Design, Control and Evaluation of a Prototype ThreePhase Inverter in a BLDC Drive System for anUltra-Light Electric Vehicle
Master’s Thesis in Electric Power Engineering
PHILIP LARSSON
NICLAS RASMUSSEN
Department of Energy and EnvironmentDivision of Electric Power EngineeringCHALMERS UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGYGothenburg, Sweden 2013Master’s Thesis 2013
MASTER’S THESIS IN ELECTRIC POWER ENGINEERING
Design, Control and Evaluation of a Prototype Three Phase
Inverter in a BLDC Drive System for an Ultra-Light
Electric Vehicle
Master’s Thesis in Electric Power EngineeringPHILIP LARSSON
NICLAS RASMUSSEN
Department of Energy and EnvironmentDivision of Electric Power Engineering
CHALMERS UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY
Gothenburg, Sweden 2013
Design, Control and Evaluation of a Prototype Three Phase Inverter in a BLDCDrive System for an Ultra-Light Electric Vehicle
PHILIP LARSSONNICLAS RASMUSSEN
c©PHILIP LARSSON, NICLAS RASMUSSEN, 2013
Master’s Thesis 2013ISSN 1652-8557Department of Energy and EnvironmentDivision of Electric Power EngineeringChalmers University of TechnologySE-412 96 GothenburgSwedenTelephone: + 46 (0)31-772 1000
Chalmers ReproserviceGothenburg, Sweden 2013
Design, Control and Evaluation of a Prototype Three Phase Inverter in a BLDCDrive System for an Ultra-Light Electric Vehicle
Master’s Thesis in Electric Power EngineeringPHILIP LARSSONNICLAS RASMUSSENDepartment of Energy and EnvironmentDivision of Electric Power EngineeringChalmers University of Technology
Abstract
With an evolving vehicle industry there has been an increase in thedemand for light electric vehicles. This thesis was conducted in order togain further knowledge within the field of sensorless BLDC motor controlfor light electric vehicles.
A three phase inverter was modeled and simulated in Simulink with sen-sorless BLDC motor control. A requirement specification for a three phaseinverter in a drive system for a light electric vehicle was made. From therequirement specification a three phase inverter with two different sensor-less control approaches was designed in Altium Designer. The PCB wasmanufactured and software control algorithms as well as drivers were imple-mented.
The three phase inverter and its control algorithms were tested and eval-uated. The three phase inverter operates successfully with sensorless controlat a motor speed above 300RPM and fits into a light electric vehicle.
Keywords: BLDC, Design, Drive System, Electric Vehicle,Light Electric Vehicle,Motor Control, PCB, Sensorless
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II
Acknowledgements
We would like to express our appreciation to our supervisor Peter Dahlin atQRTECH AB and our examiner Prof. Torbjorn Thiringer at Chalmers for theirguidance and support throughout this thesis project.
Our coworkers at QRTECH AB also deserve our gratitude for all of their con-tribution and interest in the project. A special thanks to Dr. Andreas Magnussonfor his advice and expertise.
We would also like to sincerely thank QRTECH AB for believing in our projectand also for the necessary funds and equipment that were provided during theproject.
Lastly we would like to thank our girlfriends and family for their supportthroughout our five years at Chalmers University of Technology.
Gothenburg 2013Philip Larsson & Niclas Rasmussen
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IV
Abbreviations
ADC Analog-to-Digital Converter
Back-EMF Back Electromotive Force
BLDC Brushless DC
CCS Code Composer Studio
DSP Digital Signal Processor
EMI Electromagnetic Interference
GPIO General Purpose Input/Output
IC Integrated circuit
JTAG Joint Test Action Group
LED Light-Emitting Diode
MOSFET Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor
PCB Printed Circuit Board
PI Proportional-Integral
PMSM Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motor
PWM Pulse-Width Modulation
QEP Quadrature Encoder Pulse
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VI
Contents
Abstract I
Acknowledgements III
Abbreviations V
Contents VII
1 Introduction 11.1 Problem Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.2 Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.3 Delimitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21.4 Outline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2 Technical Background 32.1 BLDC Motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32.2 Motor Control with a Three Phase Inverter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.2.1 Sensored Motor Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72.2.2 Sensorless Motor Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.3 Gate Driver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
3 Modeling and Simulation 113.1 BLDC Motor Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113.2 Three Phase Inverter Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133.3 Requirement Specification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3.3.1 Longitudinal Vehicle Dynamic Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163.3.2 Drive System Requirement Specification . . . . . . . . . . . 17
4 Inverter Design 184.1 Control PCB Schematic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
4.1.1 Voltage Regulators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194.1.2 Radio Receiver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194.1.3 Cell Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194.1.4 LED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204.1.5 Encoder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204.1.6 DSP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204.1.7 Back-EMF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204.1.8 Level Shifter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
4.2 Power PCB Schematic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224.2.1 Gate Driver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224.2.2 Half Bridge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234.2.3 DC-Link Capacitors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244.2.4 Current Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244.2.5 Temperature Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
4.3 PCB Layout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254.3.1 Control PCB Layout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
VII
4.3.2 Power PCB Layout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
5 Software Implementation 27
6 Verification and Evaluation of Results 336.1 Board Verification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336.2 Sensored and Sensorless Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376.3 Further evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
7 Closure 467.1 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 467.2 Future Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
References 47
Appendix A Calculation of Inverter Output Voltage 49A.1 Case 60− 120◦ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49A.2 Case 120− 180◦ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51A.3 Case 180− 240◦ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53A.4 Case 240− 300◦ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55A.5 Case 300− 360◦ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Appendix B Control PCB Schematic 59
Appendix C Power PCB Schematic 71
VIII
1 Introduction
The vehicle industry is rapidly evolving. With many different aspects coincidingsuch as depletion of fossil fuels, global warming, air pollution, carbon emissionreduction legislation and new up and coming battery technologies there is a gradualincrease in demand for electric vehicles.
With new technology and a growing market, there are many new kinds ofelectric vehicle topologies developing. There are also many old vehicle topologiessuch as bicycles and scooters that are being electrified. The high efficiency ofelectric drive systems which on average is 85 % compared to the regular drivesystems with an internal combustion engine which has an average efficiency of 12-20 % , make it possible to design and build much lighter vehicles with the samepower ratings as the heavier vehicles with an internal combustion engine [1], [2].
There are many different electric motor types with different features available.For the application of driving light electric vehicles there are two very similarmotor types that stand out from the others because of their high power versussize and weight characteristics, those are the Brushless DC (BLDC) Motor andthe Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motor (PMSM).
The battery is only capable of supplying a DC voltage, while the BLDC- andthe PMSM- motors require a three phase voltage. In order to solve this probleman interweaving stage that converts the DC voltage to a three phase voltage isrequired. The conversion is made by a three phase inverter which also adds theability to control the motor by having the ability to adjust the voltage input tothe motor.
1.1 Problem Background
QRTECH is a consultancy firm within the field of hardware and software researchand development. With many customers within the automotive sector they havedeveloped a lot of embedded electronic solutions for vehicles. One such solution isa high end controller for a PMSM motor in a light electric vehicle. With alreadyhaving a solution for the PMSM motor they now want an equivalent solution fora BLDC motor. In order to improve reliability and reduce cost they also wantthe BLDC controller to be able to operate without a positioning sensor. Havingsolutions for both of the motor technologies will make it possible to evaluate andprovide the best solution depending on the customer needs.
1.2 Purpose
The thesis work was conducted with the purpose of developing a three phaseinverter in a BLDC-motor drive system for an ultra-light vehicle. This was donein order to have a prototype platform which can be evaluated and lay as a basisfor future decision making and quotation when offering customers new solutions.
Further the thesis was carried out in order to increase theoretical knowledgeabout BLDC-motor drive systems and in order for the authors to gain knowledgeand skill of how to realize the theoretical acquired knowledge into a constructionof a real working product.
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The main focus of the conducted work was on the realization, constructionand software implementation of a three phase inverter which is able to control aBLDC-motor with both sensored- and different sensorless- control strategies.
1.3 Delimitations
In order to be able to complete the project within a timeframe of 20 weeks afew delimitations have been made. Only one sensored and two different sensorlesscontrol approaches based on back-EMF measurement will be implemented. Onlya rather modest model for the motor simulation will be implemented, with themain purpose of evaluating the sensored and senorless control algorithms. Thethree phase inverter will only be built and tested in a lab environment duringthe period of the thesis. Support for a third party solution for wireless controlwill be implemented instead of adding an additional RF circuit to the three phaseinverter.
1.4 Outline
The project started with a theoretical study on previous work within the field. Thestudy kept on throughout the project. A Simulink model of a BLDC drive systemwas implemented which provided a platform that allowed for experimenting withdifferent sensorless control techniques. Power requirement simulations were alsomade in order to determine the requirement specifications of the inverter. Oncethis was done and finalized the work on the circuit layout started. When all com-ponents had been selected the design of the Printed Circuit Board (PCB) startedsimultaneously with the software development for the Digital Signal Processor(DSP). When the PCB had been manufactured and all of the components hadbeen mounted, short circuit tests and circuit functionality tests were conducted.Lastly motor control tests with the different control algorithms were carried out.The results were evaluated and compared to the simulated results.
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2 Technical Background
This chapter introduces the BLDC motor and the three phase inverter. It alsopresents the inverter control techniques such as sensored and sensorless control.The chapter also give some technical background to the gate driver.
2.1 BLDC Motor
The BLDC motor seen in Figure 2.1 is a permanent magnet AC synchronous motor.It is characterized by ideally having a trapezoidal back Electromotive Force (back-EMF) which is presented in Figure 2.2 and that it is driven by square shapedcurrents. These are the major differences from the PMSM which has a sinusoidalshaped back-EMF and is driven with sinusoidal phase currents. The BLDC motoris usually constructed in single-phase, two-phase and three phase configurations,where the three phase configuration is the most common. Motors with more thanthree phases can be manufactured but are however uncommon since the numberof power electronic devices increases with the number of phases which increasesmanufacturing cost [3].
N
N
S
S
a
a
b
b
c
c
S
S
N
N
S
N
N
S
Vc
Vn
Va
Vb
ea
ebec
Figure 2.1: A three phase BLDC motor with its circuit diagram
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0 60 120 180 240 300 360
ea
0 60 120 180 240 300 360
eb
0 60 120 180 240 300 360
ec
Degrees [°]
Figure 2.2: Ideal back-EMF voltages , ea, eb and ec of the BLDC motor
The stator is made out of stacked steel laminations and is constructed in a verysimilar way to that of the induction motor. The rotor is made out of permanentmagnet pairs with the north pole and south pole in consecutive order. Since it is asynchronous motor, the stator and rotor rotate at the same frequency. This meansthat there is no slip between the stator and rotor in the BLDC motor which is thecase for the induction motor. The three phase BLDC motor is driven by applying apositive current to one of the motor phases and a negative current to another whilehaving no current going through the third phase leaving it at floating potential.Since torque is produced by the interaction between the field generated in thestator and by the permanent magnets on the rotor, the motor starts to rotate. Tokeep the permanent magnets of the rotor from aligning with the stator in a staticcondition, the current through the stator which gives rise to the magnetic fieldneeds to be commutated in a specific way. The current commutation is controlledso that the rotor field keeps trying to align with the stator field and thereby themotor continues to rotate. The current is switched in six different commutationsteps for each electrical rotation. The BLDC-motor in comparison to a brushedDC motor has a lot of advantages which are presented in Table 2.1. The majordisadvantage of the BLDC motor is that it needs a more advanced controller inorder for it to operate [4].
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Table 2.1: The BLDC Motor Compared to the Brushed DC Motor [4], [5]
Property BLDC Motor Brushed DC Motor
Maintenance Low rate of maintenance re-quired.
The brushes need consistentmaintenance.
Speed Range A very wide speed rangesince there are no mechan-ical brushes that limits thespeed at higher RPM.
Medium. This is mainly dueto that there is a mechanicallimitation which is causedby the increased wearing ofbrushes at higher speeds.
Power Versus Size Very high because of thevery good thermal charac-teristics. This is becausethe windings are located inthe stator, which is con-nected to the case, which inturn gives a better heat dis-sipation.
Moderate to Low. The ar-mature current will increasethe temperature in the airgap which limits the outputpower.
Rotor Inertia Low. The permanent mag-nets are lighter than regularrotor windings made out ofcopper.
Higher since the copperweigh more than permanentmagnets.
Efficiency Very high, since there areno copper losses in any ro-tor windings.
Lower because of the volt-age drop in the brushes.
Lifespan Very long. Shorter since the brusheswill wear out.
Torque Versus SpeedCharacteristics
Flat. Flat until reaching higherspeeds where friction willincrease due to the brushes.
ElectromagneticInterference
Low. The brushes will generatenoise.
Commutation Electrical commutation in-side an inverter.
Mechanical commutation inthe brushes.
Control Requires digital controlledinverter in order to run.
Simple control, can runat fixed speed without theneed of a controller, inex-pensive.
Manufacturing Cost Easy to manufacture, how-ever the material cost ishigh due to the high mate-rial cost of the permanentmagnets.
More complex to manufac-ture because of the mechan-ical brushes. Has a cheapermaterial cost, since no ex-pensive permanent magnetsare required.
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2.2 Motor Control with a Three Phase Inverter
A three-phase inverter technically is three sections of half bridge inverters. Eachinverter stage is able to produce an output 120◦ displaced with respect to theother. The half-bridge sections are usually referred to as legs with a three phaseinverter consisting of three legs, one for each phase, see Figure 2.3.
BLDC Motor
Vd
Figure 2.3: Three phase inverter with a connected BLDC motor
Since the BLDC motor is characterized by only having two phases energized atthe same time, only three out of the six switches of the inverter will be active foreach switching sequence. One of the three phase inverter legs will be Pulse WidthModulated (PWM) with the lower transistor inversely switched with respect tothe upper transistor and in another leg the lower transistor will conduct. This isperformed in a periodical six-step commutation sequence, which can be seen inTable 2.2 [6], [7]. If reverse rotation is desired the sequences needs to be reversedas well.
Table 2.2: Switching sequences
Sequence Rotor position, θeSwitching Phase current
PWM ON A B C
1 0− 60◦ Q1,Q2 Q4 DC+ DC- OFF
2 60− 120◦ Q1,Q2 Q6 DC+ OFF DC-
3 120− 180◦ Q3,Q4 Q6 OFF DC+ DC-
4 180− 240◦ Q3,Q4 Q2 DC- DC+ OFF
5 240− 300◦ Q5,Q6 Q2 DC- OFF DC+
6 300− 360◦ Q5,Q6 Q4 OFF DC- DC+
Unlike brushed DC motors where a commutator and brushes are used to changecurrent polarity the BLDC motor usually use semiconductors with feedback fromthe rotor position to change current polarity. Hence to be able to know when to
6
commutate each phase of the BLDC motor the position needs to be known. Thiscould be done in many different ways, either by sensored or sensorless techniques.During the last decade many new sensorless methods have been developed. Thereare mainly two reasons for this, the high cost of positioning sensors and that ofincreased reliability since sensors can fail during operation. In certain applicationssuch as flooded compressors or pumps it is not even possible to use sensors. Thereare however also drawbacks to the different sensorless techniques, for example thatit is generally hard to control the motor at low speeds [4].
2.2.1 Sensored Motor Control
Hall effect sensors are normally used in order to determine the motor rotor position.They can either be mounted on the surface of the stator or be embedded into thestator. Typically three hall sensors are mounted with a 120◦ phase shift betweenthem. These make it possible to determine in which of the six sequences the rotorcurrently is in and when to commutate [8].
Other sensors such as encoders and resolvers could however also be used. Theencoder transmits two digital pulses and measures the distance and time betweenthem which makes it possible to calculate the speed and the angle of the rotor.Resolvers produce a sinusoidal and a cosinusoidal signal which both are used inorder to indicate the position within a 360◦ revolution [9].
2.2.2 Sensorless Motor Control
There are many different sensorless control techniques that can be implementedfor a BLDC motor. One method in order to estimate the rotor position is bymeasuring the back-EMF of the motor. This can effortlessly be done by measuringthe terminal voltages of the phases. The back-EMF voltage is generated in the non-driven winding by the permanent magnets when the motor rotate. The magnitudeof the voltage is proportional to the rotor speed and for this reason it is difficult tocontrol the motor at low speed. The back-EMF method can be implemented sinceone of the phases is not energized during each of the commutation sequences [6].For the case when phase C is the phase that is not fed by the inverter the phasevoltages will be
Va = Ria + Ldiadt
+ ea + Vn (2.1)
Vb = Rib + Ldibdt
+ eb + Vn (2.2)
Vc = ec + Vn (2.3)
where Vn is the motor neutral voltage with reference to ground. Since current onlyflows through the motor from phase A to phase B the current in those phases willbe equal but opposite. This gives
ia = −ib (2.4)
7
By adding (2.1)-(2.4) the following expression is obtained
Va + Vb + Vc = ea + eb + ec + 3Vn (2.5)
and from the back-EMF waveforms shown in Figure 2.4 it can realized that thesum of the back-EMFs at a zero crossing point is equal to zero. This reduces (2.5)to
Va + Vb + Vc3
= Vn (2.6)
and is used in order to determine when the back-EMF crosses the virtual groundof the motor in each phase.
The next step in the commutation sequence occurs 30◦ after the zero crossingpoint which also can be seen in Figure 2.4. So by measuring the phase potentialsand implementing an algorithm it is possible to estimate the rotor position andthe needed switching state in the sequence.
0 60 120 180 240 300 360 / 0 60 120 180 240
0 60 120 180 240 300 360 / 0 60 120 180 240
0 60 120 180 240 300 360 / 0 60 120 180 240
1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4
ea
eb
ec
Degrees [°]
Figure 2.4: Ideal back-EMF voltages
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2.3 Gate Driver
The N-channel Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor (MOSFET)needs a gate-source voltage in the magnitude of 10− 12 V in order to fully behavelike a switch. This imposes a problem for the upper switch in each of the halfbridge sections of the three phase inverter since the source potential will be equalto the input voltage. One way to solve this problem is by using a gate driver witha bootstrap capacitor. This method is quite simple and effective but it has certainlimitations [10]. One such limitation is that the duty cycle and the on-time ofthe MOSFET cannot be too large due to the fact that the bootstrap capacitorrecharges during the off-time of the MOSFET. If a very high duty cycle is requireda charge pump circuit which makes it possible to recharge the capacitor duringthe on-time of the transistor can be implemented [11].
The gate driver is used as a power amplifier between the Integrated Circuit(IC) which is acting as a controller, such as a DSP, and the power MOSFET. Itmakes sure that there is sufficient current in order to charge and recharge the gatecapacitance of the MOSFET. A typical connection of a gate driver IC can be seenin Figure 2.5, where CB is the bootstrap capacitor. A bootstrap circuit consistsof a capacitor and a diode. The capacitor is charged through the diode whenthe lower MOSFET is on, which means that Vs is connected to ground. Whenthe upper MOSFET should be turned on the lower MOSFET is turned off andthe negative side of the capacitor is then connected to Vs and the positive side isconnected to the gate, V OA, through the gate driver circuit. This will provide theneeded gate voltage to turn on the upper MOSFET [11].
VBAT
Vdriver,A
Vdriver,B
Figure 2.5: A typical connection of a high-side/low-side gate driver IC with abootstrap capacitance, CB
9
The value of the bootstrap capacitor is proposed to be
CBS,min =∆QBS,min
∆VBS,max(2.7)
where ∆QBS,min is the minimum charge the capacitor must supply to turn theMOSFET on and ∆VBS,max is the maximum allowed voltage dip in the capacitor.The minimum charge is calculated by
∆QBS,min = QG +QLS +IQBS,max
fs+ICBS,leak
fs(2.8)
where QG is the required gate charge of the MOSFET, QLS is the level shift chargerequired by the driver, IQBS,max is the maximum current that is required by thefloating section of the driver, ICBS,leak is the leakage current of the bootstrapcapacitor and fs is the switching frequency. The maximum allowed voltage dip iscalculated by
∆VBS,max =(VDD − Vf − VLS
)− VGS,min (2.9)
where VDD is the positive supply voltage, Vf is the voltage drop across the boot-strap diode, VLS is the voltage drop across the lower MOSFET and VGS,min is theminimum required gate-source voltage to turn the MOSFET on.
(VDD−Vf−VLS
)is the voltage which the capacitor will be charged to.
In order to have a safety margin from this worst case voltage drop the rule ofthumb is that the value obtained in (2.7) is multiplied by 15.
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3 Modeling and Simulation
In this chapter the motor model and three phase inverter model are introduced.The models are used to simulate the three phase inverter with a BLDC motor inSimulink. In order to define the design framework a requirement specification wasformulated.
3.1 BLDC Motor Model
The mathematical model which was used in order to simulate the BLDC motorconsisted of an electrical- and a mechanical-part.
If the mutual inductance is assumed to be constant when the motor rotatesthe voltage in the stator windings can be expressed as
Va = Ria + Ldiadt
+ ea (3.1)
Vb = Rib + Ldibdt
+ eb (3.2)
Vc = Ric + Ldicdt
+ ec (3.3)
where Va, Vb, Vc is the terminal voltage, R is the stator resistance, ia, ib, ic is thestator phase current, L is the stator inductance and ea, eb, ec is the induced back-EMF in each phase.
The trapezoidal back-EMF in a 3-phase BLDC motor is related to a functionof rotor position where each phase is 120◦ phase shifted and given by
ea = KeωmF (θe) (3.4)
eb = KeωmF (θe +2π
3) (3.5)
ec = KeωmF (θe +4π
3) (3.6)
where Ke is the motor back-EMF constant, ωm is the rotor speed, θe is the electricalrotor angle and F is the trapezoidal shape reference function with respect to rotorposition, with boundaries between +1 and -1.
F (θe) =
1 0 ≤ θe <
2π3
1− 6π(θe − 2π
3) 2π
3≤ θe < π
−1 π ≤ θe <5π3
−1 + 6π(θe − 5π
3) 5π
3≤ θe < 2π
(3.7)
Since there is no wire connected to the motor’s neutral phase the phase-to-phase voltage equations are used in order to control the motor. The phase-to-phasevoltage equations are derived from (3.1)-(3.3) and turn into
Vab = R(ia − ib) + Ld
dt(ia − ib) + eab (3.8)
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Vbc = R(ib − ic) + Ld
dt(ib − ic) + ebc. (3.9)
Only (3.8) and (3.9) will be needed since the third phase-to-phase voltage willbe a combination of the other two. In order to obtain the state space model (3.8)and (3.9) are combined together with the fact that the sum of all phase currentssimultaneously will be zero, ia + ib + ic = 0, which gives
diadt
= −RLia +
2
3L(Vab − eab) +
1
3L(Vbc − ebc) (3.10)
dibdt
= −RLib −
1
3L(Vab − eab) +
1
3L(Vbc − ebc) (3.11)
The last of the currents is given by the following equation
ic = −ia − ib (3.12)
The total electric torque produced by the BLCD motor is the summation ofthe electric torque produced in each phase.
Te = Ta + Tb + Tc =eaia + ebib + ecic
ωm(3.13)
The mechanical part is represented by the following equation
Te = βωm + Jdωmdt
+ TL (3.14)
where B is a constant of friction, J is the rotor and coupled shaft inertia and TLis the load torque.
The Simulink model of the ideal BLDC motor is then obtained by (3.10)-(3.12)together withs (3.13) and (3.14).
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3.2 Three Phase Inverter Model
Simulating an inverter of a BLDC motor in Simulink has been proven to be a bitdifficult due to the complications in simulating the freewheeling diodes. Baldursson[12] proposed a method in order to solve this problem. It simulates the freewheelingdiodes as voltage sources in order to make sure that the freewheeling currents onlycan flow in one direction. The diode model is implemented into a Matlab function.This function is then implemented in Simulink which uses the phase currents, back-EMF, rotor position and dc-source voltage as inputs. For each of the differentposition intervals showed in Table 2.2 the function will output different voltagesto the motor.
eb
ec
VnVd
ic = 0
ic ≠ 0 +
ea
Figure 3.1: Current path through the three phase inverter for the interval 0−60◦
where the green path represents the current through the active phases and the redpath represents the commutating current from the previous switching sequence
Figure 3.1 represent the interval between 0−60◦ where the different output voltagescan be derived for the case when there is a current through the freewheeling diode,in this case D6. When the current through the freewheeling diode is zero, blocking,the diode will be represented by a voltage source, in this case Vbc, to make surethat the current only flows in one direction. A simplified case can be seen in Figure3.2 for the interval between 0− 60◦.
When ic 6= 0 the three phase-to-phase voltages can easily be derived from Figure3.1
Vab = Vd (3.15)
Vbc = 0 (3.16)
Vca = −Vd (3.17)
13
ia ic
eb
eceaL LR R
( )Vd
Vbc
D6
L
R
Vn
Figure 3.2: Circuit topology for the case 0−60◦, where Vbc represents the voltageover the reversed biased diode, D6
When ic = 0 Kirchhoff’s voltage law are applied around each mesh in Figure3.2 to obtain the three phase-to-phase voltages
Vd −Ria − Ldiadt− ea + eb − L
d(ia + ic)
dt−R(ia + ic) = 0 (3.18)
− Vbc −Ric − Ldicdt− ec + eb − L
d(ia + ic)
dt−R(ia + ic) = 0 (3.19)
when ic = 0
Vd − 2Ri− ea − 2Ldi
dt− ea + eb = 0 (3.20)
− Vbc − ec + eb − Ldi
dt−Ri = 0 (3.21)
(3.20) and (3.21) gives
Vbc =1
2(−Vd + ea + eb − 2ec) (3.22)
So the three phase-to-phase voltages will be
Vab = Vd (3.23)
Vbc =1
2(−Vd + ea + eb − 2ec) (3.24)
Vca =1
2(−Vd − ea − eb + 2ec) (3.25)
The same derivation is applied for the rest of the switching sequences and result inTable 3.1. The calculations for the five remaining cases are presented in AppendixA.
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Table 3.1: Inverter output voltages
θe Diode current Vab Vbc Vca
0− 60◦ ic 6= 0 Vd 0 −Vdic = 0 Vd
12(−Vd + ea + eb − 2ec)
12(−Vd − ea − eb + 2ec)
60− 120◦ ib 6= 0 0 Vd −Vdib = 0 1
2(Vd + ec + ea − 2eb)
12(Vd − ec − ea + 2eb) −Vd
120− 180◦ ia 6= 0 −Vd Vd 0ia = 0 1
2(−Vd − eb − ec + 2ea) Vd
12(−Vd + eb + ec − 2ea)
180− 240◦ ic 6= 0 −Vd 0 Vdic = 0 −Vd 1
2(Vd + ea + eb − 2ec)
12(Vd − ea − eb + 2ec)
240− 300◦ ib 6= 0 0 −Vd Vdib = 0 1
2(−Vd + ec + ea − 2eb)
12(−Vd − ec − ea + 2eb) Vd
300− 360◦ ia 6= 0 Vd −Vd 0ia = 0 1
2(Vd − eb − ec + 2ea) −Vd 1
2(Vd + eb + ec − 2ea)
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3.3 Requirement Specification
In order to be able to define a framework for the design criterias of the drive system,such as selection of motor, battery technology and the controller specifications,several models and simulations are required. This needs to be done in order to beable to determine the maximum power, speed, current and voltage as well as thetotal energy needed for the system. Vehicle dynamics can be modeled in intricateways, however a longitudinal vehicle road serves well for the purpose of determinethe maximum limits of a drive system [13].
3.3.1 Longitudinal Vehicle Dynamic Model
In the longitudinal vehicle dynamic model the vehicle and the forces acting uponit can be described with a free body diagram represented in Figure 3.3. In thismodel the vehicle’s center of mass where all of its weight is concentrated is usedas a reference point. The forces that will be taken into account for are the force ofgravity, the force of friction due to the rolling resistance exerted by the road andwheel interaction, the aerodynamic drag force and the propulsive force exerted bythe electric motor at the wheel. The sum of the forces in the system will determineacceleration or deceleration of the vehicle [13].
Vveh
Fd
Fp
Ff
Fg sin(α)
Fgα
Figure 3.3: Free body diagram
The system can be modeled as
Fp = mvehdvvehdt
+ Fd + Ff + Fgsin(α) (3.26)
where Fp is the force of propulsion exerted by the motor, Fd is the aerodynamicdrag force, Ff is the frictional force between the road and the wheels, Fg is thegravitational force α is the slope angle and mveh is the total vehicle mass. Thetractive power needed to be exerted by the motor is given by (3.27)
Pp = Fpvveh = mvehdvvehdt
vveh + Fdvveh + Ffvveh + Fgsin(α)vveh (3.27)
Pp = mvehdvvehdt
vveh + Pd + Pf + Pg (3.28)
where Pd is the power exerted on the vehicle due to the aerodynamic friction alsoknown as the drag power, which is described by (3.29), Pf is the frictional power
16
between the wheels and the road, which is shown in (3.30), and Pg is the powerexerted by gravitation which is described in (3.31).
Pd = Fdvveh =1
2CdAfρav
2effvveh (3.29)
where Cd is the drag coefficient, Af is the effective area of the vehicle perpendicularto the direction of motion, ρa is the density of air, veff is the velocity of the vehiclerelative to air and vveh + vair.
Pf = Ffvveh = CrrFNvveh (3.30)
where Crr is the coefficient of rolling resistance and FN is the normal force.
Pg = Fgvveh = mvehgsin(α)vveh (3.31)
where g is the acceleration due to gravity.
3.3.2 Drive System Requirement Specification
Several drive cycle models were made in order to calculate the current and thepower output needed in the different drive cycle scenarios. In order to determinethe maximum peak power and current needed, a worst case drive cycle was im-plemented. This was realized into a slope with a 15◦ incline where the vehicleaccelerated from stationary to full speed in five seconds. To determine the nec-essary current during regular driving condition, a drive cycle on flat surface wasimplemented. A worst case scenario was implemented in order to determine themaximum amount of power needed. It was calculated to approximately 2 kWwhen accelerating from stationary to full speed, 20 km/h, at an incline of 15◦ in 5seconds.
In addition the battery technology and battery voltage needs to be selected.The battery voltage is set in discrete steps by the number of battery cells chosenand by their nominal voltage. For the purpose of driving a light electric vehicleweight and size has to be minimized. To reduce the weight and the size, a highpower density is needed. In order to be economically viable the high power densitymust come at a low cost. From these design criteria’s a six cell lithium polymerbattery (LiPO) with a nominal cell voltage of 3.7 V and especially thin designand was chosen. With the nominal battery voltage set to 22.2 V it is possible todetermine the maximum current to 90 A and to select a BLDC motor which isable to handle the voltage and currents up to at least 90 A for a short period.
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4 Inverter Design
The inverter layout was divided into two different PCBs, a Control PCB and aPower PCB. This was done in order to separate the high power components fromthe low power components. A four layer FR-4 PCB was used for the control circuitsand a one-layer aluminum PCB was used for the power circuits. The aluminumwas used in order obtain an improved cooling performance for the transistors.
Due to layout optimization and the component shape the current sensor andthe gate drives were placed on the Control PCB although they usually are placedon the Power PCB.
An electronic design software called Altium Designer from Altium where usedto draw both the schematics and PCBs.
4.1 Control PCB Schematic
The control PCB consists of low voltage logic components which are necessaryfor the control of the electronic commutation of the motor. An overview over thecontrol PCB can be seen in Figure 4.1 where every major circuit is divided into ablock. All of the circuit schematics for the Control PCB can be seen in AppendixB.
Figure 4.1: Overview of the different blocks in the PCB
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All of the different blocks will be described in more detail in the followingsections.
4.1.1 Voltage Regulators
The voltage regulator block converts the battery voltage down into four differentvoltage levels. The voltage values were 10 V, 5.0 V, 3.3 V and 1.9 V where 3.3 Vand 1.9 V also were used as analog voltages.
To transform the battery voltage down to 10 V a buck converter was used.The 10 V was used in order to supply the high and the low side driver outputs ofthe gate drivers with power. The voltage was also used in a gate amplifying stagein order to maintain a good gate signal to the MOSFETs on the power PCB.
The 5.0 V voltage level was also acquired by using a buck converter. Thisvoltage level was used in order to supply, the radio receiver, the encoder, the levelshifter and the gate driver with power.
A buck regulator with dual outputs was used in order to attain the digital 3.3 Vand 1.9 V from the digital 5.0 V . Both of the voltages were used to supply theDSP and the 3.3 V was also used to supply two Light-Emitting Diodes (LEDs), thelevel shifter and the back-EMF circuits. The same analog voltages were obtainedby using linear power regulators with the 5.0 V as input. These voltages whereused to supply the DSP and the current sensor.
A supervision circuit with dual inputs was used in order to detect power failsof the voltages, which supply the DSP. This was implemented as a safety functionto protect the DSP and the critical components supplied by the same voltage.
4.1.2 Radio Receiver
The radio receiver block consists only of a connector for a radio receiver withthree analog inputs which are connected to the DSP and a 5.0 V output. Theradio receiver and the transmitter were third-party components which normallyare used for radio-controlled cars. The purpose of this circuit was to be able tocontrol the vehicle wirelessly in the future.
4.1.3 Cell Protection
Since a lithium polymer battery was used as power supply the voltages from eachof the cells needed to be monitored by the DSP. This was done to reduce the riskof damaging the cells under running operation. An input header for the balanceconnector of the battery was mounted along with six differential amplifiers toobtain the different cell voltages. The voltage protection circuit is limited to onlymeasuring six cells due to the design with six differential amplifiers. The nominalcell voltage is 3.7 V and the voltage of each cell should be in the range from 4.2Vto 2.7 V in order to protect the cell from taking any damaged because of an underor over voltage. This gives a nominal voltage of 22.2 V for the input supply voltageto the inverter. The gain of the differential amplifiers was set to 0.62 to be able tosample within the full signal range with the Analog-to-Digital Converter (ADC).
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4.1.4 LED
The LED block consists of two LEDs, one green and one red, and two MOSFETswhich are used to switch the LEDs on and off. The LEDs act as indicator lights forthe DSP to show if the controller is working and in order to make the debuggingprocess easier.
4.1.5 Encoder
A quadrature encoder was used for verification and comparison of the two differentsensorless methods. The outputs from the encoder were A, B and index pulse alongwith their inverted signals. All of these signals were used to obtain an accurateposition of the rotor and rotor direction. The A and A signals were filtered witha common mode choke and amplified in a differential amplifier to achieve a morestable and reliable A-signal. The B signals and the index signals where filteredand amplified in the same way. These three signals were then sent to the DSP inorder to calculate the position.
4.1.6 DSP
The DSP functions as a brain for the three phase inverter. It is here all of theinput and output signals are processed in order to make it possible to control theswitching sequences. All of the signals used by the three phase inverter can be seenin Table 5.1 and Table 5.2. Filters were connected to each of the DSP’s analoginputs to reduce signal noise. This improved the signal quality and made it easierto use the signals in the software. A Joint Test Action Group (JTAG) connectorwas also connected and used for programming and debugging the DSP.
4.1.7 Back-EMF
In the back-EMF block, the phase potentials were measured in order to be usedby the two sensorless methods. The signals were filtered to reduce noise fromthe PWM switching and scaled down to use the full range of the ADC conversion.Back-EMF A, back-EMF B and back-EMF C, were measured with the DSPs analoginputs which can be seen in Figure 4.2. Three resistors from each phase wereconnected in parallel in order to recreate the potential of the motor neutral. Themotors virtual neutral was also measured by the DSP ADC. These four analoginput signals along with a digital sensorless algorithm, were used for one of thesensorless methods.
The other sensorless method which was implemented used a similar approach,but instead of analog signals it used three digital signals as input to the DSP. Thesignals, Zero Cross A, Zero Cross B and Zero Cross C, was obtained from threecomparators, which also can be seen in Figure 4.2.
When the phase potential is higher than the virtual neutral the output of thecomparator will be high and when the phase potential is low, vice versa. Theshapes of these signals were very similar to the ones from a hall sensor. Analgorithm was also used in this case to estimate the next needed switching state.Both of the algorithms are based on the equations in Section 2.2.2.
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Back-EMF A
Zero Cross A
Back-EMF B
Zero Cross B
Back-EMF C
Zero Cross C
Neutral Voltage
Phase A
Phase B
Phase C
Figure 4.2: Schematic overview of the back-EMF block
4.1.8 Level Shifter
The level shifter was used to connect digital circuits which used different voltagelevels. For example the output signals from the encoder were shifted down from5.0 V to 3.3 V , which the DSP is able to measure. In the other direction, thePWM outputs from the DSP were shifted up from 3.3 V , to 5.0 V , which wasrequired for the gate driver.
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4.2 Power PCB Schematic
An overview over the power PCB with all of the major parts divided into differentblocks can be seen in Figure 4.3. All of the circuit schematics for the power PCBcan be seen in Appendix C.
Figure 4.3: Overview of the different blocks in the PCB
All the blocks will be described more detailed in the following subsections.
4.2.1 Gate Driver
The gate driver that was used had both a high-side and a low-side driver along witha bootstrap capacitor and a bootstrap diode at the upper MOSFET, which can beseen in Figure 4.4. In order to achieve independent control of the MOSFETs boththe low side and high side input were used with an individual PWM signal. ThePWM output signals from the DSP with a voltage level of 3.3 V goes through alevel shifter to adjust the voltage level to 5.0 V . The adjusted voltage is compatiblewith the gate driver inputs VIA and VIB.
The distances between the output signals of the gate driver and the inputsignals to the MOSFETs need to be as short as possible in order to reduce parasiticinductance in the traces. The inductance decrease the instantaneous current whichin turn decreases the speed of the switching [14]. This phenomenon lead to thatan amplifying stage was placed in front of the MOSFET gate.
22
.
Figure 4.4: The high-side/low-side gate driver IC with a bootstrap capacitance,CB
The bootstrap capacitor, CB was selected according to (2.7)-(2.9). A fastrecovery diode was chosen as the bootstrap diode in order to reduce the timeframein which the bootstrap capacitor can discharge into VDD.
4.2.2 Half Bridge
There are three half bridge blocks, Half Bridge 1, Half Bridge 2 and Half Bridge 3,which together compose the three phase inverter. Each block consist of two MOS-FETs, one upper and one lower MOSFET which are connected to one commongate driver IC.
The MOSFET switching scheme for BLDC motor control is presented in Table2.2 and from this table it can be seen that two switches always are on except forthe dead time between the PWM pulses. Dead time is used in order to avoid thatboth the upper switch and the lower switch are on at the same time. During thedead time, the current will freewheel through the body diode of the MOSFET. Sothe power dissipation of the MOSFETs in the three phase inverter will be
Ptotal = 2Pcond(1− Tdead
)+ 2Pswitch + 2Pcond,diodeTdead (4.1)
where Pcond and Pcond,diode are the conduction losses of the MOSFET and Pswitchare the switching losses of the MOSFETs. Which are
Pcond = I2onRds(on) (4.2)
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Pswitch =VdsIonfs
2
(tr + tf
)(4.3)
Pcond,diode = VfIon (4.4)
where Rds(on) is the on state resistance of the MOSFET, Ion is the conductioncurrent, Vds is the drain to source voltage when the MOSFET is off, tr and tf isthe turn on and turn off times, fs is the switching frequency and Vf is the diodeforward voltage drop [15].
The power dissipation during a worst case scenario was calculated to be 32 W ,which correspond to a loss of 1.6 %. The current used in this worst case was90A, from Section 3.3.2, and the nominal battery voltage of 22.2 V . The selectedMOSFETs were specified to handle these parameters.
4.2.3 DC-Link Capacitors
A capacitor bank consisting of two electrolytic capacitors and four ceramic capac-itors were connected in parallel and placed between the battery and the three halfbridges in order to obtain a steady bus voltage. The two electrolytic capacitorsfilter the low frequency voltage ripple and the four ceramic capacitors filter thehigh frequency voltage ripple. The following expression was used to calculate theminimum value of the electrolytic capacitor
Cmin =Imotor,peak
∆V fs(4.5)
where Imotor,peak is the peak motor current, ∆V is the maximum allowed voltageripple and fs is the switching frequency [16].
4.2.4 Current Measurement
Current control was used in order to regulate the motor output power. This makesit necessary to measure the current continuously. Since the BLDC motor only hasone active current at the time, two phases conducting, there is no need to measureall three phase currents. Instead one current sensor was mounted between thebattery and the three phase inverter.
A hardware shutdown function consisting of two comparators where used asa safety function in case of a software or external failure. The two comparatorswere set to trigger on two different currents, one for maximum allowed positivecurrent and one for maximum allowed negative current with the analog currentsensor signal used as an input.
4.2.5 Temperature Measurement
Near one of the half bridges a negative temperature coefficient resistor was mountedto be able to measure temperatures. The temperature was monitored by the DSPas a software safety function and is able to trig a shutdown when the temperaturebecomes too high.
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4.3 PCB Layout
Circuit noise and disturbances are a common problem when realizing a schematiccircuit layout into a PCB layout. This is was mainly due to the fact that thecomponents are not ideal and that the signal traces cannot be made infinitely shortand thereby give rise to phenomena’s such as Electromagnetic Interference (EMI)because of unwanted coupling to other circuits caused by capacitive, inductive orconductive coupling. A first approach in order to reduce those unwanted effectswhen designing a PCB is to follow PCB design guidelines. Those help the designerto make general layout decisions without having to stop and analyze each andevery step and thereby speed up the design process significantly. This makes theguidelines a very cost efficient tool in order to reduce EMI instead of having to relyupon expensive containers such as metallic enclosures [17], [18]. There are howeveralmost as many guidelines as there are design engineers. It is therefore necessaryto be critical and investigate if the guidelines are up to date and in which specificcase each guideline apply [17].
4.3.1 Control PCB Layout
The Control PCB layout was influenced by a number of aspects of which the majorones will be discussed in this section. The first aspect was to determine the PCBdimensions. Since the application is light electric vehicles this is a crucial factorsince it needs to be able to fit and to be mounted in a good way. The two PCBs,the Control PCB and the Power PCB were placed beside each other, instead of ontop of each other, because of the definite height constraint of the application.
The control PCB was decided to be a multilayer PCB and to have four layersmade out of the regular glass epoxy panel FR-4 with copper foil laminated on eachlayer. The four layers made it possible to have a ground plane, a power plane andtwo signal layers. The four layer structure was a very cost effective approach inorder to reduce current loops and trace inductances that can cause EMI and signalnoise [17].
Circuits with similar noise characteristics were grouped together such as thedifferent switching voltage regulators and the encoder signal input interface. Theanalog circuits, the DSP’s analog inputs and the linear regulators, were put farfrom the switched regulators in order to reduce the risk of noise coupling with theanalog measurements. A separate ground for the analog circuits was also realizedwith the same intention.
The components within a block were placed close to each other with the mainfocus on minimizing the signal current loop area. Having a ground plane alsoreduce the signal current loop area since it provides the signals with a close andlow-impedance path [17].
The different power planes were placed on a single layer which prevents cou-pling between two different power buses. This also allows for an efficient designsince devices with same voltage rating could be grouped together. To further min-imize EMI, decoupling capacitors were placed as close to the power supply pins aspossible with direct via holes down to the ground plane.
All of the connectors onto and from the PCB were located at the edges of the
25
board in order to minimize the length of the connector cables. Connector headersleading to the Power PCB were aligned with the corresponding connector headersto allow for short wiring between the circuit boards.
4.3.2 Power PCB Layout
The Power PCB is a single layer PCB made out of aluminum which gives it sig-nificantly better thermal conductivity properties than a regular PCB such as FR4made out of glass epoxy panel. The aluminum PCB is composed of a three layerstructure of, a circuit layer made out of a copper foil, a dielectric insulation layerwith good thermal conductivity properties and a metal substrate [19]. The ther-mal conductivity of the aluminum PCB is 2.2 W/mK which is six times higherthan the thermal conductivity for the FR4 material [20].
The component placement became even more critical since only one circuitlayer was available and components needed to act as bridges for the traces inorder to be able to minimize the current loops effectively. The conduction traceswhere made into planes in order to support the high currents of up to 90 A.
26
5 Software Implementation
The DSP which was used to control the motor was a Texas Instruments TMS320F28335.It is a 32-bit floating-point processor with a clock rate of up to 150 MHz. It hasfloating-point capability which makes the processor well suited for motor controlin relation to fixed-point because of its capability of having a wider range of val-ues and more accurate measurements. The DSP is equipped with both on-boardRandom Access Memory (RAM) and internal flash memory for standalone control.There are 16 ADC inputs with a 12-bit resolution with an input range of 0−3.0 V .There are also 88 General Purpose Input/Output (GPIO) pins where some of themhave special features such as PWM and Encoder support. It is also possible tomake interrupts with different types of trigger signals. The different pins andsoftware functions that are being used are further explained in this section.
An overview over the system can be seen in Figure 5.1, where the differentfunctions are represented in different blocks.
Figure 5.1: DSP block layout overview
For the software implementation Code Composer StudioTM v5 (CCS) with li-braries from ControlSUITETM for C2000TM was used.
The DSP operation procedure starts with a hardware initialization where theprocessor first resets and then initialize functions like stack pointers, registers,clocks and watchdog [21]. After the hardware initialization is done the softwareinitialization starts and settings are loaded to the RAM. Examples of settings arethe PWM switching frequency, assigning the PWM outputs and other featuresfor the GPIO pins and the ADC channels. An overview of the pinouts can beseen in Table 5.1 and Table 5.2. The software goes into a waiting loop after theinitializations is done and wait for trigger signals for interrupts. The trigger signal
27
for the interrupt was set at the end of every PWM cycle, which has a switchingfrequency of 20 kHz. Flow chart for the startup can be seen in Figure 5.2.
Figure 5.2: Main procedure flow chart
The algorithms that need to be run in real time are placed in the interruptblock. The flow chart of the most necessary functions in the interrupt block canbe seen in Figure 5.3.
28
Figure 5.3: Interrupt procedure flow chart
29
All of the ADC channels were set to sample simultaneously with the PWMsignal as trigger. The input voltages were then attained with the following formula
D =4095
3.0Vin (5.1)
where D is the digital number converted from the ADC and Vin is the inputvoltage to the DSP. 4095 is the resolution of an ADC with 12-bits and 3.0 is therange of the input voltage. The digital numbers are then scaled with differentfactors, depending on the hardware, to determine the true voltages. The signalswhich are sampled by the ADC are represented in Table 5.1 together with a shortdescription.
Table 5.1: Input signals to the ADC moduleInput Name Description
ADC A0 I meas DC-link currentADC A1 Radio ref Torque reference from radio controlADC A2 Torque ref Torque reference wiredADC A3 Temp-NTC Temperature from the three phase inverterADC A4 Back-EMF A Voltage potential in phase AADC A5 Back-EMF B Voltage potential in phase BADC A6 Back-EMF C Voltage potential in phase CADC A7 Virtual n Virtual neutral point of the motorADC B0 Cell voltage 1 Voltage battery cell 1ADC B1 Cell voltage 2 Voltage battery cell 2ADC B2 Cell voltage 3 Voltage battery cell 3ADC B3 Cell voltage 4 Voltage battery cell 4ADC B4 Cell voltage 5 Voltage battery cell 5ADC B5 Cell voltage 6 Voltage battery cell 6ADC B6 Ch 1 ext Extra channel from radio control (Not in use)ADC B7 Ch 3 ext Extra channel from radio control (Not in use)
There are two different methods implemented to estimate the rotor position,one using ADC channels which samples the phase voltage potential and anotherusing the digital inputs with a comparator triggering on the zero crossing of theback-EMF. For the method using the ADC the signal value is continuously com-pared to the value of the virtual neutral point, which is obtained from a resistornetwork with three resistors connected in parallel with the motor, see Section 4.1.7.All the signals have digital filters implemented in order to reduce high-frequencyswitching noise. When the back-EMF value and the neutral point value are equal,the DSP indicates that a zero-cross event has occurred. The time difference com-pared to the previous zero-crossing event is also calculated. This time divided bytwo is then used to delay the output of the commutations sequence estimator with30◦. This is done because of the zero-cross event occuring 30◦ before the nextcommutation sequence should start, which can be seen in Figure 2.2. The motordirection is obtained by comparing in which order the zero-cross events occurs.
30
Six of the input signals to the ADC were used to measure the cell voltages ofthe battery pack. If one of these cells exceeds its upper or lower voltage limitsthe program will shut down the controller. The same will happen if the inputvoltage to the converter exceeds its upper or lower voltage limits. This is a safetyfunction for the battery to minimize the risk to damage the cells. Other safetyfunctions that were implemented were temperature measurement and over currentprotection, with both hardware and software.
The digital input and output pins that are being used are represented in Table5.2 together with a short description.
Table 5.2: Input and output signals of the DSPPin Input/Output Name Description
GPIO 0 Output PWM-1a PWM signal for S1GPIO 1 Output PWM-1b PWM signal for S2GPIO 2 Output PWM-2a PWM signal for S3GPIO 3 Output PWM-2b PWM signal for S4GPIO 4 Output PWM-3a PWM signal for S5GPIO 5 Output PWM-3b PWM signal for S6GPIO 10 Input PSC PFO Power fail inputGPIO 11 Output PSC WDI Watchdog timer output
GPIO 12 Input I trip Hardware current tripGPIO 20 Input QEP-A Encoder A pulseGPIO 21 Input QEP-B Encoder B pulseGPIO 23 Input QEP-I Encoder I pulseGPIO 26 Input ON/OFF On/Off button for the sensorGPIO 27 Output Disable Disable the gate drivers when highGPIO 29 Input Zero cross A Signal from back-EMF comparator, phase AGPIO 30 Input Zero cross B Signal from back-EMF comparator, phase BGPIO 31 Input Zero cross C Signal from back-EMF comparator, phase CGPIO 76 Output Led 1 Red LEDGPIO 77 Output Led 2 Green LED
The other method which is implemented to estimate the rotor position worksin a similar way to the one which is sampled by the ADC. The difference is thatthe zero-cross event is detected with comparators. So when the back-EMF voltageis higher than the neutral point, the comparator output will be high and when theback-EMF voltage is lower than the neutral point, the output will be low. In thisway the direction of the rotation and the commutation sequence can be calculated.
Encoder support was implemented to be able to evaluate the sensorless meth-ods. The enhanced Quadrature Encoder Pulse (QEP) register and special pinsreserved for this purpose where used to calculate the angle, the direction of therotation and the speed.
Another register which was used in the DSP was the register of the enhancedPWM. This register controls the PWM output signals, which is varied to changethe speed and the torque of the motor. The output depends on which of theswitching sequences the rotor is in and of the duty cycle. These two parameters
31
are the inputs to the PWM function. The switching sequence is received fromeither one of the two sensorless algorithms or the encoder and the duty cycleis received from the Proportional-Integral (PI) regulator, see Figure 5.1. Table5.3 represents the PWM switching of the transistors depending on the switchingsequence.
Table 5.3: Commutation states for the three phase inverterSequence S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S6
1 PWM PWM OFF ON OFF OFF
2 PWM PWM OFF OFF OFF ON
3 OFF OFF PWM PWM OFF ON
4 OFF ON PWM PWM OFF OFF
5 OFF ON OFF OFF PWM PWM
6 OFF OFF OFF ON PWM PWM
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6 Verification and Evaluation of Results
In this section the simulation and laboratory measurement results will be presentedand evaluated.
6.1 Board Verification
A major part of the project was put into functionality verification. Already atan early stage of the inverter design process, jumper resistors were used in orderto simplify the validation and troubleshooting procedure. They also reduce thedamage of circuit errors and the short-circuit failures, since they isolate an errorwithin a specific circuit function, for example one of the switched power regulators.This made the troubleshooting process more structured and significantly reducedthe risk of damaging components. It also saved a lot of time since the error wasisolated within a smaller circuit and not the whole circuit board. The LED lightsalso proved to be very valuable for the purpose of troubleshooting. By receivingdirect visual feedback the process went much faster.
All the power levels were verified to their specified value. This was an importantand necessary result in order to have any functionality at all from any of thecomponents. The next major step was the validation of the onboard DSP, thisincluded; establishing a connection to the DSP, compiling to its flash memory andverifying the input and output signals. The PWM output signals were measuredin order to verify that the PWM control registers had been setup correctly. Themeasured PWM outputs of the switches S1, S2, S5 and S6 which corresponds tothe ones in Table 5.3 is illustrated in Figure 6.1.
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1 2 3 4 5 6 12 3 4 5 6
Figure 6.1: PWM outputs from the DSP with a 50 % duty cycle with motor inno load operation, blue S1, magenta S2, yellow S5 and green S6 at [5 V/div] and[1 ms/div]
The measured signals corresponds correctly to the desired state in Table 5.3.There is however also a dead time on the measured PWM outputs which is notvisible in Figure 6.1. The dead time is necessary in order to protect the threephase inverter from a shoot through in one of the half bridges.
The gate driver output signal was measured in order to validate that the am-plification of the PWM signal worked as intended. The signal for the same fourswitches after the gate driver amplification stage is presented in Figure 6.2.
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1 2 3 4 5 6 13 4 5 62
Figure 6.2: PWM outputs from the gate driver with a 50 % duty cycle with motorin no load operation, blue S1, magenta S2, yellow S5 and green S6 at [10 V/div]and [1 ms/div]
The similarities of Figure 6.1 and Figure 6.2 shows that the gate driver properlyamplifies the PWM input signals. In this case 3.3 V is amplified to 5.0 V throughthe level shifter and then amplified to 10 V through the gate driver. The safetyshutdown functionality of the gate drivers was also tested and validated.
The output signals of the encoder, the A pulse and the A pulse, is presentedin Figure 6.3 along with output from the differential amplifier.
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Figure 6.3: Encoder output signals, green differential amplifier, magenta A, blueA, [100 mV/div] and [20 µs/div]
The encoder signals from the measurement presented in Figure 6.3 has a verygood looking shape without any noise and would be able to function well withoutthe differential amplifying stage. The measurements were however conducted ina lab environment and not in a real field test with a lot of exterior noise. Ina case with a lot of external disturbances the differential stage can improve thereliability. The differential amplifiers chosen for this stage were a bit slow and ifreplaced, they could probably give a considerably faster response.
The current measurement signal presented in Figure 6.4 has some noise ontop of the actual signal. This was mainly caused by the necessary placement ofthe current sensor, close to battery connectors. This was however also close tothe switched power regulators which gives rise to a lot of noise. This signal is ofmajor importance in order for current control to be able to function as intended.The noise level was a lot higher than the current measurement sensitivity. Thisproblem was solved by using a digital filter.
36
Figure 6.4: Current sensor analog output voltage with circuit noise [100 mV/div]and [1 ms/div]
6.2 Sensored and Sensorless Evaluation
The Simulink motor model was used in order to be able to confirm that the sen-sorless control algorithms functioned as intended. To be able to have a referencemodel, a sensored control was first implemented. The back-EMF of the simulatedBLDC motor in sensored operation is shown in Figure 6.5 and the correspondingresult from the in lab BLDC motor is shown in Figure 6.7.
37
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
−8
−6
−4
−2
0
2
4
6
8
Time [ms]
Voltage [V]
Figure 6.5: Back-EMF of a simulated BLDC motor in sensored operation, yellowPhase A, magenta Phase B, green Phase C and blue virtual ground
Figure 6.6: Measured phase potential of a BLDC motor in sensored operationat a 100 % duty cycle, yellow Phase A, magenta Phase B and green Phase C,[2 V/div] and [500 µs/div]
38
1 2 3 4 5 6 1 3 4 52
Figure 6.7: Measured filtered phase potential of a BLDC motor in sensoredoperation at a 50 % duty cycle, yellow Phase A, magenta Phase B, green Phase Cand blue virtual ground, [200 mV/div] and [500 µs/div]
The unfiltered phase potential in Figure 6.6 and the voltage divided and filteredphase potential in Figure 6.7 are both very similar to the simulated back-EMF inFigure 6.5. This is because the phase potential is equal to the back-EMF in everythird switching sequence for each phase. For example in phase A in Figure 6.7the back-EMF is visible during switching sequence three and six. This is whenthe phase is not being driven. The filtered signal in Figure 6.7 has a trapezoidalshape, with a PWM noise of 20 kHz.
The simulated model controlled with the sensorless algorithm gave the sameresult as with the sensored operation presented in Figure 6.5. This was expectedbecause of the ideal characteristics of the model. The major difference was that thesimulated motor could not start in sensorless operation since it needs a back-EMFto estimate the position.
The phase potential of a BLDC motor was measured with the three phaseinverter operating in the two different sensorless modes. The measurements arepresented in Figure 6.8 and in Figure 6.9. The first one uses comparators fordetection of the zero crossing of the back-EMF and the later one uses the analoginputs of the DSP and digitally detects the zero crossing.
39
1 2 3 4 5 6 1 3 42
Figure 6.8: Measured filtered phase potential of a BLDC motor in sensorlessoperation using comparators at a 50 % duty cycle, yellow Phase A, magenta PhaseB, green Phase C and blue virtual ground, [200 mV/div] and [500 µs/div]
40
1 2 3 4 5 6 1 3 42
Figure 6.9: Measured filtered phase potential of a BLDC motor in sensorlessoperation using analog inputs at a 50 % duty cycle, yellow Phase A, magentaPhase B, green Phase C and blue virtual ground, [ 200mV/div] and [500 µs/div]
The sensorless methods are fully functional however they both require a min-imum motor RPM in order to be able to operate. The threshold RPM was mea-sured to approximately 600 RPM for the method with comparators and roughly300 RPM for the method which measures the phase potential and virtual mo-tor neutral with analog inputs. The difference between the results is due to thatthe hysteresis which is set to reduce the impact of noise is not adjustable for thecomparators. However the method which uses the ADCs is able to adjust thehysteresis depending on the motor speed which gives the increased performance.When the signal has been sampled it can be digitally filtered which also gives anincreased performance. The 300 RPM measurement is presented in Figure 6.10.For light electric vehicles the required initial speed usually is not a problem sinceit can be supplied by the driver.
41
Figure 6.10: Speed [200 RPM/div] versus Time [500 ms/div]
The simulated comparator output signal and the measured comparator outputsignal presented in Figure 6.11 and Figure 6.12 looks very similar.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
−8
−6
−4
−2
0
2
4
6
8
Time [ms]
Voltage [V]
Figure 6.11: Simulated back-EMF in phase C, green, with the comparator outputsignal, yellow, and the virtual ground, blue
42
Figure 6.12: Measured phase potential in phase C, green [0.5 V/div], withthe comparator output signal, yellow [1 V/div], and the virtual ground, blue[0.5 V/div], at [500 µs/div]
The comparator triggers correctly when the back-EMF crosses the virtualground. The same also applies for the two other phases. The three compara-tor outputs give a similar signal sequence as corresponding hall sensors would.
43
6.3 Further evaluation
The phase A current during simulated motor operation and motor operation weremeasured and presented in Figure 6.13 and Figure 6.14. The simulated and themeasured current have similar looking shapes.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
−1
0
1
Time [ms]
Current [A]
Figure 6.13: Simulated current in phase A
Figure 6.14: Measured current in phase A, 1 V corresponds to 10 A, [500 mV/div], [ ms/div]
44
The phase currents have a small dip at the top and bottom which is becauseof the current commutation due to the motor inductance when going from oneswitching sequence to the other in the three phase inverter. For phase A the posi-tive current dip occurs between switching sequence one and two and the negativecurrent dip occurs between switching sequence four and five from Table 5.3.
The implemented current regulator operates as expected and keeps the currentconstant when changing loads. Current control is especially well suited for electricvehicles since the current is proportional to the motor torque and thereby givesthe driver the same feedback experience as it would from a regular car throttle.
The battery cell protection circuit is verified to be operational with an emulatedbattery. However a test with a real lithium ion battery with its balance connectorconnected to the cell protection circuit needs to be conducted in order to fullyverify its functionality. A draw back with this circuit is that in its present state itcan only handle up to six cells. The circuit solution is also redundant since eachof the battery cells uses an analog input; these are usually few and expensive onDSPs. A better solution to this problem would be to use a battery cell monitoringsolution that only communicates with the DSP through digital inputs and outputs.If a low manufacturing cost is the prominent design factor then it is possible tomeasure only a few of the cell voltages which are more likely to suffer from anover- or under- voltage.
45
7 Closure
This section presents the conclusions as well as introducing some potential futurework.
7.1 Conclusion
The thesis purpose was to design and develop a three phase inverter for an ultra-light electric vehicle with sensorless BLDC motor control and to evaluate theresult. A three phase inverter has been simulated, designed, built and evaluated.The purpose has been fulfilled since the three phase inverter has been verified tofunction as intended.
The three phase inverter supports two different sensorless algorithms based onback-EMF measurement as well as support for sensored control. The two sensorlessalgorithms give similar results however they require different surrounding compo-nents as well as DSP inputs. The method using ADCs is preferred in this casesince the DSP had ADCs available and it required less surrounding componentscompared to the one using comparators.
The three phase inverter has been made small enough to fit in an ultra-lightvehicle in its present state and is able to independently control a BLDC drivesystem.
7.2 Future Work
From the knowledge acquired throughout the project there are a lot of designimprovements that can be made. One example is using fewer power levels whichwould make it possible to remove a lot of components and another is only usingone position feedback method which also would allow for a smaller design. A DSPwith only the necessary functionality and inputs and outputs would also allow foran improved and more efficient design.
Evaluation of the necessary cooling for the MOSFETs remains. Proper mea-surements could determine if the aluminum PCB is required or if the design couldbe fitted on only one PCB. This would make it possible to remove all connectorsbetween the two PCBs as well as the extra amplifying stages at the MOSFETgates.
In order to improve the drive system reliability a connector for motor tem-perature measurement should be implemented. Another cell protection circuitthat is able to protect more cells without using any of the ADC inputs should beimplemented.
46
References
[1] S.S Williamson el al., ”Comprehensive Drive Train Efficiency Analysis of Hy-brid Electric and Fuel Cell Vehicles Based on Motor-Controller Efficiency Mod-eling,” in Transactions on Power Electronics, 2006 , pp. 730-740.
[2] P. Waide and C.U. Brunner, ”Energy-Efficiency Policy Opportunities for Elec-tric Motor-Driven Systems,” International Energy Agency, France, 2011.
[3] D. Hanselman, Brushless Permanent Magnet Motor Design, 2 nd. Ohio:Magna Physics Publishing, 2006.
[4] AN885 - Brushless DC (BLDC) Motor Fundamentals, Microchip TechnologyInc., Chandler, AZ, 2003.
[5] A. Hughes, Electric Motors and Drives, 3 rd. Oxford, Great Britain: Elsevier,2006.
[6] AN1083 - Sensorless BLDC Control With Back-EMF Filtering, MicrochipTechnology Inc., Chandler, AZ, 2007.
[7] N. Mohan, T.M. Undeland, and W.P. Robbins, Power Electronics - Converters,Application and Design, 3 rd. Hoboken: John Wiley and Sons Inc., 2003.
[8] K.A. Coke and S.D. Sudhoff, ”A Hybrid Observer for High Preformance Brush-less DC Motor Drives,” in Transactions on Energy Conversion, 1996, pp. 318-323.
[9] M. Konghirum, ”Automatic Offset Calibration of Quadrature Encoder PulseSensor for Vector Controlled Drive of Permanent Magnet Synchronous Mo-tors,” in TENCON, Melbourne, 2005, pp.1-5.
[10] P. Dwane et al., ”A Resonant High Side Gate Driver for Low Voltage Appli-cations,” in Power Electronics Specialists Conference, Recife, 2005.
[11] Bootstrap Component Selection For Control IC’s, International Rectifier, ElSegundo, CA, 2001.
[12] S. Baldursson, ”BLDC Motor Modelling and Control - A Matlab R©/Simulink R©
Implementation,” M.S. thesis, Dept. Elect. Eng., Chalmers Univ., Gothenburg,Sweden, 2005.
[13] P. Suntharalingam el al., ”Gear Locking Mechanism to Extend the ConsistentPower Operating Region of the Electric Motor to Enhance Acceleration andRegenerative Braking Efficiency in Hybrid Electric Vehicles,” in Vehicle Powerand Propulsion Conference, Dearborn, MI, 2009, pp.103-108.
[14] L. Balogh, ”Design And Application Guide For High Speed MOSFET GateDrive Circuits,” Texas Instruments Inc., 2012.
47
[15] S.A Hossain and P. Reis, ”Effect of BLDC Motor Commutation Schemeson Inverter Power Loss,” in International Conference on Electrical Machines,Vilamoura, 2008, pp. 1-5.
[16] S.A Hossain and R. Pedro, ”Effect of BLDC Motor Commutation Schemes onInverter Capacitor Size Selection,” in International Conference on ElectricalMachines, Rome, 2010, pp. 34-36.
[17] T. Hubing, ”PCB EMC Design Guidelines: A Brief Annotated List,” inInternational Symposium on Electromagnetic Compatibility, 2003. 2003.
[18] S. Muralikrishna and S. Sathyamurthy, ”An Overview of Digital Circuit De-sign and PCB Design Guidelines - An EMC Perspective,” in ElectromagneticInterference and Compatibility, Bangalore, 2008, pp. 567-573.
[19] J.K Park et al., ”Formation of Through Aluminum Via for Noble MetalPCB and Packaging Substrate,” in Electronic Components and TechnologyConference, Lake Buena Vista, FL, 2011, pp. 1787-1790.
[20] Thermal Clad - HT-04503, The Bergquist Company, Chanhassen, MN, 2009.
[21] TMS320F28335 Digital Signal Controllers - Data Manual, Texas InstrumentsInc., 2012.
48
A Calculation of Inverter Output Voltage
A.1 Case 60− 120◦
eb
ec
VnVd
ea
ic = 0
ic ≠ 0 +
Figure A.1: Current path through the three phase inverter for the interval 60−120◦ where the green path represents the current through the active phases and thered path represents the commutating current from the previous switching sequence
ic ib
ea
ebecL LR R
( )
Vd
Vab
D3
L
R
Vn
Figure A.2: Circuit topology for the case 60 − 120◦, where Vbc represents thevoltage over a reversed biased diode
ib 6= 0
Vab = 0 (A.1)
Vbc = Vd (A.2)
Vca = −Vd (A.3)
When ib = 0 Kirchhoff’s voltage law are applied around each mesh in Figure A.2to obtain the three phase-to-phase voltages
− Vd −Ric − Ldicdt− ec + ea − L
d(ic + ib)
dt−R(ic + ib) = 0 (A.4)
− Vab −Rib − Ldibdt− eb + ea − L
d(ic + ib)
dt−R(ic + ib) = 0 (A.5)
49
when ib = 0
− Vd − 2Ri− 2Ldi
dt− ec + ea = 0 (A.6)
− Vab − eb + ea − Ldi
dt−Ri = 0 (A.7)
(A.6) and (A.18) gives
Vab =1
2(Vd + ec + ea − 2eb) (A.8)
so the three phase-to-phase voltages will be
Vab =1
2(Vd + ec + ea − 2eb) (A.9)
Vbc =1
2(Vd − ec − ea + 2eb) (A.10)
Vca = −Vd (A.11)
50
A.2 Case 120− 180◦
eb
ec
VnVd
ea
ic = 0
ic ≠ 0 +
Figure A.3: Current path through the three phase inverter for the interval 120−180◦ where the green path represents the current through the active phases and thered path represents the commutating current from the previous switching sequence
ib ia
ec
eaebL LR R
( )Vd
Vca
D2
L
R
Vn
Figure A.4: Circuit topology for the case 120 − 180◦, where Vbc represents thevoltage over a reversed biased diode
ia 6= 0
Vab = −Vd (A.12)
Vbc = Vd (A.13)
Vca = 0 (A.14)
When ia = 0 Kirchhoff’s voltage law are applied around each mesh in Figure A.4to obtain the three phase-to-phase voltages
Vd −Rib − Ldibdt− eb + ec − L
d(ib + ia)
dt−R(ib + ia) = 0 (A.15)
− Vca −Ria − Ldiadt− ea + ec − L
d(ib + ia)
dt−R(ib + ia) = 0 (A.16)
51
when ia = 0
Vd − 2Ri− 2Ldi
dt− eb + ec = 0 (A.17)
− Vca − ea + ec − Ldi
dt−Ri = 0 (A.18)
(A.17) and (A.18) gives
Vca =1
2(−Vd + eb + ec − 2ea) (A.19)
so the three phase-to-phase voltages will be
Vab =1
2(−Vd − eb − ec + 2ea) (A.20)
Vbc = Vd (A.21)
Vca =1
2(−Vd + eb + ec − 2ea) (A.22)
52
A.3 Case 180− 240◦
eb
ec
VnVd
ea
ic = 0
ic ≠ 0 +
Figure A.5: 1Current path through the three phase inverter for the interval180− 240◦ where the green path represents the current through the active phasesand the red path represents the commutating current from the previous switchingsequence
ia ic
eb
eceaL LR R
( )Vd
Vbc
D5
L
R
Vn
Figure A.6: Circuit topology for the case 180 − 240◦, where Vbc represents thevoltage over a reversed biased diode
ic 6= 0
Vab = −Vd (A.23)
Vbc = 0 (A.24)
Vca = Vd (A.25)
When ic = 0 Kirchhoff’s voltage law are applied around each mesh in Figure A.6to obtain the three phase-to-phase voltages
− Vd −Ria − Ldiadt− ea + eb − L
d(ia + ic)
dt−R(ia + ic) = 0 (A.26)
− Vbc −Ric − Ldicdt− ec + eb − L
d(ia + ic)
dt−R(ia + ic) = 0 (A.27)
53
when ic = 0
− Vd − 2Ri− 2Ldi
dt− ea + eb = 0 (A.28)
− Vbc − ec + eb − Ldi
dt−Ri = 0 (A.29)
(A.28) and (A.29) gives
Vbc =1
2(Vd + ea + eb − 2ec) (A.30)
so the three phase-to-phase voltages will be
Vab = −Vd (A.31)
Vbc =1
2(Vd + ea + eb − 2ec) (A.32)
Vca =1
2(Vd − ea − eb + 2ec) (A.33)
54
A.4 Case 240− 300◦
eb
ec
VnVd
ea
ic = 0
ic ≠ 0 +
Figure A.7: Current path through the three phase inverter for the interval 240−300◦ where the green path represents the current through the active phases and thered path represents the commutating current from the previous switching sequence
ic ib
ea
ebecL LR R
( )Vd
Vab
D4
L
R
Vn
Figure A.8: Circuit topology for the case 240 − 300◦, where Vbc represents thevoltage over a reversed biased diode
ib 6= 0
Vab = 0 (A.34)
Vbc = −Vd (A.35)
Vca = Vd (A.36)
When ib = 0 Kirchhoff’s voltage law are applied around each mesh in Figure A.8to obtain the three phase-to-phase voltages
Vd −Ric − Ldicdt− ec + ea − L
d(ic + ib)
dt−R(ic + ib) = 0 (A.37)
− Vab −Rib − Ldibdt− eb + ea − L
d(ic + ib)
dt−R(ic + ib) = 0 (A.38)
55
when ib = 0
Vd − 2Ri− 2Ldi
dt− ec + ea = 0 (A.39)
− Vab − eb + ea − Ldi
dt−Ri = 0 (A.40)
(A.39) and (A.40) gives
Vab =1
2(−Vd + ec + ea − 2eb) (A.41)
so the three phase-to-phase voltages will be
Vab =1
2(−Vd + ec + ea − 2eb) (A.42)
Vbc =1
2(−Vd − ec − ea + 2eb) (A.43)
Vca = Vd (A.44)
56
A.5 Case 300− 360◦
eb
ec
VnVd
ea
ic = 0
ic ≠ 0 +
Figure A.9: Current path through the three phase inverter for the interval 300−360◦ where the green path represents the current through the active phases and thered path represents the commutating current from the previous switching sequence
ib ia
ec
eaebL LR R
( )
Vd
Vca
D1
L
R
Vn
Figure A.10: Circuit topology for the case 300 − 360◦, where Vbc represents thevoltage over a reversed biased diode
ia 6= 0
Vab = Vd (A.45)
Vbc = −Vd (A.46)
Vca = 0 (A.47)
When ia = 0 Kirchhoff’s voltage law are applied around each mesh in Figure A.10to obtain the three phase-to-phase voltages
− Vd −Rib − Ldibdt− eb + ec − L
d(ib + ia)
dt−R(ib + ia) = 0 (A.48)
− Vca −Ria − Ldiadt− ea + ec − L
d(ib + ia)
dt−R(ib + ia) = 0 (A.49)
57
when ia = 0
− Vd − 2Ri− 2Ldi
dt− eb + ec = 0 (A.50)
− Vca − ea + ec − Ldi
dt−Ri = 0 (A.51)
(A.50) and (A.51) gives
Vca =1
2(Vd + eb + ec − 2ea) (A.52)
so the three phase-to-phase voltages will be
Vab =1
2(Vd − eb − ec + 2ea) (A.53)
Vbc = −Vd (A.54)
Vca =1
2(Vd + eb + ec − 2ea) (A.55)
58
B Control PCB Schematic
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dN
icla
s och
Phi
lip
EM P
art N
umbe
r
EM R
evis
ion
-
1A
SVN
Rev
isio
nN
ot in
ver
sion
con
trol
CEL
L_V
OLT
AG
E_6
CEL
L_V
OLT
AG
E_5
CEL
L_V
OLT
AG
E_4
CEL
L_V
OLT
AG
E_3
CEL
L_V
OLT
AG
E_2
CEL
L_V
OLT
AG
E_1
Cel
l_V
olta
ge
Cel
l_V
olta
ge
Bat
t_6
Bat
t_7
Bat
t_5
Bat
t_4
Bat
t_3
Bat
t_2
23IN
+
IN-
1+ - 114
LM32
4PW
RIC
17A
65IN
+
IN-
7LM
324P
WR
IC17
B
910IN
+
IN-
8LM
324P
WR
IC17
C
1312IN
+
IN-
14LM
324P
WR
IC17
D
10k06
03R
91
6K2
0603
R94
23IN
+
IN-
1+ - 48
LM29
04PW
RIC
18A
65IN
+
IN-
7LM
2904
PWR
IC18
B
6K2
0603R93
10k
0603
R92
DG
ND
V_B
att
V_B
att
V_B
att
DG
ND
DG
ND
10k06
03R
95
6K2
0603R97
DG
ND
6K2
0603
R98
10k
0603
R96
10k06
03R
99
6K2
0603R10
1
DG
ND
10k
0603
R10
0
6K2
0603
R10
2
10k06
03R
103
6K2
0603R10
5
DG
ND
10k
0603
R10
4
6K2
0603
R10
6 V_B
att
10k06
03R
107
6K2
0603R10
9
10k
0603
R10
8
DG
ND
6K2
0603
R11
0
10k06
03R
111
6K2
0603R11
3
10k
0603
R11
2
DG
ND
6K2
0603
R11
4
Gai
n =
0.62
Gai
n =
0.62
Gai
n =
0.62
Gai
n =
0.62
Gai
n =
0.62
Gai
n =
0.62
100n
16V
0603C67
100n
16V
0603C81
470p
50V
0603
C68
470p
50V
0603
C78
470p
50V
0603
C79
470p
50V
0603
C80
470p
50V
0603
C82
470p
50V
0603
C83
Bat
t_1
Cel
l 1
Cel
l 2
Cel
l 3
Cel
l 4
Cel
l 5
Cel
l 6TP .
TP37
TP .
TP39
TP .
TP41
TP .
TP43
TP .
TP45
TP .
TP47
TP .
TP49
TP .
TP48
TP .
TP46
TP .
TP44
TP .
TP42
TP .
TP40
TP .
TP38
470p
50V
0603
C47
470p
50V
0603
C48
470p
50V
0603
C84
470p
50V
0603
C85
470p
50V
0603
C86
470p
50V
0603
C87
PIC4701
PIC4702
COC47
PIC4801
PIC4802
COC48
PIC6701
PIC6702
COC67
PIC6801 PIC6802
COC68
PIC7801 PIC7802
COC78
PIC7901 PIC7902COC79
PIC8001 PIC8002COC80
PIC8101
PIC8102
COC81
PIC8201 PIC8202COC82
PIC8301 PIC8302COC83
PIC8401
PIC8402
COC84
PIC8501
PIC8502
COC85
PIC8601
PIC8602
COC86
PIC8701
PIC8702
COC87
PIIC1701
PIIC1702
PIIC1703
PIIC1704 PIIC17011
COIC
17A
PIIC1705
PIIC1706
PIIC1707CO
IC17
B
PIIC1708
PIIC1709
PIIC
1701
0CO
IC17
C
PIIC
1701
2
PIIC
1701
3
PIIC
1701
4COIC
17D
PIIC1801
PIIC1802
PIIC
1803
PIIC1804PIIC1808CO
IC18
A
PIIC1805
PIIC
1806
PIIC
1807CO
IC18
B
PIR910
1PIR
9102
COR91
PIR920
1PIR
9202
COR92
PIR9301PIR9302COR93
PIR940
1PIR
9402
COR94
PIR950
1PIR
9502
COR95
PIR960
1PIR
9602
COR96
PIR9701PIR9702COR97
PIR980
1PIR
9802
COR98
PIR990
1PIR
9902
COR99
PIR100
01PIR
10002
COR1
00
PIR10101PIR10102CO
R101
PIR102
01PIR
10202
COR1
02
PIR103
01PIR
10302
COR1
03
PIR104
01PIR
10402
COR1
04
PIR10501PIR10502CO
R105
PIR106
01PIR
10602
COR1
06
PIR10701
PIR10702
COR1
07
PIR108
01PIR
10802
COR1
08
PIR10901PIR10902CO
R109
PIR11001
PIR11002
COR1
10
PIR111
01PIR
11102
COR1
11
PIR11201
PIR11202
COR1
12
PIR11301
PIR11302 CO
R113
PIR114
01PIR
11402
COR1
14
PITP3701
COTP
37
PITP3801
COTP
38
PITP3901
COTP
39
PITP4001
COTP
40
PITP4101
COTP
41
PITP4201
COTP
42
PITP4301
COTP
43
PITP4401
COTP
44
PITP4501
COTP
45
PITP4601
COTP
46
PITP4701
COTP
47
PITP4801
COTP
48
PITP4901
COTP
49
PIR11201
PITP4901
POBatt01
PIR108
01
PIR111
01
PITP4701
POBatt02
PIR104
01
PIR10701
PITP4501
POBatt03
PIR100
01
PIR103
01
PITP4301
POBatt04
PIR960
1
PIR990
1
PITP4101
POBatt05
PIR920
1
PIR950
1
PITP3901
POBatt06
PIR910
1PITP370
1POBatt07
PIC6701
PIC6802 PIC7802 PIC7902 PIC8002
PIC8101
PIC8202 PIC8302
PIIC17011 PIIC1804
PIR9301
PIR9701
PIR10101
PIR10501
PIR10901
PIR11301
PODGND
PIC4701PIIC1701
PIR940
2
PITP3801
POCell0Voltage
PIC4702
PIIC1702
PIR920
2
PIR940
1
PIC4801PIIC1707
PIR980
2
PITP4001
POCell0Voltage
PIC4802
PIIC1706
PIR960
2
PIR980
1
PIC6801PIIC1703
PIR910
2
PIR9302
PIC7801PIIC1705
PIR950
2
PIR9702
PIC7901PI
IC17
010
PIR990
2
PIR10102
PIC8001PI
IC17
012
PIR103
02
PIR10502
PIC8201PIIC
1803
PIR10702
PIR10902
PIC8301PIIC1805
PIR111
02
PIR11302
PIC8401PIIC1708
PIR102
02
PITP4201
POCell0Voltage
PIC8402
PIIC1709
PIR100
02
PIR102
01
PIC8501PIIC
1701
4
PIR106
02
PITP4401
POCell0Voltage
PIC8502
PIIC
1701
3PIR
10402
PIR106
01
PIC8601PIIC1801
PIR11002
PITP4601
POCell0Voltage
PIC8602
PIIC1802
PIR108
02
PIR11001
PIC8701PIIC
1807
PIR114
02
PITP4801
POCell0Voltage
PIC8702
PIIC
1806
PIR11202
PIR114
01
PIC6702
PIC8102
PIIC1704 PIIC1808
POV0Batt
POBATT01
POBATT02
POBATT03
POBATT04
POBATT05
POBATT06
POBATT07
POCELL0VOLTAGE
POCELL
0VOLTA
GE0CEL
L0VOLT
AGE01
POCELL
0VOLTA
GE0CEL
L0VOLT
AGE02
POCELL
0VOLTA
GE0CEL
L0VOLT
AGE03
POCELL
0VOLTA
GE0CEL
L0VOLT
AGE04
POCELL
0VOLTA
GE0CEL
L0VOLT
AGE05
POCELL
0VOLTA
GE0CEL
L0VOLT
AGE06
PODGND
POV0BATT
62
11
22
33
44
DD
CC
BB
AA
5
QR
TEC
H A
BSW
ED
EN
12
Con
trol
PC
B
-
LE
D
Part
Title
Part
Num
ber
Shee
t Nam
e
Layo
ut R
evis
ion
of
BOM
Rev
isio
nEA
1000
0BO
M V
aria
ntV
aria
nt n
ame
not i
nter
pret
edRe
vise
d B
y*
Shee
t
This
docu
men
t is t
he p
rope
rty o
f QR
TEC
H a
nd m
ust
not b
e re
prod
uced
in a
ny fo
rm o
r dist
ribut
ed to
third
party
with
out t
he w
ritte
n co
nsen
t of Q
RTE
CH
AB
Crea
ted
By
2013
-06-
2808
:23:
36Re
vise
dN
icla
s och
Phi
lip
EM P
art N
umbe
r
EM R
evis
ion
-
1A
SVN
Rev
isio
nN
ot in
ver
sion
con
trol
DG
ND
DG
ND
LED
_1LE
D_2
4k7
0603R14
8
DG
ND
4k7
0603R14
9
VC
C_3
V3
12
Gre
en2.
2V
D2
1k0603R12
12
Red
2VD3
1k0603R13
2
1
3
2N7002K-T1-E3IC13
2
1
3
2N7002K-T1-E3IC12
VC
C_3
V3
VC
C_3
V3
VC
C_3
V3
100R
0603
R88
100R
0603
R11
5
PID201PID202COD2
PID301PID302COD
3
PIIC1201
PIIC1202PIIC1203COIC12
PIIC1301
PIIC1302PIIC1303COIC13
PIR1201PIR1202COR12
PIR1301PIR1302COR13
PIR880
1PIR
8802
COR88
PIR115
01PIR
11502
COR1
15
PIR14801PIR14802CO
R148
PIR14901
PIR14902 CO
R149
PIIC1202PIIC1302
PIR14801
PIR14901
PODGND
PIR115
01POLED01
PIR880
1POLED02
PID201 PIIC1203PID202PIR1201
PID301 PIIC1303PID302PIR1301
PIIC1201
PIR880
2
PIR14802
PIIC1301
PIR115
02 PIR14902
PIR1202PIR1302
POVCC03V3
PODGND
POLED01
POLED02
POVCC03V3
63
11
22
33
44
DD
CC
BB
AA
6
QR
TEC
H A
BSW
ED
EN
12
Con
trol
PC
B
-
Enc
oder
Part
Title
Part
Num
ber
Shee
t Nam
e
Layo
ut R
evis
ion
of
BOM
Rev
isio
nEA
1000
0BO
M V
aria
ntV
aria
nt n
ame
not i
nter
pret
edRe
vise
d B
y*
Shee
t
This
docu
men
t is t
he p
rope
rty o
f QR
TEC
H a
nd m
ust
not b
e re
prod
uced
in a
ny fo
rm o
r dist
ribut
ed to
third
party
with
out t
he w
ritte
n co
nsen
t of Q
RTE
CH
AB
Crea
ted
By
2013
-06-
2808
:23:
36Re
vise
dN
icla
s och
Phi
lip
EM P
art N
umbe
r
EM R
evis
ion
-
1A
SVN
Rev
isio
nN
ot in
ver
sion
con
trol
DG
ND
VC
C_5
V
DG
ND
ENC
_A
ENC
_I
A B I
B82
789S
223N
2
4
12
3
L1
ENC
_A
ENC
_I
B82
789S
223N
24
12
3
L2EN
C_B
ENC
_B
B82
789S
223N
2
4
12
3
L3
23IN
+
IN-
1+ - 114
LMV
344I
PWR
IC3A
65IN
+
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7LM
V34
4IPW
RIC
3B
910IN
+
IN-
8LM
V34
4IPW
RIC
3C
DG
ND 10
k06
03R
45
10k
0603
R58
10k
0603
R49
10k
0603
R56
10k
0603
R48
10k
0603
R44
10k
0603
R43
10k
0603
R47
10k
0603
R55
10k
0603R54
10k
0603R41
10k
0603R46
DG
ND
DG
ND
DG
ND
VC
C_5
V
100n
16V
0603
C41VC
C_5
V
TP .
TP14
TP .
TP13
TP .
TP12
TP .
TP31
TP .
TP32
TP .
TP33
TP .
TP34
TP .
TP35
TP .
TP36
B82
789S
223N
2
4
12
3
L9
DG
ND
DG
ND
_EN
C
VC
C_5
V_E
NC
VC
C_5
V
PIC4101 PIC4102
COC41
PIIC301
PIIC302
PIIC303
PIIC304 PIIC3011
COIC
3A
PIIC305
PIIC306
PIIC307
COIC
3B
PIIC308
PIIC309
PIIC3010
COIC
3C
PIL101PIL102PIL103 PIL104
COL1
PIL201PIL202PIL203 PIL204
COL2
PIL301PIL302PIL303 PIL304
COL3
PIL901PIL902PIL903 PIL904
COL9
PIR4101PIR4102 CO
R41
PIR430
1PIR
4302
COR43 PIR
4401
PIR440
2COR44
PIR450
1PIR
4502
COR45
PIR4601PIR4602 CO
R46
PIR470
1PIR
4702
COR47 PIR
4801
PIR480
2COR48
PIR490
1PIR
4902
COR49
PIR5401PIR5402 CO
R54
PIR550
1PIR
5502
COR55 PIR
5601
PIR560
2COR56
PIR580
1PIR
5802
COR58
PITP1201
COTP
12
PITP1301
COTP
13
PITP1401
COTP
14
PITP3101
COTP
31
PITP3201
COTP
32
PITP3301
COTP
33
PITP3401
COTP
34
PITP3501
COTP
35
PITP3601
COTP
36
PIIC301
PIR450
2
PITP1201
POA
PIIC307
PIR490
2
PITP1301
POB
PIC4102
PIIC3011
PIL904
PIR4102
PIR4602
PIR5402
PODGND
PIL901PODGND0ENC
PIL103PITP310
1POENC0A
PIL104PITP320
1POENC0A\
PIL203PITP330
1POENC0B
PIL204PITP340
1POENC0B\
PIL303PITP350
1POENC0I
PIL304PITP360
1POENC0I\
PIIC308
PIR580
2
PITP1401
POI
PIIC302
PIR440
2
PIR450
1
PIIC303
PIR4101
PIR430
2
PIIC305
PIR4601
PIR470
2
PIIC306
PIR480
2
PIR490
1
PIIC309
PIR560
2
PIR580
1
PIIC3010
PIR5401
PIR550
2
PIL101PIR
4401
PIL102PIR
4301
PIL201PIR
4801
PIL202PIR
4701
PIL301PIR
5601
PIL302PIR
5501
PIC4101PIIC304
PIL903
POVCC05V
PIL902POVCC05V0ENC
POA
POB
PODGND
PODGND0ENC
POENC0A
POENC0A\
POENC0B
POENC0B\
POENC0I
POENC0I\
POI
POVCC05V
POVCC05V0ENC
64
11
22
33
44
55
66
77
88
DD
CC
BB
AA
7
QRT
EC
H A
BSW
EDE
N
12
Con
trol
PC
B
*
DSP
Part
Title
Part
Num
ber
Shee
t Nam
e
Layo
ut R
evisi
on
of
BOM
Rev
ision
EA10
000
BOM
Var
iant
Var
iant
nam
e no
t int
erpr
eted
Revi
sed
By*
Shee
t
This
docu
men
t is t
he p
rope
rty o
f QR
TEC
H a
nd m
ust
not b
e re
prod
uced
in a
ny fo
rm o
r dist
ribut
ed to
third
party
with
out t
he w
ritte
n co
nsen
t of Q
RTE
CH
AB
Crea
ted
By20
13-0
6-28
08:2
3:36
Revi
sed
Nic
las o
ch P
hilip
EM P
art N
umbe
r
EM R
evisi
onPa
rtNum
ber
1A
SVN
Rev
ision
Not
in v
ersi
on c
ontro
l
PSC
WD
IPS
C P
FOPS
C R
ESET
Pow
er S
tatu
s
Pow
er S
tatu
s
AG
ND
AG
ND
DG
ND
AG
ND
DG
ND
DG
ND
DG
ND
DG
ND
AG
ND
AG
ND
AG
ND
I-M
EAS
ENC
-AEN
C-B
100n
16V
0603C
29
100n
16V
0603C
7110
0n16
V
0603C
30
100n
16V
0603C
72
100n
16V
0603C
18
100n
16V
0603C
3110
0n16
V
0603C
19
100n
16V
0603C
3310
0n16
V
0603C
20
100n
16V
0603C
3410
0n16
V
0603C
21
100n
16V
0603C
3610
0n16
V
0603C
22
100n
16V
0603C
3710
0n16
V
0603C
23
100n
16V
0603C
5110
0n16
V
0603C
2410
0n16
V
0603C
25
100n
16V
0603C
5210
0n16
V
0603C
26
100n
16V
0603C
5310
0n16
V
0603C
27
100n
16V
0603C
5410
0n16
V
0603C
28
100n
16V
0603C
6110
0n16
V
0603C
62
1k06
03R
591k
0603
R11
9
2k2
0603R39
2k2
0603R40
2k2
0603R42
2k2
0603
R38
22k
0603
R37
2u2F
16V
0805
C93
2u2F
16V
0805
C94
33p
50V
0603C92
33p
50V
0603C95
ENC
_A_I
NEN
C-A
ENC
_I_I
NEN
C-I
ENC
_B_I
NEN
C-B
100R
0603
R11
8
100R
0603
R12
0
100R
0603
R57
EMU
1TR
STn
TMS
TDI
TDO
TCK
EMU
0
9527
8-10
1A14
LF
32
14
56
98
710
1112
1314
J2
TRST
n
EMU
1
TMS
TDI
TDO
TCK
EMU
0
DG
ND
Ch_
1-ex
tC
h_1_
ext
10k
0603
R14
1
100n
16V
0603C
109
AG
ND
Cut
off f
requ
ency
159
Hz
PWM
_H_A
PWM
_L_A
PWM
_H_B
PWM
_L_B
PWM
_H_C
PWM
_L_C
LED
_1LE
D_2
VC
C_3
V3
DG
ND
DG
ND
VC
C_1
V9
VC
CA
_3V
3
VC
CA
_1V
9
AG
ND
AG
ND
VC
C_1
V9
VC
C_1
V9
VC
C_3
V3
VC
C_3
V3
VC
C_3
V3
VC
C_3
V3
VC
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Cut
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Cut
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Cut
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Cut
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TEM
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Cut
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Ch_
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DIS
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GPI
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134
GPI
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135
GPI
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136
GPI
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XC
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VDD139
VSS 140
GPI
O28
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GPI
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VDDIO143 VSS 144
GPI
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VDD146
VSS 147
GPI
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XRD
149
GPI
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150
GPI
O40
151
GPI
O41
152
GPI
O42
153
VDD154
VSS 155
GPI
O43
156
GPI
O44
157
GPI
O45
158
GPI
O46
161
GPI
O47
162
GPI
O80
163
GPI
O81
164
GPI
O82
165
GPI
O83
168
GPI
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169
GPI
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GPI
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GPI
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GPI
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VDDIO159
VSS 160
VSS 166
VDD167
VDDIO170
VSS 171GPI
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25
GPI
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26
GPI
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27
GPI
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28
AD
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DC
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636
AD
CIN
A5
37A
DC
INA
438
AD
CIN
A3
39A
DC
INA
240
AD
CIN
A1
41A
DC
INA
042
VSS 3
VSS 8
VSS 14
VSS 22
VSS 30
VDD4
VDD15
VDD23
VDD29
VDDIO9
VDD1A1831
VSS1AGND 32
VSSA2 33
VDDA234
AD
CLO
43
VSSAIO 44
VDDAIO45
AD
CIN
B0
46
AD
CIN
B1
47
AD
CIN
B2
48
AD
CIN
B3
49
AD
CIN
B4
50
AD
CIN
B5
51
AD
CIN
B6
52
AD
CIN
B7
53
AD
CR
EFIN
54
AD
CR
EFM
55A
DC
REF
P56
AD
CR
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T57
VSS2AGND 58VDD2A1859
VSS 60
VDD61
GPI
O18
62
GPI
O19
63
GPI
O20
64
GPI
O21
65
GPI
O22
66
GPI
O23
67
GPI
O24
68
GPI
O25
69
GPI
O26
72
GPI
O27
73
GPI
O32
74
GPI
O33
75
VSS 70
VDDIO71
TDI
76
TDO
77
TRST
78
TMS
79
XR
S80
TEST
181
TEST
282
VSS 83
VDD3VFL84
EMU
085
EMU
186
TCK
87
GPI
O48
88
GPI
O49
89
GPI
O50
90
GPI
O51
91
GPI
O52
94
GPI
O53
95
GPI
O54
96
GPI
O55
97
GPI
O56
98
GPI
O57
99
GPI
O58
100
GPI
O59
110
GPI
O60
111
GPI
O61
112
GPI
O62
113
GPI
O63
114
GPI
O64
115
GPI
O65
116
GPI
O66
119
GPI
O67
122
GPI
O68
123
GPI
O69
124
GPI
O70
127
GPI
O71
128
GPI
O72
129
GPI
O73
130
GPI
O74
131
GPI
O75
132
VSS 92
VDDIO93
VDD101
VSS 103
VSS 106
VDDIO107
VSS 108
VDD109
VDD117
VSS 118
VSS 120
VDDIO121
VSS 125
VDD126
X2
102
X1
104
XC
LKIN
105
VSS 177
IC7
PIC1801 PIC1802COC18
PIC1901 PIC1902COC19
PIC2001 PIC2002COC20
PIC2101 PIC2102COC21
PIC2201 PIC2202COC22
PIC2301 PIC2302COC23
PIC2401 PIC2402COC24
PIC2501 PIC2502COC25
PIC2601 PIC2602COC26
PIC2701 PIC2702COC27
PIC2801 PIC2802COC28
PIC2901 PIC2902COC29
PIC3001 PIC3002COC30
PIC3101 PIC3102COC31
PIC3301 PIC3302COC33
PIC3401 PIC3402COC34
PIC3601 PIC3602COC36
PIC3701 PIC3702COC37
PIC4001 PIC4002COC40
PIC5101 PIC5102COC51
PIC5201 PIC5202COC52
PIC5301 PIC5302COC53
PIC5401 PIC5402COC54
PIC6101 PIC6102COC61
PIC6201 PIC6202COC62
PIC7101 PIC7102COC
71PIC7201 PIC7202
COC72
PIC8901 PIC8902COC89
PIC9001 PIC9002COC90
PIC9101 PIC9102COC91
PIC920
1PIC
9202
COC92
PIC9
301
PIC9
302
COC93
PIC9
401
PIC9
402
COC94
PIC9
501
PIC9
502
COC95
PIC9601 PIC9602COC96
PIC9701 PIC9702COC97
PIC9801 PIC9802COC98
PIC9901 PIC9902COC99
PIC10901 PIC10902COC109
PIC11001 PIC11002COC110
PIIC701
PIIC702
PIIC703
PIIC704
PIIC705
PIIC706
PIIC707
PIIC708
PIIC709
PIIC
7010
PIIC
7011
PIIC
7012
PIIC
7013
PIIC7014
PIIC7015
PIIC
7016
PIIC
7017
PIIC
7018
PIIC
7019
PIIC
7020
PIIC
7021
PIIC7022
PIIC7023
PIIC
7024
PIIC
7025
PIIC
7026
PIIC
7027
PIIC
7028
PIIC7029
PIIC7030
PIIC7031 PIIC7032PIIC7033
PIIC7034
PIIC
7035
PIIC
7036
PIIC
7037
PIIC
7038
PIIC
7039
PIIC
7040
PIIC
7041
PIIC
7042
PIIC
7043
PIIC7044
PIIC7045
PIIC
7046
PIIC
7047
PIIC
7048
PIIC
7049
PIIC
7050
PIIC
7051
PIIC
7052
PIIC
7053
PIIC
7054
PIIC
7055
PIIC
7056
PIIC
7057
PIIC7058PIIC7059
PIIC7060
PIIC7061
PIIC
7062
PIIC
7063
PIIC
7064
PIIC
7065
PIIC
7066
PIIC
7067
PIIC
7068
PIIC
7069
PIIC7070
PIIC7071
PIIC
7072
PIIC
7073
PIIC
7074
PIIC
7075
PIIC
7076
PIIC
7077
PIIC
7078
PIIC
7079
PIIC
7080
PIIC
7081
PIIC
7082
PIIC7083
PIIC7084
PIIC
7085
PIIC
7086
PIIC
7087
PIIC
7088
PIIC
7089
PIIC
7090
PIIC
7091
PIIC7092
PIIC7093
PIIC
7094
PIIC
7095
PIIC
7096
PIIC
7097
PIIC
7098
PIIC
7099
PIIC70100
PIIC70101
PIIC70102
PIIC70103
PIIC70104
PIIC70105
PIIC70106
PIIC70107
PIIC70108
PIIC70109
PIIC70110
PIIC70111
PIIC70112
PIIC70113
PIIC70114
PIIC70115
PIIC70116
PIIC70117
PIIC70118
PIIC70119
PIIC70120
PIIC70121
PIIC70122
PIIC70123
PIIC70124
PIIC70125
PIIC70126
PIIC70127
PIIC70128
PIIC70129
PIIC70130
PIIC70131
PIIC70132
PIIC70133
PIIC70134
PIIC70135
PIIC70136
PIIC70137
PIIC70138
PIIC70139
PIIC70140
PIIC70141
PIIC70142
PIIC70143 PIIC70144
PIIC70145
PIIC70146
PIIC70147
PIIC70148
PIIC70149
PIIC70150
PIIC70151
PIIC70152
PIIC70153
PIIC70154
PIIC70155
PIIC70156
PIIC70157
PIIC70158
PIIC70159 PIIC70160
PIIC70161
PIIC70162
PIIC70163
PIIC70164
PIIC70165
PIIC70166
PIIC70167
PIIC70168
PIIC70169
PIIC70170
PIIC70171
PIIC70172
PIIC70173
PIIC70174
PIIC70175
PIIC70176
PIIC70177
COIC7
PIJ201
PIJ2
02
PIJ203
PIJ2
04
PIJ205
PIJ2
06
PIJ207
PIJ2
08
PIJ209
PIJ2
010
PIJ2
011
PIJ2
012
PIJ2
013
PIJ2
014
COJ2
PIR140
1PIR
1402
COR14
PIR150
1PIR
1502
COR15
PIR160
1PIR
1602
COR16
PIR170
1PIR
1702
COR17
PIR180
1PIR
1802
COR18
PIR200
1PIR
2002
COR20
PIR370
1PIR
3702
COR37
PIR380
1PIR
3802
COR38
PIR3901
PIR3902 CO
R39 PIR40
01
PIR4002 CO
R40
PIR4201PIR4202COR42
PIR570
1PIR
5702
COR57
PIR590
1PIR
5902
COR59
PIR118
01PIR
11802
COR118
PIR119
01PIR
11902
COR119
PIR120
01PIR
12002
COR120
PIR124
01PIR
12402
COR124
PIR125
01PIR
12502
COR125PIR141
01PIR
14102
COR141PIR142
01PIR
14202
COR142
PITP30
1COTP3
PITP60
1COTP6
PITP90
1COTP9
PIX101 PIX103
COX1
PIC2902PIC3002
PIC4002
PIC7102PIC7202
PIC8902
PIC9002PIC9102
PIC920
2
PIC9
301
PIC9
401
PIC9
502
PIC9602 PIC9702
PIC9802PIC9902
PIC10902PIC11002
PIIC7032PIIC7033
PIIC
7043
PIIC7044PIIC7058
PIR370
1
PIR380
2
POAGND
PIC8901
PIIC
7038
PIR140
2 PIC9101
PIIC
7037
PIR160
2 PIC9601
PIIC
7036
PIR180
2
PIR140
1POBEMF0A
PIR160
1POBEMF0B
PIR180
1POBEMF0C
PIC10901
PIIC
7052
PIR141
02PIR
14101
POCh010ext
PIC9801
PIIC
7053
PIR125
02PIR
12501
POCh030ext
PIC1802PIC1902
PIC2002PIC2102
PIC2202PIC2302
PIC2402PIC2502
PIC2602PIC2702
PIC2802
PIC3102PIC3302
PIC3402PIC3602
PIC3702PIC5102
PIC5202PIC5302
PIC5402PIC6102
PIC6202
PIIC703PIIC708PIIC7014
PIIC7022PIIC7030PIIC7
060PIIC7070PIIC7083PIIC
7092PIIC70103PIIC70106PIIC
70108PIIC70118PIIC70120
PIIC70125PIIC70140PIIC7014
4PIIC70147PIIC70155PIIC
70160PIIC70166PIIC70171
PIIC70177
PIJ2
04
PIJ2
08
PIJ2
010
PIJ2
012
PIR4201
PODGND
PIIC
7073
PODISABLE0OUT
PIIC
7085
PIJ2
013
PIR4001
PIIC
7086
PIJ2
014
PIR3901
PIIC
7064
PIR118
02
PIIC
7065
PIR120
02
PIIC
7067
PIR570
2
PIR118
01POENC0A0IN
PIR120
01POENC0B0IN
PIR570
1POENC0I0IN
PIC9901
PIIC
7042
PIR124
02
PIIC
7021
POI\0\T\R\I\P\0DSP
PIR124
01POI0MEAS0IN
PIIC70133
POLED01
PIIC70134
POLED02
PIC920
1
PIIC70104
PIX101
PIC9
302
PIIC
7056
PIC9
402
PIIC
7055
PIC9
501
PIIC70102
PIX103
PIIC
7013
PIIC
7016
PIIC
7017
PITP60
1
PIIC
7018
PITP30
1
PIIC
7019
PIR119
01
PIIC
7020
POPower Status
PIIC
7024
PIIC
7025
PIIC
7026
PIIC
7027
PIIC
7028
PIIC
7046
POCell0Voltage
PIIC
7047
POCell0Voltage
PIIC
7048
POCell0Voltage
PIIC
7049
POCell0Voltage
PIIC
7050
POCell0Voltage
PIIC
7051
POCell0Voltage
PIIC
7057
PIR370
2
PIIC
7062
PITP90
1
PIIC
7063
PIIC
7066
PIIC
7068
PIIC
7069
PIIC
7074
PIIC
7075
PIIC
7080
PIR590
1
PIIC
7081
PIIC
7082
PIIC
7088
PIIC
7089
PIIC
7090
PIIC
7091
PIIC
7094
PIIC
7095
PIIC
7096
PIIC
7097
PIIC
7098
PIIC
7099
PIIC70100
PIIC70105
PIR380
1
PIIC70110
PIIC70111
PIIC70112
PIIC70113
PIIC70114
PIIC70115
PIIC70116
PIIC70119
PIIC70122
PIIC70123
PIIC70124
PIIC70127
PIIC70128
PIIC70129
PIIC70130
PIIC70131
PIIC70132
PIIC70135
PIIC70136
PIIC70137
PIIC70138
PIIC70141
PIIC70142
PIIC70145
PIIC70148
PIIC70149
PIIC70150
PIIC70151
PIIC70152
PIIC70153
PIIC70156
PIIC70157
PIIC70158
PIIC70161
PIIC70162
PIIC70163
PIIC70164
PIIC70165
PIIC70168
PIIC70169
PIIC70172
PIIC70173
PIIC70174
PIIC70175
PIJ2
06
PIR590
2
POPower Status
PIR119
02POPower Status
PIIC
7072
POON0OFF
PIIC705
POPWM0H0A
PIIC707
POPWM0H0B
PIIC
7011
POPWM0H0C
PIIC706
POPWM0L0A
PIIC
7010
POPWM0L0B
PIIC
7012
POPWM0L0C
PIC11001
PIIC
7041
PIR142
02PIR
14201
PORadio0ref
PIIC
7087
PIJ209
PIJ2
011
PIIC
7076
PIJ203
PIIC
7077
PIJ207
PIC4001
PIIC
7039
PIR150
2PIR
1501
POTEMP0NTC
PIIC
7079
PIJ201
PIC9001
PIIC
7040
PIR170
2PIR
1701
POTorque0ref
PIIC
7078
PIJ2
02
PIR4202
PIC1801PIC1901
PIC2001PIC2101
PIC2201PIC2301
PIC2401
PIC3101PIC3301
PIC3401PIC3601
PIC3701PIC5101
PIIC704PIIC7015PIIC7023
PIIC7029PIIC7061PIIC70101
PIIC70109PIIC70117PIIC7
0126PIIC70139PIIC70146PIIC
70154PIIC70167
POVCC01V9
PIC2501PIC2601
PIC2701PIC2801
PIC5201PIC5301
PIC5401PIC6101
PIC6201
PIIC709PIIC7071
PIIC7084PIIC7093PIIC
70107PIIC70121PIIC70143
PIIC70159PIIC70170
PIJ205
PIR3902
PIR4002
POVCC03V3
PIC2901
PIC7101
PIIC7031PIIC7059
POVCCA01V9
PIC3001
PIC7201
PIIC7034PIIC7045
PIIC
7054
POVCCA03V3
PIC9701
PIIC
7035
PIR200
2PIR
2001
POVIRTUAL0n
PIIC702
POZCROSS0A
PIIC701
POZCROSS0B
PIIC70176
POZCROSS0C
POAGND
POBEMF0A
POBEMF0B
POBEMF0C
POCELL0VOLTAGE
POCELL
0VOLTA
GE0CEL
L0VOLT
AGE01
POCELL
0VOLTA
GE0CEL
L0VOLT
AGE02
POCELL
0VOLTA
GE0CEL
L0VOLT
AGE03
POCELL
0VOLTA
GE0CEL
L0VOLT
AGE04
POCELL
0VOLTA
GE0CEL
L0VOLT
AGE05
POCELL
0VOLTA
GE0CEL
L0VOLT
AGE06
POCH010EXT
POCH030EXT
PODGND
PODISABLE0OUT
POENC0A0IN
POENC0B0IN
POENC0I0IN
POI\0\T\R\I\P\0DSP
POI0MEAS0IN
POLED01
POLED02
POON0OFF
POPOWER STATUS
POPO
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STAT
US0P
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POPWM0H0A
POPWM0H0B
POPWM0H0C
POPWM0L0A
POPWM0L0B
POPWM0L0C
PORADIO0REF
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POTORQUE0REF
POVCC01V9
POVCC03V3
POVCCA01V9
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POVIRTUAL0N
POZCROSS0A
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65
11
22
33
44
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8
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Con
trol
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Title
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Num
ber
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t Nam
e
Layo
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evis
ion
of
BOM
Rev
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nEA
1000
0BO
M V
aria
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nter
pret
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vise
d B
y*
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t
This
docu
men
t is t
he p
rope
rty o
f QR
TEC
H a
nd m
ust
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e re
prod
uced
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ny fo
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out t
he w
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Crea
ted
By
2013
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2808
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36Re
vise
dN
icla
s och
Phi
lip
EM P
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9
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Revi
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Nic
las o
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Rev
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PIIC1034
PIIC
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67
11
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AA
10
QR
TEC
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Part
Title
Part
Num
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Shee
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Layo
ut R
evis
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of
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Rev
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nEA
1000
0BO
M V
aria
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y*
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This
docu
men
t is t
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rty o
f QR
TEC
H a
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e re
prod
uced
in a
ny fo
rm o
r dist
ribut
ed to
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party
with
out t
he w
ritte
n co
nsen
t of Q
RTE
CH
AB
Crea
ted
By
2013
-06-
2808
:23:
36Re
vise
dN
icla
s och
Phi
lip
EM P
art N
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7
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PIC401 PIC402COC4
PIC501 PIC502COC5
PIC701 PIC702COC7
PIC801 PIC802COC8
PIC10101 PIC10102COC101
PIC10201 PIC10202COC102
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PIIC1001
PIIC1002
PIIC1003
PIIC1004
PIIC1005
PIIC1006
PIIC1008
PIIC1009
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68
11
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CC
BB
AA
11
QR
TEC
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BSW
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Con
trol
PC
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Part
Title
Part
Num
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Shee
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Layo
ut R
evis
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of
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Rev
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1000
0BO
M V
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nter
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vise
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y*
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t
This
docu
men
t is t
he p
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rty o
f QR
TEC
H a
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ust
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e re
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uced
in a
ny fo
rm o
r dist
ribut
ed to
third
party
with
out t
he w
ritte
n co
nsen
t of Q
RTE
CH
AB
Crea
ted
By
2013
-06-
2808
:23:
37Re
vise
dN
icla
s och
Phi
lip
EM P
art N
umbe
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PIC10001 PIC10002COC1
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PIIC403
PIIC404PIIC408COIC4A
PIIC405
PIIC406
PIIC407CO
IC4B
PIIC601
PIIC602
PIIC603
PIIC604
PIIC605
COIC6
PIR230
1PIR
2302
COR23
PIR2401PIR2402
COR24
PIR280
1PIR
2802
COR28
PIR3001PIR3002COR30
PITP3001
COTP
30
PIC602PIC902
PIIC602
POAGND
PIC10002
PIIC404PIR240
1
PIR3001
PODGND
PID603
POI\0\T\R\I\P\
PIC901
PIIC403
PIIC406
PIIC603
PITP3001
POI0MEAS0OUT
PIIC605
POI0POS0IN
PIIC604
POI0POS0OUT
PID601
PIIC401
PID602
PIIC407
PIIC402
PIR230
2
PIIC405
PIR280
2
PIC10001
PIIC408PIR
2301
PIR2402
PIR280
1
PIR3002POVCC05V
PIC601
PIIC601
POVCCA03V3
POAGND
PODGND
POI\0\T\R\I\P\
POI0MEAS0OUT
POI0POS0IN
POI0POS0OUT
POVCC05V
POVCCA03V3
69
70
C Power PCB Schematic
11
22
33
44
DD
CC
BB
AA
1
QR
TEC
H A
BSW
ED
EN
3
Pow
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CB
-
Ove
rvie
w
Part
Title
Part
Num
ber
Shee
t Nam
e
Layo
ut R
evis
ion
of
BOM
Rev
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nEA
1000
0BO
M V
aria
ntV
aria
nt n
ame
not i
nter
pret
edRe
vise
d B
y*
Shee
t
This
docu
men
t is t
he p
rope
rty o
f QR
TEC
H a
nd m
ust
not b
e re
prod
uced
in a
ny fo
rm o
r dist
ribut
ed to
third
party
with
out t
he w
ritte
n co
nsen
t of Q
RTE
CH
AB
Crea
ted
By
2013
-06-
2808
:24:
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vise
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s och
Phi
lip
EM P
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EM R
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1A
SVN
Rev
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ver
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con
trol
Fidu
cial
_Rou
nd
FD2
Fidu
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FD1
Fidu
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FD3
3V3
3V3 4k
7
0603R1 10
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0603
RT1
V_P
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V_N
EG
HB
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DG
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P1M
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MP2
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P3M
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MP4
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COFD1
COFD
2COFD
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PIJ201
COJ2
PIJ301
COJ3
PIJ?
01PI
J?02
PIJ?
03PI
J?04
COJ?
COMP1
COMP2
COMP3
COMP4
PIR101PIR102 CO
R1
PIRT101PIRT102 CO
RT1
PIJ?
02
PIR102
PIJ?
01
PIRT101
PIJ201
PIJ301
PIJ?
03
PIR101 PIRT102
PIJ?
04
71
11
22
33
44
DD
CC
BB
AA
2
QR
TEC
H A
BSW
ED
EN
3
Pow
er P
CB
-
Hal
f_br
idge
Part
Title
Part
Num
ber
Shee
t Nam
e
Layo
ut R
evis
ion
of
BOM
Rev
isio
nEA
1000
0BO
M V
aria
ntV
aria
nt n
ame
not i
nter
pret
edRe
vise
d B
y*
Shee
t
This
docu
men
t is t
he p
rope
rty o
f QR
TEC
H a
nd m
ust
not b
e re
prod
uced
in a
ny fo
rm o
r dist
ribut
ed to
third
party
with
out t
he w
ritte
n co
nsen
t of Q
RTE
CH
AB
Crea
ted
By
2013
-06-
2808
:24:
10Re
vise
dN
icla
s och
Phi
lip
EM P
art N
umbe
r
EM R
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ion
-
1A
SVN
Rev
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nN
ot in
ver
sion
con
trol
V_P
OS
2
1
3
IRF7749L2TR1PBFIC1
2
1
3
IRF7749L2TR1PBFIC2
0R1206R2 39
00p
50V
0805C
2
V_N
EG
0R1206R339
00p
50V
0805C
1
VC
C_1
0V
Gat
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Sour
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GD
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Gat
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6903
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1J6
TP .
TP2
TP .
TP3
1 2
15V
160W
PESD
15V
S1U
B
TVS
D3
1 2
15V
160W
PESD
15V
S1U
B
TVS
D4
220n
50V
0805C
5
PIC101 PIC102COC1
PIC201 PIC202COC2
PIC501 PIC502COC5
PID301 PID302
COD3 PID401 PID402
COD4PIIC101
PIIC102PIIC103COIC1
PIIC201
PIIC202PIIC203COIC2
PIJ4
01PI
J402
PIJ4
03PI
J404
COJ4
PIJ5
01PI
J502
PIJ5
03PI
J504
COJ5
PIJ601
COJ6
PIR201PIR202COR2
PIR301PIR302COR3
PITP201
COTP2
PITP301
COTP3
PIC101PIR201 PIC102
PID302
PIIC102 PIIC203
PIJ4
03
PIJ601
PIR302 PIC201PIR301
PID301PIIC101
PITP201
PID401PIIC201
PITP301
PIJ4
01PI
J402
PIJ4
04
PIJ5
01PI
J502
PIJ5
03PI
J504
PIC202
PIC502
PID402PIIC202
POV0NEG
PIC501
PIIC103PIR202
POV0POS
POV0NEG
POV0POS
72
11
22
33
44
DD
CC
BB
AA
3
QR
TEC
H A
BSW
ED
EN
3
Pow
er P
CB
-
Gat
e D
rive
Boo
ster
Part
Title
Part
Num
ber
Shee
t Nam
e
Layo
ut R
evis
ion
of
BOM
Rev
isio
nEA
1000
0BO
M V
aria
ntV
aria
nt n
ame
not i
nter
pret
edRe
vise
d B
y*
Shee
t
This
docu
men
t is t
he p
rope
rty o
f QR
TEC
H a
nd m
ust
not b
e re
prod
uced
in a
ny fo
rm o
r dist
ribut
ed to
third
party
with
out t
he w
ritte
n co
nsen
t of Q
RTE
CH
AB
Crea
ted
By
2013
-06-
2808
:24:
10Re
vise
dN
icla
s och
Phi
lip
EM P
art N
umbe
r
EM R
evis
ion
-
1A
SVN
Rev
isio
nN
ot in
ver
sion
con
trol
Gat
e_ou
t
Sour
ce
VC
C_1
0V
Gat
e_in
100R0603
R6
100n
50V
0603C
410
0n50
V
0603C
3
22k
0603R7
5R1
0603R5
100R
0603R4
BSL316C-L6327
5
1
6
IC?A
2
3
4
BSL316C-L6327IC?B
BSL316C-L6327
5
1
6
IC?A
2
3
4
BSL316C-L6327IC?B
PIC301 PIC302COC3
PIC401 PIC402COC4
PIIC?02PIIC?03
PIIC?04COIC?B
PIIC?02PIIC?03
PIIC?04
PIIC?01
PIIC?05PIIC?06COIC?A
PIIC?01
PIIC?05PIIC?06
PIR401 PIR402COR4
PIR501PIR502COR5
PIR601
PIR602COR6
PIR701PIR702 COR7
PIR602
POGate0in
PIIC?06
PIR501
POGate0out
PIIC?01
PIIC?06
PIR402
PIIC?01
PIIC?03
PIR601
PIR702
PIIC?03
PIIC?04
PIR401
PIIC?04PIR502
PIC302
PIC402
PIIC?05PIR7
01
POSource
PIC301
PIC401
PIIC?02POVCC010V
POGATE0IN
POGATE0OUT
POSOURCE
POVCC010V
73
11
22
33
44
DD
CC
BB
AA
12
QR
TEC
H A
BSW
ED
EN
12
Pow
er P
CB
-
Filte
r
Part
Title
Part
Num
ber
Shee
t Nam
e
Layo
ut R
evis
ion
of
BOM
Rev
isio
nEA
1000
0BO
M V
aria
ntV
aria
nt n
ame
not i
nter
pret
edRe
vise
d B
y*
Shee
t
This
docu
men
t is t
he p
rope
rty o
f QR
TEC
H a
nd m
ust
not b
e re
prod
uced
in a
ny fo
rm o
r dist
ribut
ed to
third
party
with
out t
he w
ritte
n co
nsen
t of Q
RTE
CH
AB
Crea
ted
By
2013
-06-
2808
:24:
10Re
vise
dN
icla
s och
Phi
lip
EM P
art N
umbe
r
EM R
evis
ion
-
1A
SVN
Rev
isio
nN
ot in
ver
sion
con
trol
V_P
OS_
IN
V_N
EG_I
N
V_P
OS_
OU
T
V_N
EG_O
UT
22u
35V
1206C
822
u35
V
1206C
922
u35
V
1206C
1022
u35
V
1206C
1122
00µF
1 2
35V
C6
2200
µF
1 2
35V
C7
PIC601 PIC602COC
6PIC701 PIC702
COC7
PIC801 PIC802COC
8PIC901 PIC902
COC9
PIC1001 PIC1002COC10
PIC1101 PIC1102COC11
PIC602PIC702
PIC802PIC902
PIC1002PIC1102
POV0NEG0IN
POV0NEG0OUT
PIC601PIC701
PIC801PIC901
PIC1001PIC1101
POV0POS0IN
POV0POS0OUT
POV0NEG0IN
POV0NEG0OUT
POV0POS0IN
POV0POS0OUT
74
75