The Oil and Gas Job Training Course

Course Objective

This course basically intends to give the participant a comprehensive understanding of the petroleum industry environment by raising the participant's level of awareness of what the petroleum industry is and what makes up all its varied components. The course follows a barrel of oil from its origins in the ground to its ultimate consumer use, all for the purpose of bridging the skill and knowledge gap between the participant's educational and work background and the petroleum industry and thus equip him or her with the needed knowledge and skill to work in the petroleum job environment.

Course Content

Overview of the Petroleum Industry

Safety

Overview of the Petroleum Industry

The Comprehensive Petroleum Overview Course

Objective of the Petroleum Overview Course

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• This comprehensive petroleum overview course introduces participants to the basics of the Petroleum Industry. Using non-technical language the concepts of oil and gas exploration, production, transportation and petroleum refining are explored. The course covers the basic principles and technologies used by petroleum.

• geologists, geophysicists, drillers, reservoir and production engineers in the search of hydrocarbons. Upon completion of the course participants will have a general understanding of the oil and gas industry, its components, processes and technologies, and be able to relate their knowledge to the operations of petroleum production and service companies.

Presentation of Course

2Day 1

Structure Event Sequence Duration

1 Lecture First 1 Hour

2 Lecture Second 1 Hour

Structure 1• What petroleum is

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Day 1

Structure Event Sequence Duration

1 Lecture First 1 Hour

2 Lecture Second 1 Hour

Day 2

Structure Event Sequence Duration

5 Lecture First 2 Hour

6 Lecture / Video

Presentation Second 1 Hour

- Break Third 1 Hour

6 Video Presentation Fourth 1 Hour

7 Talks and Interactive Session Fifth 1 HourDay 2 Total Time 6 Hours

• Uses of Petroleum

• How petroleum is formed - Where it comes from - How it affects us

• How petroleum is accumulated

• Geological formations and how they were created

• World crude oil reserves - their size and location

• Reserves/production ratios

• Comparison of the value of various crude oils

Structure 2• Description of the Petroleum Industry - What is it?

• Upstream / Downstream / Midstream

• Various methods used to locate deposits of crude oil and natural gas

• How Oil is Produced - Onshore / Offshore

• Drilling methods

• Offshore drilling methodology

• Primary, secondary and tertiary recovery methods

• Regulatory / Environmental Issues / Drill or Not to Drill?

• Global Warming and the Oil Industry

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• Treatment of Oil for Sale / Shipment

• Terrorism and the Oil Industry

• Video presentation

Structure 4• Products produced from petroleum refining

• The three major areas of a petroleum refinery

• Overview of various operating units in a "typical" petroleum refinery

• Refineries / Refining - How Gasoline is Made

• Distillation / Hydro / Cat Cracking / Other

• Distribution of petroleum products

• Oil pricing and markets

Structure 5• Storage of Oil: Terminals / Tanks / Transshipment

• Future of the Oil Industry - Bio Fuels - Right or Wrong?

• Transportation of Oil: Ships-Barges-Pipeline-Truck-Rail

• Estimated Reserves Left / Growth in LNG Usage /

• Gas to Liquids? / Is the Petroleum Age Over?

• What is next for the Industry?

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Structure 6• Safety

• Video Presentation

Structure 7• Petroleum Career Talks

• General Questions and Answers

Structure 1• What petroleum is

Petroleum (L. petroleum, from Greek: petra (rock) + Latin: oleum (oil)) or crude oil is a naturally occurring, flammable liquid consisting of a complex mixture of hydrocarbons of various molecular weights and other liquid organic compounds, that are found in geologic formations beneath the Earth's surface or in the earth crust.

• Crude Oil

• Possible colours can be yellow, red, green, dark, etc.

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• Crude oils are normally characterized in terms of three properties; density, viscosity and sulfur content. Crude oils are identified as either light (specific gravity <0.82), or medium (specific gravity 0.82 to 0.97), or heavy (specific gravity > 0.97). The viscosity is an expression of the mobility of the crude oil. The sulfur content has a marked influence on the refinery procedures to which the crude oil, and in particular

• its derivatives, will be subjected in order to produce acceptable products. Crude oils with gravity > 33 deg API are considered as light crudes. Such crudes with a high percentage composition of hydrogen are usually more suitable for processing for gasoline production. Heavy crudes, ie those with gravity < 28 deg API tend to contain more asphaltenes and are usually rich in aromatics. These heavy

• crudes require more steps in their processing. Crude oils are also characterized in terms of their chemical composition, specifically on the predominance of the hydrocarbon types that are present. Modern practice tends to recognize two main types of crude, namely paraffinic and naphthenic. Paraffinic crude oils are rich in straight-chain and

• branched-chain alkanes, whereas in naphthenic crudes the main constituents are cycloparaffins and aromatic hydrocarbons. However, this is a simplified picture, as many crude oils fall between or outside these two types.

Uses of Petroleum• 1. Energy source

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• 2. Source of various raw materials used by various industries to make various useful products

• 3. Used to create wealth since it has a high economic value

• How petroleum is formed - Where it comes from - How it affects us

• Biogenic hypothesis

• Petroleum is a fossil fuel derived from ancient fossilized organic materials, such as zooplankton and algae. Vast quantities of these remains settled to a sea or lake bottoms, mixing with sediments and being buried under anoxic conditions. As further layers settled to the sea or lake bed, intense heat and pressure built up in the lower regions. This process caused the organic matter to change, first into a waxy material known as kerogen, which is found in various oil shales around the world, and then with more heat into liquid and gaseous hydrocarbons via a process known as catagenesis. Formation of petroleum occurs from hydrocarbon pyrolysis in a variety of mostly endothermic reactions at high temperature and/or pressure.

• Abiogenic hypothesis

• A small number of geologists adhere to the abiogenic petroleum origin hypothesis, maintaining that high molecular weight hydrocarbons of purely inorganic origin exist within Earth's interior and are the source for major petroleum deposits. The hypothesis was originally proposed by

• Nikolai Kudryavtsev and Vladimir Porfiriev in the 1950s, and more recently Thomas Gold proposed a similar deep hot biosphere idea. The thermodynamic synthesis routes necessary

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to carry abiogenic source material into subsurface oil are not established, observation of organic markers in kerogen and oil is not explained, and no oil deposits have been located by this hypothesis.

• How petroleum is accumulated

• Three conditions must be present for oil reservoirs to form: a source rock rich in hydrocarbon material buried deep enough for subterranean heat to cook it into oil; a porous and permeable reservoir rock for it to accumulate in; and a cap rock (seal) or other mechanism that prevents it from escaping to the surface.

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• Geological formations and how they were created

A formation or geological formation is the fundamental unit of lithostratigraphy. A formation consists of a certain number of rock

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strata that have a comparable lithology, facies or other similar properties. Formations are not defined on the thickness of the rock strata they consist of and the thickness of different formations can therefore vary widely.

• The concept of formally defined layers

or strata is central to the geologic discipline of stratigraphy.

A formation can be divided into members and are themselves grouped together in groups.

• Sedimentary rocks are formed through the gradual accumulation of sediment: for example, sand on a beach or mud on a river bed. As the sediment is buried it is compacted as more and more material is deposited on top. Eventually the sediment will become so dense that it is essentially rock. This process is known as lithification.

• World crude oil reserves - their size and location

• The total estimated amount of oil in an oil reservoir, including both producible and non-producible oil, is called oil in place. However, because of reservoir characteristics and limitations in petroleum extraction technologies, only a fraction of this oil can

be brought to the surface, and it is only this producible fraction that is considered to be reserves. The world gets its daily ration of 85 million barrels of oil from more than 4,000 fields. Most of

these are small, less than 20,000 barrels per day.

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Giants, producing more than 100,000 bpd, account for just 3%.

Then there's the megafields that gush out 1 million bpd. These are the most important sources of energy in the world - fields worth

fighting over.

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Production Volumes and Reserves Crude oil is perhaps the most useful and versatile raw material that has become available for exploitation. By 2001, the United States was using 7 billion barrels of petroleum per year, and worldwide consumption of petroleum was 28.2 billion barrels per year.

• a. Reserves The world's technically recoverable reserves of crude oil—the amount of oil that experts are certain of being able to extract without regard to cost from Earth—add up to about 1,000 billion barrels, of which some 73 billion barrels are in North America. However, only a small fraction of this can be

• extracted at current prices. Of the known oil reserves that can be profitably extracted at current prices, more than half are in the Middle East; only a small fraction are in North America.

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• b. Projections It is likely that some additional discoveries will be made of new reserves in coming years, and new technologies will be developed that permit the recovery

• efficiency from already known resources to be increased. The supply of crude oil will at any rate extend into the early decades of the 21st century. Virtually no expectation exists among experts, however, that discoveries and inventions will extend the availability of cheap crude oil much beyond that period. For example, the Prudhoe Bay field on the North Slope of Alaska is the

• largest field ever discovered in the Western Hemisphere. The ultimate recovery of crude oil from this field is anticipated to be about 10 billion barrels, which is sufficient to supply the current needs of the United States for less than two years, but only one such field was discovered in the West in

• more than a century of exploration. Furthermore, drilling activity has not halted the steady decline of North American crude oil reserves that began during the 1970s.

• c. Alternatives In light of the reserves available and the dismal projections, it is apparent that alternative energy sources will be required to sustain the

• civilized societies of the world in the future. The options are indeed few, however, when the massive energy requirements of the industrial world come to be appreciated. Commercial oil shale recovery and the production of a synthetic crude oil have yet to be demonstrated successfully, and serious questions exist as to the

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• competitiveness of production costs and production volumes that can be achieved by these potential new sources. Although alternative energy sources, such as geothermal energy , solar energy , and nuclear energy , hold much promise, none has proved an economically viable replacement for petroleum products.

• The Reserves-to-production ratio (RPR or R/P) is the remaining amount of a non-renewable resource, expressed in years. While applicable to all natural resources, the RPR is most commonly applied to fossil fuels, particularly petroleum and natural gas. The reserve portion (numerator) of the ratio is the amount of a resource known to

• exist in an area and to be economically recoverable (proved reserves). The production portion (denominator) of the ratio is the amount of resource used in one year at the current rate.

• RPR = (amount of known resource) / (amount used per year)

• This ratio is used by companies and government agencies in forecasting the future availability of a resource to determine project life, future income, employment, etc, and to determine whether more exploration must be undertaken to ensure continued supply of the resource. Annual production of a

• resource can usually be calculated to quite an accurate number. However, reserve quantities can only be estimated to varying degrees of accuracy, depending on the availability of information and the methods used to evaluate them.

• Reserve to Production ratio (in years), calculated as reserves / annual production.

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• Comparison of the value of various crude oils

• The petroleum industry generally classifies crude oil by the geographic location it is produced in (e.g. West Texas Intermediate, Brent, or Oman), its API gravity (an oil industry measure of density), and its sulfur content. Crude oil may be considered light if it has low density or heavy if it has high density;

• and it may be referred to as sweet if it contains relatively little sulfur (less than 0.5% per weight or sour if it contains substantial amounts of sulfur (greater than 1.0% per weight).

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Structure 2Description of the Petroleum Industry - What is it?

• The Basic Industrial Process

An industry is simply related activities

of people using various inputs or

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Input or Resource OutputProcess

resources to make available solutions

or products or answers to meet the

need(s) of a target beneficiary.

The petroleum industry is simply

related activities of people using

various inputs or resources to make

available petroleum related solutions or

products or answers to meet the

petroleum related need(s) of the target

beneficiary.

Sectors of the Petroleum Industry

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UPSTREAM

MIDSTREAM

DOWNSTREAM

Petroleum Industry Sectors and Functions

Activities Upstream Licensing Exploration Appraisal Development Production Decommissioning

Licensing

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• Refining• Marketing, Storage and Distribution

of Refined Products and Natural Gas; and Petrochemical Plants

DOWNSTREAM

• Transportation, Logistics, Processing and Marketing of Crude Oil, Natural Gas, Natural Gas Liquids, Etc

MIDSTREAM

• Exploration, Appraisal• Development and Production

UPSTREAM

Is the virtue by which the owner (the state) of a natural resource gives permission to a second party to exploit it’s natural resource through:

Competitive bidding

Open-door policy

Promotion

Data review

Official application (moe)

(USD 7500)

Negotiation

Agreement (pa)

GNPC evaluation and advice

Board of GNPC invites applicant for (pa)

The minister sets up a negotiation team (MOE, IRS ,EPA ,AG, GNPC)

Drafted (pa) sent to cabinet for approval

To parliament for ratification

1. Western Basin

Tano-Cape Three points to the West and is part of the larger Cote d’Ivoire-Tano Basin

2. Central Basin

Saltpond

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3. Eastern Basin

(Accra-Keta Basin) - part of the Dahomeyan embayment that extends to Togo, Benin and Western Nigeria

4. Voltaian Basin

Inland basin, extends North-eastwards into Togo and Benin (40% of the Land area of the country)

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Exploration

Finding OilThe task of finding oil is assigned to geologists, whether employed directly by an oil company or under contract from a private firm. Their task is to find the right conditions for an oil trap -- the right source rock, reservoir rock and entrapment. Many years ago, geologists interpreted surface features, surface rock and soil types, and perhaps some small core samples obtained by shallow drilling.

Modern oil geologists also examine surface rocks and terrain, with the additional help of satellite images. However, they also use a variety of other methods to find oil. They can use sensitive gravity meters to measure tiny changes in the Earth's gravitational field that could indicate flowing oil, as well as sensitive magnetometers to measure tiny changes in the Earth's magnetic field caused by flowing oil. They can detect the smell of hydrocarbons using sensitive electronic noses called sniffers. Finally, and most commonly, they use seismology, creating shock waves that pass through hidden rock layers and

interpreting the waves that are reflected back to the surface.

In order to find crude oil underground, geologists must search for a sedimentary basin in which shales rich in organic material have been buried for a sufficiently long time for petroleum to have formed. The

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petroleum must also have had an opportunity to migrate into porous traps that are capable of holding large amounts of fluid.

• The occurrence of crude oil in Earth's crust is limited both by these conditions, which must be met simultaneously, and by the time span of tens of millions to a hundred million years required for the oil's formation.

• Petroleum geologists and geophysicists have many tools at their disposal to assist in identifying potential areas for drilling. Thus, surface mapping of outcrops of sedimentary beds makes possible the interpretation of

• subsurface features, which can then be supplemented with information obtained by drilling into the crust and retrieving cores or samples of the rock layers encountered. In addition, increasingly sophisticated seismic techniques—the reflection and refraction of sound waves propagated through Earth—reveal details of the structure and interrelationship of various layers in the subsurface.

• Ultimately, however, the only way to prove that oil is present in the subsurface is to drill a well. In fact, most of the oil provinces in the world have initially been identified by the presence of surface seeps, and most of the actual reservoirs have been discovered by so-called wildcatters who relied perhaps as much on intuition as on science.

• An oil field, once found, may comprise more than one reservoir—that is, more than one single, continuous, bounded accumulation of oil. Several reservoirs may be stacked one above the other, isolated by intervening shales and impervious rock strata. Such

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reservoirs may vary in size from a few tens of hectares to tens of square kilometers, and from a few meters in thickness to several hundred or more. Most of the

• oil that has been discovered and exploited in the world has been found in a relatively few large reservoirs. In the United States, for example, 60 of approximately 10,000 oil fields have accounted for half of the productive capacity and reserves.

Exploration in Ghana

Acquire seismic data (2D, 3D)

Data processing and interpretation

Generates leads prospect

Exploration drilling

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Computerized Seismic Interpretation

Seismic Inspection

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Oil Well

• The creation and life of a well can be divided up into five segments:

• Planning

• Drilling

• Completion

• Production

• Abandonment

• Overview

• The planning phases involved in drilling an oil or gas well typically

involve estimating the value of sought reserves, estimating the

costs to access reserves, acquiring property by a mineral lease, a geological survey, a well bore plan, and a layout of the type of equipment required to reach the depth of the well.

• Drilling engineers are in charge of the process of planning and drilling oil wells. Their responsibilities include:

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• Designing well programs (e.g., casing sizes and setting depths) to prevent blowouts (uncontrolled well-fluid release) while allowing adequate formation evaluation.

• Designing or contributing to the design of casing strings and cementing plans, directional drilling plans, drilling fluids programs, and drill string and drill bit programs.

• Specifying equipment, material and ratings and grades to be used in the drilling process.

• Providing technical support and audit during the drilling process.

• Performing cost estimates and analysis.

• Developing contracts with vendors.

Well-Drilling Methods• Mud Rotary Drilling. Rotary drilling with mud is the most widely

used method for oil well construction. A rotary drill rig has three functions: rotating the drill string, hoisting the drill string, and circulating the drilling fluid. A bit is rotated against the formation while mud is pumped down the drill

• pipe, through ports in the bit, and back to the ground surface through the annulus between the drill pipe and the borehole wall. Drill cuttings rise to the ground surface in the drilling fluid. Rotary drilling is sometimes called mud rotary drilling. Drill pipes or rods are

• joined to a bit to form the drill string. The drill pipe is the link transmitting torque from the rig to the bit, and the pipe carries the drilling fluid down the hole.

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• Drill Bit

The cutting or boring element used in drilling oil and gas wells. Most bits used in rotary drilling are roller-cone bits. The bit consists of the cutting elements and the circulating element. The circulating element permits the passage of drilling fluid and uses the hydraulic force of the fluid stream to improve drilling rates.

Drill Pipes

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Drilling Mud

Onshore Drilling Mud Circulation

• Drilling Mud

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Exploration Drilling

• At this stage potential traps, identified by seismic analysis are drilled to ascertain its hydrocarbon quality and quantity .

• Wildcat wells

Main Drilling Equipments

The types of drilling rig hired depends

on the location of the well Drilling Areas

Drilling Locations• Onshore

• Offshore

Well Types • Vertical Well

• Directional Well

• ERD Well

• Horizontal Well

• Multilateral Well

• Side track Well

• Long/Medium/Short Radius Wells

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• Relief Well etc.

• Exploratory well

• Production well

• Injection well

Onshore Drilling System

Offshore Drilling System

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Directional Drilling

Vertical Drilling

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Oil Platform or Offshore Platform or Oil Rig

An oil platform, also referred to as an offshore platform or oil rig, is a lаrge structure with facilities to drill wells, to extract and process oil and natural gas, and to temporarily store product until it can be brought to shore for refining and marketing. In many cases, the platform contains facilities to house the workforce as well.

Types

Larger lake- and sea-based offshore platforms and drilling rigs are some of the largest moveable man-made structures in the world. There are several types of oil platforms and rigs:

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1, 2) conventional fixed platforms; 3) compliant tower; 4, 5) vertically moored tension leg and mini-tension leg platform; 6) Spar ; 7,8) Semi-submersibles ; 9) Floating production, storage, and offloading facility; 10) sub-sea completion and tie-back to host facility.

Types of Rigs

• The jackup rig

• Drillship

• Submersible rig

• Semi-submersible rig

Jackup Rig

• Jack-up Mobile Drilling Units (or jack-ups), as the name suggests, are rigs that can be jacked up above the sea

using legs that can be lowered, much like jacks. These MODU's-Mobile Offshore Drilling Units are typically used in water depths up to 400 feet (120 m), although some designs can go to 550 ft (170 m) depth. They are designed to move from place to place,

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and then anchor themselves by deploying the legs to the ocean bottom using a rack and pinion gear system on each leg.

Drillship

• A drillship is a maritime vessel that has been fitted with drilling apparatus. It is most often used for exploratory drilling of new oil or gas wells in deep water but can also be used for scientific drilling. Early versions were built on a modified tanker hull, but purpose-built designs are used today. Most drillships are outfitted with a dynamic positioning system to maintain position over the well. They can drill in water depths up to 12,000 ft (3,700 m).

Submersible Rig

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Semi-submersible Rig

Semi-submersible Platform

• Semi-submersible

• These platforms have hulls (columns and pontoons) of sufficient buoyancy to cause the structure to float, but of weight sufficient to keep the structure upright. Semi-submersible platforms can be moved from place to place; can be ballasted up or down by altering the

• amount of flooding in buoyancy tanks; they are generally anchored by combinations of chain, wire rope or polyester rope, or both, during drilling or production operations, or both, though they can also be kept in place by the use of dynamic positioning. Semi-submersibles can be used in water depths from 200 to 10,000 feet (60 to 3,000 m).

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Rig Depths

• Wells are drilled to the target and tested .

• Duration (30-50 days)

• Extra testing cost

• Exploration dept (15000-4,570ft)

Appraisal

The phase of petroleum operations that immediately follows successful exploratory drilling (Discovery). During appraisal, delineation wells might be drilled to determine the size/aerial extent of the oil or gas field and how to develop it most efficiently.

Development

The phase of petroleum operations that occurs after exploration has proven successful, and before full-scale production. The newly

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discovered oil or gas field is assessed during an appraisal phase, a plan to fully and efficiently exploit it is created, and additional wells are usually drilled.

Production

The phase that occurs after successful exploration, appraisal and development and during which hydrocarbons are drained from the field.

Production Platform

After exploratory drilling has proved the presence of oil or gas deposits, a platform structure is built. These structures are then erected on the site to drain the field. They are of a permanent nature.

Offshore Production Platform

• Enhanced Oil Recovery In primary production, no extraneous energy is added to the reservoir other than that required for lifting fluids from the producing wells. Most reservoirs are developed by numerous wells; and as primary production

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approaches its economic limit, perhaps only a few percent and no more than about 25 percent of the crude oil has been withdrawn from a given reservoir.

• The oil industry has developed methods for supplementing the production of crude oil that can be obtained mostly by taking advantage of the natural reservoir energy. These supplementary methods, collectively known as enhanced oil recovery technology, can increase the recovery of crude oil, but only at the additional cost of supplying extraneous energy to the reservoir. In this way, the recovery of crude oil has been increased to an overall average of 33 percent of the original oil. Two successful supplementary methods are in use at this time: water injection and steam injection.

• a. Water Injection

• In a completely developed oil field, the wells may be drilled anywhere from 60 to 600 m (200 to 2,000 ft) from one another, depending on the nature of the reservoir. If water is pumped into alternate wells in such a field, the pressure in the reservoir as a whole can be maintained or even increased. In

• this way the rate of production of the crude oil also can be increased; in addition, the water physically displaces the oil, thus increasing the recovery efficiency. In some reservoirs with a high degree of uniformity and little clay content, water flooding may increase the recovery efficiency to as much as

60 percent or more of the original oil in place. Water flooding was first introduced in the Pennsylvania oil fields, more or less

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accidentally, in the late 19th century, and it has since spread throughout the world.

• b. Steam Injection

• Steam injection is used in reservoirs that contain very viscous oils, those that are thick and flow slowly. The steam not only provides a source of energy to displace the oil, it also causes a marked reduction in viscosity (by raising the temperature of the reservoir), so that the crude oil flows faster under any given pressure differential. This scheme has been used extensively in the states of California, in the United States, and of Zulia, in Venezuela, where large reservoirs exist that contain viscous oil. Experiments are also under way to attempt to prove the usefulness of this technology in recovering the vast accumulations of viscous crude oil (bitumen) along the Athabasca River in north central Alberta, Canada, and along the Orinoco River in eastern Venezuela.

• Well Abandonment

• When a well no longer produces or produces so little that it is not cost effective, it is abandoned. When a well is abandoned, it can be plugged or converted to an injection well. If the well is plugged, the tubing is removed from the well and sections are filled with cement to prevent the flow of oil, gas and water zones from each other as well with the surface. If the well is converted to an injection well, it can be used either for disposal of the produced water from other wells or to enhance operations in the production field.

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Additionally, the site should be reclaimed. Full reclamation of the site means that the land, air and water should be returned to the same condition as before oil and gas development began. However, this is rarely the case.

• Environmental Fate/Exposure Summary: The extraction, processing and refining of petroleum (crude oil) has led to its direct release to the environment. Accidental spills resulting from the transport and use of crude oil have also led to its release. Natural seepage of crude oil from geologic formations below the ocean floor also releases crude oil directly into the environment.

• Crude oil is a complex composition of hydrocarbons; predominantly aliphatic, alicyclic and aromatic hydrocarbons. It may also contain small amounts of nitrogen, oxygen and sulfur containing compounds. The carbon number range of these compounds spans from C1 to greater than C60. Emissions of crude oil occur to land and surface water, but volatilized components of crude oil may reach the atmosphere where they are degraded by reaction with photochemically generated hydroxyl radicals or other atmospheric oxidants. The half-life of this reaction in air is dependent upon the individual components volatilized into air but range from several hours to a few days for some of the common constituents of crude oil. Several of the aromatic constituents may also be subject to

• direct photolysis. If released to soil, the low molecular weight components of crude oil are expected to possess high mobility in soil; however the high molecular weight constituents (C20 and greater) are expected to be immobile. Volatilization from dry soil

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and moist soil surfaces is expected to be an important fate process for many of the constituents of crude oil. Many of the constituents contained in crude oil biodegrade quickly under typical environmental conditions; however, at extremely high levels such as those expected from an accidental release, crude oil is toxic to the microorganisms in soil. If released to water, initially crude oil spreads out as a film on the sea surface as a result of wind and wave action.

Decommissioning - Ghana Situation

Obligation to Decommission

Decommissioning Plan

Periodic Review

Decommissioning Fund

Control & Operations of Decommissioning Fund

Trust Fund/Escrow Accounts

Tax Relief

Legislative & Contractual Arrangements

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Structure 4Refining

Once oil has been produced from an oil field, it is treated with chemicals and heat to remove water and solids, and the natural gas is separated. The oil is then stored in a tank, or battery of tanks, and later transported to a refinery by truck, railroad tank car, barge, or pipeline. Large oil fields all have direct outlets to major, common-carrier pipelines.

a. Basic Distillation

The basic refining tool is the distillation unit. In the United States after the Civil War (1861-1865), more than 100 still refineries were already in operation. Crude oil begins to vaporize

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at a temperature somewhat less than that required to boil water. Hydrocarbons with the lowest molecular weight vaporize at the lowest temperatures, whereas successively higher temperatures are required to distill larger molecules. The first material to be distilled from crude oil is the gasoline fraction, followed in turn by naphtha and then by kerosene. The residue in the kettle, in the old still refineries, was then treated with caustic and sulfuric acid, and finally steam distilled thereafter. Lubricants and distillate fuel oils were obtained from the upper regions and waxes and asphalt from the lower regions of the distillation apparatus.

In the later 19th century the gasoline and naphtha fractions were actually considered a nuisance because little need for them existed, and the demand for kerosene also began to decline because of the growing production of electricity and the use of electric lights. With the introduction of the automobile, however, the demand for gasoline suddenly burgeoned, and the need for greater supplies of crude oil increased accordingly.

b. Thermal Cracking

In an effort to increase the yield from distillation, the thermal cracking process was developed. In this process, the heavier portions of the crude oil were heated under pressure and at higher temperatures.

This resulted in the large hydrocarbon molecules being split into smaller ones, so that the yield of gasoline from a barrel of crude oil was increased. The efficiency of the process was limited, however, because at the high temperatures and pressures that were used, a large amount of coke was deposited in the reactors. This in turn required the use of still higher temperatures and

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pressures to crack the crude oil. A coking process was then invented in which fluids were recirculated; the process ran for a much longer time, with far less buildup of coke. Many refiners quickly adopted the process of thermal cracking.

c. Alkylation and Catalytic Cracking

Two additional basic processes, alkylation and catalytic cracking, were introduced in the 1930s and further increased the gasoline yield from a barrel of crude oil. In alkylation small molecules produced by thermal cracking are recombined in the presence of a catalyst. This produces branched molecules in the gasoline boiling range that have superior properties—for example, higher antiknock ratings—as a fuel for high-powered engines such as those used in today's commercial planes.

In the catalytic-cracking process, the crude oil is cracked in the presence of a finely divided catalyst.

This permits the refiner to produce many diverse hydrocarbons that can then be recombined by alkylation, isomerization, and catalytic reforming to produce high antiknock engine fuels and specialty chemicals. The production of these chemicals has given birth to the gigantic petrochemical industry, which turns out alcohols, detergents, synthetic rubber, glycerin, fertilizers, sulfur, solvents, and the feedstocks for the manufacture of drugs, nylon, plastics, paints, polyesters, food additives and supplements, explosives, dyes, and insulating materials.

The petrochemical industry uses about 5 percent of the total supply of oil and gas in the United States.

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d. Product Percentages In 1920 a U.S. barrel of crude oil, containing 42 gallons, yielded 11 gallons of gasoline, 5.3 gallons of kerosene, 20.4 gallons of gas oil and distillates, and 5.3 gallons of heavier distillates. In recent years, by contrast, the yield of crude oil has increased to almost 21 gallons of gasoline, 3 gallons of jet fuel, 9 gallons of gas oil and distillates, and somewhat less than 4 gallons of lubricants and 3 gallons of heavier residues.

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Personal protective equipment (PPE)

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Due to the speed at which a general operation can change into an emergency incident, all helideck team members should be dressed in full fire fighting PPE for all helicopter movements and operations.

Helideck equipment

CAP 437 recommends a level of fire fighting and rescue equipment. These facilities must be stored and maintained in a condition which allows for a quick and effective response at all times.

Fire fighting equipment

1. A foam application system capable of applying foam to the whole of the safe landing area at an appropriate application rate in all weather conditions

2. A secondary foam system using hose and hand controlled branches 3. Complementary media in the form of dry powder or Co2 to deal

with engine, avionic, transmission or hydraulic type fires

Rescue equipment

This should include,

1. Adjustable wrench 2. Rescue axe 3. Bolt croppers 4. Large crow bar 5. Hook, grab or slaving 6. Hacksaw and 6 blades 7. Fire Blanket 8. 2 Piece Ladder 9. Lifeline and rescue harness 10. Pliers (side cutting, tin snips) 11. Set of assorted screw drivers

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12. Harness knife witq sheaf 113. Fire resistant gloves 14. 14.2 x breathing apparatus sets 15. Power cutting tool (recommended for helicopter EH 101 or

larger)

Common Helicopters

Figure page 3 Sikorsky S76

Maximum number of passengers 12 Maximum weight 5352 Kg 1.9 meters Rotor disc height 1.9 metersRefueling point Gravity, port and starboardFire access point Engine compartment intakesPassenger loading Port side hinged door. Starboard

sliding door on pilots OK onlyFreight Loading Rear fuselage port & starboard

Figure page 4 Bell 212

Maximum number of passengers 12 Maximum weight 5080 Kg Rotor disc height 4.8 metersRefueling point Gravity, starboard Fire access point Engine compartment intakesPassenger loading Port & Starboard side Freight Loading Rear fuselage starboard side Figure page 4 Dauphin

Maximum number of passengers 12

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Maximum weight 4250 Kg Rotor disc height 3.45 meters

Refueling point Gravity, port sideFire access point Under engine exhaust Passenger loading Port & starboard side hinged doorsFreight Loading Starboard side

Figure page super puma

Maximum number of passengers 19 Maximum weight 8600 Kg 4.48 meters Rotor disc height 4.48 metersRefueling point Gravity & pressure, starboardFire access point No dedicated Passenger loading Port side sliding door.Freight Loading Rear fuselage port side

Helicopter construction

It is vital that all persons involved in helicopter fire and rescue operations, have a basic understanding of helicopter construction and the materials likely to be encountered.

Helicopters are constructed on a very similar basis to fixed wing aircraft. As helicopters are not required to resist the stress caused by wings or have the strength required for higher altitude pressurization, they tend to be much lighter. This allows for greater payloads and extended flight distances.

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Main components include ,

Cockpit- containing instruments, pilo~ & co-pilot Lower fuselage- Fuel tanks & baggage/cargo holds Main fuselage- Passenger compartment Rear fuse1age- Support for tail rotor, transmission shaft & Baggage/cargo Landing gear- fixed or floating Engines and gear box- Usually Twin engine Rotors- Light alloy construction rotating at high speed

materialsAny of the following material may be found in helicopter construction, Aluminium Alloys- Skin surfaces, pressed sectional members etc. Melts at 600 deg C Magnesium/Titanium Alloys- weight saving materials, react violently with standard extinguishing agents ' Carbon fibres/composite materials- when involved in fire produce particles harmful to the respiratory system Materials used in cabin furnishings include,

Wool Silk Nylon Acrylics Rubber polystyrene

These items, when involved in fire produce a range of toxic gases including,

Cyanide Ammonia Nitrogen Dioxide

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Carbon Monoxide Sulphur Dioxide

Other Hazards

Fuel- Usually Jet Al Pressurised containers- Fire extinguishers, floatation device/heli

raft, life jackets etc ADELT's- Deployed by ingress of sea water Pitot Tubes- Heated to prevent freezing Dangerous Goods/ hazardous materials - carried as cargo

Hazardous Materials

The term Hazardous material is normally associated with a chemical substance that may cause harm or create a hazard. These items could be carried in small quantities as part of the helicopters cargo. The pilot should hold and comply with all the relevant documentation and legislation.

It is important that the helideck crew be aware of any hazardous materials being transported, understand their dangers, how to identify them, and how to respond safely to an incident involving them.

UN Classification

Each hazardous material can be placed in one of the following UN categories,

1. Explosives 2. Compressed gases 3. Flammable liquids 4. Flammable solids 5. Oxidizing agent or peroxide 6. Toxic, poisonous or infectious

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7. Radioactive 8. Corrosive 9. Miscellaneous

Each category can be displayed by a specific warning diamond. Categories can be subdivided into similar sub-categories. For example, category 4 flammable solids can be further sub divided to 4.2 spontaneously combustible and 4.3 dangerous when wet. This is shown in the following diagram.

Diagram page 8

The chemistry of fire

Fire is chemical reaction producing,

1. Heat 2. Light 3. Toxic products of combustion (smoke)

As a substance is heated to a specific temperature, it starts to emit flammable vapours. As the heat increases, so does the rate at which flammable vapours are created. It is these flammable vapours which if come into contact with an ignition source or reach spontaneous combustion temperature, that burn.

Flash point

This is the lowest temperature at which a substance gives off sufficient flammable vapour to ignite momentarily when an ignition source is applied.

Fire point

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This is the lowest temperature at which a substance gives off sufficient flammable vapour to ignite and continue to bum when an ignition source is applied.

Spontaneous Combustion

This is the lowest temperature at which a substance will ignite without an ignition source being applied.

General auto ignition (spontaneous combustion) and flash points in Deg.C

For a fire to initially start and then develop, 3 things are required,

1. Fuel 2. Heat 3. Oxygen

This can be best shown in the form of the fire triangle. If the triangle is complete, a fire will start and continue to burn.

Fuel

Could include any of the following, Wood, paper plastics, flammable gases, cooking oils or petrol Heat

From any of the following or similar sources, Matches, lighters; welding torches, overheating machinery, electrical faults or hot Oxygen

From any of the following or similar sources,

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The air around us, oxygen cylinders, medical gases or manufacturing processes. Fire spread

Fire is spread by the following methods.

Conduction

This is the movement of heat through a material, which could be solid, liquid or gas. The ability of materials to transfer heat varies considerably according to its type.

Convection

The transfer of heat via moving air currants.

Radiation

The transfer of heat energy as electromagnetic waves

Direct burning

When a material comes in to direct contact with a naked flame.

Extinguishing a fire

To extinguish a fire we need to remove one side of the fire triangle. We can achieve this by either cooling, smothering or starving the fire. There is one more method of extinguishing a fire, chemical interference with the burning process. This is a method used by some fire extinguishers.

Cooling or removing the heat

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Starving or removing the fuel

By turning off a gas valve or fuel supple tap. This could also be achieved by physically removing the fuel.

Classifications of fire

Before we can safely fight a fire, we first need to know what is actually burning. To assist in this decision, individual classes of fire have been developed.

Class A, fires involving solid materials. To include, Paper, wood, plastics, fibres, rubber etc.

Class B, fires involving liquids. To include, Petrol, oils, paraffin, paints etc.

Class C, fires involving gases. To include, Acetylene, propane, butane, hydrogen etc.

Class D, fires involving metals. To include, Magnesium, sodium, potassium, titanium, aluminium etc

Fires involving electricity

Electrical fires do not have a class of their own. Electricity is an ignition source, the resulting fire would involve at least one of the other four classes.

Suitable Extinguishing Agents

Water, Foam, Dry Powders

Foam, Co2, Dry Powders

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Dry powders, Co2

Specialist Dry Powders

Fire Fighting Equipment

Diagram page 15

The portable fire extinguisher is suitable and effective at fighting small fires in there very early stages. It can supply any of the above fire fighting agents. An extinguisher of this size, in dry powder format, should be on standby at the helicopter when refueling.

Wheeled units are a larger version of the portable fire extinguisher. This type of extinguisher can supply powder, foam or Co2 in a larger quantity, making it more suitable for helideck use. It requires a minimum of 2 persons to operate a wheeled unit.

Hoses and Hose reels

These range from 19mm diameter (hose reel) to 45mm and 70mm diameter (delivery hose). This type of equipment is required when fighting larger fires or where a large amount of water or foam is required quickly. Delivery hose must used it conjunction with a separate branch or nozzle, specifically designed to deliver water, aspirated foam or non aspirated foam,

A minimum of two fixed installation monitors must be fitted at all normally manned installations. They provide large amounts of foam or water very quickly over a large area. Ifused correctly, they will extinguish most of the fire around a crash site very quickly, also giving a protective foam blanket enabling rescue workers to work safely.

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Fixed monitors can either be operated manually, remote or by automatic oscillation.

Breathing Apparatus

For a person to be able to work, or perform a rescue, in an atmosphere which is unsafe to breath, some form of respiratory protection must be worn. Respiratory protection, in the form of breathing apparatus, has been developed to enable the user to be provided with a safe supply of breathable are.

When wearing breathing apparatus, the wearer must be aware of the dangers involved in working in atmospheres which may not support life. The risk to the wearer will also increase if that atmosphere is also of a high temperature or contains smoke.

Self contained breathing apparatus (SCBA)

This is a self contained unit constructed around a back plate. The ~ir is supplied- from a cylinder which is either steel or carbon composite. Cylinder air pressure (usually 200-300 bar) passes through a reducer and demand valve, which regulates the air before reaching the face mask.

A typical duration is 35 minutes working with a 10 minute safety margin. This is based on an 1800L cylinder at 207 bar pressure with a consumption of 40 L/min.

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General check

The aim of the general check is to ensure that the breathing apparatus set has no faults prior to the sets use. This should be done,

As part of a route schedule Before use After use After any servicing

Procedure

Visual check every part of the set for any sign of damage or missing parts

Set demand valve to test mode Open cylinder valve fully Check contents (minimum of 80%) Turn off cylinder valve Observe gauge, it must not fall by more than lObar in 1 minute Open cylinder valve fully Don face mask correctly Set demand valve to positive pressure Break seal to prove positive pressure Close cylinder valve, keep hand on valve Observe gauge whilst breathing normally Check whistle activates at the correct pressure Ensure facemask crushes onto face Open cylinder valve Set demand valve to test Remove facemask Close cylinder valve Drain system Fill out log book

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Use the above procedure unless the manufacturer state other

Pre entry check

This check must be completed before entering the risk area

Don breathing apparatus set Adjust harness to fit comfortably Set demand valve to test Open cylinder valve Check gauge, minimum of 80% Don face mask Set demand valve to positive pressure Break seal to prove positive pressure Close cylinder valve, keep hand on valve Observe gauge whilst breathing normally Check whistle activates at the correct pressure Ensure facemask crushes onto face Open cylinder valve

Use the above procedure unless the manufacturer state other

Types of Helicopter Incidents

High altitude/high impact crash

The chance of a helicopter remaining on deck after this type of crash is remote. After a high impact crash, the helicopter structure would fail, rupturing fuel tanks, leaking large quantities of fuel with a possibility of ignition. Survival for the passengers would be slim.

Low altitude/low impact crash

Although the main structure of the helicopter after a low impact crash may remain intact, there is chance the undercarriage will fail. This

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would lead to the helicopter possibly turning onto its side and the rotors hitting the deck. Prompt action is required by the helideck crew to stop a fire situation developing. It is important to maintain a foam blanket whilst operations are taking place.

Engine compartment fires

The inbuilt fire protection system should deal with fires within the engine compartment. If this system fails to extinguish the fire, it will be left to the helideck crew to deal with the incident. The best form of attack would be to use a Co2 extinguisher/wheeled unit fixed with a lance direct into the fire access panel. This should only be undertaken after a direct request from the pilot.

Internal fuselage fires

Any fire that occurs in the main fuselage is likely to give off large amounts of toxic smoke. A quick response using a combination of water spray and tactical ventilation, will enable the fire to be quickly extinguished and any passengers rescued safely. It is important for any helideck crew members entering a smoke filled compartment to be wearing breathing apparatus.

Ditching into the sea

If a helicopter ditches into the sea, a prompt action between the helideck crew and the standby vessels is required if there is going to be any hope of saving life.

Emergency and precautionary landings

The helideck crew must be in full PPE, all equipment deployed and ready, Back-up teams on standby, medics on standby and standby

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vessels informed. Depending on the type of emergency, it may require that the helicopter be shut down. The helideck crew must only act when given instructions from the HLO who will be in contact with the pilot.

Offshore Survival Training

Wear a life jacket Wear warm clothing If in the water do not swim unnecessarily Avoid going in the water if at all possible Know the sound of different alarms used on board Report any damage to survival equipment Take part in drills positively In a Life raft, remember your initial viral actions Listen to your Coxswains instructions If you have to enter the water try to climb down and avoid jumping Know all different alarms used on board.

Helicopter transport safety

There are many types of helicopter being operated in the offshore industry and elsewhere. These notes are designed w give general procedures which can be utilised in any aircraft. Before light mc operators give more detailed information by either a briefing or video presentation backed up by information sheets for each specific craft.

Before Flight

a) Arrive in good time, in good mental and physical condition. b) Note me type of helicopter to be used- for the f1jght. c) Check procedure for wearing life jacket in flight and how w use in

an emergency.

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Embarking

a) Never walk under the tail rotor or tail boomb) Ensure that loose item~ a.re held securely. Do not cl13.se; items

blown across the helideck. c) Beware of high winds or unusual conditions which can c..1use the

main rotor blades to dip considerably anywhere around me aircraft. Hold piping poles or other long items horizontally so that they do not strike.

d) Take great care not to damage the helicopter floats, particularly when transferring cargo.

e) Obtain permission from the pilot or cabin attendant before placing baggage or cargo in the luggage compartment.

Diagram page

Inside the Helicopter

The pilot is in complete charge of the helicopter and its passengers.

Wear a lifejacket as instructed, and do not remove it until the helicopter has landed.

Take a seat as directed by the pilot or cabin attendant. Fasten the seat belt' securely and do not remove it until the signal to disembark has been given

Heed any pre-flight safety briefing and follow the pilot instruction during the flight.

Where necessary wear ear-defenders.

Never throw anything from the helicopter as it could cause damage to the rotors or be sucked into the engine intakes.

Obey the seat belt/no smoking notices

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Report unusual occurrences to the helicopter crew.

Note weather conditions en-route

Check personal readiness to act if required

Disembarking

Follow the directions of the pilot or cabin attendant

Release the safety belt

Remove the lifejacket and return it to correct stowage

Obtain a firm grip on any portable light items

Do no disembark until directed

Be prepared for strong, gusting winds

Walk from the helicopter and follow directions from pilot, cabin attendant or heliguard.

Do not chase items blown across the helideck

Helicopter underwater escapre procedure

Introduction

Whilst at GTSC, trainees will be briefed and participate in drills in the Helicopter. Underwater Escape Trainer (HUET) to familiarize themselves with escape from a ditched helicopter. The escape from a helicopter varies depending upon the attitude of the aircraft once it has ditched. It can be in an upright floating position, partially sunk or capsized. The HUET is able to simulate all these eventualities, giving the

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trainees the opportunity to experience the conditions and learn correct procedures.

TRAINING EXERCIESE

Four main exercises have been designed to simulate the most likely characteristics of cabin motion in the event of a controlled ditching on water by a helicopter. The tr2lJleeS board the helicopter and are positioned in suitable seats by the instructor who remains with them throughout the exercise. Once installed, they are briefed by the instructor on the four exercise they undertake. The HUET is then lifted clear of the water whereupon the trainees carry out the 3 checks prior to the ditching sequence. The checks made are:

1. Check harness (seat belt) is secured 2. Deploy lifejacket 3. Brace for Impact

These 3 checks prepare the trainee for the ditching and for eventual escape from the helicopter in a state of readiness. On landing on the water the trainees then adopt the upright position, on hand locating their harness buckle, the remaining free hand 10 Clung towards their nearest exit point. They then leave the simulator in a predetermined fashion depending on the exercise undertaken. Four separate exercises are completed.

1. Surface Evacuation

This the simplest exercise and simulate the controlled lading on water of a helicopter where the aircraft remains upright and in a stable condition allowing an orderly evacuation. On landing, the HUET remains on the surface and trainees leave the simulator under the supervision

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0f the instructor and either board a heliraft or enter the water to clear the danger area.

EMERGENCY LANDING

Final Preparation

In the event of an emergency, passengers must carry emergency actions

Tighten seat belt

Extinguish cigarettes ( normally no smoking allowed)

Remove glasses, dentures, etc

Put on lifejacket (over water). Take up Impact Position.

Economic Benefits - Government

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• The Ghana Government does not bear any of the related costs and risks associated with the oil drilling operational activities, but shares significantly in the benefits

• The E & P company bears all the related costs and risks associated with the oil drilling operation

The Ghana Government Receives the Majority of the Economic Value

I. Royalty Fee

II. GNPC - Carried Interest

III. GNPC – additional participation interest

IV. Tax on Profits - income tax

V. Additional Oil Entitlement

VI. Other Fees paid to the Government

Fiscal Benefit to Ghana GROSS PRODUCTION

• A. 100,000 barrels per day

• B. 5% OF (A.) = 5,000 barrels a day

• C. net production= 95,000 per day

• D. Production cost 10,000 barrels per day= cash equivalent

• E. Basic carried interest C-D=85,000 per day

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According to computation oil accruing to the state would be 38,209 barrels per a day out of 100,000 barrels per day production, and this multiplied by an assumed long term price of $60 a barrel amounts to $ 2,292,540 per day which would translate to $836,777,100.00

A daily production of 200,000 barrels which could be achieved in 5 years could generate $1.6 billion per annum.

Economic Benefits – Job Opportunities

Direct Jobs

Those jobs with E&P companies such as Kosmos Energy and many others who are coming:

Petroleum Engineers, Chemical Engineers, Mechanical Engineers, Geologists, Geophysicists, etc

Related Jobs

Jobs with service providers, manufacturing and distribution firms who supply to the E&P companies

Steel Fabrication, Electricals, Metalwork's, Chemicals, Warehousing, Environmental, Telecommunication, Cargo handling, etc

Induced Jobs

Jobs created locally and throughout the national economy due to purchases of goods & services by those directly employed. These jobs are with the local construction industry, retail stores, health care providers, transportation services, business services.

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Indirect Jobs

Jobs generated in the national economy as the result of local purchases by the firms directly dependent upon the oil operations. These jobs include jobs in:

Office supply firms, equipment and parts suppliers, maintenance & repair services, insurance companies, consulting , etc.

Economic Benefits - Businesses

I. Supply and Support Services

II. Business Partnerships with Local and Foreign Companies. Working with GNPC’s guidance to increase Local Content

III. Positive chain reactions in the business sector to boost other industries

Setting Up Upstream PetroleumService Company

Submit the followings to the Ghana National Petroleum Corporation (GNPC):

A formal letter of application

A Copy of Certificate of Incorporation

A copy of Certificate to Commence Business

A copy of the Company’s Regulations

Pay GH¢50.00 for the Registration Forms, and other information pack

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Submit completed Registration Form and accompanying enclosures in triplicate to the GNPC

Pay Permit Fee of:

GH¢1,000.00 (for local Companies)

US$2,000.00 (for foreign Companies)

(Bankers Draft or Cheque issued from the Company’s accounts, payable to the Ghana National Petroleum Corporation)

GNPC evaluates completed Forms

Issued with a PERMIT

When a block is acquired, exploration is undertaken to develop a prospect and locate a drilling site.

The contractor drills a well to a targeted depth and test it.

The well could be vertical or directional.

Once a discovery is made the field is appraised, developed and produced.

The produced hydrocarbons are transported and marketed.

The upstream petroleum industry is very complex, technology based and capital intensive.

It takes a lot of effort to find, drill, and produce a well.

But that's great, for it provides many opportunities for a multitude of people.

People just like you and I

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Job Opportunities Offshore

Deck Crew

Crane

operator

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Assistant crane operator

Roustabout

Barge engineer

Control room operator

Painter

Maintenance roustabout

Maintenance foreman

Drilling Crew

Driller

Drilling assistant

Derrickman

Pumpman

Roughneck

Management Crew

• Offshore installation manager

• Company man/woman

• Captain or chief engineer.

• Tool pusher.

Mechanics

• Maintenance supervisor or chief electrician

• Electronics technician

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• Chief mechanic

• Assistant mechanic

• Mechanical maintenance supervisor

• Motor man

Catering Crew

• Camp boss

• Chef or cook

• Steward/stewardess

• Night cook/baker

Other Offshore Job

Radio operator

Medics

Subsea engineer

Assistant subsea engineer

Instrument technician

Welder

Rig safety & training coordinator

Other Offshore Job

• Mud engineer

• Ballast control man or watch stander

• Materials or store man

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• Storekeeper

• Scaffolder

• Shaker or mud man

• Gunman

• Diver

Geology

• Jug hustler

• Processor

• Recorder/observer

• Geophysicist

• Geologist

• Petrol chemical engineer

Non Technical Professions

Human Resource Management Experts

Oil And Gas Accounting / Finance Experts

Auditors

Petroleum Economists

Legal Experts

Public Relations Experts

Taxation Experts

Supply Chain Analysts

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Procurement / Logistic Analysts

Oil & Gas Marketing/Commercial Experts

Information Technologists

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