UNIT 1 INTRODUCTIONBASIC PRINCIPLES OF DESIGNING FOR PRODUCTION1.Simplicity2. Standard materials and components3.Standardized design of the product itself4.Liberal tolerances5.Avoidance of secondary operations6.Design appropriate to the expected level of production7.Utilizing special process characteristics8.Avoiding process restrictiveness9.Avialability of raw materials10.Moderate design costGENERAL PRINCIPLES OF MANUFACTURABILITY1.Reduce the number of parts 2.Use modular design3.Design so assembly operations are in 1 direction4.Design so it is only possible to assemble the components in single process5.Minimize the use of fasteners6.Use popular standard / preferred sizes7.Eliminate or simplify adjustments8.Avoid flexible components9.Dimension in each direction should be from 1 datum10.Avoid sharp corners, use generous fillets11.Do not specify tolerances tighter than necessary12.Do not specify surface roughness than necessaryEVALUATION PURPOSE AND TYPESEvaluation should be an on-going process. It provides an opportunity to modify the 1.Programme when necessary. Evaluation helps to check 2.Programme effectiveness3.Programme response to change needs4.Strengths and limitations of the programme5.Staff development6.Reporting and follow-upTWO TYPES OF EVALUATION 1.Formative Evaluation2.Summative Evaluation TYPES OF EVALUATION: 1.Formative Evaluation : This types of evaluation is conducted during the planning and designing of the programme. It provides immediate feedback for programme and improvement. It is an on-going process. It helps to determine the strength and weaknesses.2.Summative Evaluation : This is concerned with the evaluation of an already completed programme. It is used to determine whether the programme has achieved its goals. It may help programme leaders to determine whether the programme is worth continuing. It helps to check the effectiveness of the programme. It helps in early decisions of programme in order to eliminate the waste of time and production cost. EVALUATION PROCEDURE: 1.Identification of goals to be assessed2.Development of an Evaluation plan3.Application of the evaluation plan4.Utilization of the findingsIt is important to consider the following, if evaluation procedure are to be fruit:1.Deciding when to evaluate2. Deciding whom the evaluation is intended to serve3. Deciding what precisely to evaluate4. Deciding who should conduct the evaluation5. Deciding what question the evaluation should address6.Planning the evaluation study7.Deciding how to report the evaluation study8.Dealing with the political, ethical and interpersonal issues in evaluation.Process Capability: Process capability is also defined as the capability of a process to meet its purpose as managed by an organization's management and process definition structures ISO 15504. The Process Capability is a measurable property of a process to the specification, expressed as a process capability index (e.g., Cpk or Cpm) Two parts of process capability are: 1) Measure the variability of the output of a process, and 2) Compare that variability with a proposed specification or product tolerance.The process capability index or process capability ratio is a statistical measure of process capability: the ability of a process to produce output within specification limits If the upper and lower specification limits of the process are USL and LSL, the target process mean is T, the estimated mean of the process is and the estimated variability of the process (expressed as a standard deviation) is , then commonly accepted process capability indices include: Process Capability Index ( CP) = USL LSL/6 CP Lower = - LSL / 3 CP Upper = USL - / 3

GEOMETRIC TOLERANCES:Linear tolerance are specified to ensure that actual size obtained after manufacturing lies within the acceptable limits.Eg: A shaft may have its diameter well within the specified limits of size, but may not be circularA hole may not have its centre correctly locatedA square slot may not have its surface exactly perpendicularHence it is necessary to specify permitted deviations not for linear dimensions but also for geometrical variations in the form of the surfaces and the variation for their locations. The geometry variations are called form variations and locations variations are called Position variations.Hence the tolerance specified for variations for both form and position using symbols, numerals and letters is called as GEOMETRICAL TOLERANCESFORM VARIATION:It is the variation of the actual condition of form feature (point, line, surface, median plane) from the geometrically ideal formPOSITION VARIATION:It is the permitted variation in the specified position of a features (surface, line, medium plane or point) in relation to some other feature or datumDATUM/DATUM FEATURE:Position tolerance is a variation of actual position of the form feature (point line, surface, medium plane) from the geometrically ideal position with reference to another form feature called datum feature.Datum means a place of reference . The datum feature is the particular feature to which orientation of position and run out tolerances are referredTYPES OF GEOMETRICAL TOLERANCES:1.Form Tolerance: Straightness, Flatness, Roundness, Cylindricity, Profile of any surface 2.Position Tolerance: Position of a line, concentricity, symmetry, parallelism/ perpendicularity of a line3.Runout Tolerance: Circular run out, Total Run outASSEMBLY LIMITS: DFA (design for assembly) recognizes the need to analyze both the part design and the whole product for any assembly problems early in the design process. We may define DFA as "a process for improving product design for easy and low-cost assembly, focusing on functionality and on assemblability concurrently."Comparison of Assembly Methods Assembly methods can be divided into three major groups.In manual assembly, parts are transferred to workbenches where workers manually assemble the product or components of a product. Hand tools are generally used to aid the workers. Although this is the most flexible and adaptable of assembly methods, there is usually an upper limit to the production volume, and labour costs (including benefits, cases of workers compensation due to injury, overhead for maintaining a clean, healthy environment, etc.) are higher.Fixed or hard automation is characterized by custom-built machiner that assembles one and only one specific product. Obviously, this type of machinery requires a large capital investment. As production volume increases, the fraction of the capital investment compared to the total manufacturing cost decreases. Indexing tables, parts feeders, and automatic controls typify this inherently rigid assembly method. Sometimes, this kind of assembly is called "Detroit-type" assembly. Soft automation or robotic assembly incorporates the use of robotic assembly systems. This can take the form of a single robot, or a multi-station robotic assembly cell with all activities simultaneously controlled and coordinated by a PLC or computer. Although this type of assembly method can also have large capital costs, its flexbility often helps offset the expense across many different products. Design Guidelines for Manual AssemblyObviously, the following guidelines depend on the skill of the worker:1.Eliminate the need for workers to make decisions or adjustments. ensure accessibility and visibility. 2.Eliminate the need for assembly tools and gauges (i.e. prefer self-locating parts). 3.Minimise the number of different parts - use "standard" parts. 4.Minimise the number of parts. 5.Avoid or minimise part orientation during assembly (i.e. prefer symmetrical parts). 6.Prefer easily handled parts that do not tangle or nest within one another. Note that many products do not lend themselves to these guidelines. Many such products are sold as "ready-to-assemble" kits or require that assembly be shifted to cheaper labour markets. Tolerance stackups or tolerance stacks are terms used to describe the problem-solving process in mechanical engineering of calculating the effects of the accumulated variation that is allowed by specified dimensions and tolerances. Typically these dimensions and tolerances are specified on an engineering drawing. Arithmetic tolerance stackups use the worst-case maximum or minimum values of dimensions and tolerances to calculate the maximum and minimum distance (clearance or interference) between two features or parts. Statistical tolerance stackups evaluate the maximum and minimum values based on the absolute arithmetic calculation combined with some method for establishing likelihood of obtaining the maximum and minimum values, such as Root Sum Square (RSS) or Monte-Carlo methods.A tolerance stack is a calculation to determine how tolerances accumulate. Stacks help establish and optimize part tolerances, and ensure that parts are designed to promote maximum function at minimal cost.When used in the design stage, stacks provide an opportunity to evaluate a part's manufacturability, which reduces the need for costly prototypes.ASSEMBLY LIMITS:Evaluation Methods for DFAIt is important to quantify the improvements and goals of DFA. Two methods for DFA quantification considered here are the boothroyd-dewhurst method and the Lucas method.Boothroyd-Dewhurst MethodThis method is based on two principles:1.The application of criteria to each part to determine if it should be separate from all other parts. 2.Estimation of the handling and assembly costs for each part using the appropriate assembly process. This method relies on an existing design which is iteratively evaluated and improved. Generally, the process follows these steps:Select an assembly method for each part Generally, the process follows these steps:1.Select an assembly method for each part 2.Analyse the parts suitable for the given assembly methods 3.Refine the design in response to shortcomings identified by the analysis 4.Loop to step 2 until the analysis yields a sufficient design The analysis is generally performed using some kind of worksheet (example shown below). Tables and charts are used to estimate the part handling and part insertion time. These "lookup tables" are based on a two-digit code that is in turn based on a part's size, weight, and geometric characteristics.Non-assembly operations are also included in the worksheet. For example, extra time is allocated for each time the assembly is re-oriented.Next, parts are evaluated as to whether it is really necessary (in the assembly) by asking three questions:does the part move relative to another part? are the material properties of the part necessary? does the part need to be a separate entity for the sake of assembly? Minimum number of theoretically needed parts, denoted by Nm. The method then assumes that the assembly time for a part is 3 seconds. With that assumption, the design efficiency can be calculated as:Design efficiency = (3s x Nm) / Tm. (Tm. =Operation time)Basic DFA GuidelinesHere are some basic guidelines for DFA. Generally, you want to start with a concept design and then go through each of these guidelines, decide whether or not it is applicable, and the modify the concept to satisfy the guideline. There is no guarantee that a given guideline will apply to a particular design problem. Many of these guidelines are similar or the same as rules of concurrent engineering.1.Minimise part count by incorporating multiple functions into single parts 2.Modularise multiple parts into single subassemblies 3.Assemble in open space, not in confined spaces; never bury important components 4.Make parts such that it is easy to identify how they should be oriented for insertion 5.Prefer self-locating parts 6.Standardise to reduce part variety 7.Maximise part symmetry 8.Design in geometric or weight polar properties if nonsymmetrical 9.Eliminate tangly parts 10.Color code parts that are different but shaped similarly 11.Prevent nesting of parts; prefer stacked assemblies 12.Provide orienting features on no symmetries 13.Design the mating features for easy insertion 14.Provide alignment features 15.Insert new parts into an assembly from above 16.Eliminate re-orientation of both parts and assemblies 17.Eliminate fasteners 18.Place fasteners away from obstructions; design in fastener access 19.Deep channels should be sufficiently wide to provide access to fastening tools; eliminate channels if possible 20.Provide flats for uniform fastening and fastening ease 21.Ensure sufficient space between fasteners and other features for a fastening tool 22.Prefer easily handled parts PROCESS CAPABILITY: It is the ability of the process to produce uniform products inorder to meet the design specification. These specification or tolerance limits are established by design engineer to meet a particular function, whereas control limits are established as the function of average. Process capability and the tolerance are combined to form a capability index and it may be defined as Process Capability Index ( CP) = USL LSL/6(process capability)6(process capability) Only 105 loss due to poor quality quality level If the capability index is greater than 1.00, the process is capable of meeting the specifications, If the capability index is less than 1.00 the process is not capable of meeting the specifications.

UNIT 2 FACTORS INFLUENCING FORM DESIGNPrinciples of Design: The principles of design help you to carefully plan and organize the elements of art so that you will hold interest and command attention. This is sometimes referred to as visual impact.Elements of Design Line - is a mark on a surface that describes a shape or outline. It can create texture and can be thick and thin. Types of line can include actual, implied, vertical, horizontal, diagonal and contour lines. (note: Ken does not list "psychic line" - that was "new term"tome)

Color - refers to specific hues and has 3 properties, Chroma, Intensity and Value. The color wheel is a way of showing the chromatic scale in a circle using all the colors made with the primary triad. Complimentary pairs can produce dull and neutral color. Black and white can be added to produce tints (add white), shades (add black) andtones(addgray).Texture - is about surface quality either tactile or visual. Texture can be real or implied by different uses of media. It is the degree of roughness or smoothness in objects.

Shape - is a 2-dimensional line with no form or thickness. Shapes are flat and can be grouped into two categories, geometric and organic.

Form - is a 3-dimensional object having volume and thickness. It is the illusion of a 3-D effect that can be implied with the use of light and shading techniques. Form can be viewed from many angles.

Value - is the degree of light and dark in a design. It is the contrast between black and white and all the tones in between. Value can be used with color as well as black and white. Contrast is the extreme changes between values.

Size - refers to variations in the proportions of objects, lines or shapes. There is a variation of sizes in objects either real or imagined. (some sources list Proportion/Scale as a Principle of Design)

These elements are used to create the Principles of Design. Principles are the results of using the Elements. When you are working in a particular format (size and shape of the work surface) the principles are used to create interest, harmony and unity to the elements that you are using. You can use the Principles of design to check your composition to see if it has good structure.Elements of Design:Color, Values, forms and Shapes, space lines, and textures are called the elements of design. These elements are known as the fundamentals for all works of art. Without these elements art could not be created. All of these elements exist in the world around us in nature and in the environments we create for ourselves Design for manufacturability (also sometimes known as design for manufacturing or DFM) is the general engineering art of designing products in such a way that they are easy to manufacture. The design of the component can have an enormous effect on the cost of manufacturing. Other factors may affect the manufacturability such as the type of raw material, the form of the raw material, dimensional tolerances, and secondary processing such as finishing. Factors influence in Form Design:1.Fitness for Purpose2. Quantity to be manufactured3. Product finish4.Durablity5. Safety6.ObsolescenceForging : Forging may be defined as a metal working process by which metals and alloys are plastically deformed(reduced) to desired shapes by application of a compressive force. Forging can be done either by hot or cold Hot forging and cold forging are two different metal forming processes that deliver similar results. Forging is the process of deforming metal into a predetermined shape using certain tools and equipmentdeformation is accomplished using hot, cold, or even warm forging processes. Ultimately, the manufacturer will look at a number of criteria before choosing which type of forging is best for a particular application.The Hot Forging Process When a piece of metal is hot forged it must be heated significantly. The average temperatures necessary for hot forging are:Up to 1150 degrees Celsius for Steel360 to 520 degrees Celsius for Al-Alloys700 to 800 degrees Celsius for Cu-AlloysOther considerations for hot forging include: 1. Production of discrete parts 2. Low to medium accuracy 3. Scale Formation 4. Low stresses or low work hardening 5. Homogenized grain structure 6. Increased ductility 7. Elimination of chemical incongruities

Possible disadvantages of hot forging include:Less precise tolerancesPossible warping of the material during the cooling processVarying metal grain structurePossible reactions between the surrounding atmosphere and the metal Cold Forging

Cold forging deforms metal while it is below its recrystallization point. Cold forging is generally preferred when the metal is already a soft metal, like aluminum. This process is usually less expensive than hot forging and the end product requires little, if any, finishing work. Sometimes, when aluminum is cold forged into a desired shape, it is heat treated to strengthen the piece. This is called "tempering.Other benefits of cold forging include: Easier to impart directional propertiesImproved interchangeability Improved reproducibility Increased dimensional controlHandles high stress and high die loadsProduces net shape or near-net shape partsSome possible disadvantages of COLD FORGING include:1. Easier to impart directional properties2. Improved interchangeability3. Improved reproducibility4. Increased dimensional control5. Handles high stress and high die loads6. Produces net shape or near-net shape parts7. The metal surfaces must be clean and free of scale before forging occurs8. The metal is less ductile9. Residual stress may occur10. Heavier and more powerful equipment is needed11. Stronger tooling is required12. Secondary process is required for finishing the component.Forging and its typesForging is a manufacturing process involving the shaping of metal using localized compressive forces. Forging is often classified according to the temperature at which it is performed: "cold", "warm", or "hot" forging. Forging is the operation where the metal is heated and then a force is applied to manipulates the metals in such a way that the required final shape is obtained. Forging is generally a hot working process through cold forging is used sometimes.Type of Forging 1. Smith Forging2. Drop Forging 3. Press Forging 4. Machine Forging1: Smith forging This is the traditional forging operation done openly or in-openly dies by the village black smith or modern shop floor by manual hammering or by the power hammer. The process involves heating the stock in the black smith hearth and then beating it over the anvil. To get the desire shape the operator has to manipulate the component in between the blows.The types of operation available are fullering, flattering, bending , upsetting and swaging.2: Drop forging The drop forging die consists of two halves. The lower halve of the die is fixed to the anvil of the machine , while the upper halve is fixed to ram. The heated stock is kept in the lower die, while the ram delivers 4-5 blows on the metal spreads and completely fills in the die cavity. When the two die of halves closed the complete is formed. The typical products obtained in drop forging are cranks, crank shaft, connecting rods, wrench, crane hooks etc. The types of operations are fullering, edging, bending, blocking , finishing and trimming etc. Drop forgingDrop forging is a forging process where a hammer is raised and then "dropped" onto the work piece to deform it according to the shape of the die. There are two types of drop forging: open-die drop forging and closed-die drop forging. As the names imply, the difference is in the shape of the die, with the former not fully enclosing the work piece, while the latter doesVarious Stages / Steps involved in Drop Forging:1.Fullering impression2.Edging impression3.Bending impression4.Blocking impression5.Finishing impression6.TrimmingPress forgingPress forging works by slowly applying a continuous pressure or force, which differs from the near-instantaneous impact of drop-hammer forging. The amount of time the dies are in contact with the work piece is measured in seconds (as compared to the milliseconds of drop-hammer forges). The press forging operation can be done either cold or hot.The main advantage of press forging, as compared to drop-hammer forging, is its ability to deform the complete work piece. Drop-hammer forging usually only deforms the surfaces of the work piece in contact with the hammer and anvil; the interior of the work piece will stay relatively unreformed. Another advantage to the process includes the knowledge of the new part's strain rate. We specifically know what kind of strain can be put on the part, because the compression rate of the press forging operation is controlled.There are a few disadvantages to this process, most stemming from the work piece being in contact with the dies for such an extended period of time. The operation is a time-consuming process due to the amount and length of steps. The work piece will cool faster because the dies are in contact with work piece; the dies facilitate drastically more heat transfer than the surrounding atmosphere. As the work piece cools it becomes stronger and less ductile, which may induce cracking if deformation continues. Therefore heated dies are usually used to reduce heat loss, promote surface flow, and enable the production of finer details and closer tolerances. The workpiece may also need to be reheated.3: Press Forging: Press forging dies are similar to drop forging dies as also the process in press forging, the metal is shaped not by means of a series of blows as in drop forging , but by means of a single continuous squeezing action. This squeezing is obtained by means of hydraulic presses. Because of the continuous action of by hydraulic presses, the material gets uniformly deform through out its entire depth ,the press forging dies with the various impression , such as fuller, bender and finisher impression properly arranged .4: Machine Forging / Upseting Forging: Unlike the press or drop forging where the material is drawn out , in machine forging the material is only upset to get the desire shape. As it involves the upsetting operation some time it is simply called as upset forging. Originally this was develop for making bolts head in a continuous fashion, but now there are fairly large number of diverse.Forging operations: 1: Drawing: This is the operation in which metal gets elongated with a reduction in the cross section area. For this, a force is to be applied in a direction perpendicular to the length axis.

2:Up setting: This is applied to increase the cross sectional area of the stock at the expanse of the length. To achieve the length of upsetting force is applied in a direction parallel to the length axis, For example forming of a bolt head. 3:Fullering: It a similar to material cross-section is decreased and length increased. To do this; the bottom fuller is kept in angle hole with the heated stock over the fuller. The top fuller is then kept above the stock and then with the sledge hammer, and the force is applied on the top fuller. 4:Edging: It is a process in which the metal piece is displaced to the desired shape by striking between two dies edging is frequently as primary drop forging operation.5:Bending: Bending is very common forging operation. It is an operation to give a turn to metal rod or plate. This is required for those which have bends shapes.6:Punching: It is a process of producing holes in motel plate is placed over the hollow cylindrical die. By pressing the punch over the plate the hole is made.7:Forged welding: It is a process of joining two metal pieces to increase the length. By the pressing or hammering then when they are at forging temperature. It is performed in forging shop and hence is called forged welding.8:Cutting: It is a process in which a metal rod or plate cut out into two pieces, with the help of chisel and hammer, when the metal is in red hot condition.9:Flating and setting down: Fullering leaves a corrugated surface on the job. Even after a job is forged into shape with a hammer, the marks of the hammer remains on the upper surface of the job. To remove hammer marks and corrugation and in order to obtain a smooth surface on the job, a flatter or set hammer is used.10: Swaging: Swaging is done to reduce and finish work for desire size and shape, usually either round or hexagonal. For small jobs top and bottom swage pair is employed, where as for large work swage block can be used.

Drop forging diagram

Smith forging process diagramPress forging process diagram

Machine forging process diagram

Advantages of Machine Forging: 1. Quality of forging is better than drop forging and press forging 2. Maintenance is very cheap in compared with other forging type 3. Raw material wastage is reduced and cost is also very less 4. Upsetting process can be automated 5. Production rate is high in compare with other type of forgingLimitations of Machine Forging: 1. It is not convenient to forge heavier jobs due to material handling difficulties 2. Tooling cost is high 3. Maximum diameter of the stock which can be upset is 25cmADVANTAGES OF MACHINE FORGING:Main advantages 100% reproducibility during the manufacture of forged elements owing to the presence of CNC (100 scrolls at the machine with will be always made exactly the same).High productivity owing to the high rotation speed of output shaft (up to 50 rpm in the industrial class, up to 20 rpm in the economy class).Convenience in work owing to smooth adjustment of output shaft rotation speed (the adjustment for the first detail can be made at a low speed and the batch can be manufactured at maximum speed).2-year warranty for the machines.Advantageous price offer: manufactured machines are cheaper than German analogues by 50%.The machines are designed and manufactured taking into account the newest developments of the companies Mitsubishi, SEW-Eurodrive, PHILIPP Gruppe.The assembly of the machines is carried out from the components of the leading German manufacturers.ADVANTAGES OF FORGING PROCESS: 1.Impurities in the metal in the form of inclusions are broken up, resulting in structural homogeneity2.Forging are easily welded, greater strength per unit of cross sectional area3. Forgings can be held to within fairly close tolerances4.Relatively smooth surface of the forging5.Minimum metal removal in machining6.Better mechanical properties.7.Ability of the forging to withstand unpredictable loads8. Superior machining qualities9.Porosity and blowholes in the metal are largely eliminated10. Wide range of forgeable metals is availableDIS ADVANTAGES OF FORGING PROCESS: 1.In hot forging due to very high temperature of metal, there is a rapid oxidation or scaling of the surface resulting in poor surface finish.2.Tooling and handling cost is very high3.Many intricate and cored shapes possible only by casting process cannot by forged4.Forging cost is more than casting5. Absolute need for skilled labour6.Poor material utilization7. Difficulty of maintaining moderately close tolerances8.Restricted to simple shapes9. Less control in determining grain flow, mechanical properties and dimensions10.Restricted to short run production.

FORGING DEFECTS: 1.Unfilled Sections: Some sections of the die cavity are not completely filled by flowing metal.2.Cold shut: This appears as a small crack at the corners of the forging3.Scale pits: This is seen as irregular depressions on the surface of the forging4.Die shift: This is caused by the misalignment of the two die halves5.Flakes : Basically internal ruptures caused by th improper cooling6.Improper grain flow: This is caused due to improper design of the dieThe advantages and disadvantages of hot forging :Advantages Increase in ductile strength High temperature helps in removal of homogeneous substances due to increased diffusion Reduction in the pore sizeDisadvantages

Lesser tolerance Warping of material during the cooling process Undesirable result due to reaction of metal with that of surroundings Varied metal structureAdvantages of Cold Forging : Finishing operation is not requiredIt has very less work during processIn this Fabrication process it is very cost effective. Cold forging has less impurities Cold forging Results into smooth shiny surface. Disadvantages of Cold Forging: Less ductile metal Very strong tools are needed Residual stress The surface of the metal is to be cleaned before the process starts

RAW MATERIAL SELECTION:1.Organizational philosophy is to be understood by the raw material supplier2.The supplier has a stable management system working for quality and commitment. Check whether the supplier is an ISO certified organization3.The supplier should maintain high technical standards and have capabile to meet the future technological innovation.4. Supplier should be in a position to supply raw materials of quality & quantity as requested by purchaser5.There should be no dangers of breaching the corporate secrets6.Supplier should have a capable of meeting the delivery in schedule and be easily accessible by road and through communication7. Supplier should be sincere in fulfilling the commitment according to contract provision8. Supplier should have an effective quality updated system9. Supplier should have a track record of customer satisfaction and organizational credibilitySOURCING:Three types : 1. Sole sourcing 2. Multiple sourcing 3. Single sourcingSole sourcing : It means the organization is forced to use only one raw material supplier . This is due to patents, technical specification, location of raw materials.Multiple sourcing : It is the use of two or more supplier for an item. This type of sourcing will be based on their quality, price and delivery schedule. This type will create competition among the supplier, so we get better raw materials and price will be lower. It eliminate the disruption of supply due to strikes, bundhs and etc.Single sourcing : It is a planned decision by the organization to select one supplier for an item when several sources are available. It results in long term contracts and a partnering relationship. CASTING PROCESS: The solidified piece of metal, which is taken out of the mould, is called as Casting. Casting process is also called as Founding. The word foundry is derived from latin word fundere meaning melting and pouring. Casting is a manufacturing process by which a liquid material is usually poured into a mold, which contains a hollow cavity of the desired shape, and then allowed to solidify. The solidified part is also known as a casting, which is ejected or broken out of the mold to complete the process. Casting materials are usually metals or various cold setting materials that cure after mixing two or more components together; examples are epoxy, concrete, plaster and clay. Casting is most often used for making complex shapes that would be otherwise difficult or uneconomical to make by other methodsDIFFERENT TYPES OF CASTING PROCESS:1)Investment casting 2)Permanent mold casting 3)Centrifugal casting 4)Continuous casting 5)Sand casting TYPES OF CASTING PROCESS:1)Investment Casting :Investment casting (known as lost-wax casting in art) is a process that has been practiced for thousands of years, with lost wax process being one of the oldest known metal forming techniques. Investment casting derives its name from the fact that the pattern is invested, or surrounded, with a refractory material. The wax patterns require extreme care for they are not strong enough to withstand forces encountered during the mold making. One advantage of investment casting it that the wax can be reused.

The process is suitable for repeatable production of net shape components, from a variety of different metals and high performance alloys. Although generally used for small castings, this process has been used to produce complete aircraft door frames, with steel castings of up to 300 kg and aluminum castings of up to 30 kg. Compared to other casting processes such as die casting or sand casting it can be an expensive process, however the components that can be produced using investment casting can incorporate intricate contours, and in most cases the components are cast near net shape, so requiring little or no rework once cast.2 .Permanent Mold Casting Permanent mold casting (typically for non-ferrous metals) requires a set-up time on the order of weeks to prepare a steel tool, after which production rates of 5-50 pieces/hr-mold are achieved with an upper mass limit of 9 kg per iron alloy item (cf., up to 135 kg for many nonferrous metal parts) and a lower limit of about 0.1 kg. Steel cavities are coated with a refractory wash of acetylene soot before processing to allow easy removal of the work piece and promote longer tool life. Permanent molds have a limited life before wearing out. Worn molds require either refinishing or replacement. Cast parts from a permanent mold generally show 20% increase in tensile strength and 30% increase in elongation as compared to the products of sand casting.

The only necessary input is the coating applied regularly. Typically, permanent mold casting is used in forming iron, aluminum, magnesium, and copper based alloys. The process is highly automated.3 .Centrifugal casting

Centrifugal casting is both gravity- and pressure-independent since it creates its own force feed using a temporary sand mold held in a spinning chamber at up to 900 N (90 g). Lead time varies with the application. Semi- and true-centrifugal processing permit 30-50 pieces/hr-mold to be produced, with a practical limit for batch processing of approximately 9000 kg total mass with a typical per-item limit of 2.3-4.5 kg.Industrially, the centrifugal casting of railway wheels was an early application of the method developed by German industrial company Krupp and this capability enabled the rapid growth of the enterprise.4. Continuous casting

Continuous casting is a refinement of the casting process for the continuous, high-volume production of metal sections with a constant cross-section. Molten metal is poured into an open-ended, water-cooled copper mold, which allows a 'skin' of solid metal to form over the still-liquid centre. The strand, as it is now called, is withdrawn from the mold and passed into a chamber of rollers and water sprays; the rollers support the thin skin of the strand while the sprays remove heat from the strand, gradually solidifying the strand from the outside in. Continuous casting is used due to the lower costs associated with continuous production of a standard product, and also increases the quality of the final product. Metals such as steel, copper and aluminum are continuously cast, with steel being the metal with the greatest tonnages cast using this method.

5 . Sand casting

Sand casting is one of the most popular and simplest types of casting that has been used for centuries. Sand casting allows for smaller batches to be made compared to permanent mold casting and a very reasonable cost. Not only does this method allow for manufacturers to create products for a good cost there are other benefits to sand casting such as there are very little size operations. From castings that fit in the palm of your hand to train beds (one casting can create the entire bed for one rail car) it can be done with sand casting. Sand casting also allows for most metals to be cast depending in the type of sand used for the molds.Sand casting requires a lead time of days for production at high output rates (1-20 pieces/hr-mold), and is unsurpassed for large-part production. Green (moist) sand has almost no part weight limit, whereas dry sand has a practical part mass limit of 2300-2700 kg. Minimum part weight ranges from 0.075-0.1 kg. The sand is bonded together using clays (as in green sand) or chemical binders, or polymerized oils (such as motor oil.) Sand in most operations can be recycled many times and requires little additional input.ADVANTAGES OF CASTING PROCESS: 1- Low Cost 2- No skilled operators needed 3- Equipments are cheap and easy to deal with. 4- Suitable for few small production rates 5- Can produce large (very large) castings (i.e. Pit casting in a very large whole in the ground the molten metal is poured) Advantages of special casting process over sand casting Greater dimensional accuracy. Higher metallurgical quality. Lower production cost (in certain cases). Ability to cast extremely thin sections. High production rates. Better surface finish on the castings; therefore low labour and finishing costs. Minimum need for further machining of castings. Castings may possess a denser and finer grain structure. Castings are slightly stronger and more ductile than solid mould castingsADVANTAGES OF CASTING PROCESS:The reasons for the success of the casting process are: Owing to physical properties, some metals can only be cast since they cannot be re-modelled into bars, rods, plates or other shapes. It's a process highly adaptable to the requirements of mass production. Large numbers of a given casting can be produced quickly. For example; in the automotive industry there is massive production of cast engine blocks and transmission cases. Certain light metal alloys because of their respective strength and weakness, can be produced only as castings. Shows excellent bearing qualities. Some of the key Advantages of Casting over Forging can be with respect to the following:Design flexibility High production rate Large and complex parts ADVANTAGES OF CASTING PROCESS:

1. On Basis of Size of Object to be Manufactured: Size of cast objects vary over large range. An object from 5gm to 200tonn, anything can be cast. 2. On Basis of Complexity:

Casting can be effectively used for complex shaped objects. It can work where general machining processes can not be used, as in complicated inner and outer shapes of object. 3. Weight Saving:

Component made with casting process is lighter than the component made with other machining processes 4. Control Over The Process: Casting provides versatility. Wide range of properties can be attained by adjusting percentage of alloying elements. 5. Accuracy: Casting can be made with hair like precision provided proper molding and casting technique is employed. 6. Fibrous Structure: Only casting have this advantage. Casting leaves component with its solid fibrous structure which inherit great compressive strength. So, component subjected to compressive strength are made with casting ex. IC engine cylinder. 7. Control Over Grain Size: Grain size of cast component can be easily controlled by controlling cooling rate which in turn can be used to modify the properties. 8. Low Cost: Casing is one of cheapest method for mass production.DIS ADVANTAGES OF CASTING PROCESS:1. Weakness of CastingRequires close process control and monitoring Shrinkage porosity may occur Metallic projections Cracks, hot tearing, coldshuts Laps, oxides , Misruns, insufficient volume , Inclusions 2.Though casting is cheapest for MASS Production, it becomes non economical in case of JOB production. 3.Sand casting leaves rough surface which needs machining in most of cases. It adds up the cost in production. 4.Again in sand casting, poor dimensional accuracy is achieved. 5.Cast products are superior for compressible loads but they are very poor in tensile or shock loads.(They are brittle).1- Poor surface finish, due to sand indentation and oxidizing medium ..etc.2- Many defects arise in the casting (no good control on the process , die casting is much better) 3- Not suitable for mass production, oftenly used to produce few number of products compared with other casting processes which produce thousands and millions. 4- Dangerous operation , may cause harmful injuries ..etc.5.Only good for basic shapes 6.Can usually only be used once 7.Accuracy of casting sizes aren't great.Consequently, this process costs more than other forms of casting

Another disadvantage of metal casting is that it is extremely dangerous. People involved in this industrial process must be highly trained, and even then, accidents happen. Molten metal can reach temperatures of over 1,000 degrees Fahrenheit, so one small mistake or equipment malfunction can lead to serious injury or death. Sand casting is the cheapest process but also the least accurate, thus making it unsuitable for precise work. In short, metal casting requires a trade-off between quality and cost.DEFECTS IN CASTING PROCESS: 1.BLOW HOLES :Gases and steam are formed when molten metal is poured 2. SCAB: Erosion or breaking down a portion of mould 3. SHIFT: Mismatching of casting sections4. SWELL: Enlargement of casting5.SHRINKS: Shrinkage cavity on casting surface6.HOT TEAR: Internal or external discontinuity in the casting7.METAL PENETRATION: Molten metal penetrating the sand. so casting will have rough external surface8.HONEY COMBING: Number of small cavities present in the surface9.RUNOUT: Metal leaks out of mould during pouring10.CRACKS OR WRAPAGE: Small cracks appear on the sharp corners of the casting UNIT 3 COMPONENT DESIGN - MACHININGPrinciples of DRILLS: A drill is a tool fitted with a cutting tool attachment or driving tool attachment, usually a drill bit or driver bit, used for boring holes in various materials or fastening various materials together with the use of fasteners Drills are commonly used in wood working, metal working, construction and do-it-yourself projects. Specially designed drills are also used in medicine, space missions and other applications. Drills are available with a wide variety of performance characteristics, such as power and capacity. A fastener is a hardware device that mechanically joins or affixes two or more objects together. It is a Devices that are used to join and assemble parts togetherVarious type of DRILLS: There are many types of drills: some are powered manually, others use electricity (electric drill) or compressed air (pneumatic drill) as the motive power, and a minority are driven by an internal combustion engine (for example, earth drilling augers). Pistol-grip (corded) drill

Hammer drill:The hammer drill is similar to a standard electric drill, with the exception that it is provided with a hammer action for drilling masonry. Rotary hammer drill: The rotoary hammer drill (also known as a rotary hammer, roto hammer drill or masonry drill) combines a primary dedicated hammer mechanism with a separate rotation mechanism, and is used for more substantial material such as masonry or concreteCordless drills: A cordless drill is an electric drill which uses rechargeable batteriesDrill press: A drill press consists of a base, column (or pillar), table,spindle (or quill), and drill head, usually driven by an induction motor.Radial arm drill press: Radial arm drill press controlsA radial arm drill press is a large geared head drill press in which the head can be moved along an arm that radiates from the machine's column.Milling cutters: Milling cutters are cutting tools typically used in milling machines or machining centres to perform milling operations (and occasionally in other machine tools). They remove material by their movement within the machine (e.g., a ball nose mill) or directly from the cutter's shape (e.g., a form tool such as a hobbing cutter).Various parameters of milling cutters:1.Shape2.Teeth3.Helix angle4.Finishing5.Coatings 6. Shank 7. Centre cuttingTypes of Milling Cutters:1. End Mill2. Slot Mill3. Roughing End Mill4. Ball Nose Cutter5. Slab Mill6. Side and Face cutter7. In Volute Gear CutterFactors consider in Selecting a Milling Cutter : 1. Material 2. Diameter 3. Flutes 4. Coating 5. Helix angle Keyways: In mechanical engineering, a key is a machine element used to connect a rotating machine element to a shaft. The key prevents relative rotation between the two parts and enables torque transmission. A key is used for temporary fastening. For a key to function, the shaft and rotating machine element must have a keyway, also known as a keyseat, which is a slot or pocket the key fits in. The whole system is called a keyed joint Various types of Keyways:1.Sunk keys2.Parallel keys3.Tapered keys4.Scotch key or Dutch key5.Spline keyDoweling Procedure:A dowel is a solid cylindrical rod, usually made of wood, plastic, or metal. In its original manufactured form, a dowel is called a dowel rod. Dowel rods are often cut into short lengths called dowel pins. Dowels are employed in numerous, diverse applications including as axles in toys, detents (e.g., in gymnastics grips), structural reinforcements in cabinet making, and supports for tiered wedding cakes.Dowel pins are used to hold two pieces of wood together. They are often used as an alternative to glue or screws,... Other uses include:As furniture shelf supportsAs moveable game pieces (i.e., pegs)As supports for hanging items such as clothing, key rings, tools, toilet roll dispensers and picture framesTo precisely align two objects in a dowel joint: a hole is bored in both objects and the dowel pin is inserted into the aligned holesAs a core to wrap cable or textiles aroundCounter Sunk Screws: A countersink (symbol: ) is a conical hole cut into a manufactured object, or the cutter used to cut such a hole. A countersink may also be used to remove the burr left from a drilling or tapping operation thereby improving the finish of the product and removing any hazardous sharp edges.Types: 1.Cross-hole Countersink Cutter 2.Form Countersink Cutter 3. Fluted Countersink Cutter 4. Back Countersink CutterAdvantage of Counter sunk screws in joints :1. Easy to fasten and remove or replace 2. Different types of heads are possible--straight cut, Allen, star, and many other 3. The pitch of thread can be varied to ensure compatibility where only needed 4. The thread could be very close ensuring tight fit or distanced to be used on wood

Disadvantage Counter sunk screws in joints :1. Needs an external too 2. Needs a cut on the head, special process 3. Needs threading, special process 4. Wastage of material during manufacture Screws are used to fit materials such as chipboard, MDF and natural woods together although there is a type of screw called a self-tapping screw that can be used for joining thin metal sheet. screws can be used to join materials together permanently although as they can be unused with relative ease they are also good as a way of fixing materials temporarily. COUNTERSUNK - SLOT HEAD: This can be used for general woodworking for example fitting hinges to doors. Because the screw is countersunk it can be tightened 'flush' to the surface of the material.SIMPLIFICATION BY AMALGATION:In general, amalgamation is the process of combining or uniting multiple entities into one form.Definition of 'AmalgamationThe combination of one or more companies into a new entity. An amalgamation is distinct from a merger because neither of the combining companies survives as a legal entity. Rather, a completely new entity is formed to house the combined assets and liabilities of both companies. This sense of the term amalgamation has generally fallen out of popular use and the terms "merger" or "consolidation" are often used instead"Amalgamation is a union of two or more companies, made with an intention to form a new company."In terms of finance, the definition of amalgamation can be given as under."Amalgamation is an agreement (deal) between two or more companies to consolidate (strengthen) their business activities by establishing a new company having a separate legal existence."AMALGATION:A dowel is a solid cylindrical rod, usually made of wood, plastic, or metal. In its original manufactured form, a dowel is called a dowel rod. Dowel rods are often cut into short lengths called dowel pins. Dowels are employed in numerous, diverse applications including as axles in toys, detents (e.g., in gymnastics grips), structural reinforcements in cabinet making, and supports for tiered wedding cakes.Example of Amalgamation: Bank a and Bank b proposed to be a BANK ab STEP BY STEP PROCEDURE OF AMALGATION:1. Intimate the Stock Exchange about the Board Meeting in which the proposal for amalgamation will be considered.2. Conduct the Board Meeting for considering the proposal of amalgamation. The Board has to inprincipally approve the amalgamation and appoint Chartered Accountant as Valuer for recommending the share exchange ratio and Advocates for representing the matter on behalf of the Company before the Honble High Court.3. Intimate Stock Exchange about the decision at the Board and intimation about4. Hold the Board Meeting to approve the Scheme of Amalgamation and the Share Exchange Ratio.5. Intimate Stock Exchange about the result of the Board Meeting and the Share Exchange Ratio.6. Apply to the Stock Exchange(s) where the Shares of the Company are listed under Clause 24(f) of the Listing Agreements.7. After 30 days of making the above application, apply to the Honble High Court seeking directions for holding meeting of Shareholders & Creditors.8. Obtain Order from the Honble High Court convening the meeting of the Shareholders &Creditors meeting and for publishing advertisements for the same. Creditors meetings are not required in the Transferee Company.9. Publish the Advertisements in Newspapers about meetings in accordance with the schedule given by the Honble High Court.10. Send printed notices of court convened meetings to the Shareholders & Creditors in accordance with the instruction of the Honble High Court. The notices have to be sent Under Postal Certification only (UPC). 11. Send 3 copies to Stock Exchanges where the Company's Shares are listed.12. Prepare the Affidavit for Dispatch of Notices and for Publication of Advertisements and file them with the Honble High Court alongwith original proof of dispatch and original proof of publication of advertisements.13. Conduct the Court convened Meetings of the shareholders and creditors in accordance with the instructions of the Honble High Court. Please note that this resolution has to be passed by Special Majority i.e. more than 50% in number and more than 75% in value have to vote in favour of the resolution. The result of the meeting has to be decided by Poll only. 14. Inform the Stock Exchanges regarding the outcome of the meeting and within reasonable time, submit Minutes of the Meeting.15. After the resolution has been approved, File Form No. 23 with the Registrar of Companies (ROC) within 30 days from the date of the meeting.16. Within 7 days of the Meeting, the Chairman's Report for the meetings has to be filed with the Honble High Court.17. Within 7 days of filing the Chairmans Report, the Company Petition has to be filed with the Honble High Court for approving the Scheme of Amalgamation.18. Obtain an Order of admission of petition from Honble High Court. The Honble High Court would order a copy of the Petition to be served to the office of the Regional Director (RD) and the Official Liquidator (OL).19. Submit a Certified Copy of the Petition with the office of the RD and the OL. The RD would require a copy of the Petition to be submitted to the office of the ROC and hence, it is advisable to be proactive and file the copy of petition with the office of the ROC as well.20. The ROC will investigate into the compliances by the Companies and whether the scheme is prejudicial to the interest of the shareholders or creditors. The ROC will submit its report to the RD.21. The RD will require details from the Companies and make a separate study of the Scheme of Amalgamation and whether the scheme is prejudicial to the interest of the shareholders or creditors. The RD will prepare its report and sent it to the ROC. The ROC will forward the report to the Government Counsel.22. The OL will recommend and appoint an auditor for verifying the details of the Transferor Company and to investigate into the affairs of the Company. The auditor appointed as per the instructions of the OL will submit a report on the affairs of the Company. The Company has to also submit some details to the office of the OL. The OL shall prepare his report and submit to the Honble High Court / Government Counsel.23. The matter would now be taken up for hearing before the Honble High Court. The Honble High Court would consider the arguments from both the sides and depending on the merits of the case, would issue an order. I assume that the Honble High Court has approved the Scheme of Amalgamation.24. File the Honble High Court Order with ROC in Form No. 21. The merger becomes effective once the Honble High Court Order is filed with the ROC.Advantages of Amalgamations :1.Scale of economy2. Use of common resources3. Increase of goodwill4.Avoidence of internal competitionThe main benefits or advantages of amalgamation are as follows:1.Operating Economics: Expenses associated with business and its allied activities. 2.Diversification: It means to have presence (establishment) in different business ventures, which are not related to each other. 3.Financial Economics: It means expenses associated with the acquisition of funds required to run the business 4.Growth: amalgamated company grow faster than individual companies. 5.Managerial Effectiveness: Manager's skill to attain the desired outcome in the business operations. 6.Helps to Face Competition: Business strategies that help to face market competition with ease and confidence. 7.Revival of Sick Units: Restarting the earlier shutdown companies. 8.Tax Advantages: When one of the amalgamated companies enjoys a subsidized rate of taxation. 9.Increase in Market Share: Increasing the combined sales of the amalgamated companies 10.Increases GoodWill: Creates goodwill in the market. 11.Miscellaneous Advantages: It helps to increase the market price , It promotes the brand value

DisAdvantages of Amalgamations :1.Culture Clash :When two firms merge, it is more than a coming together of two names or brands -- it is a real merger of people who bring along a specific corporate culture2. Dis-economies of Scale:When businesses merge, it is often to achieve economies of scale. Larger organizations are typically able to produce goods and services more efficiently and at a lower per-unit cost than smaller businesses because fixed costs are spread out over a larger number of units3. Consumer Perceptions :When two companies merge, they need to consider how consumers view the two firms and whether or not they view them in a compatible way4. Layoffs :Merging two businesses is often a good method for reducing the labor force of the two organizations. For instance, a company may combine its two offices into one and reduce the number of staff performing the same duties5.Disclosing of competition: Healthy competition may be eliminated6.Elemination of share holder: reluctant shareholders may try to prevent an amalgamation - the minority shareholders may have to be paid out in cash7. Adjustment Period :Mergers require an adjustment period to combine the operations of the two companies. 8. Stress :The uncertainty surrounding mergers can create a high level of stress for employees. Even before the merger becomes official, there can be uncertainty about its impact on jobs, as mergers sometimes cause the need for job elimination 9. Less Flexibility:Mergers can cause two relatively small, nimble organizations to become one less flexible large entity. Decisions that used to be made quickly may now have to pass through several layers of management. Slower decision-making may result in lost opportunities in the marketplace.10.Possible Failure:There is no guarantee that a merger will succeed. Mergers can fail for a number of reasons, such as a poorly structured financial arrangement. Even if the merger deal is financially sound, it is always possible that divergent corporate cultures will not mesh or that workers will not be able to adapt to the changes required of them.CLASSIFICATION OF AMALGAMATIONS / MERGER :1. Horizontal amalgamation: It means combination two companies dealing with same business inorder to increase the share and also the business competition. Horizontal mergers take place where the two merging companies both produce similar product in the same industry2. Vertical amalgamation : It is an amalgamation takes place between amalgamated companies with customer or with supplier. Vertical mergers occur when two firms, each working at different stages in the production of the same good. In this form, the companies in merger decide to combine all the operations and productions under one shelter3. Conglomerate amalgamation : Main purpose is diversification of risk. Conglomerate mergers take place when the two firms operate in different industries. Conglomerate merger is a kind of venture in which two or more companies belonging to different industrial sectors combine their operations.4. Co - Generic Merger : Co-generic merger is a kind in which two or more companies in association are some way or the other related to the production processes, business markets, or basic required technologies. It includes the extension of the product line or acquiring components that are all the way required in the daily operationsDESIGN FOR MACHINABILITY:Design Guidelines for MachiningThe section below contains examples of some design guidelines for machining. These guidelines may help companies to avoid rejections and rework due to engineering errors leading to higher cost of quality and delay in the delivery to customer. 1.Design for manufacturability (also sometimes known as design for manufacturing or DFM) is the general engineering art of designing products in such a way that they are easy to manufacture. The basic idea exists in almost all engineering disciplines, but of course the details differ widely depending on the manufacturing technology. 2.This design practice not only focuses on the design aspect of a part but also on the producibility. 3.In simple language it means relative ease to manufacture a product, part or assembly. 4.DFM describes the process of designing or engineering a product in order to facilitate the manufacturing process in order to reduce its manufacturing costs. The design stage is very important in product design. Most of the product lifecycle costs are committed at design stage. The product design is not just based on good design but it should be possible to produce by manufacturing as well. Often an otherwise good design is difficult or impossible to produce. Typically a design engineer will create a model or design and send it to manufacturing for review and invite feedback. This process is called a design review. If this process is not followed diligently, the product may fail at the manufacturing stage.If these DFM guidelines are not followed, it will result in iterative design, loss of manufacturing time and overall resulting in longer time to market. Hence many organizations have adopted concept of Design for Manufacturing.Other factors may affect the manufacturability such as 1. The type of raw material, 2.The form of the raw material, 3. Dimensional tolerances 4. Secondary processing such as finishing. DESIGN FOR MACHINABILITY:Design and shapeAs machining is a subtractive process, the time to remove the material is a major factor in determining the machining cost. The volume and shape of the material to be removed as well as how fast the tools can be fed will determine the machining time. When using milling cutters, the strength and stiffness of the tool which is determined in part by the length to diameter ratio of the tool will play the largest role in determining that speed. The shorter the tool is relative to its diameter the faster it can be fed through the material. A ratio of 3:1 (L:D) or under is optimum. If that ratio cannot be achieved, a solution like this depicted here can be used. For holes, the length to diameter ratio of the tools are less critical, but should still be kept under 10:1.There are many other types of features which are more or less expensive to machine. Generally chamfers cost less to machine than radii on outer horizontal edges. Undercuts are more expensive to machine. Features that require smaller tools, regardless of L:D ratio, are more expensive.DESIGN PRINCIPLES FOR ECONOMY :The top diagram gives the conventional picture (used across the board by capitalists, socialists and communists alike) of the major factors involved in economic activity. It begins with the three "factors of production": land, labor, and manufactured capital.Land was initially included in recognition of the importance of agriculture, but as industrialization progressed it has been broadened to represent all raw materials, like minerals and timber.Labor covers all direct human inputs into economic activity, although in practice it has been treated largely as a simple head-count e.g., how big is the "labor-force" or how many unemployed.Manufactured Capital refers to buildings, tools, and equipment.The oval labeled Economic Activity stands for the process by which Labor, with the aid of Manufactured Capital, converts Land (as raw materials) into Goods & Services. Some of these Goods & Services need to be Invested back into the factors of production to either maintain or improve them. Whatever is left over can then be Consumed to produce Utility or Welfare for individuals and households.THE FIVE FORMS OF WEALTHEnvironmental Capital (EC) expands beyond the idea of Land to include all natural systems, such as the atmosphere, biological systems, and even the sun.Human Capital (HC) expands beyond Labor to include quality as well as quantity. According to Ekins "Human Capital has three components: health, knowledge and skills, and motivation." Social and Organizational Capital (SOC) recognizes a major form of wealth that is ignored in the conventional diagram. It includes all of the interpersonal "software" that enables societies and organizations to function: habits, norms, roles, traditions, regulations, policies, etcManufactured Capital (MC) includes, as in the conventional picture, buildings, tools, and equipment. In this picture, however, the idea of MC is broadened in two ways. First, the conventional practice is usually to count as MC only equipment, etc., used by businesses.Credit Capital (CC) is another reservoir of wealth not included on the conventional diagram, nor in Ekins work. It is defined here as a reservoir of credits and promises, so it includes money and debt, but not stocks or deeds, which are ownership rights tied to other forms of capital.Among the advantages, we find the following:1.Competition between different firms leads to increased efficiency.2. Most people work harder (the threat of losing one's job is a great motivator).3. There is more innovation as firms look for new products to sell and cheaper ways to do their work;4. Foreign investment is attracted as word gets out about the new opportunities for earning profit.5. The size, power, and cost of the state bureaucracy is correspondingly reduced as various activities that are usually associated with the public sector are taken over by private enterprises.6. Many people quickly acquire the technical and social skills and knowledge needed to function in this new economy;7. A great variety of consumer goods become available for those who have the money to buy them; and8.Large parts of the society take on a bright, merry and colorful air as everyone busies himself trying to sell something to someone else. Free market responds quickly to the peoples wants: Wide Variety of goods and services: Efficient use of resources encouraged: DESIGN PRINCIPLES FOR ASSEMBLY :Design for assembly (DFA) is a process by which products are designed with ease of assembly in mind. If a product contains fewer parts it will take less time to assemble, thereby reducing assembly costs. In addition, if the parts are provided with features which make it easier to grasp, move, orient and insert them, this will also reduce assembly time and assembly costs. The reduction of the number of parts in an assembly has the added benefit of generally reducing the total cost of parts in the assembly1. Simplify the design and reduce the number of parts2. Standardize and use common parts and materials3. Design for ease of fabrication(i).For higher volume parts, consider castings or stampings to reduce machining (i)Use near net shapes for molded and forged parts to minimize machining and processing effort. (iii)Design for ease of fixturing by providing large solid mounting surface & parallel clamping surfaces (iv)Avoid designs requiring sharp corners or points in cutting tools - they break easier (v)Avoid thin walls, thin webs, deep pockets or deep holes to withstand clamping & machining without distortion vi)Avoid tapers & contours as much as possible in favor of rectangular shapes (vii)Avoid undercuts which require special operations & tools (viii)Avoid hardened or difficult machined materials unless essential to requirements (ix)Put machined surfaces on same plane or with same diameter to minimize number of operations x)Design work pieces to use standard cutters, drill bit sizes or other tools (xi)Avoid small holes (drill bit breakage greater) & length to diameter ratio > 3 (chip clearance & straightness deviation)4. Design within process capabilities and avoid unneeded surface finish requirements5.Mistake proof product design and assembly6. Design for parts orientation and handling7. Minimize flexible parts and interconnections8. Design for ease of assembly9. Design for efficient joining and fastening.10. Design modular products11. Design for automated production.12. Design printed circuit boards for assembly. DESIGN PRINCIPLES FOR ACCESSIBILITY :Accessibility is the degree to which a product, device, service, or environment is available to as many people as possible. Accessibility can be viewed as the "ability to access" and benefit from some system or entity. Accessibility is not to be confused with usability, which is the extent to which a product (such as a device, service, or environment) can be used by specified users to achieve specified goals with effectiveness, efficiency and satisfaction in a specified context of use.Principles of Accessibility : Perceivable : Content should be consumable - Available through sight, hearing, or touch.Operable: Interactions should be operable by everyone - Compatible with keyboard or mouse.Understandable : Content should be plain and clear to comprehend - User-friendly, easy to comprehend.Robust - Works across browsers, assistive technologies, mobile devices, old devices/browsers, etc. Follows standards.Advantages and disadvantagesAdvantages Quick distribution of scholarly research. There is no need to wait for months, for example, for an article to fit with the theme of a journal before it can be published.Free worldwide access for a large audience. This way makes it possible for people without connections to a scholarly institution to have access to results of scholarly research.Greater visibility of scholarly output for both the researcher and the research institution. This can have a status-heightening effect.Research shows that open access publications are cited more often on the average than closed publications.Efficient archiving and availability.Guaranteed sustainable storage and accessibility.Disadvantages Prestige. Faculties and management teams often base their evaluation of a scholar and the value of research on citation indices and the Journal Impact Factor of the scholarly journal in which the researcher published. This mentality must change before open access can replace the traditional form of publishing.Quality control. In contrast with the strictly regulated process of peer review, quality control differs from one publication to the next in open access. The quality control is especially low in repositories; some repositories also contain dissertations as well as theses (RePub, however, does not contain theses). The methods of quality control in open access journals vary greatly.APCs (Article Processing Charges). Open access journals often ask for APCs, which are meant to be paid by the author or the scholarly institution. Consequently, new scholars (primarily) are not in the financial position to publish in open access journals.Fewer options among journals with status/high impact factor.General PrinciplesAllow for flexibilityProvide choices in features and ways that tasks can be accomplishedAccommodate right- and left-handed useAllow the user to customize settings whenever possibleKeep in mind that people may be using adaptive technologiesBe simple and intuitiveDo not design something differently from user expectations just to be differentEliminate unnecessary complexity , Provide feedbackMinimize errorsProvide warnings , Build fail-safe features when possibleDo not establish patterns when you want people to pay attentionInclude redundant modalitiesRedundancy provides flexibility for different user preferences, system configurations, or user abilities. This can be accomplished by using more than one way to represent, display, and enter data, such as:using both a beep and a menu bar flash to notify a user of an error using text to label imagesredundantly allowing a user to issue commands by typing or selecting something with a pointerAvoid side effectsSide effects are actions that occur as the result of user actions that do not seem to the user to be related to the primary goal of the action. For instance, when starting a program that changes system configurations (such as screen and sound settings) it should change them back when the program is not being used.Side effects should be avoided because they cause particular problems for novice users and disabled users who may have difficulty detecting or correcting certain types of side effects.DESIGN PRINCIPLES FOR ASSEMBLY :An assembly line is a manufacturing process (most of the time called a progressive assembly) in which parts (usually interchangeable parts) are added as the semi-finished assembly moves from work station to work station where the parts are added in sequence until the final assembly is produced. By mechanically moving the parts to the assembly work and moving the semi-finished assembly from work station to work station, a finished product can be assembled much faster and with much less labor than by having workers carry parts to a stationary piece for assembly.Assembly lines are the common method of assembling complex items such as automobiles and other transportation equipment, household appliances and electronic goods.The principles of assembly are these:(1) Place the tools and the men in the sequence of the operation so that each component part shall travel the least possible distance while in the process of finishing.(2) Use work slides or some other form of carrier so that when a workman completes his operation, he drops the part always in the same placewhich place must always be the most convenient place to his handand if possible have gravity carry the part to the next workman for his operation.(3) Use sliding assembling lines by which the parts to be assembled are delivered at convenient distances.[ An assembly line is a manufacturing process (most of the time called a progressive assembly) in which parts (usually interchangeable parts) are added as the semi-finished assembly moves from work station to work station where the parts are added in sequence until the final assembly is produced. By mechanically moving the parts to the assembly work and moving the semi-finished assembly from work station to work station, a finished product can be assembled much faster and with much less labor than by having workers carry parts to a stationary piece for assembly.Assembly lines are the common method of assembling complex items such as automobiles and other transportation equipment, household appliances and electronic goods.