DEPLOYING IPv6 IN3GPP NETWORKS

DEPLOYING IPv6 IN3GPP NETWORKSEVOLVING MOBILE BROADBANDFROM 2G TO LTE AND BEYOND

Jouni Korhonenformerly Nokia Siemens Networks, now Renesas Mobile, Finland

Teemu SavolainenNokia Research Center, Finland

Jonne SoininenRenesas Mobile, Finland

A John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., Publication

This edition first published 2013© 2013 John Wiley and Sons Ltd

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Savolainen, Teemu.Deploying IPv6 in 3GPP networks : evolving mobile broadband from 2G to LTE and beyond /

Teemu Savolainen, Jouni Korhonen, Jonne Soininen.pages cm

Includes bibliographical references and index.ISBN 978-1-118-39829-6 (cloth)1. Long-Term Evolution (Telecommunications) 2. Cell phone systems. 3. Mobile computing. 4.

TCP/IP (Computer network protocol) I. Korhonen, Jouni. II. Soininen, Jonne. III. Title.TK5103.48325.S28 2013621.3845′6–dc23

2012050393

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.ISBN: 9781118398296

Set in 10/12pt Times by Laserwords Private Limited, Chennai, India

Disclaimer

This book is based on the authors’ personal experiences in the technical field and publicstandards documents created by 3GPP, IETF, and other standards defining organizations.The opinions and views of the authors are solely those of the authors and do not necessarilyrepresent the views of organizations where the authors work. Throughout this book theauthors have attempted to make it clear when something is an opinion or a view of theauthors. Some of the examples, feature lists, and identified ambiguities may not applyuniversally to all deployments and products.

The publisher and the authors make no representations or warranties with respect tothe accuracy or completeness of the contents of this work and specifically disclaim allwarranties, including without limitation warranties of fitness for a particular purpose.No warranty may be created or extended by sales or promotional materials. The adviceand strategies contained herein may not be suitable for every situation. This workis sold with the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering legal,accounting, or other professional services. If professional assistance is required, theservices of a competent professional person should be sought. Neither the publisher northe authors shall be liable for damages arising herefrom. The fact that an organizationor Website is referred to in this work as a citation and/or a potential source offurther information does not mean that the author or the publisher endorses theinformation the organization or web site may provide or recommendations it maymake. Further, readers should be aware that Internet web sites listed in this workmay have changed or disappeared between when this work was written and whenit is read.

This book is dedicated to the next generationJouni, Teemu, Jonne

Contents

Foreword xvii

Preface xix

Acknowledgments xxi

Acronyms xxiii

Glossary xxxiii

1 Introduction 11.1 Introduction to Internet and the Internet Protocol 21.2 Internet Principles 21.3 The Internet Protocol 4

1.3.1 Networks of Networks 61.3.2 Routing and Forwarding 7

1.4 Internet Protocol Addresses 91.4.1 IPv4 Addresses 91.4.2 IPv6 Addresses 11

1.5 Transport Protocols 121.5.1 User Datagram Protocol 131.5.2 Transmission Control Protocol 131.5.3 Port Numbers and Services 14

1.6 Domain Name Service 141.6.1 DNS Structure 141.6.2 DNS Operation 151.6.3 Top Level Domain 161.6.4 Internationalized Domain Names 17

1.7 IPv4 Address Exhaustion 171.7.1 IP Address Allocation 181.7.2 History of IPv4 Address Exhaustion 19

1.8 IPv6 History Thus Far 211.8.1 IPv6 Technology Maturity 211.8.2 IPv6 Network Deployments 22

x Contents

1.9 Ongoing Cellular Deployments 231.10 Chapter Summary 241.11 Suggested Reading 24References 24

2 Basics of the 3GPP Technologies 272.1 Standardization and Specifications 27

2.1.1 3GPP Standardization Process 282.1.2 IETF Standardization Process 312.1.3 Other Important Organizations in the 3GPP-Ecosystem 33

2.2 Introduction to 3GPP Network Architecture and Protocols 342.2.1 GSM System 342.2.2 General Packet Radio Service 362.2.3 Evolved Packet System 412.2.4 Control and User Planes, and Transport and User Layer Separation 44

2.3 3GPP Protocols 452.3.1 Control-Plane Protocols 462.3.2 User-Plane Protocols 532.3.3 GPRS Tunneling Protocol Versions 552.3.4 PMIP Based EPS Architecture 56

2.4 Mobility and Roaming 582.4.1 Mobility Management 592.4.2 Roaming 602.4.3 Mobility Management Beyond 3GPP 60

2.5 Central Concepts for IP Connectivity 612.5.1 PDP Contexts and EPS Bearers 612.5.2 Access Point Name 632.5.3 Traffic Flow Template 642.5.4 3GPP Link Model Principles 652.5.5 Multiple Packet Data Network Connections 67

2.6 User Equipment 682.6.1 Traditional 3GPP UE Model 692.6.2 Split-UE 69

2.7 Subscription Management Databases and Other Backend Systems 702.7.1 Home Location Register and Authentication Center 702.7.2 Home Subscriber Server 712.7.3 Equipment Identity Register 712.7.4 Other Backend Systems 71

2.8 End-to-end View from the User Equipment to the Internet 722.8.1 GPRS 722.8.2 EPS 73

2.9 Chapter Summary 752.10 Suggested Reading 75References 76

Contents xi

3 Introduction to IPv6 793.1 IPv6 Addressing Architecture 80

3.1.1 IPv6 Address Format 803.1.2 IPv6 Address Types 813.1.3 IPv6 Address Scopes 813.1.4 IPv6 Addressing Zones 823.1.5 IPv6 Addresses on Network Interfaces 823.1.6 Interface Identifier and the Modified EUI-64 833.1.7 IPv6 Address Space Allocations 843.1.8 Special IPv6 Address Formats 843.1.9 Textual Presentations of IPv6 Addresses 86

3.2 IPv6 Packet Header Structure and Extensibility 873.2.1 Traffic Class and Flow Label 883.2.2 IPv6 Extension Headers 903.2.3 MTU and Fragmentation 923.2.4 Multicast 94

3.3 Internet Control Message Protocol Version 6 973.3.1 Error Messages 983.3.2 Informational Messages 100

3.4 Neighbor Discovery Protocol 1013.4.1 Router Discovery 1013.4.2 Parameter Discovery 1023.4.3 On-link Determination 1043.4.4 Link-layer Address Resolution 1043.4.5 Neighbor Unreachability Detection 1053.4.6 Next-hop Determination 1063.4.7 Duplicate Address Detection 1063.4.8 Redirect 1073.4.9 Secure Neighbor Discovery 1073.4.10 Neighbor Discovery Proxies 108

3.5 Address Configuration and Selection Approaches 1093.5.1 Stateless Address Autoconfiguration 1103.5.2 Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol Version 6 1123.5.3 IKEv2 1173.5.4 Address Selection 1183.5.5 Privacy and Cryptographically Generated Addresses 1203.5.6 Router Selection 121

3.6 IPv6 Link Types and Models 1223.6.1 IPv6 over Point-to-point Links 1233.6.2 IPv6 over Shared Media 1243.6.3 Link Numbering 1253.6.4 Bridging of Link Types 126

3.7 Mobile IP 1263.7.1 Detecting Network Attachment 126

xii Contents

3.7.2 Host-based Mobile IP 1273.7.3 Network-based Mobile IP 128

3.8 IP Security 1303.8.1 Security Protocols 1313.8.2 Security Associations 1313.8.3 Key Management 1323.8.4 Cryptographic Algorithms 1323.8.5 MOBIKE 132

3.9 Application Programming Interfaces 1333.9.1 Socket APIs 1333.9.2 Address Family Agnostic APIs 1333.9.3 IP Address Literals and Unique Resource Identifiers 1343.9.4 Happy Eyeballs 134

3.10 Implications of IPv6 for Other Protocols 1363.10.1 Transport Layer Protocols 1363.10.2 Domain Name System 1373.10.3 Applications 1413.10.4 Internet Routing 1413.10.5 Management Information Base 143

3.11 Validation and Certification 1443.11.1 Test Suites 1443.11.2 IPv6 Ready Logo 144

3.12 Example IPv6 Packet Flows 1453.12.1 IPv6 on Ethernet 1463.12.2 IPv6 with DNS and TCP 153

3.13 Chapter Summary 155References 156

4 IPv6 in 3GPP Networks 1634.1 PDN Connectivity Service 163

4.1.1 Bearer Concept 1644.1.2 PDP and PDN Types 1664.1.3 Link Models in 3GPP 168

4.2 End User IPv6 Service Impact on the 3GPP System 1724.2.1 User, Control and Transport Planes 1724.2.2 Affected Networking Elements 1734.2.3 Charging and Billing 1804.2.4 External PDN Access and the (S)Gi Interface 1824.2.5 Roaming Challenges 187

4.3 End User IPv6 Service Impact on GTP and PMIPv6 Protocols 1894.3.1 GTP Control Plane Version 1 1894.3.2 GTP Control Plane Version 2 1914.3.3 GTP User Plane 1944.3.4 PMIPv6 194

4.4 IP Address Assignment, Configuration, and Management 1954.4.1 Addressing Assumptions 195

Contents xiii

4.4.2 Stateless IPv6 Address Autoconfiguration 1974.4.3 Stateful IPv6 Address Configuration 2004.4.4 Deferred Address Allocation 2004.4.5 Static IPv6 Addressing 2014.4.6 IPv6 Prefix Delegation 2044.4.7 NAS Protocol Signaling and PCO Options 2074.4.8 Initial E-UTRAN Attach Example with IPv4 and IPv6 Address

Configuration 2114.5 Bearer Establishment and Fallback Scenarios 214

4.5.1 Initial Connection Establishment 2144.5.2 Backward Compatibility with Earlier Releases 2154.5.3 Dual Address Bearer Flag 2154.5.4 Requested PDN Type Handling in a PGW 2164.5.5 Fallback Scenarios and Rules 2174.5.6 Inter-RAT Handovers and Inter-SGSN Routing Area Updates 218

4.6 Signaling Interfaces 2194.6.1 IPv6 as Transport 2194.6.2 IPv6 in Information Element Level 219

4.7 User Equipment Specific Considerations 2204.7.1 IPv6 and Impacted Layers 2204.7.2 Required RFCs for Host UEs 2224.7.3 DNS Issues 2234.7.4 Provisioning 2244.7.5 IPv6 Tethering 2254.7.6 IPv6 Application Support 227

4.8 Multicast 2274.9 Known IPv6 Issues and Anomalies 228

4.9.1 IPv6 Neighbor Discovery Considerations 2294.9.2 PDN Connection Model and Multiple IPv6 Prefixes 233

4.10 IPv6 Specific Security Considerations 2334.10.1 IPv6 Addressing Threats 2344.10.2 IPv6 First-hop Security 2364.10.3 IPv6 Extension Header Exploits 237

4.11 Chapter Summary 239References 240

5 IPv6 Transition Mechanisms for 3GPP Networks 2485.1 Motivation for Transition Mechanisms 248

5.1.1 Phasing the Transition 2505.2 Technology Overview 251

5.2.1 Translation 2515.2.2 Encapsulation 2535.2.3 Mesh or Hub-and-spoke 2545.2.4 Scalability Concerns 255

5.3 Transition Toolbox 2555.3.1 Transition Solutions Not Included 256

xiv Contents

5.3.2 Dual-stack 2575.3.3 NAT64 and DNS64 2585.3.4 464XLAT 2695.3.5 Bump-In-the-Host 2715.3.6 Mapping Address and Port Number 2725.3.7 Other Tunneling or Translation Based Transition Mechanisms 275

5.4 Transition Scenarios for 3GPP 2775.4.1 Transition Scenario Evolution 2785.4.2 Dual-stack 2805.4.3 IPv6-only 2815.4.4 Double Translation 281

5.5 Transition Impacts on 3GPP Architecture 2825.5.1 Transition Impact on the Supporting Infrastructure 2825.5.2 IP Network Support Systems 2835.5.3 Tools to Divide Subscribers Per IP Capability 2855.5.4 Translation Implications 2865.5.5 Transition Support in the Transport Plane 2875.5.6 Roaming 2875.5.7 Impact of Delayed Transition to IPv6 288

5.6 Transitioning to IPv6 2895.6.1 Application Developer’s Transition Plan 2905.6.2 Phone Vendor’s Transition Plan 2905.6.3 Network Operator’s Transition Checklist 290

5.7 Chapter Summary 292References 293

6 Future of IPv6 in 3GPP Networks 2966.1 IPv6-based Traffic Offloading Solutions 296

6.1.1 Motivations in Cellular Networks 2976.1.2 Benefits of IPv6-based Offloading Approaches 2996.1.3 IP-friendly Offloading Solutions 2996.1.4 Concluding Remarks 303

6.2 Evolving 3GPP Bearers to Multiple Prefixes and Next-hop Routers 3046.2.1 Background and Motivation 3046.2.2 Multi-prefix Bearer Solution Proposal 3056.2.3 Overall Impact Analysis 3116.2.4 Open Issues and Future Work 313

6.3 LTE as the Uplink Access for Home Networks 3136.3.1 Homenet at IETF 3136.3.2 Homenet and 3GPP Architecture 3146.3.3 Additional 3GPP Deployment Options 315

6.4 Port Control Protocol 3166.4.1 Deployment Scenarios 3176.4.2 Protocol Features 3186.4.3 PCP Server Discovery 3196.4.4 Protocol Messages 319

Contents xv

6.4.5 Cascaded NATs 3206.4.6 Relation to IPv6 Transition 320

6.5 Internet of Things 3216.5.1 Typical Use Cases 3216.5.2 Standardization Organizations Working with IoT 3226.5.3 IoT Domain from the 3GPP Point of View 3276.5.4 Implications to UEs 3286.5.5 Implications to 3GPP Networks 329

6.6 Chapter Summary 331References 332

Index 337

Foreword

I have been fortunate to have first been involved in the Internet when it was still arelatively small research project at ARPA. I worked at Bolt, Beranek, and Newman inCambridge, Massachusetts, on the Arpanet and the early Internet starting in 1978. It wasdefinitely being at the right place at the right time. I was able to work with the peoplewho really did invent the Internet. I was part of the research groups that evolved intowhat is now the organization that standardizes the core Internet protocols: the InternetEngineering Task Force (IETF).

In the early 1990s we realized that there was going to be a problem with the size ofthe address space used in the current version of the Internet protocol, IPv4. We could seethat the Class-B part of the IPv4 address space was rapidly being consumed. Note thatthis was well before the World Wide Web (WWW) was a factor in growth, the Internetlargely consisted of connecting universities and research organizations. Applications werepretty basic. Even then we were seeing rapid growth, though in hindsight it was only ahint as to what was to happen later.

This resulted in starting a project in the IETF to create a new version of the InternetProtocol. This was called the IP next generation (IPng) program. A number of differentapproaches were considered. A lot of effort was invested in all of the proposals and asyou would expect a very vigorous debate ensued. In the end, the protocol we now callIP version 6 (IPv6) was selected. Stephen Deering and I led this effort.

The development of a new version of the Internet Protocol solved two problems, onetechnical and one political. The political problem, that is easy to forget now, is that at thetime the TCP/IP Internet was not a sure thing. It wasn’t supported by the large telecomsof the time, by governments, or by official standards bodies like ANSI and the ITU.While there was a general agreement that a new data network was desirable, there wasn’tany agreement about what it should be based on. The TCP/IP Internet was then probablythe least likely to become what was then called the ‘Information Superhighway’. It wasthe ‘dark horse’, so to speak. In addition, most other standards groups, governments, andlarge telcos didn’t even recognize the IETF because it was purely voluntary and didn’thave any de jure underpinning. We weren’t considered to be the ‘grown-ups’.

The result was that, as more people started to hear that the TCP/IP Internet didn’t have atechnical future because it might run out of addresses soon, it became a significant politicalproblem. The development and standardization of IPv6 fixed this political problem. Wemight not now have the current TCP/IP Internet if IPv6 had not been developed.

xviii Foreword

IPv6 also solved the technical problem of running out of IP addresses. This is the majorproblem that it was intended to solve and it is the main reason that IPv6 is being deployedtoday. I have concluded that a good way of evaluating new technologies (networking andotherwise) is if the problem they purport to solve stays the same. That is, is it a solutionlooking for a problem, or is it focused on a real problem? IPv6 is clearly an example ofthe latter. It was designed to solve the IPv4 address exhaustion problem and didn’t tryto evolve into solving some other problem. This is the reason that it is being deployedtoday.

As much as the Internet has grown from the early days, I think that the growth hasonly really begun. We have gone from the days where networked computers were verylarge and filled rooms to where a networked computer fits in a shirt pocket, from wheremany people shared a single large computer to where every person has many computers.This phase of the Internet is not complete as not everywhere in the world do peoplehave access to computers and the Internet – but we are getting there. IPv6 is a necessaryelement in this continuing phase of Internet growth.

The next phase of Internet growth will be different and much larger. Instead of con-necting people, it will to be connecting ‘things’. The current phase of Internet growthis making the Internet broader and taller – the next phase will make it denser. We aremoving toward a world where more and more ‘things’ are connected, devices that are notdirectly associated with people, for example, sensors, appliances, entertainment equip-ment, lightning controls, power distribution, and cars. Just about everything will have acomputer in it and will be connected to the Internet. For this phase of Internet growth,IPv6 is essential.

Overall, IPv6 solves the problem of addressing in a much, much larger Internet. TheInternet has changed the world in many ways; IPv6 will allow the Internet to continuegrowing and with that growth continue the benefits that it brings to the world. IPv6running on cellular networks will have an important role in the continuing growth of theInternet.

I worked at Nokia from 1998 through 2009 in various groups and roles, and endedwith the title of Nokia Fellow. I got to know Jouni, Teemu, and Jonne very well. I washonored to be asked to write the foreword to their book. They were very involved in the3rd Generation Partnership Program (3GPP) standardization effort and were responsiblefor bringing IPv6 to 3GPP and making it part of the mobile protocol standards.

I believe that this book will make an important contribution to IPv6 deployment inmobile Internet devices.

In the IETF there is a toast we like to give. To paraphrase: ‘Kudos to Jouni, Teemu,and Jonne for writing this useful book and to the universal deployment of IPv6.’

Robert Hinden, Palo Alto, California

Preface

The story of this book began in March 2010, when John Wiley and Sons Ltd approachedTeemu with a request to review a book proposal. While reviewing the proposal, Teemugot an idea for a book, and thought it would be great fun to write such a book. Andafter all, it could not be that hard. The original idea was to write a book about ‘IPv6Multihoming’, a topic we touch on in Chapter 6 of this book. In August 2010 Teemu andJouni were working in a joint Finnish TEKES-funded research project called ‘WirelessBroadband Access (WiBrA)’, and Teemu came to ask if Jouni would be interested in co-authoring a book about ‘Advanced IPv6 Multihoming’. Jouni was interested, but was alsoproposing a slightly different focus for the book. During 2010 and 2011 Wiley approachedus periodically, and patiently reminded us to send a detailed proposal for a book. It tookquite some time to get into grips with and actually write the book proposal, as we wereboth busy working with practical IPv6 matters of our employers, doing research underWiBrA, and spending time with IETF and 3GPP standardization activities. In retrospectpieces of the puzzle seem to have fallen into place rather nicely, as the time we did notmanage to write a book proposal, was mostly spent on gaining actual experience andknowledge which have significantly affected the details of this book.

In fall of 2011 Teemu and Jouni got more into actually progressing the book, andapproached Jonne with a request to be the third author. We all knew each other from thepast, as we had all been working for Nokia or Nokia Siemens Networks at the same time.With the three of us we thought we would have wide enough skill-set and experience towrite the book: Teemu had the background on the handset implementations, Jouni had thebackground on cellular network operations and network equipment implementation, andJonne had the background from being a long-timer in network equipment implementationand IPv6. All of us had been active in 3GPP and IETF standardization, with Jonne beinginvolved in 3GPP already when IPv6 got hammered into 3GPP standards. Together wehad more than three decades of experience of IPv6.

With three of us together, we started planning to write a 150–200 page book, but it soonincreased to close on 400 pages. At the same time the scope changed from multihominginto describing the basics of IPv6 in 3GPP networks, as we thought that there is moreneed to describe how IPv6 is implemented in 3GPP cellular systems, than focusing onadvanced uses of the IPv6. The 400 pages was roughly the size of the book proposal thatWiley approved in February 2012. At the completion, the book had 398 pages.

We agreed on a schedule we thought would be doable and would bring the book toreaders around mid 2013. Based on the experience elsewhere, nine months should be

xx Preface

enough to complete a project anyway. The bold intent was to work on the book in ourspare time, almost as a hobby, alongside our daily works duties. Perhaps influenced bythe design of TCP, we got into slow start mode. We lived at different cities, and hence ourworking mode was effectively based on telephone, email, and an IPv6-only SVN-basedversion control tool that Jouni set up for us. Our face-to-face meetings were limited toIETF meetings, which we all participated in. At the midpoint of the project we had lessthan a third of the book written. This resulted in quite a busy August–October of 2012,when the bulk of the book was written and reviewed. We did not want to slip on the mid2013 target, so we had to steal time from elsewhere – typically from sleeping hours.

Despite the long hours towards the completion of the book, we have found this topicfun and educative to write about. The IPv6 is a fascinating technology with many detailsand aspects. It provides topics of pure academic interest, engineering beauty, fixes andpatches, politics and economics, research opportunities for the future, and overall it reflectshow human beings work and build the world. From simple details we build very complexsystems, which borderline being fully understandable for a single mind.

We hope that this book helps you to gain foot hold on IPv6 itself, and in particularin 3GPP systems. Reading this book should provide you with an knowledge frameworkof this technology, and thus help in applying the knowledge in the field, and also enablelearning in more areas through references, literature, and elsewhere.

We wish you happy reading and a deeper love for acronyms.

Jouni, Teemu, Jonne

Acknowledgments

First of all, we would like to acknowledge our families for their support for, and bearingwith, us during the writing of this book. Without our families’ support it would not havebeen possible to generate the effort that this book required.

We would also like to thank our employers, Nokia, Nokia Siemens Networks, andRenesas Mobile, for not discouraging us to work from writing a book in our spare time,and also for providing us with years of work in the area of IPv6, standardization, andindustry collaboration. Without being able to work on actual real-life issues, it would nothave been possible to learn the things that form a major part of this book.

Major acknowledgments also go to the Nokia devices unit, which has provided us withIPv6 capable devices. Latest of the devices was the 21M-02 USB-modem that was capableof opening IPv4v6 type of PDP Context, and hence made interesting new testing scenariospossible. Before that, a long line of handsets, since around 2004, made it possible to gatherexperience on cellular IPv6 usage. We would also like to acknowledge Illka Keisala fromTeliaSonera Finland for arranging us, via Finnish TEKES WiBrA-project, IPv6-enabledSIM-cards that made it possible to try out IPv6 also in roaming scenarios – free of charge.

Teemu sacrificed time from his three small children, Emil, Nea, and Elias, and spouse,Hanna, for creation of this book – mea culpa. Acknowledgments for helping Teemu to getto this point go to all managers, colleagues, and subordinates in Nokia who have providedthe possibility to work with IPv6 implementations and standardization, made Teemu awareof interesting problems, and supported him in everyday work. Special acknowledgmentsgo to Petri Vaipuro, who in 2001 hired Teemu to work on TCP/IPv6 implementationtasks and by so doing provided the opportunity to jump into this technology, and JuhaWiljakka, who taught Teemu the secrets of IPv6 standardization and IETF.

Jouni apologies, again, to his wife Hanna for being mentally absent during the furiouswriting sessions. It was all done at the expense of the family quality time. Jouni alsoacknowledges the highly skilled folks in Nokia Siemens Networks NeVe labs, KariTiirikainen and Mark Stoker among others, for providing him full access to fool aroundwith the latest software releases and bearing with his newbie questions on the setup details.Gyorgy Wolfner and Giorgi Gulbani provided invaluable insight into 3GPP specificationdetails over the years. The same gratitude also goes to Nokia Siemens Networks Smart-Labs for providing Jouni with the latest IPv6 enabled handsets and native IPv6 Internetaccess used in the TEKES WiBrA-project. Jouni also thanks Paulig for Presidentti coffeeand all the caffeine he got out of it into his veins.

xxii Acknowledgments

Jonne thanks his wife Anoush, and children Sofia and Matias for their excellent supportduring this book project, which limited the possibilities to really have quality familytime, and doing anything else together other than stay at home. Jonne would also liketo thank his manager, Erkki Yli-Juuti at Renesas Mobile, for the support to get throughthis project. Jonne would also like to thank Bob Hinden, Steve Crocker, Pertti Lukander,David Kessens, Mikko Puuskari, and Jaakko Rajaniemi for the guidance, understanding,collegiality, and support over the years spent learning the 3GPP technology, secrets ofstandardization, and especially during the transition from telecom to the Internet mindset.In addition, Jonne would like to thank Juha Wiljakka for the excellent cooperation andbeing a partner in crime in Nokia while working on IPv6 at a time when universaldeployment of IPv6 was not quite as obvious as it is today.

Finally, we would like to thank friendly people from John Wiley and Sons Ltd,Laserwords Private Limited, and Archive Publications for their assistance in getting thisproject into covers and shelves. Special thanks go to Alexandra, Catherine, Claire, Krupa,Mark, Paul, Sandra, Sophia, Susan, and Teresa.

Acronyms

2G 2nd Generation3G 3rd Generation3GPP 3rd Generation Partnership Project3GPP2 3rd Generation Partnership Project 24G 4th Generation6LoWPAN IPv6 over Low power Wireless Personal Area Networks6RD IPv6 Rapid Deployment on IPv4 infrastructures6bone 6bone6over4 IPv6 over IPv4 without explicit tunnels6 to 4 Connection of IPv6 domains via IPv4 clouds

A IPv4 address recordAAA Authentication, Authorization and AccountingAAAA IPv6 address recordACL Access Control ListAD Area DirectorAfriNIC African Network Information CenterAFTR Address Family Transition RouterAH Authentication HeaderALG Application-Level GatewayANDSF Access Network Discovery and Selection FunctionAPI Application Programming InterfaceAPN Access Point NameAPNIC Asia-Pacific Network Information CenterARIB Association of Radio Industries and BusinessesARIN American Registry for Internet NumbersAS Autonomous SystemAT ATtentionATIS Alliance for Telecommunications Industry SolutionsATM Asynchronous Transfer ModeAuC Authentication CenterAVP Attribute Value Pair

xxiv Acronyms

B4 Basic Bridging BroadBandBCP Best Current PracticeBG Border GatewayBGP Border Gateway ProtocolBIH Bump-In-the-HostBM-SC Broadcast Multicast Service CentreBMR Basic Mapping RuleBR Border RelayBSC Base Station ControllerBSS Base Station SystemBSSGP Base Station System GPRS ProtocolBTS Base Transceiver Station

CALIPSO Common Architecture Label IPv6 Security OptionCAMEL Customized Applications for Mobile Network Enhanced LogicCCSA China Communications Standards AssociationccTLD country code Top Level DomainCDF Charging Data FunctionCDR Charging Data RecordCER Customer Edge RouterCGA Cryptographically Generated AddressCGF Charging Gateway FunctionCGN Carrier Graned NATCHAP Challenge-Handshake Authentication ProtocolCIDR Classless Inter-Domain RoutingCLAT Client Side TranslatorCN Core NetworkCoA Care-of AddressCoAP Constrained Application ProtocolCP Control PlaneCPA Certification Path AdvertisementCPE Consumer Premises EquipmentCPNS Converged Personal Network ServiceCPS Certification Path SolicitationCPU Central Processing UnitCS Circuit Switched

DAD Duplicate Address DetectionDAF Dual Address Bearer FlagDCCP Datagram Congestion Control ProtocolDHCP Dynamic Host Configuration ProtocolDHCPv4 Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol version 4DHCPv6 Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol version 6DHCPv6PD DHCPv6 Prefix DelegationDMR Default Mapping RuleDNA Detecting Network Attachment

Acronyms xxv

DNS Domain Name SystemDNS64 DNS Extensions for Network Address TranslationDNSSEC Domain Name System Security ExtensionsDoS Denial of ServiceDPI Deep Packet InspectionDR Delegating RouterDS-Lite Dual Stack LiteDSCP Differentiated Services Code PointDSL Digital Subscriber LineDS-MIPv6 Dual Stack Mobile IPv6DSTM Dual Stack Transition MechanismDUID DHCP Unique IDentifierDUID-EN DUID vendor-assigned unique identifier based on Enterprise NumberDUID-LL DUID Link-Layer addressDUID-LLT DUID Link-Layer address plus TimeDUID-UUID DUID Universally Unique IDentifier

E-UTRA Evolved UMTS Terrestrial Radio AccessE-UTRAN Evolved UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access NetworkEA Embedded AddressEAP Extensible Authentication ProtocolECN Explicit Congestion NotificationEIR Equipment Identity RegistereNodeB Evolved Node BEPC Evolved Packet CoreEPS Evolved Packet SystemESP Encapsulating Security PayloadETSI European Telecommunications Standards Institute

FDDI Fiber Distributed Data InterfaceFMR Forwarding Mapping RuleFQDN Fully Qualified Domain NameFTP File Transfer Protocol

GERAN GSM/Edge Radio Access NetworkGGSN Gateway GPRS Support NodeGMM/SM GPRS Mobility Management and Session ManagementGPRS General Packet Radio ServiceGRE Generic Routing EncapsulationGRX GPRS Roaming eXchangeGSM Global System for Mobile CommunicationsGSMA GSM AssociationgTLD generic Top Level DomainGTP GPRS Tunneling ProtocolGTP-C GTP Control PlaneGTP-U GTP User Plane

xxvi Acronyms

GTPv1 GPRS Tunneling Protocol version 1GTPv1-C GTP Control Plane version 1GTPv2 GPRS Tunneling Protocol version 2GTPv2-C GTP Control Plane version 2GUA Global Unicast Address

HA Home AgentHLR Home Location RegisterHNP Home Network PrefixHoA Home AddressHPLMN Home PLMNHSDPA High Speed Downlink Packet AccessHSPA High Speed Packet AccessHSS Home Subscriber ServerHSUPA High Speed Uplink Packet AccessHTTP HyperText Transfer Protocol

I-WLAN Interworking-WLANIAB Internet Architecture BoardIAID Identity Association IDentifierIANA Internet Assigned NumberIAOC IETF Administrative Oversight CommitteeIAPD Identity Association for Prefix DelegationICANN Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and NumbersICMP Internet Control Message ProtocolICMPv4 Internet Control Message Protocol version 4ICMPv6 Internet Control Message Protocol version 6IDN Internationalized Domain NameIE Information ElementIEEE Institute of Electrical and Electronics EngineersIESG Internet Engineering Steering GroupIETF Internet Engineering Task ForceIFOM IP Flow Mobility and Seamless WLAN OffloadIGD Internet Gateway DeviceIGF Internet Governance ForumIGP Interior Gateway ProtocolIID Interface IDentifierIKEv2 Internet Key Exchange version 2IMEI International Mobile Equipment IdentityIMS IP Multimedia SubsystemIMSI International Mobile Subscriber IdentityIoT Internet of ThingsIP Internet ProtocolIPCP Internet Protocol Control ProtocolIPIP IP in IP tunnelingIPsec Internet Protocol security

Acronyms xxvii

IPTV Internet Protocol TelevisionIPv4 Internet Protocol version 4IPv6 Internet Protocol version 6IPV6CP IPv6 Control ProtocolIPX IP Packet eXchange – evolved GRXIS-IS Intermediate System to Intermediate SystemISATAP Intra-Site Automatic Tunnel Addressing ProtocolISC Internet Systems ConsortiumISP Internet Service Provider

L2TP Layer 2 Tunneling ProtocolL2TPv3 Layer 2 Tunneling Protocol version 3LAC L2TP Access ConcentratorLACNIC Latin America and Caribbean Network Information CenterLAN Local Area NetworkLCP Link Control ProtocolLI Legal InterceptionLIPA Local IP AccessLIR Local Internet RegistryLLC Logical Link ControlLMA Local Mobility AnchorLNS L2TP Network ServerLTE Long Term Evolution

M2M Machine-to-MachineMAC Media Access ControlMAG Mobile Access GatewayMANET Mobile Ad hoc NETworkingMAP Mapping of Address and Port with Encapsulation or TranslationMBMS Multimedia Broadcast Multicast ServiceME Mobile EquipmentMIB Management Information BaseMIPv6 Mobile IPv6MLD Multicast Listener DiscoveryMLDv2 Multicast Listener Discovery version 2MME Mobile Management EntityMMS Multimedia MessagingMN Mobile NodeMP-BGP Multi-Protocol Border Gateway ProtocolMPLS MultiProtocol Label SwitchingMS Mobile StationMSC Mobile Switching CentreMSISDN Mobile Station International Subscriber Directory NumberMSS Maximum Segment SizeMT Mobile TerminalMTC Machine-Type CommunicationsMTU Maximum Transmission Unit

xxviii Acronyms

NAPDEF Network Access Point DefinitionNAS Non-Access StratumNAT Network Address TranslationNAT-PMP NAT Port Mapping ProtocolNAT-PT Network Address Translation – Protocol TranslationNAT44 Network Address Translation from IPv4 to IPv4NAT46 Network Address Translation from IPv4 to IPv6NAT64 IPv4/IPv6 Network Address TranslationNBMA Non-Broadcast Multiple AccessNCP Network Control ProtocolND Neighbor DiscoveryNDP Neighbor Discovery ProtocolNFC Near Field CommunicationsNNI Network-to-Network InterfaceNodeB UMTS base stationNSP Network Specific PrefixNUD Neighbor Unreachability Detection

OCS Online Charging SystemOECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and DevelopmentOEM Original Equipment ManufacturerOFCS Offline Charging SystemOFDMA Orthogonal Frequency-Division Multiple AccessOMA Open Mobile AllianceOS Operating SystemOSI Open System InterconnectOSPF Open Shortest Path FirstOSPFv2 Open Shortest Path First version 2OSPFv3 Open Shortest Path First version 3OUI Organizationally Unique Identifier

P-CSCF Proxy Call Session Control FunctionPAA PDN Address AllocationPCC Policy and Charging ControlPCEF Policy and Charging Enforcement FunctionPCG Project Coordination GroupPCO Protocol Configuration OptionPCP Port Control ProtocolPCRF Policy and Charging Rules FunctionPD Prefix DelegationPDCP Packet Data Convergence ProtocolPDN Packet Data NetworkPDP Packet Data ProtocolPDU Protocol Data UnitPGW Packet Data Network GatewayPHB Per-Hop Behavior