevelopmentBank1997.LatinAmericaAfteraDecadeofReforms.Washington:Inter-AmericanDevelopmentBankFlagshipPublication,EconomicandSocialProgressReport(IPES).Availableat:http://idbdocs.iadb.org/w.RetrievedJanuary14,2009

OdoraHoppers,C.A.2002.IndigenousKnowledgeandtheIntegrationofKnowledgeSystem:TowardsaPhilosphyofArticulations.Johannesburg,SouthAfrica:NewAfricaBookPty.

Saavedra,E.S.,Colens,M.V.andLaird,A.2004Memory:OneContinent,OneSpirit,IVContinentalMeetingofIndigenousWomenoftheAmericas,Chirapaq,Lima,Peru.

Settee,P.1996.HonouringIndigenousScienceasaMeansofEnsuringScientificResponsibility.MEdthesis,UniversityofManitoba.

——2007.Pimatisiwin:IndigenousKnowledgeSystems,OurTimeHasCome.PhDdissertation,UniversityofSaskatchewan.


http://idbdocs.iadb.org/w

——2011.TravelsThroughGlobalIndigeneity:TestimonyofaFirstNationsScholar,inAHeartofWisdom,LifeWritingasEmpatheticInquiry,editedbyC.Chambers,E.Hasebe-Ludt,A.SinnerandC.Leggo.NewYork:PeterLangPublishing,165–72.

Smith,R.C.1982.TheDialecticsofDominationinPeru:NativeCommunitiesandtheMythoftheVastAmazonianEmptiness.Cambridge,MA:CulturalSurvivalInstitute.

Snyman,R.(ed.)2002.FromAfricatotheWorld–TheGlobalizationofIndigenousKnowledgeSystems.Pretoria:Proceedingsofthe15thStandingConferenceofEastern,CentralandSouthernAfricanLibraryAssociations.

Stavenhagen,R.1999.StructuralRacismandTrendsintheGlobalEconomy.TheInternationalCouncilonHumanRightsPolicyReviewMeeting:Racism:TrendsandPatternsinDiscriminationGeneva,3–4December1999.ICHRPcommissionedthisdocumentasaworkingpaper.

Stavig,W.1999.TheWorldofTupacAmaru,ConflictCommunity,andIdentityinColonialPeru.LincolnandLondon:UniversityofNebraskaPress.

Stokes,S.C.1995.CulturesinConflict,SocialMovementsandtheStateinPeru.Berkeley:UniversityofCaliforniaPress.

Varese,S.1972.TheForestIndiansinthePresentPoliticalSituationofPeru.Copenhagen,Denmark:InternationalWorkGroupforIndigenousAffairs.Availableat:http://www.chirapaq.org.pe/htm/segurset.htm.RetrievedMarch14,2009

Weatherford,J.1988.IndianGivers:HowNativeAmericanTransformedtheWorld.NewYork:CrownPubs.


http://www.chirapaq.org.pe/htm/segurset.htm

WorldBank1999.PovertyandSocialDevelopmentsinPeru,1994–1997.Washington,DC:TheInternationalBankforReconstructionandDevelopment.

——2000.WorldDevelopmentReport2000/2001:AttackingPoverty.Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress.

——2002.WorldDevelopmentReport2002:BuildingInstitutionsforMarkets.Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress.


Chapter11EngagementandOwnershipofKnowledge:IssuesAffectingIndigenousEducationand

Pedagogy

RaymondNichol

Indigenouspeoples’criticismanddistrustofsomeanthropologicalresearch,andanthropologists’strugglestoremainrelevantandeffectiveindecolonizedsettings,meanatheoreticallyandmethodologicallyethicalanthropologyisimperative.InAustraliaandMelanesia,communitymembersoftencomplainofculturalknowledgeandartworksbeingexploited,ofpromisesfromresearchersnotmet,ofcareersmadewhilethe‘informants’remainimpoverished.Researchneedstobemoreresponsivetothecommunityandinvolvemembersfullyandcollaborativelyintheprocess,frombeginningtoend.Doesthismeanwegettooclosetothepeopleandtheissuesaffectingthem,oftensodisastrously?Can‘engagedanthropology’beobjectiveandanalytical?AsPaulSillitoeasksthereader,doessuchlocalempowermentthreatenscholarlyintegrity,objectivityandacademicauthority?Iargueinthischapterthatsuchempowerment,ratherthanthreatening,isessentialforbestpracticeincommunityeducationanddevelopment.Imakemanyrecommendations,drawnfromextensiveethnographic


experience.Teachers’self-fulfillingpropheciesoftheirIndigenouspupilsandthelowself-esteemofsomanyIndigenouslearnersdemandchangeincurrentpractice.I’veheardteachersstateto‘town’children,‘Youcandobetterthanthat,you’renotfromthemission’,whilegirlsintheplaygroundderidedeachotherwith,‘Younothin’butablackcrow’.

Ofparticularrelevancetothediscussioninthischapter,focusingonIndigenouseducation,isthewayschoolinginAustraliaandMelanesiaiscaughtupinthesystemofstratificationatlocalandnationallevels.Reflectingadecolonizingresearchagendaitdrawsfromethnographic,historicalandcomparativeIndigenouseducationresearchstudies.Thefieldissocomplex,andoftenfraught,thatthereisaneedtotakeaccountofshiftinginterdependenciesoffactorsinfluencingIndigenouslearningandtheneedtorecognizethetensionsinanydecisionsmadeabouttherelativeimportanceofhowthesecomponentfactorsarerepresented.Thesearetakenintoaccountwhenuntanglingcomplexpedagogicalapproachesandsystems.

Factorsofrace,class,status,economicandpoliticalpower,affectallwhoparticipateinschooling.WhileeducationsystemsinAustraliaandMelanesia(forthischaptermostexamplescomefromPapuaNewGuinea),facilitatesomeindividualsocialmobility,makingpotentialleadersandothersmoreconfidentindealingwithoutsiders,theyalsoplacepeopleinparticularracial,classandstatuscategories.Theyorganizeandstructurethelife-chancesofboththeirbeneficiariesandvictimsandlegitimizetheirplaceinsystemsofunequalprivilegesandrewards.Hence,schools,despitethebesteffortsofmanyprincipalsandteachers,donotusuallychallengethelocalsystemofsocialstratification.Ultimatelytheyfunction,inthemain,topreserveandlegitimate"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

theexistinginequalitiesofpower,wealth,statusandlandownership.

IncorporatingIndigenousKnowledgeandPedagogyintoEducation

ThechapterrespondstocontemporarypolicyandpracticeinIndigenouseducation.Itrecommendstoalleducatorsandcommunitydevelopers,inAustralia,Melanesiaandelsewhere,thattheyincorporateelementsofIndigenousknowledgeandpedagogyintotheirorganizationoflearning,classroompracticeandprojectdevelopment.FortheethnographiccasestudiesseeNichol(2006)and,formoredetailededucationalexplanation,Nichol(2011).Cultureandeducationareinextricablyinterwovensincethecontentofalleducationhasvalueunderpinningsthatarealwaysassociatedwithaparticularculturalagenda(Thaman2001:1).

Indigenousknowledgeisagrowingfieldofinquiry,bothnationallyandinternationally,particularlyforthoseinterestedineducationalinnovation.Thequestion,“WhatisIndigenousknowledge?”isusuallyaskedbyEurocentricscholarsseekingtounderstandacognitivesystemthatisalientothem.ThegreatestchallengeinansweringthisquestiontofindarespectfulwaytocompareEurocentricandIndigenouswaysofknowingandincludebothintocontemporarymoderneducation.FindingasatisfactoryanswertothisquestionisthenecessaryfirststepinremedyingthefailureoftheexistingFirstNations[Canadian]educationalsystemandinbringingaboutablendededucationalcontextthatrespectsandbuildsonbothIndigenousandEurocentricknowledgesystems.(Batiste2002:3)

Underlyingthischapterarecrucialcontemporaryissuesof


reconciliationbetweenIndigenousandotherAustraliansandthelackofasenseofnationalidentityandcitizenshipofpeoplefromthevariousprovincesandsocialstratainPapuaNewGuinea.Itsuggestssomestrategiesforeducatorsandcommunitydevelopersdealingwiththesesocialdilemmas.Elementsofreconciliationandcitizenshiprangefromthewordingofpreambles,constitutionsandtreaties,tosocial,economic,legal,culturalandpoliticaljusticeandacceptance.Therearenumerousrelatedissuesanddilemmasacrossthisvastregion.Appropriateeducationisvital.Peoplelearnbettertogetheriftheyknowandappreciatesomethingoftheothers’pedagogicalbackground.Tofeelcomfortableandconfidentwhenlearningiscrucialtooutcomesineducation.Thechapterdrawsonextensiveethnographicandteachingexperienceinschools,universitiesandIndigenouscommunities,inAustraliaandPapuaNewGuinea,awidereviewofliteratureinthefield,pluscritiquesandsuggestionsofferedbyeightIndigenousteachersfromtheYipirinyaSchool,AliceSprings,NorthernTerritory,Australia,oneofwhomcommentedthat:

Inmyexperience,mostmainstreamschoolsdon’tcaterforadiverserangeofstudents,preferringtoteachinamainlywhite,middleclassfashion.Studentswhocomefromadifferentcultureorbackgroundareexpectedtoassimilate,orelsefaceadifficultlearningsituation,whichcouldleadtothemeventually“droppingout”ofschool.

ConsequencesoftheImpositionofWesternEducation

AftertheinvasionandoccupationoftheirlandsbyEuropeans,IndigenouspeopleswereexpectedtobenefitfromaWestern"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

education.Thebenefitswereseentobeapparent,particularlyincomparisontotheperceived‘stone-agecultures’,‘heathen’beliefsandcustoms,andinAustraliathe‘squalorandhorrorsoftheblackcamp’.ThousandsofAboriginalchildren,particularlythoseofmixedrace,weretakenfromtheirparents,tobeassimilatedtoEuropeanways.Theinadequacies,oftenhorrorsandabuses,visiteduponmanyofthosechildrenconstituteanotherstory(seethe‘BringingThemHome’Report,Wilson1997).Manyofthosewhoremainedwiththeirparentswereprovidedwithasecond-rateeducationthat,somewhatincongruously,triedtointegratethemwhiledenigratingtheirlanguage,cultureandcommunity.

ThisisnotanexclusivelyAustralianorMelanesianexperience.Educatorsinotherregions,fromalllevelsoftheeducationsystem,needtocomparethewayminoritiesintheircountryhavefaredineducationandsociety.Forexample,inJapantheBurakumin‘untouchables’,theKoreans,IndigenousAinu,andevenKikokushijo,Japanesereturneesfromextendedperiodsoverseas.Allexperienceaneducationalsystemthatis,attimes,lessthansupportiveoftheirneeds.StudiesofIndian,African,NativeAmerican,SouthAmerican,MaoriandSamisocieties,alsoprovidetellingexamplesofIndigenoussystemsoflearningandknowledgebeingignoredorderided.Theimmigrantexperienceisoftensimilar.

AmajorconcernineducationhasbeenthelackofrelevanceofmuchofthecontentandmethodologyimposeduponIndigenousstudents.GraduallysomeeducatorshaverealizedthatIndigenouschildrenlearndifferentlyandthattheircultureandpedagogyhavevalidityandstrength.Ofcourse,educatorsalsoneedtobeacutelyawareofthediversityofIndigenouscultures,"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

particularlyinAustraliaandPNG,andthatthereisnotamonolithicsenseofidentityorpedagogy.Dispossessionofland,alienation,poorhealthandfewemploymentopportunitiesmustalsoaffectownershipofknowledge,educationalinterest,attendance,applicationandperformance.Issuesofrightstomakedecisionsforthecommunity,particularlyaboutthelandandcommunitydevelopment,alsoaffecteducationaloutcomes.Themostappropriateandeffectivelearningstrategiesareexplainedasbeingholistic,imaginal[orimaginable],kinaesthetic,cooperative,contextualandperson-oriented(Craven1996,1999;Nichol2004,2006,2011).Toignorekeysocialandenvironmentalaspectsoflearning,astoooftenoccurs,isseenasbeingparticularlydamagingformarginalizedIndigenousandminoritystudentsatalllevels,inallplaces.

RelevanceandApplication

ManyteacherssaytheystrugglewhentryingtoteachWesternconceptsandmethodstoIndigenousstudents.Thisraisesmanyrelevantissues,suchascommunication,initialliteracy,language,andownership,recognitionandaccommodationofIndigenouspedagogy.Also,ifyouwishtoperpetuateinequalitiesthenprovidethesameeducationalmethodologyandcontentforall.Teacherswhotellmethata‘fairgo’meanstreatingallthestudentsexactlythesameneedtoknowthatthisisnotproductive.Ofcourse,ifeducationalprovisionhasbeensecond-rateforIndigenousstudents,thenmovestowards‘equality’withmainstreamprovisionareimprovementsbut,toooften,arefarfromengagingorculturallyrelevantforIndigenousandother"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

minorityculturelearners.ThispointwasmadestronglybyanotheroftheYipirinyateacherswhenshesaid,‘Iwouldgosofarastosay,toexpectonestyleofteachingtoworkforadiverserangeofstudentsisunequal,unjustandcouldbedeemedasracist’.

ContemporaryIndigenousculture,inMelanesiaandAustralia,iscomplexanddiverse,fromtraditionallyorientedpeoplelivinginisolatedcommunitieswithlittlecontactwiththeoutsideworld,topeoplelivingandfunctioningablyinpredominantlyurban,post-industrialcontexts.Forexample,atYipirinyaSchool,basedinsuburbanAliceSprings,thereisconsiderablediversityamongthestudents.Therearemorethanfourdifferentlocallanguagegroupsandthestudentscomefrom‘bushcommunities’,‘towncamps’,andfromAliceSprings.AboriginalEnglishisalinguafranca.AYipirinyateacherexplainedthestudents’backgroundsasbeing:

“TownCampers”–thesearestudentswholiveinsmallAboriginalcommunitiesinandaroundAliceSprings.Theycanstillspeaktheirlanguages,butareincreasinglyinfluencedbythewesternways.Mostofthesestudentsfaceanoverwhelmingswagofdifficultissues,suchaslivingwithalcoholism,petrolsniffing,domesticviolence,childabuse,racism,poorhealthandpoorhousing.

“Bushmob”–studentsliveamoreculturalandtraditionalwayoflife.TheirlanguageandcultureisverystrongandtheyspeaklittleEnglish.

“Townies”–thesestudentsliveinurbanAliceSprings.Theyeithersufferfromthesameissuesasthe“towncampers”,orattheotherextremetheydon’tsufferatall.Theytendtolackcultureandtradition,speaklittleornoAboriginallanguage,butdospeakAboriginalEnglish.

ManyofthechildrenlivingonthefringesoftownsandcitiesinPNG,theSolomonIslandsandFiji,facesimilarrealitiesofeverydaylife.Onecanseewhyeducation,ifavailable,suffers.In"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

Australiaitisavailablealmosteverywhere,andtherearemanyinducementstoattend,fromprimarytotertiary,howeverstandardsoverallremainlow.

PrimaryschoolsinMelanesiacaterforconsiderablenumbersofyoungchildren,howeverasdrastic‘cut-offs’occurinsecondaryandtertiaryeducationmanyfromremotevillagesandmarginalizedsettlementsareincreasinglydeniedopportunities,foreducationandemployment.Decisionsmadearenotjustlogisticandeconomic.AsappliestoAustralia,manystudentsaredisengagedanddisillusionedbytheschoolingoffered.

Subjectsthat,byconvention,aretaughttoEuropeanstandardsandbymainstreammethods,includingVocationalEducationTraining(VET)offerings,shouldtakeintoaccounttheirrelevancetotheIndigenousstudent.ManyIndigenousleadersinAustraliaexpressdistasteformuchofwhattheirpeoplearetaught.Forexample,itisgallingwhenchildrenaretoldthatCaptainJamesCookdiscoveredAustralia,andthatAustraliawassettledratherthaninvaded.Content,aswellaspedagogy,needstobeaccurate,appropriateandrelevant.InPapuaNewGuinea,particularlyincolonialtimes,readersandtextbookswerecriticizedfornotbeingculturallyrelevant.Inthe1930sthegovernmentanthropologistfoundedanEnglishnewspaper,solocalswouldhavesomethingrelevanttoreadinthelanguageofinstruction!IthaslongbeenbemoanedthatEnglishistaughtintheschoolbutthen,formany,haslittlefurtherreinforcementorrelevance.

Muchofwhatisfoundinthischapterhaswiderapplicationincontemporaryeducationaltheory,policyandpractice,especiallyengagement.Forexample,manystudentsofAfricanandMiddleEasternoriginsexperiencedifficultieswiththesubjectsandmethodologyofferedinmainstreamschools.Studentswhose"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

languageandcultureisnotbasedonAnglo-AmericanWesterncustomsandheritageoftenexperiencedifficultieswithEnglishliteracy,historyandthesocialsciences.Therefore,manyoftheinsightsandmethodologiesproposedtodevelopmorerelevantcurriculaandpedagogyforIndigenousstudentscouldbeusedtomakesubjectsmoreinteresting,relevantandsuccessfulforallstudents.

HistoryofIndigenousEducationinMelanesiaandAustralia

Intraditionalsocietiesyoungpeoplelearnedastheygrewup,withaninformallearningsystembased,inthemain,onneedtoknow,andsupportedbyamoreformalsystemofinitiationandorganizedinstruction.Thisinstructionwasorganizedby‘clever’,‘powerful’or‘bigmen’,educationalandpoliticalleaders,whomtheanthropologist,A.P.Elkin,termed,inAustralia,‘MenofHighDegree’,(whileheacknowledgedthatolderwomencouldalsoqualifyandpractise).IncentralandwesternNewSouthWalestheseteacherswereknownaswireenanandwalamira.AcrossAustraliaandMelanesiatheywereelders,repositoriesandcontrollersofIndigenousknowledge,usuallywithstronggenealogicaltiestothelearners.

Allyoungpeoplewere‘putthroughtherules’,‘broken’,‘tamed’or‘steered’throughlife,andwhilemuchlearningwasobservationalandincidental,nosocietyleftlearningtochance.Sanctionsforgoingagainst‘thelaw’wereserious,fromshaming,physicalpunishment,banishment,todeath.Educationwas


organic,heterogeneous,andensuredacomplementarityofgenderroles(iffrequentlywithfearful,antagonistic,oppositional,violentelements,particularlyinhighlandMelanesiaandthedesertregionsinAustralia).

Learningtookplace,inthemain,duringday-to-dayactivities.Indigenouspeoplewereoftenfluentorcould‘hear’inanumberofneighbouringdialects,allowingcommunicationwithsurroundinggroups.Skillswerelearnedbyobservation,imitation,reallifepractice,andfromtheoraltradition,linkingsong(stories,legends,instruction),site(place,land,property,fishing,hunting,gatheringrights),skin(kinship,family,lineage,obligations)andceremony(rituals,dancing,instructionandtiestothepast).ThisledtothefollowingcharacteristicsoftraditionalIndigenouseducation.

Inbrief,andrecognizingsignificantvariationacrosstheAustralasianregion,learningwaslargelyoralandtheuseofstorytellingwasimportant.Signlanguagewasfrequentlyused.Educationwaslargelyinformal,exceptduringinitiation,whenformal,evencoercive,andrigorousmethodsofinstructionwereemployed.Initiateslaterreferredtobeing‘rituallykilledandbornagain’,‘tiedin’,‘brokeninto’or‘steered’throughinitiation.Lessformalmethodsincludedobservation,imitationandcasualinstruction.Learningoccurredthroughparticipationinthelifeofthecommunity.Ofteninstructioncameaspeoplegatheredaroundafire,leadingtotheAboriginalphrase,‘Wegrowthemupintheashes’.EverywhereinAboriginalAustralia,thehearth,thefamilyorcommunityfire,constitutedaplaceforgatheringattheendoftheday,wherefoodwasshared,storiestold,songssung.Seatingarrangementsaroundthefireweresignificantintermsofthelocationofeachperson’sland(sittinginthedirectionof"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

‘country’)andthosewithwhomheorshecouldbecloseordistant,generousorpractiseavoidance.Throughthesemeans,arichculturalheritagewastransmittedandchildrenlearnedthesocial,economicandreligiouslifeofthecommunity,includingphilosophy,ethics,art,music,danceandmythology.Religion(perhapsbetter,spirituality)permeatedeveryaspectoflife.Therewasnopurelyseculareducation.

[InAustralia]Allhunting,food-gathering,familylifeandsociallifewereintimatelyconnectedwiththeirreligiousbelief.(Hart1970)[InMelanesia]Orokaivareligiousbeliefsandmanyoftheirmedicalpracticescentreontwospiritconcepts,asisiandsovai.…AccordingtotheOrokaiva,alllivingthings,animalsandplants,haveasisi.Theassisiofthingsmayimpingeonhumanlifeinmanyways[forexample,causality].Thesovai,incontrast[arespiritsofthedead].(Sillitoe1998:218–28)

Educationwascloselyadaptedtothemostlysubsistenceeconomy.Itpreparedlearnerstohunt,fish,farm,buildhousesandboats,toolsandartefacts,gatherandtrack,gainknowledgeoftheseasonsforfish,animals,fruits,tubers,sago,thelocationofwaterholes,methodsofobtainingwaterfromcertaintreerootsandplants,andsoon.Itwaslife-relatedandlife-inspired.Childrenlearnedsocialresponsibilitiesassociatedwithrelationshipsandthesignificanceofcertainindividuals:oftenforboystheywerefather’sbrothers(oftenreferredtoas‘father’),andforgirls,mother’ssisters(oftenreferredtoas‘mother’),andothercloserelatives.Knowledgeandexperienceofthekinshipsystemwascentraltolearning.Sometimesthelearnerinitiatedtheprocess.Forexample,apersonwishingtolearnaparticularcraftwouldobserveaspecialistoverquitealongperiod.Whenreadyinhisorhermindthe‘apprentice’wouldmanufacturetheartefact,usuallytoahighlevelofreplicationandquality.Educationextended"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

throughoutlife.Stagesofwisdomwereacknowledgedaccordingtoage,andstatusinthecommunity.

AfterEuropeanOccupation

AftertheEuropeanoccupationofAustraliaandMelanesia,IndigenousstudentsweregraduallyintroducedtoEuropean,Dutch,GermanorBritish/Australian,formaleducation.EffortsweredirectedtoconverttheIndigenous‘heathen’,‘savage’,‘stone-age’cultureandtoreplacetraditionallearningwith‘superior’,dominantEuropeanknowledge.

InitiallyIndigenouschildren,andadultstoalesserextent,weretaughtabasicformofWesterneducationthatallowedthemtofunctionasservantsandworkersfortheEuropeancolonists.Advancedstudieswerethoughttobe‘…beyondthenatives’grasp’.Untilthe1930stheywereconsidered,onanofficial,governmentalleveloverthewholeregiontobevirtuallyineducable.Aslateasthe1960sCharlesBarnes,AustralianMinisterforTerritories,thoughtthatPapuaNewGuineans‘mightbereadyforself-governmentinahundredyears’.PaulHasluck,apreviousminister,hadbeenmorepositiveconcerningthecountry’spotentialforindependence,sotherewasnounilateralpositioninAustraliangovernment.However,BarnesdidstatethatAustraliawouldimplementatimetableforanindependentPapuaNewGuineaifapartywithacoherentprogramforself-governmentweresuccessfulinthe1972HouseofAssemblyelections.Tothesurprizeofmany,oneofwhomwasundoubtedlytheMinister,MichaelSomareandhisPanguPartydulywontheelectionandformedaneffectivecoalition.Apopularbookaround"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

thetimeofBarnes’commentwasKiki:TenThousandYearsinaLifetime(Kiki1968),whichincidentallycontainssomebraveandbarbedcriticismofcolonialattitudespersistingintothe1960s.Theseattitudespersistedinthewidercommunityuntilrecently,andremaininpocketsofAustralianandexpatriatePNGsociety.

Thecurriculumuntilthe1960swas,ingeneral,onedeemedappropriateforthelowerordersand,byalltheevidencenowavailable,usuallyfailedmiserably.Themidtolate1960sand1970sinPNGsignalledanenormous,lastditchpushtoprepareaneliteforself-governmentandindependence.Itwasthey,thenewrulingclass,whowereprovidedwithvastlydisproportionatelevelsofresources,timeandenergy.Inthemain,they,theirchildrenandgrandchildren,stillare.

Attitudestowardsthose‘MissingOut’

InAustraliaandMelanesia,notwithstandingthereactionofsomeconservativeelements–particularlyinprivilegedandexpatriategroupsinPapuaNewGuineaandinruralQueensland,WesternAustraliaandtheNorthernTerritory–thereisgreaterappreciationtoday,intermsofpolicyatleast,bysocietyandgovernmentoftheworthofallcitizens.

InAustralia,thereisaconsiderabledismantlingofsocietalbarrierstoadvancement.Aboriginalstudentshavegreateraccesstoeducation,withpositivecommunitysupportthroughLocalAboriginalEducationConsultativeGroups(LAECGS)andgovernmentsupport.Forexample,Victoria’sKoorie(‘Koorie’isatermmanyIndigenouspeopleinVictoria,TasmaniaandNewSouthWalespreferto‘Aborigines’)OpenDoorEducation"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

(KODE),laterKooriePathwaysschools.Theseareexpensiveandsomehaveproblemswithattendanceandresults,howevertheyindicatestrongstatesupportforIndigenouseducationalinitiatives.

InPapuaNewGuinea,nationalandregionalagreementsineducationhaveledtosomesuccess,particularlywideraccesstoprimaryandtertiaryeducation.AsthenPrimeMinisterMichaelSomarestatedin2010,

EducationinPNGisasuccessstory.Andmanygreatthingshavehappenedinourcountrybutwehavebeenconditionedtofocusonthenotsogoodandforgettheleapsandboundswehavemade.Wecancompareourselvestotherestoftheworldandbediscouragedorwecancompareourselvesintermsofourownhistoryandbeencouragedtodomore.Itisasimpletruth,thattherehavebeenmorepeopleeducatedinthelast30yearsthaneverbeforeinPNG’scolonialhistory.WhenIledthecountrytonationhoodtherewasjustonenewlyestablisheduniversity(UPNG)andveryfewuniversitygraduatesaroundme.Todaywehavesixuniversities,manycollegesandothertertiaryinstitutionsforourfivemillionpeople.AndIhavearoundmemanywell-qualifiedmenandwomenwhoservethecountryinmanydifferentways,bothintheprivateandpublicsectors.

Thisisobviouslyputtingthebestpossibleconstructiononthepresentsituationinthecountry.AsforAustralia,therearemanydysfunctionalIndigenouscommunities,particularlyinfringesettlements,withlowlevelsofgainfulemployment,evenforthosewithsomeformaleducation.Inremotecommunities,thereislikelytobenoaccesstowestern/nationalschooling.Changeisdesperatelyneeded,especiallytocounterthesenseof‘otherness’,appropriation,powerlessnessandlackofinclusivenessandcitizenship.ToomanyteachersintheAustralian/Melanesianregion,particularlyinsecondaryeducation,carryahangoverof‘superior’Westernordominantculture,knowledgeandmethods,


afeelingthatonlytheyknowwhatis‘correcttoknow’.Theyareweddedtothemethodsthattheyhaveusedformanyyears.Theirculturalbackgroundandtrainingusuallyensurethisisso.Oftentheyteachastheyweretaught.ThetraditionalWesternclassroom,particularlyinsecondaryschools,hasateacherwhoexplainsordemonstratesanissue,problemorconcept,providessomeexamplesandthensetsthestudentstoworkonproblemsorissuesofasimilarkind.Theseproblemsaregraded,fromsimpletodifficult.Oftentheyaredesignedtotieinotherlearning,conceptsandthemes.Iftheygiveajustificationforthetopic,issueorproblemitisusually,‘It’sontheEssentialLearnings,theStandards,ortheFramework’(thenational,stateorregional-approvedcurriculumframework).Thecontentislargelyderivativeandpositivist.Standardizedtestingensuresconformityand‘teachersteachingtothetest’.Teachers,textbooksandstandardcomputersoftwareare,inreality,seenasbeingthefontofwisdom.

InAustralia,pasthistoryandsocialstudiescourses,indeedevenintherelativelyrecentCurriculumStandardsFrameworkdocumentsinVictoria,thereislittlesenseof‘blackfellas’bloodonthewattleandbillabong’,ofsavage‘clearingthepastoralrun’.Thedestruction,dispossession,segregation,attemptedassimilationofIndigenousAustralians,evenlandrights,educationalandleadershipsuccesses,areoftenignored.TherearesomeadmirableIndigenousStudiescourses,particularlyatprimaryanduppersecondarylevels,butdeliveryispatchyandmethodologyoftenquestionable.Communityrelations,reconciliationandeffortsto‘closethegap’arenotnecessarilyenhanced.Clearlycontent,aswellaspedagogy,needstobeaccurateandrelevant."******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

ToignorecontentistoignorewhyIndigenousstudentschoosenottoaccessmainstreamschools.Thelearningisnotrelevanttothemortheirlives.Theydon’tseethevalueofanall-inclusivewhiteeducation,especiallyifitisattheexpenseoflanguageandculture.Contentisequallyasimportantaspedagogyandlearningstyles.(Yipirinyateacher,AliceSprings)

InPapuaNewGuineaithasbeenarguedfromthenineteenthcenturytothepresentdaythatanationaleducationsystemshouldbemoreresponsivetobothlocalandnationalneeds,and,inparticular,bemoreappropriatetotheeconomiccircumstancesofthecountry.‘Inafewshortyearstheschoolsystemseemedtohavemovedoutofstepwiththeoccupationalstructureandwascreatingpotentiallydangeroussocialproblems’(Smith(ed.)1987:262).ThousandsofStandard6andhigherschoolgraduatesfindthemselves‘…notusefuleitherinthevillageorinoutsideemployment…theyseekrefugeinthelargertownsofthiscountry…[where]iftheyareluckytheyfindwork.Butmostremainunemployedforlongperiodsoftime…theseyoungmenstartonanotherkindofsecondaryeducation–thatofcowboyfilms,pubsandsuffering’(Smith(ed.)1987:263).Today,onecouldadd‘rascal’crime,drugs,violence,andsoon.

Theclansoftheseyoungpeoplearecrucialtotheirfuturesasthesocialunitswherecustomaryeducationoccurs.The‘MelanesianWay’ofdecision-making,allocationofresourcesandresolutionofdisputation,shapes,inpart,thepoliticalculturethatpervadesthestate.Therefore,customarywaysofdoingthingsmustbelinkedmorecloselytoschoolingandpedagogy.

LinkstoContemporaryConstructivistLearning


Constructivist,inquiry-basedapproachesencouragethestudenttoengagewithanddiscoverthelaworconceptbyexperimentwithtactile,relevantandcontextualteachingaids.Theyuntangleandintegrate,linkingwellwithtraditionalapproachestolearning,andtendingtobemoreresponsivetotheinterestsandneedsofthestudent.Theyaremoregroup-oriented,conceptuallycreative,integrated,holistic,andconducivetosolvingproblems.Teachershavelessdominanceofthelearningprocess.InIndigenoussettings,theteachers’planninginvolvesliaisonwithAboriginalstudents,staff,parentsandtheLocalAboriginalEducationConsultativeGroup.Ideally,studentsandstaffworktogethercooperatively,usingfieldresearchandcommunityexperiences,computersandtheInternet,aswellasbookresearch,toallowreal-lifedatawithculturalandpragmaticrelevance,tobeprocessedandevaluatedmoreeasilyandeffectively.

Theethnographicandschool-basedresearchindicatesthattheseformsofpedagogyandteachingencourageIndigenousandotherstudentstohaveownershipoftheirlearningandtotakefarmoreinterestintheirsubjects,generallearningandevenschoolattendance.Forexample,theIndigenousstudentsinGippsland,Victoria,wentfromhavingthehighesttruancyratesinGippslandtothelowestwhentheybeganattendingtheircommunitycontrolledandsupportedschool.Theprincipal,chosenbythecommunity,wasnon-Indigenous,buttheIndigenousculturalandpersonnel‘presence’intheschoolwasstrong.Parentsandothercommunitymemberswerefrequentlyintheschool,supportingthestudentsandteachers.Thisschoolwasimpressiveinitsuseofinformationtechnology,frequentlyexploringandpresentingIndigenousthemes.


TheIndigenousChildasLearner

IfwearetodevelopandimplementanIndigenouspedagogyforwerequireanappropriateframeworkforlearning,basedonsoundanthropologicalandeducationalresearch,respondingtotheneedsofIndigenousstudentsandcommunities.Ofcourse,Iamcognizantofthedangersofover-generalization,reductionism,dichotomousthinking,and‘tipsforteachers’(seeNicholls,Crowley,andWatt1998).IdonotintendthefollowingpedagogicalmodeltobeprescriptiveforallIndigenousstudents,asamodelforseparatingIndigenousfromotherAustraliansorMelanesians.

ThefollowingcharacteristicsofIndigenouspedagogy,groundedinethnographiccasestudy,comepredominantlyfromtheresearchandwritingsofCraven((ed.)1996,1999),Nichol(2004,2006,2008,2011)andMain,Fennell,andNichol(2000).Theyarealsoinfluencedbycomplementarywaystodevelopcross-culturaldialogueandeducation,IndigenousandWestern,namelythe‘twoway’andGa ma‘bothways’systems(seeHarris1990;andCreighton2003,respectively).Insum,‘bestpractice’learningisholistic,imaginal,kinaesthetic,cooperative,contextualandperson-oriented.

Today,the…waywethinkandlearnlargelydependsonourabilitytoclarifyforourselvesthedifferencesbetweenourreceivedwisdom(fromourformal,mostlywesterneducation)andthewisdomofthe(home)culturesinwhichwegrewupandweresocialised,andfromwhichwecontinuetolearnimportantknowledge,skillsandvalues.(Thaman2001:1)

Holisticisinterpretedasmeaningconceptuallyintegratedandall-encompassing.Indigenouschildrentendtopreferholisticor


integratedapproachestolearning.Itreflectstraditionalworldviewsinwhicheverythingisinterrelatedandallrelationshipsareimportant.Italsoreflectstheimportanceoffamilyandplace.Wheneldersareaskedhowasenseofidentity,ofAboriginality,orofbeingawantok,avillager,Busama,Manus,Wogeo,andsoon,isacquired,theyoftensaysomethingakinto,‘Wegrowthemupintheashes.Thatis,ourchildrenlearnaroundacampfireorhearth,inthebosomoftheirfamilyandkin(orthemen’sorwomen’shouse)’.

AtYipirinyaschoolawarenessofrelationshipsisacuteamongtheteachersandstudents.Thisallowsstudentstofeelsafeandhappyandthereforeabletolearn.(Yipirinyateacher,AliceSprings)

Holisticlearningapproachesdonotcompartmentalizelearningaccordingtoacademicdisciplines.Areasofstudyareconcurrentandintegratedsothatlearningflowssmoothlybetweencontentareas,andtheinterrelationshipbetweenknowledgeandskillsisapparent.Studentsprefertoobserveanddiscussataskortopicbeforeworkingthroughthecomponentsandactivities.Theylearnmoreeffectivelyiftheoverallconceptanddirectionofalessonisoutlined,discussedandmodelledbeforeengaginginactivities.

Thechildrentendtolearnbetterwhentheycanmaketheconnectionandrelateittothewholeconcept,asopposedtolookingatconceptsinanisolatedmanner.IthasamorereallifeapproachandismorereflectiveoftheirIndigenousworldview.(Yipirinyateacher,AliceSprings)

Thisisparticularlysignificantfortheearlyyearsoflearning;howeversecondaryandtertiaryteachersshouldalsoendeavourtointegratelearningmoreandtoapplyconceptsandanalysisacrossdisciplines."******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

Imaginallearningisrelativelyunstructuredandconsistsofthoughts,imagesandexperiencesoflearning.Asforholisticlearningitisstronglylinkedwithnotionsofidentity,perhapsexpressionofAboriginality,orinPapuaNewGuinea,ofbeingawantokorcitizen.InIndigenouscontexts,learningoccursmorefrequentlyininformal,unstructuredways,throughobservationandimitationratherthanverbalization.

Cultureswithoutaliteratetraditionarestronglyauditory,asshownbytheirstrongoraltraditions,however,interestingly,thereislittleverbalinteractionforthedeliberateandconsciouspurposeofteachingandlearning.Thereisoftenatraditionoforatoryatceremonialgatherings,whichmaywellhaveaneducativefunctionasitfrequentlyhasaberatingelement!However,informationistransmittedprimarilythroughobservationandinvolvement.

Inimaginalcontexts,imagesarealsoamoreeffectivemeansofcommunicatingknowledgeandkeepingstudentsengaged.Imaginallearnersmayhavedifficultieswithpurelycognitiveoperations.Theylearnmoreeffectivelyifconcreteexamplesprecedeabstractunderstandings,employingvisualimages,symbols,diagrams,mapsandpathways.Theiruncannyskillsinfootballandotherpositionalsportsmayderivefromthiswayofbeingintheworld.

Aboriginalstudentsformpicturesoftasksintheirmindsandthenperformthemthroughimitation.Theyprefertoseethe“whole”ratherthan“littlebitbylittlebit”.Inthiswaytheyhavethetaskandtheexpectedoutcomeandarethenpreparedtogiveitago…Theyoftenneedconcretematerialstoconceptualizewhattheyneedtolearn.Forexample,whenteachingasocialstudieslessonwemighttakestudentsona“bushtucker”excursion.(Yipirinyateacher,AliceSprings)


Exclusivelyteacher-centredinstruction(thatis,‘chalkandtalk’)isnotaneffectiveformofinstructionforimaginallearners.However,thereisaplaceforteacher-centredinstructionattimes,particularlyiftheclasshasacommonmisconceptionormisunderstanding.

Kinaestheticlearningistactile,throughmanipulationandmovementwithinthelearningenvironment.ManyIndigenousstudentsarekinaestheticlearners.Informationistakeninmoreeasilythroughtheirhandsandthroughmovement.Theyliketohandlethings,tomovethemaround,toalsomovearoundthemselves.Asnotedabove,theyareoftentalented‘play-makers’ingamesandsports,anticipatingandmovingintoanidealposition,seeminglyeffortlessly.

Oneofthemosteffectivesocialandenvironmentaleducationstrategiesforkinaestheticlearnersistodevelopexcursionsandtaskswherestudents,inworkinggroups,collectdataoutsidetheclassroom;‘…culturetripsandcountryvisitsprovideanexcellentopportunityforthistooccur’(Yipirinyateacher,AliceSprings).Thedataisrecordedinnotesandphotographsforlaterapplicationatschoolorhome.Thisisakeyfactorinthesuccessofanumberofschoolprograms,beingenjoyable,engagingandoftenchallenging.Theparticipantscanlatersharetheirideasandprojectswithfamilyandotherstudents.Models,includingcomputermodels,websites,dioramas,sculptures,tableaus,andartisticprojectpresentations,tapthispropensity.Computergames,simulations,computerskill,dexterityandattractivepresentationactivities,alsobuildonthisattribute.

Cooperativelearningplacesemphasisoncommunal,sharedandgrouplearning.AstheethnographicresearchwiththeWiradjuriandWongaibuwanofcentral-westernNewSouth"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

Walesreveals(seeNichol2006),Indigenouscultures,forreasonsbasedontheirverysurvivalashunter-gatherers,oftenplaceahigherpriorityonthegroupthantheindividual.Learningusuallytakesplaceingroupsandiscollaborative.Cooperationismoreimportantthancompetitionorindividualachievement.Therefore,inclassrooms,studentswhohavegroupdiscussions,interpretationofinstructionsandassistance,aremorelikelytobesuccessful.However,thereisaplaceforindividualandmoreformalteacher-ledtuition.

CurrentlyIamemployedatYipirinyaSchoolasaliteracyandnumeracytutorforGrade1and2students.InthisroleIdelivertutoringonaone-to-onebasis.ThisisquitetheoppositetowhatNicholadvocatesintermsof“bestpractice”teachingstrategies.WhilstIagreethatgroupworkispreferableandAboriginalstudentsarehappierinthissituation,attimesoneononeisnecessarytostrengthentheirskills.Idevelopaverystrong,personalconnectionwitheachchild.Inthiswaytheyfeelcomfortableandsupported.Similarly“ourroom”iswithinthemainclassroomsotheystillhaveasenseofbeingpartofthegroup.(Yipirinyateacher,AliceSprings)

Pointingatandsinglingoutachildinthemainclassroom,evenforpraise,maybeseenasconfrontational.Thosewhorespondwithdowncasteyes,andwhatmayappeartobeasullenexpression,arenotnecessarilyshowingyoudisrespect.Bycontrast,innon-Indigenoussocietyteachersusuallydeliverinstructionswithstrongemphasizesoncompetition,individualbenefitandachievement.Lookingtheteacherintheeyeandansweringconfidently,directlyandopenly,ispraisedandrewarded.Somestudents,includingsomeIndigenousstudents,thriveonthis;manydonot.AsAustralianCouncilofEducationalResearch(ACER)researchreveals,


Indigenousstudentsandnon-Indigenousstudentsdifferintheirlearningstyles.Indigenousstudentsaremorelikelytobecooperativelearners,whereasnon-Indigenousstudentsaremorelikelytobecompetitivelearners.ThisfindingwouldsuggestthatappropriateandeffectivepedagogicalandassessmentpracticesforIndigenousstudentswouldbeonesthat[incorporate]Indigenousstudents’learningstyle.(MellorandCorrigan(eds)2004:35).

Specificityandrelevance,thatisplacingcontentandpedagogyincontext,arecrucialtoeffectivelearning;‘IfindthistobeofparticularimportanceatYipirinya…manystudentscomefrombushcommunitiesandtowncampswheremuchoftheirtimeisspentoutdoors.Itisessentialthatthisbetranslatedintotheteachingsituation.Weholdmanyclassesoutdoorsandoutbush.Inthelanguageclasses,studentsareallowedtomoveaboutfreely…’(Yipirinyateacher,AliceSprings).

Intraditionalsocieties,learningoccursinthespecificcontexttowhichthelearningrelates.Childrenlearnhuntingtechniquesduringfoodgatheringonlandandsea,songsanddancesduringcommunitycelebrations,kinshipresponsibilitiesbyinteractionwithrelatives,artefactmanufacturebylongobservationwithminimalverbalinstruction.Bycontrast,Westernschoolsareusuallymoreartificiallearningenvironments,wherecontentisremovedfromandoftenhaslittleapparentapplication,todailylife.Byplacinginformation,activitiesandlearningincontext,studentsdiscoverthateducationismeaningfulandrelevanttotheirownlives.The‘expandedhorizons’approachusedinsocialeducationprogramsoftenhascontextualvalue.Knowledgeandskillsacquiredthroughlocalstudiesarelaterappliedinwidercontexts.Forexample,studiesofchemicalsinthehomemayleadtostudentsresearchingindustrialapplicationsofchemicals.Astudyofalocalvineyardorsheep/wheatfarmmightbecontrasted"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

withswiddenagricultureinPapuaNewGuineaor‘factory’farminginChina.

Indigenousculturesaremoreperson-orientedthaninformation-oriented.Bydevelopingperson-orientedlearning,weemphasizethatfamilyandpersonalrelationshipsarethekeytopositivelearningoutcomes.Teachersareassessedbyhowtheyrelatetothechildrenandcommunityratherthanbytheirqualificationsorperformanceasinstructors.Myobservations,andownteachingexperience,indicatethatstudentswhofeelapersonalconnectionwiththeteacherwillbemorecooperative,interestedinlearning,willingtotakerisksandattemptnewtasks.‘Thisspecificallyrelatestoafeelingof“family-ness”.AtYipirinyateacherstakeaparticularinterestineachstudent;theygettoknowtheirfamiliesandbecomepartoftheirlives’(Yipirinyateacher,AliceSprings).

Fieldworkexperiencemademeveryawarethatpepperingmydiscoursewith‘please’and‘thankyou’,andotherEnglishgentilities,wasoftendisconcertingforIndigenousstudents.Inmanycommunitiesfavoursareexpectedbecauseofon-goingreciprocity.Itisneitherexpectednornecessarytoofferthanks.Itislikelythat,overtime,thestudentwillacquiresomeoftheseculturalniceties,asmanyavisitorhasinothercultures.

Studentswillworkwellwith,andforyou,ifyouestablishpositiverelationshipswiththemandclearunderstandingsofreciprocity.Tangiblereinforcementisbetterthanverbal.Ifteachersarerigidaboutexcessivepolitenessandformalitythentheyriskabreakdownofcommunicationwiththeirstudents.Ihaveseenandheardofmanyteacherswitha‘shape-uporship-out’approach,causingintenseresentmentandalienationamongstudentsandtheirfamilies."******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

Itisoftenadvisabletoaccepthigherlevelsof‘workingnoise’intheclassroomandusenon-verbalstrategiestoregainattention.Also,itisenjoyableandvaluabletoworkoutasign-languagesystemunderstoodbyall.Organizetheclassroomfurniturewithquietareasandareasforgroupactivitiestogivestudentsmorecontroloftheirownlearning.Teacherscanimprovestudentachievementthroughsimplestrategiessuchasactingpositivelyandconsistently,welcomingstudentswarmlytoclass,andbuildingself-esteemthroughpositivereinforcementandlearningplaceswithIndigenoussymbolsandreferences.ManyteachersandIndigenousleaderssaythatIndigenouschildrenarehighlyskilledreadersofbodylanguage.InaNorthernTerritoryAboriginalcommunityeducationsurveymoststudentsdefinedagoodteacheras,essentially,‘Someonewholikesusandisfair’.Manyhadexperienceddislikeanddiscrimination,intheirowncountry.

Aslongas…societycontains(atleast)twoethnicculturaltraditions,oneidentifyingwiththosewhowerecolonisedandonewiththosewhodidthecolonising,thentherewillinevitablybeconflictingattitudes…[Ifwe]…aretoshareacommoncitizenshipthisneedstobeanchoredinsomesharedvalues,suchasjustice,andsomesharedtraditions,suchasegalitarianismandthe“fairgo”.(PearsonandSanders(eds)1998:193)

LearningOutcomesandAssessment

Assessmentcanbeveryconfronting,particularlyforIndigenousstudents,sotheteachershouldaimtousemethodswithwhichthestudentsarecomfortable.Includeassessmenttasksthatallowstudentstodemonstratetheirknowledgevisuallyandphysically


ratherthanjustinverbalandwrittenforms.Tryfosteringexpressionofcurriculaconceptsandthemesbyusingenvironmentalandimmersionlanguagetechniques,drawingonthestudents’ownexperiences.

Assesscomprehensionbyhavingstudentsretelltheactivity,taskorstoryusingmovementandfacialexpression.Useassessmentthatrewardsteamwork.Avoidalienatingstudentsthroughcriticism,particularlyintheearlyyears,orwithnewconceptsorskills,bytrailingtheintroductionofselfandgroup-assessmentofwork.

AsanAboriginalpersonmyself,goingthroughschoolandnowfurtherstudy,Iwouldsaythereisnocomfortablewayatall.AssessmentisconfrontingandtheAboriginalstudentwilleitherstayawayorchoosenottoevenattemptit.Iwouldsuggestanon-goingformof“hidden”assessment,inbuiltinalllessonsasawaytogetaroundthis.Iwouldsuggestthatateachermayhave“failed”inherteachingifastudenthas“failed”inassessment.(Yipirinyateacher,AliceSprings)

Ofcourse,ifstudentattendanceispoor,asitoftenis,thenonecanhardlyblametheteacher,particularlyiftheschooliswelcomingandwellrun.AsthestudentswillfacemoreformalassessmentduringuppersecondaryandtertiarystudyIsuggestgraduallypreparingstudentsbyintroducingsmallclasstests,‘openbook’atthebeginning.Shortdictationtestsallowforimmediatefeedbackandassistance,withthebonusofcheckingwhetherstudentsare‘hearing’effectively.Also,manycomputer-basedquizzesandtestspreparestudentswellformoreformaltesting.

AtYipirinyaSchoolwehaveprogramsthatcaterfor…students’needs,suchas:nutrition,personalhygiene,healthworkervisits,andspecialist


healthsuchashearing,eyesight,dentist.Wealsoofferfourseparatelanguageclasses,countryvisitsandculturaltripsforeachlanguageclass.(Yipirinyateacher,AliceSprings)

Whileculturalsensitivityandknowledgeisessentialfornon-Indigenousstaff,thereismuchaboutthewidersocietiesandtheirpoliticalandeconomicsystemsthatIndigenouspeopleneedtoknowiftheyaretobeempoweredandconfidentenoughtoembracecitizenship.Theyneedanintroductiontothe‘dominantculture’,sotheycandealeffectivelyinthewidersociety.‘Twoway’andGanma,‘bothways’,meanjustthat.Usingthe‘expandedhorizons’approachstudiesmightleadfromthefamily,communityorganizationsandlocalgovernance,tostate,federalandinternationalpolitics.Atalllevelsprovidelocal,relevantexperiencesandinformationasstartingpoints.

Itisadvisabletousemultimediaresources,includingInternet,computers,andsoon,toexploreanddemonstrateconcepts.ThewebsitesofVictorianschoolsareparticularlyillustrativeofhowcreativeandtalentedIndigenousstudentsarewhenprovidedwithsuchopportunities(http://www.sofweb.vic.edu.au/Koorie/index.htm).ForPapuaNewGuineathefollowingsiteishelpful:http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_schools_in_Papua_New_Guinea#Schools

Studentsneedtobeabletousetheireverydayliteraciestolearnthenewliteraciesofcontemporaryschooling,verbal,visual,graphicalandnumerical.Theyneedtoconnectlearningtotheireverydayworldsandvalues.

Conclusion


http://www.sofweb.vic.edu.au/Koorie/index.htm

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_schools_in_Papua_New_Guinea#Schools

Indigenouspedagogyshouldbeembracedbyallteachers,and,indeed,allstudentswouldbenefitfromthis.Intermsofreconciliationthisisonlyonepart,butitiscertainlyanessentialone.(Yipirinyateacher,AliceSprings,NorthernTerritory)

Myresearch,teachingandexperienceinthisfield,indicatethatIndigenousstudentsandtheirfamiliesmustnotcontinuethroughthenewcenturyseeingschoolingasbeingalien,appropriatingandthreatening,astheyhavetooofteninthepast.Ifthestrategiespresentedabovearetrialledandimplemented,theneducators,Indigenousandnon-Indigenous,willbefarmorelikelytoassisttheirIndigenousstudentstonegotiatetheirplaceintheirnations,theglobaleconomy,andaworldoftechnologicalchange.

WecanalllearnagreatdealfromtheIndigenousworld.WhileweshouldbeawareofthediversitywithinIndigenoussocieties,thestrategiesrecommendedhavewideapplication.InfactallteachersandothersworkingwithIndigenouscommunitiescanlearnmuchfromIndigenouspedagogy.AsPaulSillitoestates,Indigenousknowledgeis‘auniqueformulationofknowledgecomingfromarangeofsourcesrootedinlocalcultures,adynamicandeverchangingpasticheofpast‘tradition’andpresentinventionwithaviewtothefuture’.DevelopmentcannotbemeaningfulunlessIndigenousknowledgeisintegratedintothedevelopmentprocess(2002:113).

Thosewhohave‘grownupintheashes’shouldhavetheirculturalbackgroundacknowledgedandcateredfor,andexperiencesuccessineducationandintheirlivesasfullyparticipatingcitizensoftheirowncountry.ThisisthehopeanddemandofIndigenousandminoritycommunitieseverywhere.


References

Batiste,M.2002.IndigenousKnowledgeandPedagogyinFirstNationsEducation:ALiteratureReviewWithRecommendations,NationalWorkingGrouponEducationandMinistryofIndianAffairs,INAC(IndianandNorthernAffairsCanada),Ottowa:Ontario,Canada.

Beresford,Q.andPartington,G.(eds)2003.ReformandResistanceinAustralianEducation:TheAustralianExperience.Nedlands,WA:UniversityofWesternAustraliaPress.

Craven,R.(ed.)1996,1999.TeachingtheTeachers:IndigenousAustralianStudiesforPrimaryTeacherEducation.Sydney:UniversityofNewSouthWalesPress.

Craven,R.andMarsh,H.2003.TeachingPre-serviceTeachersAboriginalStudies:WhatReallyWorks?AAREConference,NewZealand:20November–4December.

Creighton,S.2003.TheYolnguWay:AnEthnographicAccountofRecentTransformationsinIndigenousEducationatYirrkala,NortheasternArnhemLand.Canberra,ANU,PhDthesis.

Harris,S.1990.Two-wayAboriginalSchooling:EducationandCulturalSurvival.Canberra:AboriginalStudiesPress.

Harrison,N.2008.TeachingandLearninginIndigenousEducation.SouthMelbourne:OxfordUniversityPress.

Hart,A.M.1970.AHistoryoftheEducationofFullbloodAboriginesinSouthAustralia.UniversityofAdelaide,MAthesis.

Kiki,A.M.1968.Kiki:TenThousandYearsinaLifetime."******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

Melbourne:Cheshire.McRae,D.etal.2000.EducationandTrainingforIndigenous

Australians:WhatHasWorked(andWillWorkAgain).Deakin,ACT:AustralianCurriculumStudiesAssociation.

Main,D.,Fennell,R.andNichol,R.2000.ReconcilingIndigenousPedagogyandHealthSciencestoPromoteIndigenousHealth.AustralianandNewZealandJournalofPublicHealth,24(2),211–15.

Nichol,R.2004.‘ToGrowUpInTheAshes’,ResponsesofIndigenousTeacherstoaPedagogyforSocialEducation.TheSocialEducator,22(1),6–18.

——2006.Socialization,LandandCitizenshipAmongAboriginalAustralians:ReconcilingIndigenousandWesternFormsofEducation.NewYork:TheEdwinMellenPress.

——2008.LearningFromIndigenousWorlds:ACaseStudyandComparativeAnalysisofIndigenousPedagogyandEducation.PhDthesis,FacultyofEducation,LaTrobeUniversity.

——2011.GrowingUpIndigenous:DevelopingEffectivePedagogyforEducationandDevelopment.Rotterdam,BostonandTaipei:SensePublishers.

Nichol,R.andRobinson,J.2000.PedagogicalChallengesinMakingMathematicsRelevantforIndigenousAustralians.InternationalJournalofMathematicalResearchinScienceandTechnology,31(4),495–504.

Nicholls,C.,Crowley,V.andWatt,R.1998.TheorisingAboriginalEducation.EducationAustralia,33,6–9.

Pearson,N.andSanders,W.1998.IndigenousPeoplesandReshapingAustralianInstitutions:TwoPerspectives.


Canberra:DiscussionPaperNo.102,CAEPR(CentreforAboriginalEconomicPolicyResearch).

Purdie,N.etal.2000.PositiveSelf-IdentityforIndigenousStudentsanditsRelationshiptoSchoolOutcomes.Canberra:DepartmentofEducation,ScienceandTraining.

Schwab,R.andSutherland,D.2001.BuildingIndigenousLearningCommunities.Canberra,ANU:CentreforAboriginalEconomicPolicyResearch,No.225.

Sillitoe,P.1998.AnIntroductiontotheAnthropologyofMelanesia:CultureandTradition.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.

Sillitoe,P.,Bicker,A.andPottier,J.2002.ParticipatinginDevelopment:ApproachestoIndigenousKnowledge.London:ASAMonographs,Routledge.

Smith,P.1987.EducationandColonialControlinPapuaNewGuinea.Melbourne:LongmanCheshire.

Somare,M.2010.PrimeMinisterialStatementonChallengesandSuccessesinEducationforPapuaNewGuinea.PortMoresby.

Thamen,K.H.2001.TowardsCulturallyInclusiveTeacherEducationwithSpecificReferencetoOceania.InternationalEducationJournal,2(5),1–8.

——2003.DecolonizingPacificStudies:IndigenousPerspectives,KnowledgeandWisdominHigherEducation.TheContemporaryPacific,15(1),1–17.

Wilson,R.1997.BringingThemHome.ReportoftheNationalInquiryintotheSeparationofAboriginalandTorresStraitIslanderChildrenfromtheirFamilies.Sydney:CommonwealthofAustralia.



Chapter12QuestionsofPowerinSchoolingfor

IndigenousPapuans

RachelShah

ProvisionfortheeducationofthechildrenofhighlanderslivinginPapuaandWestPapua1ispatchyanddiverse.Stateschoolshavebeenbuiltinmanyareas,andareoftenattendedbyindigenousPapuans,thoughtheirprovisionisinsufficienttomeetthenationalstandardofallcitizensattendingthefirstnineyearsofschool.Someindigenouscommunitiescontinuetoprovideaneducationfortheirchildrenwithoutrecoursetoschools.Othershaveaccesstoschoolsthataresetuporsupportedbyforeignagencies.Thischapterreflectsonsomeofthechallengestheseschoolsfaceinprovidingformaleducationforhighlanderchildren,arguingforreflectiononthecriticismsofeducationandresearchmadebyindigenouspeoplesinotherpartsoftheworld,toavoidthesamemistakesbeingmadeinPapua.IapplyananalysisofpowerissuesbasedonBishop’s(1995,1998,2005)modelofinitiation,benefits,representation,legitimationandaccountabilitytotheseschools,andargueforthedevelopmentofpower-sharingpartnershipsappropriatetothePapuanhighlands.

HistoryofSchoolinginPapua"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

UntilthearrivalofmissionariesandDutchcolonisersinPapua,learningoutsideofschoolswasconsideredrelevant,appropriateandsufficientforthereproductionofknowledge,skillsandbeliefsinhighlanderchildren;thelearningwaseffectiveinensuringthatchildrengrewintofunctioningadultswithintheirenvironmentandcommunity.Noknowndistinctionwasmadebyhighlandersbetween‘enculturation’,aprocessoflearningwhichmayoccurunintentionallyorsubconsciously,and‘education’,whichcanbedefinedasthedeliberateefforttopromotelearning(seeforexampleVarenne2007;Nichol2011).Bothtookplacewithoutlearninginstitutionssuchasschools.

Overthelastcentury,however,non-formallearninghascometobeseenbymanyhighlandersasinsufficientpreparationforadulthood.Thereasonsforthisaremanyandcomplex,butarenearlyallrootedininteractionswithnon-indigenouspeoplesandtheirinstitutions.Dutchcolonisers,missionaries,anthropologistsandexplorersareamongthosewhohaveimpactedPapuanhighlanders.IndonesiancitizensfrommoreheavilypopulatedprovincesmovedtoPapuaunderbothDutchandlater,Indonesiantransmigrationprogrammes.Theprovinceshaveabundantnaturalresourceswhichhavebroughtemployeesofinternationalcompaniestotheregion.InmorerecentyearsNGOsandgovernmentaidprogrammeshavebroughtyetmoreforeignersinthenameofdevelopment.Eacharrivalhaspresentednewopportunitiesandthreats,andmeetingthemrequiredskillsandknowledgethatPapuansdidnotyethave.Thenewcomers’educationdidnotequipthemtounderstandandnegotiatewiththehighlanderseither.ButitwasthePapuanswhowereportrayedas‘uneducated’.Insomecases,thiswasduetoignorance,ethnocentricismandevenracism.Butt’s(1998:47–8)storyofan"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

elderlyJavanesewomandescribingthePapuanpeopleas‘veryprimitive’issadlycommon.ManypeoplewhoencounterPapuanhighlandersinterprettheconditionsoftheirexistenceasevidenceofpeoplewhoareincompetent,unimaginativeandbackwards(seeMunro2013).OtherreasonsfortheportrayalofPapuansas‘uneducated’rangefromadeliberateattempttodominatethemtogainaccesstoresources,toadesiretohelpthemaccess‘development’suchashealthcareandvarioustechnologies.

SomePapuansthemselves,whetherbecauseofreligiousconversion,desireforconsumergoods,orcuriosity,wantedaccesstotheforeigners’knowledgeandskills.AsNichols(2011:78)observes,insomecontexts‘medicine,steelaxes,knives,guns,tobacco,alcohol,abundantfood,aeroplanesandradio(thatis,cargo)weresuchpowerfulforcesthatthevillageeldersandthetenantsoftraditionalsocietywerenolongerseenaswiseandpowerful’.SomePapuansrealised,too,thatiftheydidn’taccesstheskillsthatwouldenablethemtonegotiatethecomplexcross-culturalencountersthatwererapidlychangingtheshapeoftheirpolitical,economicandsocialenvironments,anddosoquickly,theywouldcontinuetobepositionedashelplessand‘backwards’andtherebylosetheopportunityforself-determinationandevensurvival.Foravarietyofreasons,then,theprocessoflearningalreadyinplaceforPapuanhighlanderswasconsideredinsufficientandPapuanchildrenwereportrayedasinneedof‘aneducation’.

Consequently,schoolswereintroducedtoeducatethechildrenofPapuanhighlandersintheforeignknowledge.Theyhaddifferingforms,pedagogiesandcurriculatomeetdifferentinitiators’agendas.Forexample,inthe1950s,theDutchusedschoolingtosteeragroupofelitePapuanstowardsindependence,"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

attemptingtopreparethemtoself-govern(Timmer2005;Mollet2007).MeanwhilemissionariessetupChristianschools,usingamodelbasedonDutchschoolingbutwhichtookintoaccountthePapuancontextbyadaptingthecurriculumandteachingmethodstosuitlocalchildren(Mollet2007).Indeed,evenwherenoschoolsweresetup,missionariesfrequentlytaughtliteracysothatChristianconvertscouldreadtheBible.WhenIndonesiastartedtogovernPapua,moreschoolsweresetup,thistimebasedonthewesternIndonesiansystemofeducation,withsixyearsofSekolahDasar(SD)primaryschooling,threeyearsofSekolahMenengahPertama(SMP)juniorsecondaryschoolingandthreeyearsofSekolahMenengahAtas(SMA)seniorsecondaryschooling.Insomeurbanareastherewasalsoaccesstotertiaryeducation.TeachingwasinIndonesianandmostteacherswereIndonesiansfromotherprovinces.ButeducationinPapuawasnotapriorityunderPresidentSuharto’sgovernmentandstateschoolsweremostlyinaccessibletopeopleinruralareas(Mollet2007).

In2001,whenPapuareceivedtheSpecialAutonomyLaw(OtonomiKhususPapua),responsibilityforformaleducationatalllevelswashandedovertothePapuanprovincialgovernment,withthenationalgovernmentstipulatingonlythegeneralpolicy,corecurriculum,andqualitystandardguidance(SpecialAutonomy2001).AccordingtotheSpecialAutonomyLaw,atleast30percentoftheprovinces’allocationofprofitsfromnaturaloilandgasshouldgotowardseducation,designatedasoneoffourpriorityareasofdevelopmentbythePapuanprovincialgovernment(UNDP2005).ThisnewinvestmenthasmadesufficientresourcesavailableformanyschoolbuildingstobebuiltinruralareasandformanyindigenousPapuanstobetrainedasteachers."******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

TheCurrentSituation

RegardlessofPapua’seducationalidealsandcommitmenttofinancethem,Ihavebeentoldandfrequentlyobservedthatmanyschoolsinruralareasarenotcurrentlyrunningaccordingtostatedaims.IhavevisitedfourremoteareasinPapuasince2011,aKorowaispeakingvillageinthelowlands,aMoi-speakingsettlementinthehighlands,alargeLani-speakingvillagecalledBokondiniinthehighlands,andaseriesofhomesteadsinaWalak-speakingareaofthehighlands.NeithertheKorowainortheMoihadaschoolwithinwalkingdistance.Bokondinihasthreestateschools,twoSDandoneSMP.WhenIvisitedBokondiniin2011,onlyoneoftheSDwasinoperationalthoughnationalexamswereimminentandaccordingtolocalaccountstheothertwoschoolshadnotbeenopenforseveralmonths.TheWalakareaalsohastwostateSDandastateSMP,allofwhichareopen,thoughrunbyguruhonor(roughly,‘honoraryteachers’),peoplewhoteachintheplaceofthepermanentteachers(gurutetap)whoareawayfromtheirposts.TheSMPiswellattended,andopeneveryday,butrunsforonlyafewhoursaday.Activitiesincludecollectingfirewoodfortheteachers,cuttingthegrassonschoollandwithmachetes,andplayingfootballonthelargefield.SDactivitiesaresimilar,thoughmoresporadicandlesswellattended.AsingleSDteacheroftenhasadozenstudentsofallagesinone‘class’.Evenwhenschoolsareinoperation,problemssuchasineffectiveandstatus-based(oftendictatorial)teachingmethodsandlowself-confidenceamongpupilsduetoverbaldiscouragementandphysicalpunishmentarecommon.Reportsofteacher-assistedcheatingonexaminationsarealsocommon,asthequalityofeducationdoesnotadequately"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

preparestudentsfortheirexams,buttestresultsandtheresultingcertificatesareconsideredallimportant.ThecostoftakingexamsattheWalakSMPiscurrentlyonepig,onechickenandRp.250,000(approximately£16.50)perstudent.BothexpatriateandIndonesianeducatorsthatIhavemetareunanimousthatthecurrentqualityofformaleducationisshockinglylowinPapua.

Researchdoneforinternationalorganisationsechoestheseobservations,reportingseriousconcernsaboutschoolaccessibility,highdropoutrates,andthelowestlevelsofstudentenrolmentinIndonesia(GovernmentofPapuaProvinceetal.2009;TheWorldBank2009;UNDP2005).Illiteracyin2012isreportedbyIndonesia’sCentralStatisticsBody,BadanPusatStatistic(2013)as34.49percentofthepopulationforPapuaprovinceand6.04percentforWestPapuaprovince.TheWorldBank(2009)reports62percentilliteracyinJayawijaya,oneofthemoreurbanregenciesofthemostlyruralhighlands.Oneofthemostcommonproblemscitedisteacherabsenteeismleadingtoclosedschools;teachersoftenliveinurbancentresinsteadoftheremotelocationsoftheirposts.Reasonsforthisincludepoorinfrastructure,lackofsupportandresourcesforteachersinruralposts,andlackofmonitoring(GovernmentofPapuaProvinceetal.2009;TheWorldBank2009;USAID2009;UNDP2005).

Aprevalentchargeoverthelastfourdecadesisthatschoolsinremoteregionsdonot‘conservethetraditionalwisdomandgenuineidentityofthePapuanpeople’asonedraftforaProvincialSpecialRegulationConcerningEducationstatesthattheyshould(DraftPerdasi2002:Article35,Clause7).ThePapuanadministrationhassetouttoreversethisoverthelast10years,butinrealityhasmadelittle,ifany,adaptiontothenationalcurriculumandpedagogy,whichareinappropriateandirrelevant"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

tolocalPapuancontexts(GovernmentofPapuaProvinceetal.2009;USAID2009;Mollet2007;UNDP2005;seealsoSpicer1972;Ajamiseba1987;Duijnstee1972).Thecurriculumdoesnotincorporateknowledgeorcontentrelatedeithertolifeinthehighlandsortojobopportunitiesinthecasheconomy(Mollet2007)andusesmethodsandexamplesthatarebeyondPapuanchildren’sframeofreference(UNDP2005).Moreimportantly,therelevanceofthecurriculumhaslittleactualbearingonchildren’sexperienceofschoolinginruralareasasitisrarely,ifever,referredto.Achild’sschoolcertificateusuallyhasmoretodowiththeirrelatives’abilityandwillingnesstomeetteachers’demandsforpaymentandgiftsthanithastodowitheitherthecurriculumorthechild’sknowledgeandabilities.

Missionanddevelopmentagenciesaresteppingintoprovidealternativestostateschooling,withsomanyschoolsclosedorinaccessibletochildren,andthosethatareoperatingleavingchildrenandyoungadultsnobetterequippedtodealwiththechallenges,opportunitiesandthreatsoftheirrapidlychangingenvironmentsthantheywerebeforetheintroductionofstateschools.Ifqualityschoolingcanbeprovided,theargumentgoes,thenextgenerationofPapuanswillbebetterequippedtodealwiththesechallenges.Theywillbebetterabletomanagetheresourcesoftheirregion,tointeractonaglobalscaleandtoadvocateforthemselves.Theywillbeequippedtonegotiatecontractswithinternationalcompanies,tomakedemandsfortherightsoftheirfamilies,andtoself-governeffectivelywithinthecurrentsocial,economicandpoliticalcontext.AsNichol(2011:34)pointsout,‘itcouldbearguedthatifself-managementandself-determinationaretoberealisticgoalsforIndigenouscommunitiesthentheleaderswillneedtobeableto"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

communicate,liaiseandnegotiatewithoutsidersandtheseskillsrequireacademiceducation’.Indigenouspeoplesinotherpartsoftheworldhaveinsistedontheirrighttoeducation,inwhichtheyusuallyincludeschooling,aspartoftheirrighttoself-determination(see,forexample,TheCoolangattaStatementonIndigenousRightsinEducation1999;Smith2005;Manuelito2005;MayandAikman2003).

Thereareasmanyapproachestoachievequalityschoolingasthereareschoolstryingtorealiseit.Whilstanumberofforeignagenciesaretryingtosupportchangewithinthestatesystem,othersareinvestinginprivateschools.Oneschool,forexample,focusesonmathsandphysicsandtakesPapuanchildrentoJakarta(oversixhours’flightaway)totakeadvantageofstate-of-the-art,purpose-builtfacilities(seeSuryaInstitute2009;Somba2009).Another,fundedbytheUnitedNationsDevelopmentProgramme(UNDP),aimstopreparechildrenforschoolbyteachingmathsandlanguageskillstopre-schoolersusingspears,bowsandotherfamiliartools(UNDP2012;Sulthani2012).Athird,inthePapuantownofSentani,hostschildrenfromthehighlandsindormitories,aimingto‘equipPapuanchildrentobenationalandinternationalleaders’(SekolahPapuaHarapan2012).ADutchfoundation(seeOikonomosFoundation2012)workswithIndonesianNGOYayasanKristenWamena(WamenaChristianFoundation)whorunaprimaryschoolinWamena,atowninthehighlands,offerteachertrainingandaredevelopingcurriculumappropriatetothePapuanhighlands.Yetanotherschoolinthehighlands,ObAnggen,isrunbyacross-culturalteamthatseekstoactivelyinvolveparentsintheeducationoftheirchildrenwhilstprovidingschoolingwhichmeetsinternationalqualitystandards(USAID2011).Allofthese"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

schoolsarewell-attendedbyPapuanchildrenandreportencouragingresults,althoughnonehaveexistedlongenoughtomeasurethelong-termeffectsoftheirinterventions.Eveninthesealternativestostateeducation,however,theintroductionofschoolingasameanstoarelevanteducationforPapuanhighlanders’childrenisrifewithcomplications,whichcometolightthroughreflectionontheevaluationsmadebyindigenouspeoplesoftheirexperiencesofmainstreameducationelsewhere,andbythecriticismswhichhavebeenmadeaboutanotherarenaofeducationthathasimpactedindigenouspeoples’lives–thatofresearch(Bishop2003).

AnalysingPowerRelationshipsinResearchandEducation

AlthoughthehighlandsofPapuahavenotbeenexemptfromthelonghistoryofresearchintoindigenouspeoples’lives,foravarietyofcomplicatedreasonstherearefewerPapuanvoiceschallengingthepowerrelationswithinsuchresearchthanthereareinmanyotherPacificandMelanesiancontexts.Nonetheless,theworkofindigenousscholarsfromotherpartsoftheworldisrelevanttothePapuansituation.Smith(1999),Bishop(1998,1999),andSandri(thisvolume)posequestionsaboutthelocusofpowerwithinresearchaboutindigenouspeoples,andwithothersposesimilarquestionsaboutthepowerrelationshipsatplayintheprovisionofschoolingforchildrenofindigenouspeoplesinAotearoa/NewZealand(BishopandGlynn1999;Porsanger1994;Bishop2003).


OnehelpfulmodelforanalysingpowerrelationsineducationisoutlinedbyBishop(1995,1998,2005;seealsoBishopandGlynn1999:55)whosetsoutquestionsaboutpowerinfiveareas:initiation,benefits,representation,legitimationandaccountability.Initiationreferstowhobeginsaprojectanddefinestheoutcomesofit.Forexample,manyresearchershaveconsideredtheethicsoftheirresearch,suchasselectionofresearchtopicandfieldsite,accesstoknowledge,andinformedconsent,fromtheperspectiveoftheresearchers’institutionsonly,andsomeresearchershaveenteredcommunitieswithoutfollowinglocalprotocolsforguestswhichwouldgivethehoststhepowertopermitordenyaccess(Harvey2003;TeAwakotuku1991;Nakata1998).Benefitsrefertowhostandstogain,andatwhosecost,bytheproject.Thewaythatindigenouspeopleshavebeenobjectifiedandinsultedthroughsometraditionalresearch,whichwasofnobenefitandinmanycasesdoesconsiderableharm,hasbeenwidelycondemned(forexample,Hecklerthisvolume;Porsanger1994;TeAwakotuku1991;Smith1999;Bishop1998,1999;Nichol2011).Representationrefersnotjusttohowpeopleinaprojectarerepresentedbutalsotowhorepresentsthem,onwhatbasisandonwhoseauthority.Traditionalresearchhaspresumedtorepresentpeopleonthebasisofonlybriefencounters(Smith1999),fromastandpointwhichhasmadecontestationdifficultforindigenouspeoples(Nakata1998).Maoristudentshaveevenfoundtheirownhistoriesbeingtaughttothemaccordingtotherepresentationsofforeignresearcherswhobecameknownas‘experts’aboutMaoripeople(TeAwakotuku1991;Bishop1998).Legitimationreferstohowtheknowledgeinaprojectisvalidated,whichisusuallyaccordingtoWesternepistemologiesandmethodologies,"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

includingavalueforneutralityandobjectivityamongthepositivists,andexplicitsubjectivityamongthepostmodernists,bothofwhichdependonaviewofdistancebetweentheknowerandtheknown(Bishop1998;Heshusius1994).Accountabilityreferstowhoretainstherightandpowertodeterminewhatacceptableoutcomesoftheprojectare,andtowhocontrolstheprocedures,evaluationsanddistributionsofknowledge(Bishop2005).Accountabilityhastraditionallybeentoresearchers’institutions,fundersandacademicpeers,ratherthantothepeoplewhoarehosts(Smith1999;Porsanger1994;Bishop1999).WithinwhatBishop(1999)callstraditionalresearch,powerinthesefiveareasislocatedprimarily,andinmanycasesexclusively,withtheresearchersandtheirinstitutions.

Seriousrecognitionthatresearchis‘indissolublyrelatedtopowerandcontrol’(Porsanger1994:108)hasledtonewapproachesbeingdeveloped.Withinanthropology,attemptstorespondtocriticismsofethnographicresearchhaveledinsomecasestoforeignresearchersseekingtoutilise‘empowering’modelsofresearchinwhichtheresearcher‘allows’localpeopletoparticipateintheresearchand‘givesvoice’totheminthefinalpublication.Bishop’s(1999)discussionofemancipatorymodelsofresearchinlightofKaupapaMaoriResearch,aframeworkforresearchthathasbeendevelopedbyMaoripeopleasanalternativetotraditionalresearch,drawsattentiontothewaysthat‘empowering’research,thoughwell-intentioned,stillassumesthatthepowerandcontrolwithintheresearchrelationshipbelongtotheresearcher,whoisthereforeinapositionto‘give’powertomembersoftheresearchedcommunity.Indigenouspeopleshavedisputedthispremise,arguingthatpoweroverresearchshouldberetainedbythepeopleitisabout(seealsoSandrithisvolume)."******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

Somepeoplehaveevensuggestedthatonlyindigenousresearchersshouldbeallowedtoconductresearchabouttheirownpeoples.Amorewidelyheldview,however,isthatthereisspacefornon-indigenousresearcherswhoarewillingtoparticipateonindigenousterms(Porsanger1994;Smith1999;Bishop1999;George1990,citedinCram1992).Avarietyofmodelsforsuchengagementbyoutsideresearchershavebeenproposed,mostlywithinthecontextofMaoriresearch.Theseincludeamodelinwhichanon-MaoriresearcherisguidedbyanauthoritativeMaorimentor,wheretheresearcherisadoptedintoawhanau(broadly,aconceptwhichreferstotheextendedfamilyandcontainsMaorivaluesandsocialpractices,seeBishop,1998:217)andtakesontheassociatedobligations.Itisapower-sharingmodelinwhichtheresearcherandcommunitycollaborateontheresearchtomeetoutcomesthataredesiredbytheMaoricommunity(George,1990,citedinCram1992).

Bishop’s(1995,1998,2005)modelforanalysingpowerrelationsineducation,usedsofarmostlyinthecontextofschoolingforMaoris(forexampleBishopandGlynn1999;Bishop2003)orresearchaboutMaoris(Bishop1998,1999),canbeappliedtoschoolsinPapua,toilluminatethecomplicationsinherentintheintroductionofschoolingforPapuanhighlanderchildren.

TheIssueofInitiation

Firstly,thereistheissueofinitiation,includingthechoiceofappropriatepedagogiesandepistemologiesforuseinschool(Bishop1995,1998,2005).SomeschoolsforPapuanchildren"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

havebeenstartedbyforeignagenciesforthebenefitofPapuanpeople;othershavebeenorarebeingstartedattherequestofparticularcommunities.Inbothcases,myexperiencehasbeenthatlocalPapuansareeagertohaveaccesstoformaleducationfortheirchildrenandthereisintensecompetitionoverlimitedplaces.However,evenwhereschoolshavebeensetupattherequestofacommunity,therearewiderissuesofinitiationtoconsider,suchaswhatformaschoolwilltake,whatpedagogieswillbeused,whowillrunit,andwhatgoalsitwillaimtoachieve.Traditionalschoolmodels,whetherborrowedfromAustralia,Britain,America,orthewesternpartsofIndonesia,weredesignedtomeetneedsandservepurposesthatmaybeinappropriateinthePapuanhighlands.

DespitethedominanceofpositivistepistemologyinmuchofthehistoryofWesternschoolingandresearch,theexistenceofdifferentepistemologiesiswelldocumented(seeCalabròthisvolumeandFerrarothisvolumeforexplorationsofthewaysWesternsocialscienceknowledgeissituatedculturallyandhistorically).Thefieldofethnomathematics,whichisparticularlyillustrativebecauseofWesternmathematics’relianceonpositivistepistemology,providesmanyexamplesofthedifferentwaysthatpeoplethinkaboutanddealwithnumber.Theseincludedifferentlimitsonhowhighnumbersgo,theuseofdifferentnumbersfordifferentcategoriesofthings(suchasdifferentnumbersbeingusedforanimatethingsandinanimatethings,forexampleBorden2013),andseeminglydifferentwaysofhandlingabstractionwithnumber.Thesedifferenceshavebeenusedtodescribepeopleasprimitiveorchildlike(AscherandAscher1986).Oneofthereasonsthatdifferencesinuseandunderstandingofnumberhavepromptedsuchethnocentricperceptionsisthatmathematical"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

conceptsareoften,falsely,thoughttobenatural,logicalandindependentofcontext(JorgensenandWagner2013).

Whenexaminedmorecloselyitbecomesobviousthatthedifferencesinthewayspeopleusenumberarenotdifferencesinabilitytothinklogicallyorabstractly.Itisnolesslogical,forexample,tousedifferentnumbersforthelivingandthedeadthanitistoignorethequalitiesofitemsbeingcounted.Apertinentexampleisprovidedbyastudydoneinthe1930swhichusedsyllogismstoinvestigatethereasoningabilitiesofnon-literatepeopleinUzbekistanandfoundthatsomepeopleeitherdidnotanswerasexpectedbytheresearchersorrefusedtoansweratall(AscherandAscher1986).Forexample,whenpresentedwiththeproblem‘AllKpellemenarericefarmers.MrSmithisnotaricefarmer.IsheaKpelleman?’oneresponsewas‘Ifyouknowaperson,ifaquestioncomesupabouthimyouareabletoanswer.Butifyoudonotknowtheperson,ifaquestioncomesupabouthim,it’shardforyoutoanswer’(Scribner1977:490,citedinAscherandAscher1986).AscherandAscher(1986:131)translatethislogicas:‘IfAthenQ,ifBthennotQ,ifnotQthennotC,givenBandnotA,theconclusionisnotC’.

Thelogicisexcellenteventhoughitisdifferenttothatofthequestion(thelogicofthequestionis‘IfAthenC.GivenBisnotC,isBequaltoA?’).Theresponsedemonstratesnotonlytheresponder’sabilitytothinklogicallyandintheabstract,butalsothesubstitutionofarationalewhichismoreconsistentwiththeresponder’sunderstandingofthelimitsofknowledge(AscherandAscher1986).Inotherwords,thequestionisansweredfromadifferentepistemologicalstance.AsAscherandAschercomment(1986:130),‘theKpellerespondentandhisWesternquestionerhavedifferentviewsontalkingaboutpeoplewhomyoudonot"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

know’.WolahighlandersinPapuaNewGuineaevidenceasimilarmindsetregardingtrustandabstractknowledge(Sillitoe2010).

Theseexamplesprovidecrucialinsightintothewaythatpeoplefromdifferentculturesform,useandreproduceknowledge.Theproblemisthatinschools,especiallyprimaryschools,itiscommonforjustoneepistemology(oftenapositivistone)tounderpineachsubject;forexample,onlyonewayofdealingwithnumberistaughtasvalidor‘right’.Itiscommendabletoteachchildrenthepositivistepistemologythatunderpinsmuchofscientificandtechnologicaladvancement,buttodosototheexclusionofallotherperspectivesisalosstostudentsaroundtheworldwhocangothroughschoolwithoutevenknowingabouttheexistenceofdifferentepistemologies.ForchildrenofPapuanhighlanders,whomayencounterinschooltheclaimthattheepistemologicalstanceoftheirwholefamilyiswrong,theloss,botheducationallyandpsychologically,isevengreater.

Pedagogiesalsovarybetweencultures,andareintrinsicallyvalue-laden(seeNichol,thisvolume).Forexample,inmanywesternIndonesianschoolschildrenareexpectedtolearnwhattheirteachertellsthembyrote(FrederickandWorden2011;UNICEFIndonesia2009).Theteachermaypunishquestioningandexpectspupilstoaffordhimorhergreatrespect(FrederickandWorden2011).Thisreflectsandcommunicatesahierarchicalorderingofsocietyandtheimportanceofpayingrespecttothoseinauthority.Bycontrast,manyAmericanschoolsrewardquestioning,curiosityandstudentsfiguringthingsoutforthemselves,reflectingavalueforindependentlearningandthedevelopmentofpersonalautonomy(Alexander2001).Another"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

exampleofavalue-ladenpedagogicalapproachistheuseofcompetitiontomotivateyoungsters.Thevalue-ladennatureofpedagogiesbecomesobviouswhenapedagogicalapproachthatseemsnaturalinoneculturalcontextisusedinanewone.Forexample,howeffectivearepedagogiesrootedinvaluesofhierarchylikelytobeinegalitariansocieties?

TheIssueofBenefits

Secondly,thereistheissueofbenefits.TheschoolsforPapuanchildreninwhichforeignagenciesareinvolvedexistexplicitlytobenefitPapuanpeople.ThequestionsofhowPapuanswillbenefit,accordingtowhom,andatwhatcost,areimportantonestoaskthough.TheseissuesareverycomplexinthePapuancontext.Manyhighlanderswantandpursueaformaleducationfortheirchildren,citingavarietyofpotentialbenefits.Somepeopleargueforformaleducationasameansfortheirchildrentogainprestige,socialstatusandasalaried,influentialorhighstatuspositioninthecasheconomy,assertingthattheyaresettingthemupforaneasierlifethanthatofsubsistencegardening.Othersassertthatthosewhohavehadaformaleducationcanusetheknowledgetheyhavegainedforthebenefitoftheirpeople,bynegotiatingthepoliticalsystemtogaininfluenceorfunds,byfacilitating‘progress’,oftenrepresentedbyroads,electricity,andcommunications,bypositioningthemselvesandtheirpeopleaspowerfulactorsinamodernsociety,orinsupportofpoliticalfreedom(Munro2009,2013).Schoolingisalsoseenasawayto‘overcomeallegedbackwardness’(Munro2013:33).Parentsperceiveformaleducationasapowerfultool,somethingtobe"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

takenadvantageof.Nonetheless,peopleengageincomplexanalysesofthecosts

andbenefitsindecidingwhethertosendtheirchildrentoschoolornot,astheyareawarethattheremaybenegativeconsequencestoschoolingtoo.Boardingschoolsareanexample:theseparationofchildrenfromtheirkinandtheirlandispainfulforboththemandtheircommunities,andcanbedestructivetotheirsenseofidentityandbelonging(Nichol2011).Inschoolsthatareruninthehighlands,costsmaybemorehiddenbuttheystillexist.Forexample,childrenwhoattendschoollosetimethattheywouldhavespentinotheractivities,whichmayleadtoalossofopportunitytoparticipateinlocalevents,fulfilculturalobligations,andlearnindigenousskillsandknowledge.Insomeschoolsettings,studentsencounterhumiliatingportrayalsofthemselvesandtheirheritage,andlearnnegativeattitudestotheirownlanguageandculture.

EvenwhenSDschoolsruninruralsettings,childrenusuallyhavetomovetotowntofinishtheirschooling,provokingfearthatawayfromtheinfluence,support,andinterventionoftheirfamilymembers,theywillstartdrinkingorsmoking,getpregnantorgetmarried,getintoconflict,getintroublewiththeauthorities,getsick–whichisoftenviewedaspreventableiffamilymembersarearoundtointervenespiritually–orevendieawayfromhome.Anxietyisheightenedbythosewholeavetofinishtheirschoolingandreturnhomewith‘stres’–awordusedtodescribepeoplewho,havingbeenpushedbeyondtheircapacitytocope,havesufferedanundiagnosedmentalbreakdown(seealsoMunro2009:153).

Formaleducationusuallycomeswithafinancialcost,too,andthebenefitsdon’talwaysplayoutasexpected.Onereasonthat"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

thepotentiallossofindigenousknowledgeisnotalwaystakenseriouslyisthatschoolsareexpectedtoequipPapuanchildrentoworkinthecasheconomy,injobsthatrequiretheabilitytoread,writeanduseinformationtechnology.Butinthecentralhighlands,wherethemainsourceofemploymentispublicservice,accordingtobothmyWalakandLanifriends,andMunro’s(2009)Daniinformants,havingtherightrelativesisatleastasimportanttogainingemploymentashavingtherightskillsandknowledge.Someyoungpeoplefindthemselvesattheendofanexpensiveeducationwithoutthedesiretomakealifeintheruralhomesteadstheycamefrom,but,duetoashortageofjobsorthe‘wrong’connections,withoutanymeansofgainingemployment.Otherstakeworkthattheyfeelambivalentabout,ordisappointedwith.Somefinishtheirschoolingindebtedtothosewhosponsoredtheireducationfinancially,butunableorunwillingtofulfiltheobligationsconsequentlyexpectedofthem.AccordingtomyWalakfriends,mostpeoplewhocompletetheirschoolingneverreturntoliveontheirland.

Munro(2013)arguesthat‘inflatedpossibilitiesof[state]educationmaybeconsideredaformofviolencebecausetheseclaimssetindigenousmenandwomenuptofailamidunacknowledgedconditionsthatmakepersonal,socialandpoliticaltransformationahighlyimprobableoutcomeofschoolinginhighlandsPapua’.Iwouldarguethatindigenousmenandwomenareaware,beforetheyinvestinprivateorstateeducation,oftheconditionstheystudyinandofthedifferentformsofsuccessschoolingresultsinwithinthoseconditions,yetmanyofthemstillpursueformaleducation.However,foreignagenciesinvolvedineducationshouldthemselvesacknowledgethataccesstoschoolingdoesnottranslatedirectlyintobenefits"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

forPapuanhighlanders.Papuans’perceptionsofthebenefitsofschoolingmayalsodifferfromthoseoftheforeignagency.Understandinghowcomplextheissueofbenefitsiswillhelpschoolstofostermorejustlearningenvironmentsaswellaspreparechildrentodealwiththeunjustrealitiestheyarelikelytoencounterbeyondschool.

TheIssuesofRepresentation,LegitimationandAccountability

Thirdly,inBishop’s(1995,1998,2005)modelthereisrepresentation,whichrelatestoseveraldifferentaspectsofschoolingincludingmaterials,staffingandstudentenrolment.Whosehistoriesandexperiencesarerepresentedintheeducationalmaterialsusedinschools?Deeplyembeddedineducationalmaterialsaretaken-for-granteddepictionsofrealityandof‘normal’childhoodexperiences.Whatgenderroles,forinstance,arerepresentedinstorybooksaboutthefamily?Dothemenandwomenliveinthesameordifferenthouses?Whatjobsdothepeopleinstory-basedmathsproblemshave?Whataspirationsdothephrasesusedforlanguagelearningsuggest?SILInternationalareworkingtodevelopculturallyappropriatematerialsforsomePapuancontexts(USAID2009:141)andYayasanKristenWamenacontinuetheirworkdevelopingcurriculumandaccompanyingeducationmaterialsforthePapuanhighlandsthatarebasedonIndonesiannationalstandards(Serasi2012),buteducatorsstillhavefewmaterialstodrawonwhichrepresenttheday-to-dayexperiencesofanyPapuanhighlanders,andevenfewerspecificonesforeachcontext.Itismoredifficult"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

still,inmostareas,tofindcomprehensiveresourcesthathavebeendevelopedintheindigenouslanguage.Representationisimportantinstaffingaswellasinmaterials(Kaomea2005),asmaterialscanbepresentedinunintendedandcounterproductivewaystotheaimsofthosewhodevelopedthem.

Arelatedissueisthequestionofhowbeneficialitistoattempttocaptureandteachindigenousknowledgethroughaninstitution.AsAgrawal(1995)hassuggested,incorporatingindigenousknowledgeintoformaleducationiscomplexandraisesdilemmasaboutwhatexactlyindigenousknowledgeisandwhetheritshouldorevencanbeformalisedandseparatedfromeverydaylife(seealsoHermes2005;IsmailandCazden2005).Sarangapani(2003)exploresinterestinindigenisingschoolcurriculumsinthecontextoftheBaiga,asmalltribewholiveinforestedregionsofcentralIndia.Sheconcludesthattheashramshalas(formalschools)whichpresentknowledgeinliteraryforms,outofcontext,andexpectchildrentobecompetitiveandtoperformanalyticalandabstracttasksarepedagogicallyandepistemologicallydifferentfromvidya(indigenousmedicinalknowledge)whichmustneverbewrittendown,issecretive,transmittedorally,non-systematisedandintegratedwithBaigawaysofbringingupchildren.Shearguesthatthesurvivalofvidyawillbebestachievedbykeepingitoutofformaleducation(Sarangapani2003).

Anotherimportantrepresentationaspectofschoolingistheissueoftheidentityofpupils.Iftherearelimitedschoolspaces,somemethodwillbeusedtoallocatethem,whichwilldeterminewhoisrepresentedintheschool,andwhothereforemayendupwiththeskillsneededtointeractintheglobalpoliticalandeconomicarena.Relatedtothisisthequestionofwhose"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

aspirationsandagendasarebeingrepresentedthroughtheschool.Forexample,theDutchschoolingsystemdeliberatelycreateda‘Papuanelite’–agroupofpeoplewho,iftheDutchcolonisers’planhadworked,wouldhaverepresentedPapuainternationally(Timmer2005;Mollet2007).Thequestionofhowtodecidewhohasaccesstotheskillsthatcanbelearnedinschool,andofwhoshouldmakesuchdecisions,canbedifficultevenwithouttheexpectationthattheschooledchildrenshouldbecomeleaderswhorepresentotherPapuansininteractionswiththerestoftheworld.Whenthatexpectationispresent,thecomplicationsofwhetherornototherPapuanswanttoberepresentedarise,includinghowtheywanttoberepresentedandwhotheywanttorepresentthem.AparticularlyfraughtquestioniswhetherschooledPapuansarestillrepresentativeoftheirfamiliesandcommunities(seeSillitoethisvolume).AcommoncriticismofschooledPapuansisthattheprocessofeducationhassoalienatedthemfromtheircommunitiesthattheycannolongerspeakforthem(aproblemindigenousMaorischolarshaveencounteredtoo,seeSmith1999).Theproblemwiththisisthatitcreatesaninescapableparadox:Papuansareframedaseitherunabletorepresentthemselvesbecausetheydon’thavetheskillstodosoorasunabletorepresentthemselvesbecausehavingobtainedthoseskillstheynolonger‘count’as‘authentic’indigenouspeople.Clearly,whenaparadigmleavesnospaceforpeopletohavethedignityofself-representationtheparadigmneedstochange.

Fourthly,Bishop’s(1995,1998,2005)modellistslegitimation.Schoolsareinthebusinessofauthorisingparticularpiecesofknowledgeaslegitimateandothersasnot,throughassessmentsaswellasthroughcorrectionandaffirmationofparticularresponsesintheclassroom.Whatgivestheseprocesses"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

authority?Asdiscussedearlier,thewaysinwhichpeopleassess,evaluateandlegitimateknowledgevarybetweendifferentepistemologicaltraditions(Tranthisvolume;Sillitoe2010).Forexample,Sillitoe(2010)describesthelinguisticmarkersthatrelatetotheveracityofknowledgewhichareusedbytheWola,agroupofNewGuineahighlanders,whichincludemarkersforwhetheraspeakerorhearerofagivenstatementwitnessedwhatisbeingdiscussed,andhowfarinthepastitwas,withincreasedtrustbeingputinthingswhichwerewitnessedbybothspeakerandhearerrecently.Knowledgeislegitimatedthroughtrustwhichisbuiltonsharedexperience,ratherthanontrustinexpertsorauthorities;thereisnoauthoritytoadjudicateindisagreementsregardingaparticularpieceofknowledge.Thesekindsofdifferencesinthelegitimationofknowledgearecrucialtoconsiderforschools,inwhich,traditionally,ateacherispresentedasanexpert(whoseteachingdrawsonotherexperts)andchildrenareexpectedtoconsiderknowledgelegitimatebecauseitisgiveninthatcontext,evenifneitherteachernorchildhashadexperienceofwhateverisbeingtaught.

Fifthly,thereisthequestionofaccountability,whichrefersbothtothequestionofwhoretainsthepowertoassessanddetermineacceptableoutcomesofschooling,andtothemeansbywhichschoolsareheldaccountable.Oneofthequestionsthatforeignagenciesinvestinginformaleducationneedtoaskiswithwhomdoesauthority,andaccompanyingresponsibility,fortheeducationofPapuanchildrenrest,andifithasbeendelegatedinsomemeasuretothoseworkinginschools,whodelegatedit?Oneanswer,perhapsthemostobvious,isthatitistheparentsofschoolpupilstowhomschoolsshouldbeaccountable.Otherpotentialcontendersarethestate,theforeignorganisation"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

associatedwiththeschool,theschools’funders,andthelocalsponsorsofvisasforforeignpersonnel.WithsomanypotentialpitfallstointroducingschoolsinthePapuanhighlands,itisimportanttoresolvetowhomexactlyaschoolisaccountableandwhetherornottherelationsofpowerthatareimplicitinthatrelationshipofaccountabilityarejustifiabletothepeopletheschoolexiststobenefit.

Asecondaspectofthequestionofaccountabilityiswhatmechanismsareusedtoholdtheschoolaccountable,andwhethertheymakesenseandareaccessibletotherelevantstakeholders.OnecriticismofthecurrentstateeducationsysteminPapuaisthattherearenopracticalmechanismsformonitoringandaccountability.AnincidentthathappenedinaWalakspeakingareaofthePapuanhighlandsdemonstratestheproblem.Inthisarea,thereisanSDschoolandanSMPschooljustoverhalfakilometreapartfromeachother.InMarch2013,thefatherofayoungmanwhohadattendedbothschoolsnailedupthedoorsandwindowsoftheschoolsinbroaddaylight,triggeringameetingoftheheadteachers,teachersandparentstoresolvetheproblemshewasangryabout.AsIaskedschoolchildrenandotherparents,whocondonedthisman’sactions,whathismotivationswere,theyexplainedthatitisatypicalpracticeattheSDschooltochangechildren’snamesatschool,recordingtheirpassresultsandschoolcertificatesinthewrongnames.ThiscreateschaoswhenchildrenthentrytoregisterforSMAinWamena.Somechildren’scertificatesareinotherpeople’snames,andsomehaveevenhadtheiraluakchanged,anamewhichindicateswhotheirancestorsare,whotheyareobligatedtoandprotectedby,andwhotheycanmarry.Othersreporttheiragesbeingwronglyrecording,leadingtothembeingdeniedentry"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

intoSMAforbeingtooyoung.Thereareevenreportsofmalesbeingrecordedasfemalesandviceversa.Thereasonsforthispracticearenotknown.OneofmyWalakfriendssuggestedthatitisbecausetheheadteacherhastosuddenlysendoffalistofresultsanddoesnotwanttotakethetimeandefforttomakesureallthenamesandcorrespondingresultsarecorrect.Thisdoesnot,however,explainwhysomechildrenreportbeingconsistentlycalledbythewrongnameinclassbyteachers.

ParentswerealsoangryattheheadteacheroftheSMPschool,whowasapparentlynotprovidingSuratKeteranganHasilUjian(LetterDeclaringExamResults),aletterreportingthatastudenthaspassedherorhisexamseventhoughthecertificatesarestillbeingprocessed,intimeforstudentstoenrolinSMA.Theresolutionmeetingwentahead,butreportsastohowsuccessfulthismethodofaccountabilitywasvary.IhavebeentoldthattheheadteacheroftheSMPdidnotturnuptothemeetingbutthatthenecessaryletterswereconsequentlyprocessed.OthershavesaidthatmanystudentsarestillwaitingfortheirSuratKeteranganHasilUjian.ApparentlytherehasbeennochangeinthepracticeofwronglyrecordingnamesandagesattheSDand,asfarasparentsknow,thecertificateswithwrongnamescannotnowbechanged.Thisexampledemonstratesthegapsbetweenofficialmethodsofaccountability,whichparentseitherdonotknowaboutordonotwantorfeelabletouse,andlocalmethodsofaccountability,whichachievevaryinglevelsofsuccessthroughunorthodoxmeans.Theheadteachersareofficiallyaccountabletopeoplewhoapparentlydonotknow,anddonotseemtohaveanymeansofknowing,abouttheproblemsparentsandchildrenarefacingintheseschools.Althoughthisexampleisfromastateschool,theprinciplealsoappliestoprivateschools.Inanyschool"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

wherestakeholdersareatsuchconsiderablelinguistic,geographicandculturaldistancefromeachotherthequestionsofhowaschoolistobeheldaccountable,andbywhom,arecrucial.

ParadoxesandAlternatives

ThisapplicationofBishop’s(1995,1998,2005)modeltoanalyseissuesofpoweraccordingtoinitiation,benefits,representation,legitimationandaccountabilityinPapuanschoolsshowsthatthecriticismsthatindigenous(andespeciallyMaori)scholarshavemadeaboutbothschoolsandacademicresearchinothercontextsarerelevanttothePapuancontexttoo.ThefirststeptopreventingthesamemistakesbeingmadeinPapuaistorecognisethatschooling,likeresearch,operateswithinrelationsofpower,whichhavehistoricallybeenmanagedinunjustways.Non-Papuanpeoplewhodorecognisethatpowerimbalancemaybeinclinedtoadaptmodelsofschoolingthatarefamiliartothem(tobemorerelevantandaccessibletopeoplelivinginthePapuanhighlands)seeking,perhaps,toempowerlocalpeoplebyencouragingthemtogetinvolvedinthevariousprocessesofinitiatingandrunningaschool.Althoughthismaygosomewaytowardsaddressingtheseissues,Bishop’squarrelwith‘empowering’modelsofresearch(Bishop1999;Smith1999)isapplicabletoschoolingtoo.Ifoutsidersstillcontroltheinitiation,representation,legitimationandaccountability,aswellastheextenttowhichlocalpeoplecangivetheirinputandperspective,theyperpetuateunequalpowerrelations.Evenapproacheswhicharepresentedascollaborativebyforeignagenciesmayfallintothistrapofretainingcontroloverthetermsofcollaboration,howeverwell-intentionedtheir"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

efforts.Analternativeisforthecontrolandpowerovertheschools

andtheirprocessestobeexclusivelyinthehandsofindigenousPapuanhighlanders.Intheory,ifaparticularcommunitywantedaccesstotheknowledgeandskillsnormallytaughtinschools,itcouldarticulateitsgoalsanddesign,orcommissionthedesignof,aformaleducationinstitutionwhichmetitsneeds,anddeterminehowitwouldoperateandwhowouldbeinvolved.Thiswouldnotexcludetheinputofnon-indigenouspeople.Thedifferenceisthattheinputwouldbeonthehighlanders’termsandthenon-indigenouspeoplewouldbeaccountabletothecommunitytheywereworkingfor.Inreality,however,thepoliticalandhistoricalcontextissuchinPapuathattoinitiateandrunsuchaschoolnecessitatestheabilitytonegotiatebureaucraticsystemsandfundingstreams,aswellastoaccessandcommunicatewithpeoplewhowouldbeable(andwilling)toteachthesenewskillsontermssetbythehighlanders,whichinitselfwouldrequirehavingtheknowledgeandskillstooperateonforeignterms.

ThisparadoxhighlightsacentraldilemmainprovidingeducationforindigenousPapuans.Itiscruciallyimportanttoargueforthevalueandlegitimacyofindigenousknowledgeandtorecognisethatpeoplecanbeeducatedwithoutbeingschooled.ButdoingsodoesnotchangethepresentrealitythatlackofaccesstoformaleducationleavesindigenousPapuansonthelosingendofunequalpowerrelations.Formaleducationisasysteminitsownright,onewhich,amongotherthings,dependsheavilyonthewrittenword,createsandreliesuponexperts,stronglyvaluestheaccumulationofknowledgeovergenerationsandlegitimatesknowledgeproducedthroughthescientificmethod.Thesystem,andtheknowledgeitproduces,are"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

powerful.AsBernard(2011:12)asserts,‘scientificallyproducedknowledgeiseffective–itletsuscontrolnature,whetherwe’retalkingabouttheweather,ordisease,orourownfears,orbuyinghabits’.Thedominanceofformaleducationasameanstoproducingknowledgeissowidespreadthataccesstoschoolingisconsideredahumanrightand‘universalprimaryeducation’isaglobaldevelopmentgoal(UnitedNations2013;UNESCO2012).

ThisdominanceleavesindigenousPapuanstoofrequentlyforcedtochoosebetweenunequalpowerrelationsduetolackofschoolingandunequalpowerrelationswithinschooling,withpotentiallydisastrousconsequences(seeNicholthisvolume).Thesituationisanalogoustothatofminoritylanguagespeakerswhoknowthattobringtheirchildrenupspeakingonlythedominantlanguageistoalienatethemfromtheirheritageandidentityaswellastocontributetothedeathofalanguageandtheknowledgeandmeaningembeddedinit,buttobringthemupspeakingonlytheirmothertongueistoseverelydisadvantagetheminpursuingsocial,politicalandeconomicengagementwiththewidercommunity(BishopandGlynn1999).Consequently,manychildrengrowupbilingual,usingdifferentlanguagesindifferentdomainsandabletoswitchfluentlybetweenthemaccordingtocontext.Bilingualsrarelykeeptheirlanguagescompletelyseparate,butareabletodrawfromonetoenrichtheother,translatebetweenthem,andcodeswitchbetweenthemtoachieveavarietyofcommunicativepurposes.Bilingualsareusuallybiculturaltoo,andarecompetentinbehavingandcommunicatinginculturallyappropriatewayswithineachlanguage(Baker2011).Isitconceivable,then,thatchildrencouldbecomebi-educated,justassomanyhavelearnedtobebilingual?Therehasbeenasignificantamountofresearchdoneonbiculturaleducation,"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

usuallyembeddedintoresearchonbilingualeducationthatrecognisesthatlanguageandculturearerelatedandseekstoensurespacefortheculturesassociatedwithbothlanguagesintheformalbilingualeducationsystem.Thatbodyofresearchdoesnotaddressthequestionofwhetherchildrencouldsuccessfullylearnwithinwithtwodifferent,separateeducationsystemssimultaneously,learningtousedifferentknowledgesystemsindifferentdomains,toswitchfluentlybetweenthemaccordingtocontext,andultimately,tobeabletodrawfromeachtoenrichtheother.

ItislikelythatmanyPapuanshavelearnedtobefluentwithintwoseparateknowledgesystems,negotiatingtheconflictsbetweenthemwithverylittlesupportandperhapsevenatgreatpersonalcost.Thedevelopmentofbi-educationalism,bywhichImeanformaleducationandindigenouseducationintentionallyaccommodatingandsupportingeachother,wouldnecessitatepartnershipsbetweenPapuansandpeoplefromforeignagenciesaroundasharedpurposeinwhichthestrengthsthateachcontributor,whetherindigenousorforeign,hastoofferarerecognisedasinvaluabletothefulfilmentofthepartnership’spurpose.Thiscouldbeapotentialwaythroughtheimpasseofunequalpowerrelationsininitiation,benefits,representation,legitimationandaccountabilityineducation.Forexample,ifthepurposeistoestablishaschooltoservethechildrenofaparticularhighlandcommunity,whicheducatespupilsinWesternknowledgewithoutthreateningtheircontinuededucationinindigenousknowledge,non-localsmaybringknowledgeaboutschoolmodelsfromothercontexts,knowledgeofsomeofthenewskillsthatmaybedesirabletotheindigenouscommunity(suchasreading,writingandspeakingEnglish),anunderstanding"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

offoreignepistemologiesandaccesstofunding,amongotherthings.Indigenousmembersofthepartnershipmaybringknowledgeofmodelsofeducationfromtheirowncontextandoftheskillsandknowledgewhichtheirchildrenneedtothrivelocally,aswellasanunderstandingoflocalepistemologiesandaccesstolocalresources,amongotherthings.Bothpartnerswouldneedtobecommittedtosupportingdifferentformsofeducation,learningfromeachother,andnegotiatinginevitableconflictsbetweenthetwoeducationsystems.

ItisessentialthattheoutcomesofsuchapartnershipgenuinelybenefitPapuanhighlanders.Givenacommitmenttomutualrespect,genuinemechanismsforaccountability,andhonestandtransparentcommunication,thenegotiationofwiderbenefitssuchasthepublicationofknowledgeforawideraudience,ortheformationofparallelpartnershipsinothercontextsinwhichPapuansarethevisitors,doesnotseemtometobemutuallyexclusivewithrespectforthepowerofanindigenouscommunity.Inatruepartnership,bothhostsandvisitorswillbenefit,andtheremayevenbewiderbenefitssuchasnewandcreativeapproachestoglobalproblems.Thechallengeistoachievemutuality,whichisnoeasyfeatgiventhehistoricalcontextandthedifferentpartners’dissimilartraditionsofleadership,knowledgeandsuccess.Foreignpartnersmustbeaccountableto,andremainwithintheboundariessetby,localpartners.However,foreignpartnerswillnot,andshouldnot,participateinwaysthatviolatetheirownvaluesorrightseither.Ifsharedvaluesandgoalscanbeset,andaccessiblemechanismsforaccountabilitythatmakesensetobothpartnerscanbeagreedupon,Ithinkthereispotentialforexcitingcollaborativework.

ThisapproachissimilartotheMaoriresearchmetaphorofa"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

whanauofinterestinwhich‘theenormouslyimportanttaskofrecognizingtherelativetapu(specialness;beingwithpotentialityforpower)andmana(power)ofthetwosides,thehostsandthevisitors’,occursduringthehuiformalmeeting(Bishop1998:206).Onepartofthehuiistheoffering,bythevisitors,ofagifttowardsthecostofthemeeting,whichtheypresenttobeconsidered,andacceptedorrejectedbythehosts.Thisprocessmanifeststhehosts’righttorejectthevisitors’participation,andisapowerfulimageoftheirrighttoself-determination.Ifthevisitors’offeringisaccepted,thewholewhanua,visitorsandhosts,owntheagendaandproblemsforconsiderationinthehuiandbothsharethecostandresponsibilityofaddressingthem.AlthoughthemodelofawhanauisspecifictotheMaoriandshouldnomorebeimportedwholesaletothePapuancontextthananyotherforeignmodel,itdoesprovideanexampleofapartnershipprocessthatisfashionedonanindigenousconcept,inwhichneitherindigenousnornon-indigenousparticipantsarerequiredtogiveuppowertoworktogether(forfurtherexamplesseeNicholthisvolume;Borden2013;Lipkaetal.2013;BishopandGlynn1999).Partnershipsformedonsuchprinciples,butdrawingonPapuanmetaphors,couldprovideawayforwards.

TherearemanydifficultiesassociatedwiththekindsofpartnershipsI’mproposing.Forinstance,ifpartnershipsforeducationaretodrawonindigenousconceptsandaccommodatelocalformsofknowledgeandlearning,theywillneedtobeuniquetoeachcontext.Theissuesdiscussedinthispaperhavefocusedmostlyonindividualschools,butmostforeigninvestmentinPapuaneducationisonanationalscale,throughtheIndonesianandprovincialgovernments.Privateindividualschoolsonlyreachalimitednumberofchildren,andtheresources"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

neededtoprovideschoolingadaptedtoeachindigenouscontextinPapuaareenormous.However,privateschoolscanbeinfluentialasmodelsandpartnersforchangeinthestatesystem(GovernmentofPapuaProvinceetal.2009;USAID2009;UNDP2005).Evenonaschool-by-schoolbasisfindingwaystoworkwhichareacceptabletoallpartnersisdifficult.EducationisinherentlyconnectedtobeliefsandtherearemanyPapuanswhowouldarguethatindigenousknowledgeandeducationcan’tbeseparatedfromindigenousspiritualbeliefs,beliefswhichareatoddswithmostmissionagendasandmanysecularschoolingagendas.Negotiatingthewiderpoliticalissues,anddealingwiththechallengesandparadoxesdrawnoutinthischapterarealsoamongthemanypotentialobstaclestobuildingasuccessfulteamwithsharedgoals.

Nonetheless,analternativetowhathasbeendoneinthenameofeducationinotherpartsoftheworldisneededinPapua.Inthischapter,IhaveoutlinedthehistoryofschoolinginPapuaandtheproblemsofthecurrentformaleducationsystem.Ihavearguedthatforeignagencieswantingtohelpsolvethoseproblemsmustrecognisetheissuesofpowerinvolvedinformaleducation,whichIhaveanalysed,afterBishop(1995,1998,2005),accordingtoinitiation,benefits,representation,legitimationandaccountability.Ihavethenexaminedpotentialalternativestotraditionalmodelsinwhichoutsiderscontroleachoftheseareas,andarguedforcollaborativepartnerships.Idisagreewiththosewhosuggestthatonlyindigenouspeopleareequippedtosolvethedilemmasdiscussed.Ithinkbothanthropologistsandforeigneducatorswhorecognizethewaysthatresearchandeducationhavehistoricallyoperatedhierarchically,andwhoarecommittedtoworkingcollaboratively,canhavearoletoplayindeveloping"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

morejustformsofeducationforindigenousPapuans.

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——2011.PapuaPrimarySchoolProgramTransformsCommunity[Online].Jakarta:USAIDIndonesia.Availableat:http://indonesia.usaid.gov/en/USAID/Article/608/Papua_Primary_School_Program_Transforms_Community[Accessed21June2013].

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http://ddp-ext.worldbank.org/EdStats/IDNper09.pdf

1Since2003,theIndonesianwesternhalfoftheislandofNewGuineahasbeendividedintotwoprovinces,calledPapuaandWestPapua.ForreadabilityI,likeMunro(2013),use‘Papua’torefertobothprovincesunlessotherwisestated.


Index

Allindexentriesshownherecorrespondtothepagenumberswithintheprintededitiononly.Withinthisdigitalformatthesepagenumbersallowforcrossreferencingonly.

accesstoschool235–7A.P.Elkin7Aboriginal185,186Aboriginalland

title153abstractions

cross-culturalvariability4,22accountability240,246–8

inresearch240inschooling246–8

accreditationseecertificateactionresearchxvAfricanculturalvalues185Africanindigenousphilosophies181,184,187Africanknowledgesystems182Africanphilosophies185,193,196Africanproverbs182,187,196agency118–19,121,136,136n32


agendasineducation236,238,243,246Agrawal,A.12Akan

community189proverb188tradition188,189

Alatas,S.F.15Albert,B.117alienation243–4,246Allen,P.G.20AmericanAnthropologicalAssociation97

asAAA97–8AmerindianpopulationinBrazil122ancestraldomain149,150,155,158,160,161

lands148,149,150,151,152,153,154,159,160property150rights161territories161

Angell,B.19anthropologicalknowledge95–7,100,103–4anthropologicalpractice109anthropologicalresearch1anthropologists149,159,161

as‘politicalobject’116–18,121,130,138anthropologyxv

authorityof2challengestoxvi,16,20,21–2


definitionof8–9,21–2athome8localantagonismto5–6teachingof20–21

Antweiler,C.6Aotearoa8Apurinã116,127,134Archibald,J.78,85Asad,T.119Asch,M.11AsianDevelopmentBank149,155,157,158assessment20assimilation77,86–7,89assimilationpolicies86AssociationofSocialAnthropologistsoftheUKand

Commonwealth14attendance4,11,14,21Australia1AustralianAboriginalPeople3,6,10,20AustralianCouncilofEducationalResearch18authenticvoice77autonomy149,152,153avoidance65;seealsoSmith,onthestrategyofavoidanceaxiology195

Baiga245Banerjee,S.B.3Bangladesh19"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

Bani,M.6Banks,M.123Barnard,A.9,35,49Barnhardt,R.14Barr,J.18,21Bates,17Battiste,M.10Beck,U.7,9,11benefitsofresearch240benefitsofschooling243–4BernodeAlmeida,A.W.123,128Bicker,A.5,12,14Bidyadanga165,167bi-educationalism249–51Biehl,J.121n11bilingualism249Bishop,R.8,235,239–51Bloch,M.E.F.131Boas,F.15Bokondini237Bouquet,M.7Bowen,J.R.11brancos(whites)120–21,127,129–31BrazilianUrbanAmerindians115–39

seeAssociationsandOrganizationsinManaus125n19andChristianity124seepopulationinManaus123,123n13


as‘post-modernIndians’129–30broadcommunitysupport157,158,161Brokensha,D.6Brown,A.K.6Brush,S.14Buck,SirPeter62–4Bunzel,R.L.15Burakumin4

caboclo(mixedindigenousandwhiteperson)123n15,124n17,123–4,126–7,129n25,134

Calabrò,D.8CanningBasin3,163–6

cottonfarming165LaGrangesubbasin165populationdemographics163,167resources165,172

Cazden,C.14certificate237–8,247–8Cervone,E.5,6,7,13,14Chambers,R.5characteristicsoftraditionalIndigenouseducation8ChittagongHillstribes,Bangladesh160CIMI(ConselhoIndigenistaMissionário,IndigenistCatholic

MissionaryCouncil)116,116n2,128citizenship3civilizados(civilized,apejorativeterm)124,126,127n24,128–

30,134"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

Clift,C.14Colchester,M.11collaboration7,57,63,65–6,71–2,95–7,99–103,105–7,109,

111–13,249–51bridgesof66collaborativemethodologies101,105–6collaborativemoment99–100,105,109collaborativeresearch95,100,106,108

collectiveright149colonialattitudes10colonialism96,102,104

colonialregime103–4colonialstruggle(anti)96

colonialityofpower103community182,183,185,187,188,189–95

belongingness185education1,191knowledge191,192oflearners185-minded191,192responsibility191

compensation151,152complementarity68

standpoint61Conklin,B.129,130n29connectionwithland163–5,167–8;seealsoCountry

Karajarri165inlaw174


Ngurrara166Tjurabalan166

conscientizationindigenous64

constructivistlearning13contemporary181,185,186,187,193contemporaryindigenousculture5contextual14control

disciplinary61,70ofMāori68,71

ConventiononBiologicalDiversity210,211Conway,M.A.131cooperative14

individual182,190cosmology184costsofschooling243–4Country

Aboriginalaspirationsfor167,170,172–3connectionto164,165definitionof167health,and168identity,and168,173lookingafter164,173speakfor165seealsoconnectionwithland;WorkingonCountry

CreeNation17


criticalethnocentrism56crossculturalstudy8–9,15,22Cucurí,C.107culturaldevelopment150,152

culturalheritage148,150identity148independence148resources155,157rights149,161survival155systems158

culturalinterface66culturalprotectionsseeculturalsecurityculturalsecurity80,83–4,89,80culturalsensitivityandknowledge21culturalsongs182,184culturaltrauma80,89culture77–8,80,87,89,181–7,190,192,193,195,196cultureinterface182curriculum238–9,245Cushing,F.H.15custom10–11customaryland150

laws160rights156,158,159

Dani244DeMartino,E.56"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

DeclarationofBarbados96decolonization95–9,104–7

ofanthropology95–7,104decolonizationtheory78decolonizingknowledge14,17–21decolonizingmethodologies104Dei,G.11,14,18Denzin,N.K.7,8detached/detachment98developmentxv,3,6,12,13,18,21,236,238,243,249

endogenous14diachronictrauma130,133,138DiasdaCosta,W.133–4discrimination89dispossessionofland4distance

anthropological70betweenanthropologyandindigenousstudies64

Dixon,P.18,21dominantEuropeanknowledge9dominantidentity184dominantoccidentallens184DongriaKondhtribalhouseholds151Dorsey,J.O.15Douglas,M.10Dreamingstories79,82Durkheim,E.15


Dutfield,G.14dysfunctionalIndigenouscommunities11

economicdevelopmentPBCs167rightsto168,169,171

Ecuador101,106,108–9educationxv,17–21

asindoctrination15inPNG11systemsinAustraliaandMelanesia2

effectivelearningstrategies5ElDoradoaffair6Elders85–8,185,186,187,188,189,193,193,196Ellen,R.6Emberá10,33–4,36–50

indigeneity36–40Emery,A.R.6eminentdomain152employmentopportunities238,243–4empowerment240–41,248enculturation235;seealsoIndigenouseducationengagedanthropologyxv,7,33,48–50,95–6,99–104,106,108,

115–18,116n4,120–21,137–9engagement58–9,65,66,72,95–100,102–3,105,109Englishidentity9environment18episteme(s)55,60,65,71"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

epistemologicalpluralism195epistemology/epistemes95,101,103,109,181,184,186,195,

241–3epistemologicalracism65equity182,191,194Escobar,A.12,15,16EssentialLearnings,theStandards,ortheFramework12ethicalissues11–12,20,239–51ethnographic-determinism18ethnographicmuseums6ethnographicrecord15ethnographicresearch17ethnography15

indigenoususeof10,15ethnomathematics242Euro-American182,184,196Eurocentric181,194,195Ewart,E.129n27

fables186falsewhiteness81Fanon,Franz78,106Farmer,P.115n1Fassin,D.136–9feel-goodness103,108fieldworkexperience19FirstNations/Peoples15,17,77–8,89Fitznor,L.xv,5"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

Fixico,D.L.127Flaherty,M.G.3Fletcher,A.C.15folktales181,182,184–6formaleducationseeschoolingFoucault,M.119n8FourArrows10FUNAI(FundaçãoNacionaldoÍndio,NationalIndian

Foundation)120,124,124n18,134,138FUNASA(FundaçãoNacionaldeSaúde,NationalHealth

Foundation)120,138

Ga ma‘bothways’14Gell,A.118,136n32Gellner,E.15generosity191globalization207Graeber,D.121Graham,L.R.129Greene,S.6Grenier,L.6Gross,D.98–9Guenther,M.9Gungarri78–9,81–2

Hale,C.R.101–2,116n4,117,120n10,121Hannerz,U.117Harris,H.6"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

Hastrup,K.118hegemonicperspectives184hegemony184Hemming,J.122,126n22,129Hendry,J.xv,5,6Herle,A.6hermeneutics

multi-textual100–101Hobart,M.12Hobsbawm,E.10holism,inMāoriStudies60,66holistic14Howe,J.33,49Hugh-Jones,S.121hui(Māorimeeting)59,68humanrights11,13,14,97,99,101–2,148,154humility189,191,192

IbnKhaldun15identity10,15,17,77–8,87

recognitionof164seealsonativetitle;connectionwithland;Country

ideologyv.theory5,19,22ignorance

ofnon-Westernepistemes65sanctioned65n12

ILOConvention169of1989150,151,152,153,155,156imaginal14"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

imperialism205indifference

institutionalized65n12towardsnon-Westernepistemes65

indigeneity34–6,48–50Indigenism118,118–19n7Indigenistresearch77–8,84–5,88indigenization55,68,71Indigenous181,184–7,190,193,194,195,196

activists12correctnessof9–11,12–13thetermxv,9–11

IndigenousAfricanphilosophies184,185,193Indigenouseducation1,17–21,235–6,244

andacademicstandards18–19,21challengesfacing17–18institutionsof17,20recognitionissues18–19,20

Indigenousethnography78,80,84,86Indigenousinstitutions190indigenousknowledge(s)xv,2,6,18,21,181,194,195,207,208,

238,244–5andpedagogy2,14

Indigenouspeoples181Indigenousphilosophies181,184,186,187IndigenousresearchseeInidigenistresearchindigenousscholars99,103–5,149,159,161


activists155communalism155governance160landrights152knowledge149,150,159,161movements147politics160rights159self-government153

Indigenousstudiesxv–xvii,7,15,95–102critiquesofxvii,18–19definitionof8–9andIndigenouspeoples98,104,106,108aplacefor9,14,16publishing19andwomen106–7

individualvariation4individualism190,191Indonesianeducationsystem236–7,243initiation240,241–3

ofresearch240ofschools241–3

interconnectednessseeInidigenistresearchinterdependence190,191interests

environmental154social154


invisibility85–6,88involuntaryresettlement150Ismail,S.14Italiananthropology56–7,60Ito,Y.60

Jackson,J.E.117Jacob,P.4Jankie,D.12Jenkins,R.123judicialactivism154

Ka’ili,T.O.5,7,16Kagendo,M.14Kahotea,D.T.63,71Kambeba116,127Kaomea,J.12Kapfhammer,W.129n26Karajarri

enterprises173involvementinplanning164;seealsowaterplanningnativetitleclaimprocess170nativetitledetermination165population165relationshiptowater165;seealsowaterwaterplanning

KarajarriTraditionalLandsAssociationdecision-making168,173


knowledge169kaupapaMāoriresearch8,55,58,68n14,71–2,241

ethicalguidelines60Kawagley,A.14Keesing,R.1Kendrick,J.9Kikokushijo4KimberleyLandCouncil164,165Kinaesthetic14KLCseeKimberleyLandCouncilknowledge2–3

ascommonproperty14conflictingsystemsof172–3indigenousseeindigenousknowledgeliteratev.oral15nativetitle174pluralityof21

Kogolov.StateofWesternAustralia(2007)FCA1703166koha(gift)69Kokama116,127,133–5Kooma79kotahitanga(unity)58Kpelle242KTLAseeKarajarriTraditionalLandsAssociationKuokkanen,R.17,60,65Kuper,A.9,35–6,48Kwaiopeople1,10


LaFlesche,F.15Lamphere,L.5land

relationshipswith172seealsoconnectionwithland;Country;water;waterplanning

Land/MotherEarth181Lassiter,L.E.1LatinAmerica6,96–8,104,106Latour,B.11legaltraditions164–5,168–9;seealsoknowledgelegitimation240,246

inresearch240inschooling246

Lewis,J.9Lincoln,Y.7,8Linstead,S.3Linstroth,J.P.6,116n4,130,133,138literacies22literacy

problemsof15livelihoods

strategies155LocalAboriginalEducationConsultativeGroup13localculturalknowledges183,184;seealsoIndigenous

knowledgelocalempowerment1logic242Low,S.M.7,13,19,116,116n4,117n5"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

Luciano,G.S.122

McCarty,T.6,14McIntosh,I.11Mahmood,C.K.18,20Malinowski,B.2mana(spiritualprestige)59,69Manaus(cityof)6,115n1,116,118–23,125–31,133–8Manuelito,K.14Māori8,20,55–6,58–72,240–41,246,250–51MāoriStudies55,57,60,63–4,66–9,72seealsokaupapaMāori

researchonacademicenvironment58–9;seealsowhānauondiscipline60onthepoliticaldimension64

marae(ceremonialground)57,59,68Maranoa79,81Marcus,G.100marginalization205,209masquerade/masquerading181,183mātauranga(Māoriworldview)58,62Medicine,B.8Melanesia1Menchú,Rigoberta97meritocracy190Merry,S.E.7,13,19Metge,J.59,62methodology(ies)84–5,95,97,101,105"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

cross-cultural68decolonizing58

Mihesuah,D.17Miles,A.19mining171MinorityRightsGroup11,13missions80,87,165,235–6,238–9,245,251;seealso

Bidyadangamoneyandschooling238,244Mooney,J.15moralissues14Morauta,L.1MpamboAfrikanMultiversity17multi-centric/multipleknowledge181,184,194multinationalcorporations151Munduruku116,127,132Munro,J.244Mura116,127,135myth/mythologies181,182,186,187

Nakata,M.1,16narrativevoice78,86nationstate151NationalWaterInitiate171

andnativetitle172NativeAmericans105nativerights

title154"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

nativetitleanthropology169–70,172benefitsof163;seealsoeconomicdevelopmentculturalseeNTASection211decision-making165;seealsoPrescribedBodiesCorporatedeterminations164–6economicvalue168,171,173evidence170,173exclusivity165,166federalism,impactof172futureact173notification169Karajarri165–6,170process163–4recognition169,173rightsandinterests168–9,171water164seealsowaterplanning

NativeTitleAct1993(Cth)163Section211169Section223163–4

naturalresources148,154,155,157,158,159,161development160management151,160

naturalscience4Neoliberal190Neuberger,S.R.17


Ngalpilv.WesternAustralia(2001)FCA1140166Ngata,Apirana62–4Ngurrara166

rangers167Nichol,R.2,12,17,18Niezen,R.11,118n7non-formaleducationseeindigenouseducationnon-stateactors155NWIseeNationalWaterInitiative

ObAnggen239objectivity95,97–8OikonomosFoundation239OliveiraFilho,J.P.123,125n20,126n21,127,127n24,129Oma,K.M.11ontology195Orientalstudies15Orientalism103Overing,J.121ownershiprights152Owusu,M.1,16

Pākehā62,64,68relationswithMāori62,65–6

Panama33–48PapuaNewGuinea1–2,5,242,246

UniversityofPapuaNewGuinea1,16parables186"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

parda123n15,126n21,125–8participatoryresearchxv,xvii,6,7,8participatory-reflection2partnerships249–51passing81patriarchalsociety188PBCseePrescribedBodiesCorporatepedagogy/pedagogic181,182,183,184,185,186,187,193,237–

8,243relevance182

Peers,L.6Perera,J.12person-oriented14Plato4Plattner,S.98–9playgroup83–6,88–9Plenderleith,K.14politicalissues55,57,59–60,62–4,66,68,71,195

inanthropology66derogatoryuseof66inMāoricontexts67,71

politicalpowerissuesof5,6,7,11–13,14,16,18,20–21,239–51

Posey,D.14positionality95,98,102,109post-colonialtheory78postmodernismxvi,3,9,16,22Pottier,J.14"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

Povinelli,E.A.10PrescribedBodiesCorporate167–8proverbs182,191,196provincial

SpecialRegulationConcerningEducation238qualityissuesseeproblemswithschoolinginWestPapua

racism79,82–5,87–9againstIndigenousPeoples116,120–22,125–6n20,125–39

Radin,P.15Ramos,A.R.35,37,49,115,118–19,118–19n7,125–6n20,126–

7,129Ranger167;seealsoWorkingonCountryRanger,T.10reciprocity58–9,69,189,190;seealsokoharecognition173;seealsonativetitle

culturalseeNTASection211economic173policy,in168,174rightsandinterests168–9,171

reconciliation3Reddy,D.101Redfield,R.15relevanceofschooling235–51relocation150,152,159representation11–12,17,240,245–6

andauthenticity246challengestoxvi–xvii,1,16


inmaterials245politicsof12,20–21inresearch240instaffing245instudentenrolment245–6

researchproblemswithxv,5–6

ResearchExcellenceFramework(REF)18,19responsibility182,187,190,191,192,193,194Restrepo,E.119reverseanthropology16Ribeiro,G.L.15,16Riddles181,182,184,186rightsissues14Rigney,L.I.6,8,78RNTBCsseePrescribedBodiesCorporateorPBCsRosaldo,R.37,50Rosengren,D.11rugby55,57,59,67–9,71Russell,B.4

sacrifice191Said,E.78,103Sanpeople11,20Sandri,R.10,11,13Sanford,V.117Sateré-Mawé116,122,124–5,124,127,129–33‘scheduled’areas154"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

ScheduledTribesRecognitionofForestsRightsAct,2006(India)160

Scheper-Hughes,N.115n1,116n4,136schoolinginWestPapua235–51

Christian236,238–9historyof235–7private235–6,238–9,251state235,237–8,247–8

scientificintegrity60SekolahPapuaHarapan239self-determination11,12,14,68,71,236,238–9

rangatiratanga(Māoriself-determination)62self-esteem77,80self-referentiality102self-rule153self-worthseeself-esteemSen,S.19Settee,P.11,17Shah,R.15,17,21sharing58,72

anthropologicalknowledge42–8,49–50Shiva,V.12Shore,C.19SIL245Sillitoe,P.1,2,3,5,6,7,8,12,13,14,18,19,21,33,49,50,117Simpson,M.6Slikkerveer,L.J.6


Smith,L.T.2,3,7,8,13,14,15,20,58,59,61,78,84–5,104onformulasofculturalsensitivity65onproblematizingtheindigenous65onthestrategyofavoidance65

SmithsonianInstitution15socialandenvironmentaleducationstrategies17socialjustice182socialscience2,4,5,22socialtheory1–5,15society13,21,22

conceptof1–2,3–4,5solidarity181,191SolomonIslands1sovereignty149,153,155,157,159,160SpecialAutonomyLaw237spirit/spirituality14,20,184,191,192,194,195Spivak,G.11,78Stanfield,J.H.5Stanley,N.6stateaccountability150Stavenhagen,R.206stories182,183,184,186,187,193storytellers86–8Strabinsky,D.14Suahunu195subjectivity95,98supremacy153


SurvivalInternational11SuryaInstitute239Swadener,B.B.14Swanton,J.R.15Swisher,K.G.20SynchronicTrauma130,133,138

Taussig,M.128TePungaSommerville,A.71termsofintention2,3–5,22terranullius77,89,154territorialintegrity150,152,153,155,160Thaman20012Theopopolus,D.9,10TheoryofForms4Thoma,A.11tiaki(mentorshipstrategy)68Tikuna116,127time

circularvlinear10–11Tjurabalan166Tomas,D.117tradition10–11,12,13,182,185,186,187,188,189traditional181,182,183,188,193,196

Africanculture193research240–41

Tran,T.3transcendentalknowledge19"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

trauma77,79,80,84,87,89,121,130,134,136–9;seealsodiachronictraumaandsynchronictrauma

Trialecticspace195tribalsovereignty153,154Trobriandsociety2tucandeiraritual130–32,130n30;seeSateré-MawéTuhiwaiSmith,L.seeSmith,L.Tukano116,125,127,135Turner,T.117n6,120,130n29

UFAM(UniversidadeFederaldoAmazonas,FederalUniversityofAmazonas)115–116,137

UnitedNations13UNCharter147,148,153UNDeclarationonRightsofIndigenousPeoples(UNDRIP)

152,153,155,156PermanentForumonIndigenousIssues148

UniversidadInterculturalAmawtayWasi14

Venegas,K.R.17vidya245Vilaça,A.119,124Villegas,M.17VocationalEducationTraining6

Wade,P.117Walak237–8,244,247–8Wangola,P.17"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

Warren,D.M.6Warren,J.W.125–6n20,126–9water

ceremony163,170jilas163,165relationshipsto166

waterplanningallocation164,168commercialrights169,173firstcome,firstserve168licenses171mininglicenses171nativetitle,interactionswith169;seealsonativetitle;

PrescribedBodiesCorporate;waterWestPapua235–51

problemswithschooling237–8,243–4,247–8WesternAustralia

Aboriginalrelationshipswith164,166,168,173stategovernment172

Westernculture78,81–2,84–6Westernintellectualdomination2–3,15–16,17–19,20,21Westernknowledge182Westernpedagogy20,21Westernscientificknowledge181Western-trained181whakapapa(genealogy)69whānau(basickin-structure)59,62,69n16,241,250–51

Whanaungatanga(thewhānau-culture)59"******DEMO-www.ebook-converter.com*******"

Whakawhanaungatanga(creatingthewhānau-culture)59,69Wilson,A.C.17Wireenan7Wola242,246Wolfe,P.10WorkingonCountry167;seealsorangerWorldSummitonSustainableDevelopment210WorldTradeOrganization212Wright,R.116n4,117,124Wright,S.19WritingCulture97,100

Yanomamo6,20YayasanKristenWamena239,245YipirinyaSchool,AliceSprings3Yipirinyateachers5Yumba80–81


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