Designing ResearchElke Johanna de Buhr, PhDTulane University

Textbook Chapters

•Creswell, Chapter 3, 4, 6 and 7• Salkind, Chapter 2 and 13

Your Research ProposalI. Introduction• A. Problem/purpose statement• B. Research question(s)• C. Hypothesis• D. Definitions of terms

II. Review of the relevant literature (the more complete, the better)• A. Importance of the question being asked• B. Current status of the topic• C. Relationship between the literature and the problem statement

III. Method• A. Target population• B. Research design and sampling• C. Data collection plans• D. Proposed analysis of the data

IV. Implications and limitations

Research Proposal: Part I

I. Introduction•A. Problem/purpose statement•B. Research question(s)•C. Hypothesis (if any)•D. Definitions of terms

Research Proposal: Part II

II. Review of the relevant literature (the more complete, the better)•A. Importance of the question being

asked•B. Current status of the topic•C. Relationship between the literature

and the problem statement

Research Proposal: Part III

III. Method•A. Target population•B. Research design and sampling•C. Data collection plans•D. Proposed analysis of the data

Research Proposal: Part IV

IV. Implications and limitations

(Section discussing generalizability, reliability and validity of the collected data.) 

How to Start

• You start with an idea… • Based on knowledge• Based on experience

•Relevant?• Feasible?• Ethical?•Original?

Refining Your Idea

•Review of the literature• Scope of the research?• Regional focus?• Thematic focus?• Types of data collection?

Part 1: Problem/Purpose Statement•Problem statement:• Describes the problem or issue leading to the

need for the study

•Purpose statement:• Establishes the intent of the study • Qualitative vs. quantitative purpose statements

(see Creswell, pp. 111-126)

Example: Case Study

Creswell

Example: Experimental Study

Creswell

Example: Mixed Methods Study

Creswell

Part 2: Research Questions

•Questions that the research will attempt to answer•Methodology needs to enable you to

answer these questions•Often one (broad) central question,

followed by sub-questions•Qualitative vs. quantitative research

questions (see Creswell, pp. 129-142)

Example: Case Study

Creswell

Example: Mixed Methods Study

Creswell

Part 3: Hypotheses

•Research questions vs. hypotheses: • Quantitative research questions inquire about

the relationships among variables that the investigator seeks to know• Quantitative hypotheses are predictions the

researcher makes about the expected relationships among variables

•Null hypotheses vs. directional/non-directional hypotheses (see Creswell, pp. 132-137)

Example: Null Hypotheses

Creswell

Example: Directional/Non-Directional Hypotheses

Creswell

Standard Use of Language in Hypotheses

Creswell

Dependent vs. Independent Variables• Dependent (outcome) variables • Results of the influence of independent variables• In experiments, they are examined as the

outcome of an intervention

• Independent (predictor) variables • (Probable) cause, influence or affect the

outcome • In experiments, they are manipulated or

changed to examine their effects on the dependent variables

Part 4: Definition of Terms

•All key terms need to be clearly defined•Critical concepts need to be

operationalized•Review the literature for standard

definitions and established ways of measurement

Writing a Research Proposal

Writing the Proposal•What are the major points that will be

addressed in the proposal?•How will these major points convey a

coherent study?•What are the core arguments to be

advanced in the proposal?

Creswell

9 questions one should ask when writing a research proposal:

1. What do readers need to better understand the topic?2. What do readers need to know about the topic?3. What do you propose to study?4. What is the setting, and who are the people you will study?5. What methods do you plan to use to collect data?6. How will you analyze the data?7. How will you validate the findings?8. What ethical issues will your study present?9. What do preliminary results show about the practicability

and value of the proposed study?Creswell

Designing the Sections of a Proposal• Specify the sections early in the design of a proposal• Find proposals that other students have authored

under your advisor and look at them closely• Determine whether your program or institution

offers a course on proposal development or some similar topic• Sit down with your advisor, and go over his or her

preferred format for a proposal

Creswell

Writing Ideas•Read widely fiction and nonfiction•Read good literature•Always think about how the ideas writers

share in their works might be applied in writing good research

Creswell

Writing as Thinking•Write ideas down early in the process

rather than talking about them•Work through several drafts of a proposal

rather than trying to polish the first draft• Do not edit at the early-draft stage• Start with an outline• Write a draft and shift and sort ideas • Finally, edit and polish each sentence

Creswell

The Habit of Writing• Make writing a daily activity• Chart your daily activities in one-hour blocks so you can identify possible

writing time• Write while you are fresh• Avoid writing in binges• Write in small regular amounts• Schedule writing to allow for work on specific manageable chunks• Keep a daily chart, account for a) time spent writing, b) page equivalents

finished, and c) percentage of planned task completed• Plan beyond daily goals• Share your writing with supportive, constructive peers before going public• Try to work on two or three writing projects concurrently so that you do

not become overloaded with any oneCreswell

The Habit of Writing (cont.)The following are suggested exercises that may improve one’s writing:• Describe an object by its parts and dimensions• Write a conversation between two people• Write a set of directions for a complicated task• Take a subject and write about it three different ways• Choose a physical location for writing that is not a distraction

Creswell

Readability of the ManuscriptBefore writing, consider how you will enhance its readability for the audience:• Use consistent terms throughout the proposal• Consider how narrative thoughts of different types guide the

reader:• Umbrella thoughts: General or core ideas• Big thoughts in writing: Specific ideas • Little thoughts: Reinforcing ideas• Attention or interest thoughts: Meant to keep the reader on track, organize

ideas

• Use coherence to add to the readability of the manuscript: Connect sentences and paragraphs in the manuscript

See Example 4.5Creswell

Voice, Tense, and “Fat”• Keep the essential words and delete the passive voice• Scale down qualifiers, eliminate overused phrases• Reduce excessive quotations, use of italics, and parenthetical

comments• Use the active voice as much as possible, if the subject acts,

the voice is active• Use strong active verbs• Pay close attention to the tense of your verbs, use the present

tense to add vigor to the study• Expect to edit and revise drafts of a manuscript to trim fat,

this process typically consists of writing, reviewing, and editing Creswell

Judging a Research Proposal

Criteria for Judging a Research Proposal

Salkind

Criteria for Judging a Research Proposal (cont.)

Salkind

Criteria for Judging a Research Proposal (cont.)

Salkind

Group Discussion

1. Initial research ideas2. Quantitative vs. qualitative

research proposals3. Primary vs. secondary data4. Use of theory5. Review of the available evidence6. Other questions/concerns