Designing Educational Cases for InterculturalInformation Ethics: The Importance of Diversity,Perspectives, Values, and Pluralism
Kenneth R. FleischmannCollege ot Intottvdtion Studies, University of Marylatid, 4105 Hotnbake Building,South Wing, College Park, MD 20742. E-mail: [email protected] W. RobbinsJoseph M. Katz Graduate School of Business, University of Pittsburgh, 361 Mervis Hall,Pittsburgh, PA 15260. E-mail: [email protected] A. WallaceDepartment of Decision Sciences and Engineering Systems, School of Engineering,Rensselaet Polytechnic Institute, 110 8th St., Center for Industrial Innovation, Room 5015,Ttoy, NY 12180. E-mail: [email protected]
Information professionals today face a growing number of intercultural informationethics challenges. This paper describes an effort to develop and evaluate educationalcases tbat can help to prepare information professionals to overcome these chal-lenges. A total of ten educational cases were developed and used in tv̂ 'o semesters ofan Information Ethics course taught at the University of Maryland. The new approachto case design exemplified in these cases includes having students face multiple inter-dependent decisions while playing culturally diverse roles. Students were asked a se-ries of open-ended questions at the end of each semester of the course, and data wereanalyzed using grounded theory. The findings of this research reveal preliminary evi-dence supporting four key themes for preparing students to confront intercultural in-formation etbics dilemmas: diversity, perspectives, values, and pluralism. Theconclusion of this paper is that this new approach to educational case design can besuccessful in preparing future information professionals to confront intercultural in-formation ethics dilemmas.
Keywords: Case-based learning, culture, globalization, information ethics education,intercultural information etbics, user-centered design, values, value-sensitive design,grounded tbeory methodology.
Introduction
The information revolution enables in-teractions among individuals from a
diverse array of national, local, profes-sional, and organizational cultures. Suchinteractions often lead to value clashes(Begley & Boyd, 2003) and may lead toan increased number and diversity of eth-ical dilemmas faced by information pro-fessionals in the twenty-first century(Capurro, 2000). Consequently, it is im-
portant to prepare information profes-sionals to consider the diversity of valuesheld by different individuals and cul-tures, so that these information profes-sionals are better prepared to resolveethical dilemmas within an internationalenvironment. This paper describes thedevelopment and evaluation of highly-structured educational cases that can beused to help students consider differingvalues and their interaction. The course.Information Ethics, is a new course de-
Designing Educational Cases for Intercultural Information Ethics
signed and taught by Dr. Fleischmann atthe University of Maryland in the fall of2007 and then again in the spring of 2008.Students enrolled in the course includedstudents in the University of Maryland'sMaster of Library Science, Master of In-formation Management, and Ph.D. in In-formation Studies programs. During thefirst semester, the authors developed,used, and evaluated ten cases. The au-thors then significantly refined six ofthese cases based on student feedbackfrom the first semester and used and eval-uated these revised cases in the second se-mester. Each case includes multipleinteracting roles, where each studentplays a different role (except for a few ex-perimental formats which the authorsused for part ofthe second semester), andeach role faces a different ethical deci-sion. The motivation for this research isto explore how these multiple roles mayhave helped students to understand theperspectives of others and thus may havehelped to prepare them to faceintercultural information ethics issues.
Background
This research builds on previous workto date in information ethics education(e.g., Buchanan, 2004; Carbo, 2005;Fallis, 2007; Koehler, 2003; Mason,1990; Robbins, Fleischmann, & Wallace,2008; Rogers, 1994; Winston, 2005,2007), and, in particular, focuses on therelationship between information ethicseducation and globalization. Specifi-cally, this paper focuses on how develop-ing cases with multiple interacting rolescan make information professionalsmore aware of different personal valuesand others' national, local, professional,and organizational cultures.
It is important to consider research onthe relationship between culture and eth-ics. Both nationality and culture arelinked to variations in ethical deci-sion-making (Ahmed, Chung, &Eichenseher, 2003; Aupperle, 1984;
Ford, Nonis, & Hudson, 2005; Ford &Richardson, 1994; Hisrich, Bucar, &Oztark, 2003; O'Fallon & Butterfield,2005; Peppas, 2002; Robertson,Crittenden, Brady, & Hoffman, 2002;Sims, 2006; Sims & Gegez, 2004). Forexample, Peppas (2002) finds significantdifferences in the ethical perspectives ofAsians and Americans. Axinn, Blair,Heorhiadi, and Thatch (2004) demon-strate the interconnectedness of cultureand values. Thus, it is important, in theglobal information age, for informationprofessionals to be prepared to deal withethical decision-making within anintercultural context and to consider thedifferent values of other cultures.
Recent research shows that there is a con-nection between personal and cultural val-ues (Fischer, 2006; Fischer et al., 2007;KeiTimelmeier, Jambor, & Letner, 2006;Smith, Peterson, & Schwartz, 2002). Fur-ther, recent research demonstrates that theeffect of personal values across cultures af-fects ethical decision-making. Researchalso demonstrates the presence of a relation-ship between values and ethical decision-making in general (Abdolmohammadi &Baker, 2006; Allen & Davis, 1993;Ashkanasy, Falkus, & Callan, 2000;Connor & Becker, 2004; Feather, 1988;Fritzsche, 1995; Fukukawa, Shafer, &Lee, 2007; Lin & Ding, 2003; Robbins,2005; Robin, Reidenbach, & Forrest,1996; Roozen, De Pelsmacker, & Bostyn,2001; Shafer, Fukukawa, & Lee, 2007;Singhapakdi & Vitell, 1993). For exam-ple, Fukukawa, Shafer, and Lee (2007)find differences among Americans andChinese in their views regarding trade-offs about social responsibility and eco-nomic efficiency but also identifypositive links between self-transcen-dence values and attitudes regarding so-cially responsibly behavior across thetwo countries. When comparing the val-ues of people living in the U.S. and theMiddle East, Ford et al. (2005) discoverthat these two cultural groups differ sig-nificantly in terms of their social, politi-
JOURNAL OF EDUCATION FOR LIBRARY AND INFORMATION SCIENCE
cal, and religious values. This evidenceprovides further impetus for the develop-ment of information ethics courses withadditional emphasis on an increasinglydiverse and international society; oneway to accomplish this goal is to createhighly structured intercultural informa-tion ethics cases that can be used incourses.
While these findings point to the needfor consideration of multiple culturalperspectives in educational cases, mostinformation ethics cases occur within aspecific (usually Western) cultural con-text. Further, the standard format for eth-ics cases is not particularly well suited tothis goal. Most ethics cases consider asingle perspective (Agich, 2001) or cen-ter on a single ethical decision. This pa-per describes an effort to build on theexisting literature on case-based ap-proaches to information ethics education(e.g.. Ballenger, 2003; Buchanan, 2004;Carbo, 2004; Davis, 2007; Fallis, 2007;Jewels, 2003; Logan & Logan, 2003;Mitri & Cole, 2007; Spinello, 2003;Tavani, 2007; Wedel, Behnezhad, &Gray, 2004; White & Rea, 2003) by de-veloping and evaluating educationalcases where a small group of studentsinteract by playing interdependent roles.
Methods
The authors collaboratively developeda new course. Information Ethics, whichwas taught by Dr. Fleischmann at the Uni-versity of Maryland in the fall of 2007and again in the spring of 2008. One ofthe principal pedagogical tools used inboth semesters of the course was a set ofhighly structured educational cases. Thecourse and the cases were significantlyrevised and refined between the first andsecond semester. A total of eleven stu-dents participated in the study, includingsix in the first semester and five in the sec-ond semester. All students volunteered,through formal informed consent follow-
ing the protocol approved by the authors'Institutional Review Boards, to partici-pate in this study. This course was thefirst step in a collaborative research pro-ject, funded by the National ScienceFoundation, that aims to develop throughuser-centered design an interactive edu-cational simulation to teach computingand information ethics to students en-rolled in library and information sciencegraduate programs as well as graduateprograms in computer science and infor-mation systems. The cases will provideinitial content for the simulation, whichwill be used and evaluated in future se-mesters of Information Ethics.
The authors developed ten cases forthe first semester of the course. The au-thors then significantly refined six ofthese cases and used them in the secondsemester. These cases were based inpart on data collected by Drs.Fleischmann and Wallace in a separateNSF-funded research project, the re-sults of which have been previouslypublished (Fleischmann & Wallace,2005, 2006, In Press). In addition, manyof the cases intentionally explicitly ad-dressed intercultural information ethicsissues, by placing the case outside of apurely American or Western context,and by involving roles from multiplecultures within the same case.
The cases included multiple roles andmultiple decision points within a rigidand easily reusable structure. Followingthe procedure used throughout the firstsemester, at the beginning of each case,the instructor assigned students togroups, and students selected which rolesthey would play in the case. During oneweek, the instructor played one of theroles due to an excused absence by a stu-dent. Each case had three roles, with twoseparate groups completing each case.Students were instructed to discuss eachdecision faced by each student playingeach role, but that the final decisionwould be made by the student playing therole, rather than through consensus or
Designing Educational Cases for Intercultural Information Ethics
voting. After they chose their roles, stu-dents were presented with a scenario thatended with an open-ended decision thathad to be made by the first role. After thestudents had time to discuss thisopen-ended decision, another sheet washanded out that contained a closed-endeddecision that must be made by the studentplaying the first role, including two pos-sible decisions. The decision made by thefirst role then determined the scenariofaced by the second role, which pro-ceeded similarly with an open-ended andthen a closed-ended decision. Finally, thethird role was confronted with a scenario,influenced by both the first and seconddecisions, that also contained anopen-ended and a closed-ended decision.Following completion of the case, stu-dents were either provided with a hypo-thetical result of the case that was basedon the decisions made by all three roles(in the first five cases of the first semes-ter) or asked to provide a hypothetical re-sult that would have occurred as a resultof all three decisions made by all threeroles (in the last five cases of the firstsemester).
Figure I depicts the decision tree em-bedded within the cases. As indicated bythis diagram, each ca.se required the cre-ation of a total of seven binary choices.
although each group of students only en-counters three of these choices on theirway to reaching a result. Thus, creation ofeach ca.se includes a total of sevenchoices, fourteen decisions, and eight re-sults, although completion of a singlecase by a single group of students in-volves only three choices, three deci-sions, and one result. This structureallows the cases to be reused while stillyielding different results, as different stu-dents can repeat cases while playing dif-ferent roles within the same group or indifferent groups. In such situations, repe-tition of the cases can result in new learn-ing opportunities, as the differentindividuals playing the roles may makedifferent decisions, which would in turnlead to different choices and a differentresult.
Different procedures were used andevaluated during the second semester ofthe course. In addition to having each stu-dent play a different role within the samecase, one new variation that was u.sed inone case was to have each student com-plete the cases individually, workingalone and playing all of the roles in thecase. Another new variation that wasused in two cases was to have the studentscollaborate on each decision. In this vari-ation, instead of playing individual roles.
Rl R2 R3 R4 R5 R6
Figure 1. Choices, Decisions, and Results.R7 R8
8 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION FOR LIBRARY AND INFORMATION SCIENCE
the entire group made the decisions foreach role. In this variation, students wereinstructed to reach decisions through aconsensus-building process. Due to thesmaller class size during the second se-mester and the need for the number ofparticipants to evenly divide into three,especially for the three cases which fol-lowed the structure used in the first se-mester and the need to have enoughparticipants for discussion in the entiregroup variation, the instructor played arole in four of the cases, while a guestwho sat in on the class played a role in an-othercase. Finally, based on the feedbackfrom the first semester that the binarychoices tended to be limiting, someclosed-ended decisions used in the sec-ond semester included three choices in-.stead of the standard two choices of thefirst semester cases.
When completing the cases, studentswere asked to write down the factors thatinfluenced their decisions for both theopen-ended and closed-ended decisions,and the instructor collected these notes atthe completion of each case. Studentswere asked a series of written questionsabout what they learned following thecompletion of each case. Students werealso given an extensive list of writtenquestions both at the start of the courseand at the end of the course. Table 1 pro-vides a subset of the written questions
asked at the end of the course (specifi-cally, since a total of 35 open-ended ques-tions were asked. Table 1 lists only thenine questions that triggered answers thatare discussed in the findings section be-low). The qualitative data was analyzedusing grounded theory, such that thethemes emerged from open coding of thedata (Glaser & Strauss, 1967; Strauss &Corbin, 1998). As the volume of data col-lected goes beyond the .scope and lengthconstraints of this paper, the results sec-tion focuses on data related to the themeof using educational cases to prepare in-formation professionals for interculturalinformation ethics dilemmas.
Findings
This research found that this new ap-proach to developing and evaluating edu-cational cases can be beneficial foreducating future information profession-als about intercultural information eth-ics. This section presents the results ofanalysis of feedback provided by stu-dents on the last questionnaire relevant tothe need to consider a wide variety of eth-ical perspectives and values, includingtho.se of different national cultures aswell as individual variation.
Students demonstrated through theiranswers that they learned to understandother perspectives on information ethics
Table 1. Partial List of Questions Asked at the End of the Course.
Did this class help you to confront ethical challenges in your academic career?What did you learn from the cases used in this class?What did you learn from cases where different roles were confronted with different
decisions?What did you learn from the open-ended discussion before each decision?Please explain how the group interaction helped you to learn about ethical theories, if
at all?Please explain how the group interaction helped you to learn about your own values
and other people's values, if at all?What did you learn about ethical theories during the semester?What did you learn about your values during the semester?What did you learn about other people's values during the semester?
Designing Educatiotial Cases for Intercultural Information Ethics
issues beyond their own. For example,when asked, "What did you learn fromthe cases used in this class?" one studentresponded, "How to fully consider allsides of an argument and determine thebest ethical outcome." Another studentresponded, "It was usually the discussionaround the 'edges' of the cases that wasthe most enlightening. Viewpoints [that]are so far different from my own yet oftenso right." These quotes illustrate the di-versity of perspectives that students canbe exposed to through this approach.
Further, students in the class con-nected their learning about different per-spectives directly to internationalissues. Students were asked "Did thisclass help you to confront ethical chal-lenges in your academic career?" Onestudent responded, "It helped me [to]understand the different points of viewout there and to appreciate the fact thatone could be right in one situation butwrong in [another]—based on many fac-tors [such as] geography, etc." This stu-dent invokes geography—and thus,national and regional culture—in an-swering this question. The student alsorefers to a contextual basis for consider-ing multiple perspectives that is tied toone's geographical location.
Responses to other questions furtherreinforce the finding that students wereable to consider other perspectivesthrough use of multiple roles and multi-ple decision points in the cases. For ex-ample, when asked, "What did you learnfrom cases where different roles wereconfronted with different decisions?"one student responded, "You may see[that] different people have differentviewpoints based on some [other] rea-son[ing]." Another student, when asked,"What did you learn from the open-endeddiscussion before each decision?" re-plied, "The advice and discussion frompeers provides valuable experience anddifferent viewpoints that help inform mydecisions." Thus, these students clearlybenefited frotn perspective-taking.
Students' learning was directly relatedto consideration of the different deci-sion-making processes and perspectivesof different individuals from differentcultures. For example, when asked,"Please explain how the group interac-tion helped you to learn about ethical the-ories, if at all?" one student replied"Group interaction was critical in helpingme understand different considerationsand sides to ethical arguments." Anotherstudent explained, "The group dynamicwas great because it gave me a glimpseinto other people's thought process[es]."A third student added, "Being in a groupraised point[s] that I did not think about."Finally, a fourth student commented, "Itwas helpful to listen to how informationis regulated in [list of geographical loca-tions and professions of students enrolledin the course]." Thus, group interactionfacilitated by the cases specifically aidedethical decision-making when faced withintercultural information ethics problemsby promoting learning from analyzingdifferences in other perspectives.
Specifically, the cases helped studentsto consider others' values, which isclosely related to both culture and ethics.For example, students were asked,"Please explain how the group helpedyou to learn about your values or otherpeople's values, if at all?" One studentcommented, "Learning [about] otherpeople's values seems to serve as a greatway to force me to question my own." Asecond student answered, "I gained abetter understanding of other people'svalues because of the passion they hadwhen they made their case. Sometimes Iwas forced to change my decision afterlooking at things [from] their perspec-tive." A third student stated, "[I] exploredperspectives I would not have [otherwise]considered." A fourth student explained,"It helped me to learn about other peo-ple's values because it forced me to con-sider views I wouldn't have thoughtabout very much on my own." Finally, afifth student replied, "Even though tnost
10 JOURNAL OF EDUCAT!ON FOR L!BRARY AND !NFOR!V1AT!ON SC!ENCE
of the group interaction shared similaropinion from the class, there was still arelatively large difference of result"—again, illustrating how even subtle differ-ences in cultural backgrounds can lead tovery different outcomes. Thus, studentsclearly learned about the diversity ofvalues related to interculturalinformation ethics through the cases.
Students learned about ethical theo-ries and their own values through thecases. For example, in response to thequestion, "What did you learn aboutethical theories during the semester?" astudent replied, "They vary from soci-ety to society. Technology is creating aborderless world where it could changethe way people view the world aroundthem." Another student commented,"[I] particularly found the non-tradi-tional theories most helpful. Glad westudied those." These quotes bring intoclear relief the importance ofintercultural information ethics educa-tion in the global information age. An-other question asked was, "What didyou learn about your values during thesemester?" One of the students an-swered, "I'm tolerant of lots of ideasbut ultimately I go with how I wasraised." Thus, the cases appear to havebroadened the perspectives of some stu-dents, but may not necessarily have al-ways influenced the final outcome oftheir decision-making.
Students also learned about culturalvariations in defining right and wrong, animportant part of intercultural informa-tion ethics. When asked, "What did youlearn about other people's values duringthe semester?" a student stated, "Thatpeople's values might be different butthat doesn't make them wrong." Anotherstudent responded, "People want to dothe right thing. It's just [that] nobody canagree [about] what is right." Yet anotherstudent commented, "That it is extremelyuseful to hear out other people's valueseven when they don't agree with yourown as they will either lead you to modifyyour own views or help you to reinforceyour reasoning for your own views."These students paint intercultural infor-mation ethics decision-making as havingmultiple right answers, demonstratingthe need to be sensitive to the needs ofothers, a critical component ofintercultural information ethics. Thus,students in this class not only learnedabout intercultural information ethics butthey were also driven to a more pluralisticview of right and wrong.
Based on analysis ofthe processes usedby the students over two classes, differentclass composition appears to impact useof the cases. Specifically, in the first se-mester, one-third ofthe students were in-ternational students, leading to moreinternationally sensitive discussions dur-ing both the cases and regular class dis-
Table 2. Four Key Themes.
Key ThemeFinding (These cases can help students learn
the importance of . . . )
Diversity Individual diversity in ethical decision-makingGeographical diversity in ethical decision-making
Perspectives Learning by using new perspectivesLearning by analyzing differences in other perspectives
Values Considering the values of othersUnderstanding one's own values
Pluralism Considering a pluralistic view of right and wrongUnderstanding pluralism for intercultural information ethics
Designing Educational Cases for Intercultural Information Ethics 11
eussions. However, in the secondsemester, all of the students were domes-tic students, and the class demonstratedless cultural sensitivity in cases and dis-cussions related to international issuesthan the first semester's class. One sam-ple statement from a student during thesecond semester highlights the impor-tance of this distinction, as in response tothe question, "Please explain how thegroup interaction helped you to learnabout your own values and other people'svalues, if at all?" the student stated, "Ifwe had [a] more diverse group, [I] proba-bly would have learned more." This datathus provides preliminary evidence thatthe effectiveness of internationally-fo-cused information ethics materials, in-cluding interactive cases, is impacted notonly by the educational materials but alsoby the composition of the class,especially in terms of diversity ofstudents' national origins.
Four key findings can be identified as aresult of this analysis. The first themewas diversity, including both individualand geographic diversity of different peo-ple's ethical decision-making. The sec-ond theme was perspectives, includingthe benefits of taking new perspectivesand learning from other perspectives.The third theme was values, includingconsidering others' values and under-standing one's own values. The fourththeme was pluralism, including both theimportance of a pluralistic view of rightand wrong and understanding the plural-ism inherent in intercultural informationethics. These four key themes aredepicted in Table 2.
Discussion
Overall, students in the class learnedabout the range of different values andthe influence of culture on ethics andvalues, as recommended in the literaturediscussed above. The class and the casesaround which it was built can be a valu-able experience in preparing future in-
formation professionals to deal with eth-ical dilemmas raised by the globalinformation age, especially when theclass includes a diverse range of studentsin terms of national origin and other fac-tors.
Specifically, the incorporation of mul-tiple interacting roles (played by differ-ent students or student teams)confronting different ethical decisionsbased on the choices of other roles ap-pears to be highly compatible withintercultural information ethics educa-tion. While most information ethics casesare built around a single role or a singledecision, and thus a single perspective,the cases employed in this course in-cluded much more diversity in the num-ber and types of roles and(interdependent) decisions. As a result,while other information ethics casesseem to promote normative andmono-cultural approaches to ethical de-cision-making, cases with multiple inter-acting roles may be particularly suited toteaching moral pluralism, which may bemore appropriate in the small, highlyinterconnected world found in theinformation age.
Future Directions
While the cases developed for thiscourse have provided a strong start forthis project and for the goal of encourag-ing students to consider information eth-ics issues within a diverse internationalcontext, many improvements can also bemade in future iterations of the cases andthe course. First, the cases tended to beoverly formulaic, with a standard reli-ance on three roles, three decisions, and(at least in the first seme.ster) two choicesper decision. While the reasons for thesedesign choices are clear and understand-able under the circumstances—for exam-ple, the limited number of students in theclass, the novelty of all of the cases and ofthe approach to building and implement-ing the cases, the time spent designing the
12 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION FOR LIBRARY AND INFORMATION SCIENCE
eight different trajectories that the .stu-dents might pursue based on thethree-level binary tree structure, and thegoal of developing closed-ended casesthat will be possible to implement in soft-ware-it will be beneficial in future se-mesters to diversify the number of roles,their relationships to each other tempo-rally, and the number and realism ofchoices to better simulate real-life situa-tions when information professionalsfrom/in locations around the world arefaced with ethical dilemmas. Significantprogress was made during the second se-mester, as the number of decisions facedby a particular role was often varied andexpanded from two to three answers, andalso as different formats for playing theroles were used.
Another important future direction forthis project will be to develop robust pre-and post-tests that can be administeredbefore and after each case to measure stu-dent learning during the case. It is impor-tant that these pre- and post-test candemonstrate student learning. Specifi-cally, the pre- and post-test should allowthe research team to quantitatively ana-lyze the effectiveness of the cases interms of the students' development of anawareness of how ethical dilemmas areconsidered by individuals from/in othercultures as well as understanding the un-derlying personal values that are associ-ated with the various approaches toresolving ethical dilemmas. For example,it has been shown that a deontological ap-proach, in some situations, is related toone's belief in and application of norms[citation omitted due to double-blind re-view]. A first attempt was made at imple-menting such pre- and post-tests duringthe second semester, and the refinementof these tests and the evaluation of thisdata will continue to progress as theoverall project develops.
Overall, the major future direction forthis project will be to develop an interac-tive educational simulation based on thecases created for and evaluated in this
course and to develop best practices fordelivery of the cases and the course as awhole. Once the simulation has beencompleted, the authors will freely dis-seminate the simulation, as well as othermaterials used in the course, via the Web.Through the development and dissemina-tion of this simulation, the authors aim tomake significant contributions tointercultural information ethics educa-tion in graduate programs in library andinformation science around the world,helping to prepare informationprofessionals for the global informationage.
Acknowledgements
This material is based upon work sup-ported by the National Science Founda-tion under Grants IIS-0724894,IIS-0724899, and IlS-0724879. The au-thors would also like to thank the studentswho voluntarily participated in this studyand the reviewers of an early version ofthis article that was presented as a juriedpaper at the Association for Library andInformation Science Education 2008Annual Conference.
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