CHAPTER ONE

BACKGROUND INFORMATION

Soap is one of the most popular detergents in personal care. According to Roman Legend, soap

was named after mount Sapo, an ancient site of animal sacrifices. After an animal sacrifices, rain

would wash the animal fat and ash that collected under the ceremonial alters down the slopes to

the banks of the Tiber River. Women washing clothes in the river noticed that if they washed

their clothes in certain parts of the river after a heavy rain their clothes were much cleaner

(Ahmed, 2002). A soap-like material found in clay cylinders during the excavation of ancient

Babylon is evidence that soap making was known as early as 2800 B.C. Inscriptions on the

cylinders revealed that fats were boiled with ashes, a soap making method. It is generally agreed

that the Hebrew word “borith” which has been translated as soap, is a generic term for any

cleaning agent. By the second century A.D, the Greek physician, Galen, recommended soap for

both medicinal and cleansing purposes. In other words, it is a substance, that when dissolved in

water removed dirt from dirty materials (Oghome et al, 2012). Historically, it has been claimed

that the esteem of a country’s civilization is based on consumption of soap. In the 18th century,

because of the shortage of some raw materials, soap was a highly priced luxury, and only

wealthy people could afford it. It became handy to other people only after the manufacture of

sodium carbonate was developed. At the end of the 19th century, the first soap powder for

laundry was made using sodium silicate as a builder. Whereas the use of sodium or potassium

carbonate leads to a hard or soft soap, respectively, the chemical nature of the lipophilic part of

the soap plays by far the largest role in determining the performance of the finished soap

(Anzene and Aremu, 2007)

In the 1960’s, modern soap factories were established to meet the demand for high quality and

affordable soaps in Ghana. These factories include Unilever Limited in Tema, Appiah Minkah

soap in Kumasi and Lovable soap in Takoradi.

Between 1984 and 1989, there was a steady rise in the production of both toilet and laundry soap

in Ghana. Soap, is chemically a combination of Na+ or K+ ions and fatty acids. Over a hundred

fatty acids are known to exist today. Out of these hundred and over, forty are known to occur

widely,

Soap is produced via the saponification reaction (hydrolysis) of fatty acid triglycerides with a

strong base (usually potassium or sodium hydroxides), producing soap (potassium or sodium

salts of fatty acid) and glycerol. Soap quality depends on the composition of saponificated fatty

acids, i.e. saturated fatty acid give light open foam bubbles and solid, hard consistency, while

unsaturated fatty acids provide moisturizing, conditioning and nourishing properties (Strunz &

Jopp, 2006).

Fatty acids are merely carboxylic acids with long hydrocarbon chains. The hydrocarbon chains

length may vary from 10-30 carbons (mostly12-18). The non-polar hydrocarbon alkane chain is

an important counterbalance to the polar acid functional group. In acids with only a few carbons,

the acid functional group dominates and gives the whole molecule a polar character. However, in

fatty acids, the non-polar hydrocarbon chain gives the molecule a non-polar character.

The oils use in making soaps occurs in many varieties. More than hundred (100) are known to

exist. Unfortunately, not all these oils are suitable for soap production as many of them form

fatty acids that cannot be saponified. Usually, combinations of oils are use in soap production to

give a high quality product. Some components of these combinations may not undergo

saponfication upon hydrolysis and maybe left out as unreacted fatty acids in the soap.

Total Fatty Matter (TFM) is one of the most important characteristics describing the quality of

soap . It is defined as the total amount of fatty matter, mostly fatty acids, that can be separated

from a sample after splitting with mineral acid, usually hydrochloric acid. The fatty acids most

commonly present in soap are oleic, stearic and palmitic acids and pure, dry, sodium oleate has

TFM 92.8%, while top quality soap noodles now increasingly used for making soap tablets in

small and medium size factories, are typically traded with a specification TFM 78% minimum,

moisture 14% maximum. But besides moisture, finished commercial soap, especially laundry

soap, also contains fillers used to lower its cost or confer special properties, plus emollients,

preservatives etc., and then the TFM can be as low as 50%. Fillers, which are usually dry

powders, also make the soap harder, harsher on the skin and with greater tendency to become

'mushy' in water and so low TFM is usually associated with hardness and lower quality (Viorica

et al, 2011)

PROBLEM STATEMENT

Total Fatty Matter (TFM) is one of the most important characteristics describing the quality of

soaps and it is always specified in commercial transactions. When one says healthcare and

wellness, we immediately think of food, nutrition and exercise. But what about external body

care? How your soap affects your wellbeing? Higher TFM ensures that soaps are least harmful to

the skin and do not cause dryness; in "bathing" bars. Less TFM means very harmful soap, that

soap will grasp all the moisture present in the skin making it dry. As skin becomes dry it may

become more sensitive and prone to rashes, infections and skin breakdown. This condition is

sometimes referred to as xerosis.

Bathing soaps are classified into three grades, Grade 1: soaps should have 76% minimum TFM,

Grade 2: soaps should have 70% minimum TFM and Grade 3: 60% minimum TFM. For laundry

soaps, they are classified in two grades. Grade 1: 62% minimum TFM and Grade 2: 50%

minimum TFM according to Ghana Standards Authority (GSA, 2008). Simply put, higher the

TFM of soap better is its cleansing ability.

MAIN OBJECTIVE

To determine the total fatty matter (TFM) content in selected soaps on the Ghanaian market.

CHAPTER TWO

The traditional way of making soap from ash-derived alkalis has been an age-old craft in Ghana,

Nigeria and many West African countries (Nwoko, 1982). Ash derived alkalis offer inexpensive

alternatives to imported ones such as potassium and sodium hydroxide, etc. Agricultural wastes

such as plantain peels, cocoa pods, maize cobs, cassava peels and numerous others contain high

levels of potash. According to Onyegbado et al. (2002), when they are burnt in air, the resulting

ashes contain oxides of potassium and sodium which when dissolved in water yields the

corresponding hydroxides according to the following equations:

Na2O + H2O -------->2NaOH (1)

K2O +H2O -------->2KOH (2)

In soap making the properties of the fats and oils are important; the fatty acid composition in oil

determines its properties (Nwoko, 1982). The acids may be distributed at random in the

triglycerides. In the soap making, it is the fatty acid content that matters the most. The chain

length (C number) is usually cited and helps describe the molecule’s properties in relation to

others in its same series. Saturated fatty acids contain no double bonds. They are stiff molecules

which tend to increase the melting point of oils. Oil and alkali based soap making involves the

hydrolysis of the triacyl glyceride molecule of the fat into fatty acids and glycerol and the

subsequent saponification of the fatty acids by the alkali to form soap.

The various methods adopted in soap making may be thus classified:

1. Boiling the fats and oils in open kettles by open steam with indefinite quantities of caustic

alkali solutions until the finished soap is obtained ordinarily named full boiled soaps. These may

be sub-divided into (a) hard soaps with sodium hydrate as a base, in which the glycerine is

recovered from the spent lye; (b) hard soaps with soda as a base, in which the glycerine remains

in the soap, e. g., marine coconut oil soaps; (c) soft potash soaps, in which the glycerine is

retained by the soap (Webb, 1926).

2. Combining the required amount of lye for complete saponification of a fat therewith, heating

slightly with dry heat and then allowing the saponification to complete itself. This is known as

the cold process.

3. Utilizing the fatty acid, instead of the neutral fat, and combining it directly with caustic alkali

or carbonate, which is incorrectly termed carbonate saponification, since it is merely neutralizing

the free fatty acid and thus is not a saponification in the true sense of the word.

In the methods outlined the one most generally employed is the full boiled process to form

sodium soap. The stock, strength of lye, heat, amount of salt or brine added, time of settling, etc.,

are all influencing factors (Webb. 1926).

The total fatty matter determination is crucial in the soap development process since it defines

the quality of the soap and helps in soap grading. It is the water-insoluble fatty material obtained

by decomposing the soap with a mineral acid under the specified conditions or the total amount

of fatty matter, mostly fatty acids, that can be separated from a sample after splitting with

mineral acid, usually hydrochloric acid. Poor quality soaps can cause skin discomforts such as

acne, eczema, hives, rashes, skin irritation and possibly lead to cancer (Butler, 1997).Although

soap is effective in removing grime and is relatively inexpensive, alkaline soaps or those with

high content of percentage free alkali can cause skin irritation, dryness and scaling which can

predispose the skin to fungal attacks (Butler, 1997). This is because the excess alkali will

saponify the fats and oils, normally found on the skin as a protective coat, to form soluble soap

and therefore get washed away, thereby rendering the skin dry.

FATTY ACIDS

The basic structure of fats was established nearly a century and one-half ago when Chevreul

found that they were –composed of fatty acids and glycerol. A little later Gusserow separated

saturated from unsaturated acids by differential solubilities of their lead salts. Fats are essential

constituents of all forms of plant and animal life, and are consequently widely distributed.

However, the plants and animals that produce oils and fats in sufficient quantity to constitute a

significant source are few. The largest of these comprises the annual plants sucli as flax, soybean,

cotton, peanut and castor bean. These grow in temperate climates requiring cultivation and

production can be varied. The second source of vegetable oils is the oil bearing trees such as

coconut, palm, olive, and tung. These grow in the warm or temperate climates. The commercial

land animal fats come largely from hogs, sheep and cattle. (Gardner, 1931) Milk fats are nearly

all used for food.

The sea contributes a considerable volume of oil. Among the most important sources are sardine,

menhaden, herring and whale, including sperm whale. The natural fatty acids are generally

aliphatic compounds with a carboxyl group at the end of a straight carbon chain. Nearly all of

them have an even number of carbon atoms. The acids differ from one another in the number of

carbon atoms and the number and position of the double or unsaturated bonds (Von Mikusch and

Fraeier, 1941)

Lauric and all longer chain acids are solids at room temperature. The most widely distributed

and the most commercially important are palmitic and stearic acids. Commercial stearic acid in

its different grades consists of roughly equal parts of these two acids (Peter and Mark, 1950)

The unsaturated acids differ from one another in the number of carbon atoms, the number of

double bonds, the position of the double bonds, and the geometry of the double bonds. All of the

unsaturated acids, with the exception of elaidic, are liquid at room temperature (Peter and Mark,

1950)

FATTY ACIDS IN SOAPS

Soap is a function of acids and fatty acids are functions of fats and oil. In the simplest sense, oils

that are solid at room temperature are hard whereas those that are liquid at room temperature are

soft. The degree of hardness and softness differs according to their sources and other parameters.

Oils that are hard contributes to hardness and/or lather in soap. Oils that are soft contribute to

conditioning.

The main conditioning fatty acids are oleic (1 unsaturated bonds), linoleic (2 unsaturated bonds)

and linolenic (3 unsaturated bonds). The more unsaturated bonds, the better the conditioning and

the more easily it is absorbed by the skin, but the softer the oil is in soap, the more prone to

oxidation. Making soap therefore means choosing a combination of oils with different degrees of

hard/soft, conditioning and lather, to get the particular product that fits best and provides the best

result (Oghome et al., 2012). According to Oghome et al., (2012), the chief fatty acids in soap

making are lauric acid, myristic acid, palmitic acid, stearic acid and oleic acid. They are obtained

from mutton tallow, beef tallow (animal fats), palm oil, and palm kernel oil. Lauric acid is a

saturated fatty acid whose single bond helps in soap hardening. It also has good cleansing agent

and supports foaming. As they increase in size from lauric to stearic, the melting point of the oil

increases. Saturated fatty acids in soap have good cleaning properties. Unsaturated fatty acids are

liquids. They tend to have good cleaning power, but lather poorly. These fatty acids also tend to

make milder soaps (Web, 1926)

The percentage of palmitoleic acid is between 0.00-2.20 percent. This acid is unsaturated. It

makes soap to be mild, have good cleaning power but foams poorly (Oghome et al., 2012).

Lauric Acids

Lauric acid, or dodecanoic acid, is a saturated fatty acid with the molecular formula CH3

(CH2)10COOH. It is the main acid in coconut oil and in palm kernel oil, and is believed to have

antimicrobial properties. It is also found in human milk (5.8% of total fat), cow’s milk (2.2%),

and goat milk (4.5%). "Approximately 50% of the fatty acids in coconut fat are lauric acid

(Linstrom and Mallard, 2014). Lauric acid is a medium chain fatty acid (MCFA), which has the

additional beneficial function of being formed into monolaurin in the human or animal body.

Monolaurin is the antiviral, antibacterial, and antiprotozoal monoglyceride used by the human or

animal to destroy lipid coated viruses such as HIV, herpes, cytomegalovirus, influenza, various

pathogenic bacteria including listeria monocytogenes and heliobacter pylori, and protozoa such

as giardia lamblia. Some studies have also shown some antimicrobial effects of the free lauric

acid. (Gunstone, 2007)

Steric Acids

Stearic acid is a waxy crystalline solid melting at 69.6oC. It is practically insoluble in water

[0.00029 g / 100 g of water at 20oC], fairly soluble in chloroform [0.5g / 100ml] and

decreasingly soluble in CS2, C6H6, CCl4, CH3CH2OH and CH3 – O – CH3. It has melting

point of 69.30oC, boiling point of 3830oC, and specific gravity of 0.847 and neutralization value

of 197.23

Stearic acid occurs in most fruit flesh and seed fats and in marine animal oils. It has also been

reported to comprise more than 1% of carnabua wax. Palm oil contains 2 to 6% of this acid;

Most so called yellow oils (Cotton seeds, Corn, Soyabean, Peanut, Sesame, Sunflower, Kapole)

contain 2 to 8%, milk fats – 5 to 15%) lard 10 to 12%, tallows – 14 to 30%, Cocoa and Shea

butters – 30 to 35%. (Gunstone et al, 2007). It is a principal constituent of most commercially

hydrogenated gats and constitutes as much as 90% of completely hydrogenated corn and

soyabean oils. Also used as plasticizer, softener, water – proofing agent, polishing agent and

oiling agent, antisatatic agent in textile industry, lubricant in metal machining, mold releasing

agent in tile making and used as addictive for Polyethylene, Polypropylene, and PVC etc.

Potassium salts of fatty acids with excess stearic acid give a slow drying lather for shaving soap.

Derivations of stearic acid are used in manufacture of soaps, Metallic salts, Stearoyl chlorides,

Bromide, Steramide, Stearonitrile, Stearyl alcohol. (Beare-Rogers, et al, 2001)

Myristic acid

Myristic acid, also called tetradecanoic acid, is a common saturated fatty acid with the molecular

formula CH3 (CH2)12COOH. Molecular weight: 228.37092 [g/mol]. In purified form it is white

solid insoluble in water, with melting point at 53.9 °C and boiling point at 250 °C at 100 mmHg.

A myristate is a salt or ester of myristic acid. Myristic acid is named after the nutmeg Myristic.

Besides nutmeg, myristic acid is also found in palm kernel oil, butter fat and is a minor

component of many other animal fats (IUPAC, 2001). In fruit, it is present in high amounts only

in dried and fresh coconut 9.5 g .

It is present in small quantities in a few cereals (corn, with a 0.28 g/100 g of edible portion, is the

richest source). It is used as ingredient in soaps, cosmetic and shaving creams, often in the form

of the ester isopropyl myristate. (Akoh and Min, 2008)

.

Oleic acidsOleic acid is a fatty acid that occurs naturally in various animal and vegetable fats and oils. It is

odorless, colorless oil, although commercial samples may be yellowish. In chemical terms, oleic

acid is classified as a monounsaturated omega-9 fatty acid. It has the formula CH3

(CH2)7CH=CH (CH2)7COOH (Thomas, 2000). Fatty acids like oleic acid occur as their esters,

commonly triglycerides, which are the greasy materials in many natural oils. Triglycerides of oleic acid

compose the majority of olive oil, although there may be less than 2.0% (Grossi, 2014), as free

acid in virgin olive oil, with higher concentrations making the olive oil inedible.

Oleic acid (in triglyceride form) is included in the normal human diet as a part of animal fats and

vegetable oils. Oleic acid as its sodium salt is a major component of soap as an emulsifying

agent. It is also used as an emollient. Small amounts of oleic acid are used as an excipient in

pharmaceuticals, and it is used as an emulsifying or solubilizing agent in aerosol products

(Smolinske and Susan 1992). Oleic acid is also used to induce lung damage in certain types of

animals, for the purpose of testing new drugs and other means to treat lung diseases. (Julien et al,

1986)

Palmitic Acids

Palmitic acid, or hexadecanoic acid in IUPAC nomenclature, is the most common fatty acid

(saturated) found in animals, plants and microorganisms (Gunstone, 2007). Its chemical formula

is CH3 (CH2)14COOH. As its name indicates, it is a major component of the oil from palm trees

(palm oil), but can also be found in meats, cheeses, butter, and dairy products. Palmitate is a term

for the salts and esters of palmitic acid. Palmitic acid is used to produce soaps, cosmetics, and

release agents. These applications utilize sodium palmitate, which is commonly obtained by

saponification of palm oil.

Because it is inexpensive and adds texture to processed foods (convenience food), palmitic acid

and its sodium salt find wide use including foodstuffs. Sodium palmitate is permitted as a natural

additive in organic products (Anneken, 2006.) Hydrogenation of palmitic acid yields acetyl

alcohol, which is used to produce detergents and cosmetics.

RAW MATERIAL FOR SOAP MAKING

Alkalis

Sodium hydroxide (caustic soda) is the strongest of the alkalis and inexpensive. It has excellent

dissolving properties, is a very strong saponifier and has added advantage of being strongly

bactericidal. It is, however, highly corrosive to metals especially aluminium and extreme care

must be taken when handling as it can cause severe burns to the skin (Oghome et al., 2012).

Sodium metasilicate, although a strong alkali, is non-caustic and therefore much less corrosive

than sodium hydroxide. Trisodium phosphate (TSP) is a good emulsifier and saponifier has

strong dispersive properties and has the ability to soften water by precipitating the salts.

Although somewhat corrosive, it is often incorporated in soaps (Thomsson, 1922).

Soap formed using soda and potash is soluble in water, unlike those from the other bases and

they constitute the soap of commerce. These reagents are always used in sufficient quantity to

combine with the whole of the fatty acids contained in an oil or fat, though doubtless, by the use

of considerably smaller quantities, under pressure, complete resolution of the fatty matter into

fatty acids and glycerol could be accomplished. They are, by far, the most important saponifying

agents employed in the soap manufacturing processes over a long period of time (Oghome et al.,

2012)

Oils

The type of oil or fat that is used has a significant and direct influence on the finished

characteristics and qualities of the detergent product. Some fats and oil are better for bubbles and

others are better for cleaners. Examples of fats and oils that are suited for the traditional soap

making process are: neem, coconut, tallow, palm oil, palm kernel, ground pea nut, Shea butter,

and cocoa butter (Ekpa and Ekpe, 1995)

Besides the various physical properties of oils and fats, such as color, specific gravity, melting

point, solubility, etc., they may be distinguished chemically by a number of chemical constants.

These are the iodine number, the acetyl value, saponification number, Reichert-Meissl number

for volatile acids, and Hehner number for insoluble acids. These constants, while they vary

somewhat with any particular oil or fat, are more applicable to the edible products and form

criteria where any adulteration of fat or oil is suspected (Thomssen, 1922). The various oils used

in detergent and soap making have similarities and differences that make them exhibit unique

chemical and physical properties. Due to the triglyceride composition, the oils used in soap

making exhibit a steep melting curve and melt below body temperature. Their low degree of

unsaturation gives them a high oxidative stability. The characteristics exhibited by oils used in

soap making are due to their high content of saturation (Webb, 1926).

Coconut Oil

Desiccated coconut contains about 69% coconut fats. Approximately 50% of the fatty acids in

coconut fat are lauric acid. Some studies have shown some antimicrobial effects of free lauric

acid. It is a medium chain fatty acid, which has the added beneficial function of being formed

into monolaurin in the human or animal body (Hautfenne, 1982)

Palm Oil

Palm kernel oil is manufactured from the kernel of the oilseed palm. It is very similar in

composition to coconut oil. Palm kernel and coconut oils are known as lauric fats (Pantzaris and

Ahmad, 2004). Lauric fats, Capric acid and Caprylic acid, are known for their natural antifungal

and antimicrobial properties. Among the 17 major oils and fats in world trade, there are only two

lauric oils: coconut oil and palm kernel oil and they are called lauric because lauric acid is the

major fatty acid in their composition at about 50%, while no other major oil contains more than

about 1% (Ekwenye and Ijeomah, 2005).

Other oils employed in soap making There are other oils that can equally be used in soap manufacturing but they offer different

characteristics to the final soap formed based on chemical constants of the oils such as its

saponification value, iodine number, peroxide value etc. The various and most important oils and

fats used in the manufacture of soap are, tallow, coconut oil, palm oil, olive oil, poppy oil,

sesame oil, soya bean oil, cotton-seed oil, corn oil and the various greases. Besides these the fatty

acids, stearic, red oil (oleic acid) are more or less extensively used. These oils, fats and fatty

acids, which vary from time to time and as to their colour, odour and consistency can readily be

distinguished by various physical and chemical constants (Thomssen, 1922).

Tallow is the name given to the fat extracted from the solid fat or "suet" of cattle, sheep or

horses. The quality varies greatly, depending upon the seasons of the year, the food and age of

the animal and the method of rendering. The better quality is white and bleaches whiter upon

exposure to air and light, though it usually has a yellowish tint, a well-defined grain and a clean

odor. It consists chiefly of stearin, palmitin and olein. Tallow is by far the most extensively used

and important fat in the making of soap (Thomssen, 1922).

According to Mak-Mensah and Frempong (2011), neem oil has been used in the manufacture of

natural cosmetics, soap, toothpaste, hair and skin care products, emulsions, liquors, ointments

and medicinal cosmetics. However neem oil can be produced mechanically (hot or cold press) or

chemically (solvent extraction) from dried neem seeds. The best quality neem oil with a majority

of phytoconstituents intact is obtained through cold press. In cold press the oil is lighter in colour

and has a milder odour. Moreover potential residual solvents in chemical extracted oil that may

pose health hazards to consumers are eliminated since solvents are not used in the pressing

techniques.

TYPES OF SOAPS

Soaps are of different forms and types, depending on their uses, application and material

composition. Examples of the types include laundry soap, toilet soap, toilet soap and medicated

soaps. These could either be in liquid mousse, solid tablets or bars.

Laundry soaps

Laundry soaps, or washing soaps, is a type of soap (cleaning agent) that is used for cleaning

laundry, while soaps are still sold in solid form; powdered detergents have been taking major

market shares in many countries since their introduction in the 1960s (Anamuah-Mensah, 1999).

Laundry cleaning products are to meet a variety of stain and soil removal, bleaching, fabric

softening and conditioning and disinfectant requirements under varying water, temperature, and

usage conditions. These products are either general purpose or light duty cleaning agents suitable

for washing all types of fabrics and clothes. These cleansing products contain different

ingredients that are used to improve their cleaning performance. The surfactant play an important

role in improving the cleansing action by reducing the surface tension of wash liquid thereby

improving the wet ability of washable fabric. Some of the important laundry soaps ingredients

are surfactants, brightening agents, synthetic fragrances, colors, and more. (Cavitch and Miller,

1994)

Bathing soaps

Bathing soap is typically made up of moisturizers and cleansing agents that work together to

soften skin and clean it. Depending on the brand, there can be more cleansing agents than

moisturizers or vice versa. Checking the individual labels can let you know what soap additives

are included in that particular soap.

Bathing bars contain low TFM (total Fatty Matter). Today, 85 percent of soaps available in the

consumer market are bathing bars. (Benn and Charles 2002) The bathing bars are nothing but

entry level soaps. Some main ingredients in bathing soaps are; Sodium laureth sulfate is a

cleanser with high-foaming properties that make it useful for those with hard water. It adds

softness to the skin and has been deemed safe to add to products by the Cosmetic Ingredient

Review expert panel. It can also function as a surfactant, which creates a smooth surface for the

product to glide over. This surfactant action makes it a better cleanser because it enables the soap

to have continuous coverage. Sodium palmitate is both a cleanser and an emulsifier, according to

the Environmental Working Group's Skin Deep database of cosmetic ingredients. Emulsifiers

make oil and liquid ingredients blend well together. It states that sodium palmitate is the salt of

palmitic acid and creates lather and cleanses well, but it could also dry out your skin. Sodium

lauroyl isethionate works as a cleansing agent, an emulsifier and a wetting agent. It could be a

drying ingredient. It is made through the sulfation of lauryl alcohol with a neutralization of

sodium carbonate, and, while a good cleanser and degreaser, it may prove irritating to some

sensitive skins. Sodium cocoate is a soap detergent cleansing agent that is used in many

shampoos and bar soaps. While it makes for a good lather and cleans well, it can also be a skin

irritant and drying to some who have sensitive (Garzena, 2004)

Toilet soaps

Toilet soap contains more fatty material. Toilet soaps are categorized into 3 grades based on their

TFM values. The higher TFM present in soap contributes better cleansing action. An ideal fat to

bases ratio of 5:1 makes a TFM of 83.3%. However, it is disappointing to note that you will not

find such ideal toilet soap in the market. Due to the increasing awareness towards health and

hygiene, toilet soaps have now become a necessity for people in modern life. Urbanization and

developments in the industry has led to the increase in demand as well as improvement in quality

of products. With the advent of new technologies and sophisticated manufacturing practices, the

development processes have improved and as a result of which, the markets are flooded with a

variety of soaps that vary in both the physical as well as functional attributes. Toilet soaps can be

broadly categorized into several types of soaps, such as: Oily Skin Soap, Dry Skin Soap,

Sensitive Skin Soap, Normal Skin Soap, Baby Soap, Antibacterial Soap, Glycerin Soap, Olive

Oil Soap, Herbal Soap. These different types of toilet soaps are designed and manufactured on

the basis of several factors, such as weather conditions, skin type, lifestyle and preferences of

people. Toilet soaps come in several sizes for different purposes and requirements, such as -

• Small toilet soaps - Small toilet soaps generally come in weight of 10 gm to 30 gm and

are specially designed for hotel industries and travel requirements.

• Normal toilet bath bar soap - The normal toilet bath bar soap come in weight of 75 gm

to 100 gm that are usually developed for mass consumption.

Along with fats and oils, toilet soaps are made using a variety of ingredients, which depends on

the type of soap and properties required. Some most common ingredients that are used in making

toilet soaps are fats, alkalis, essential oils, fragrances, glycerin, blends, distilled water, cocoa

butter, and more. Function and applications of some ingredients, which are used in soapmaking,

are -

• Pearlizing agents are added to opacify the formula and give it a more pleasing appearance

• Fragrances are added to mask the odor of the base and increase consumer appeal

• Thickeners are added to increase the viscosity of product

• Colorants may also be included to improve the appearance of product

• Primary surfactants are added foam and cleansing, while secondary surfactants are added

to give the foam more creaminess and improve the skin feel

Medicated soaps

Medicated soaps are simply soaps that have ingredients which can cure one or the other

problems such as acne and other skin problems like black heads, clogged pores, pimples, body

itching, bacterial or fungal infections etc. There are many types of medicated soaps that can be

helpful to us such as anti-bacterial soap that generally helps to relieve various skin problems.

Then there are anti-fungal soaps having therapeutic effects that reduce the discomfort and relieve

the symptoms caused by various fungal infections. One of the very popular types of medicated

soaps includes the anti-acne soap that helps in getting rid from acne and pimples. The anti-

cellulite soap are the medicated soaps for reducing cellulites that are the dimpled skin in such

areas of body as hips, thighs and buttocks as a result of deposition of fat. The anti-mosquito soap

is used to dispel mosquitoes, mostly in mosquitoes-infested areas.

There are certain medicated soaps that not only have therapeutic effects but are beauty treatments

too such as anti-aging soap that are useful for both cleansing the outer body as well as to slow

down the signs of aging. There are many other types of medicated soaps like sensitive skin soap

which is gentle to the skin and maintains it properly. Anti-itch soap is for relieving skin problem

of itching. Anti-chlorine soap is used while swimming to keep the harmful effects of chlorine at

bay.

Although the basic ingredients of soaps are similar, there are certain added ingredients of

medicated soaps through which the all the problems are tried to be solved.

Antibacterial soap- The medicated antibacterial soaps contains antibacterial chemicals

such as triclosan which is alcohol. Apart from triclosan, triclocarban/trichlorocarbamide

and PCMX/chloroxylenol, tetrasodium EDTA are generally used for antibacterial effect

in these soaps. However, it must be remembered that since there are various types of

bacteria, effectiveness against any given type of bacterium does not ensure that it is

effective against other unrelated types too. The ingredients of antibacterial soaps are

generally only contained at preservative level unless the product is marked antibacterial,

antiseptic, or germicidal. (Aiello et al, 2007)

Antifungal soap- Antifungal soaps are made by adding organic medicinal plant extracts,

vitamin E, essential oils, natural glycerin, sulphur and zinc oxide, tea tree oil (melaleuca

alternifolia) etc. into the soap.( Amen and Mahreen,2010)

Medicated soaps for skin problems- Medicated soaps for different skin problems have

different ingredients. For example, exfoliating soaps for unclogging skin pores sometimes

have oatmeal, pine and eucalyptus. Oatmeal opens the pores and deep cleans and

removes excess dirt and oil. Pine and eucalyptus cleanse, moisturize and fragrance the

skin. Anti-cellulite soaps have many natural ingredients, main being seaweeds that can be

used alone or in combination with other agents like ivy extract, juniper, aminophylline,

coffee bean extract, fennel seed extract, aloe, hyaluronic acid, ginko biloba, horse

chestnut, bentonite etc. Many anti-acne soaps or oily skin soap have natural ingriedients

like neem leaves (azadirachta indica) for extra care and protection for oily skin that

mostly suffer from acne and pimples (Wilson, et al, 2004). The best medicated soaps are

those that have the exact ingredients that target at the problem for which they are made or

bought.

IMPORTANCE OF SOAPS

The skin is bombarded daily with foreign influences such as scorching sun, drying winds, biting

cold weather, bacteria and dirt, our distant ancestors learned quickly that preserving the health of

skin is a way for better and longer life. As our civilization slowly evolved from Stone Age into

modern times, advancements in technology, chemistry and medicine enabled the rise of soap -

multipurpose cleaning tool of skin, clothes and the area that we live in. Created from the

countless variation of ingredients, all soaps have two main components - animal oils or fats and

alkaline solution that enables the process of saponification. During the last few thousand years,

process of soap creation received numerous upgrades and tweaks, mostly by adding natural

additives of color and smell, but in modern times also many new industrial substances that

increase soap's performance in cleaning and lubrication.

The existence of first soap like material that can be proven in 4800 year old archeological digs of

ancient Babylon, but scientist are speculating that those material consisting of boiled animal fats

and ashes were used as a hair gel. More detailed accounts of soap use came from 3500 year old

Ancient Egypt, where soaps and aromatic oils were not only used for washing but also as

important medical cure for many skin and muscle diseases. The tradition of using soaps

continued to live in Roman civilization, where several medicinal instruction books clearly stated

that use of soap is beneficiary for health and long life. Sadly, after fall of Roman civilization

tradition of personal, living quarters and eating hygiene was abandoned (except in Asia, where

hygiene remained respected and enforced by tradition). Benefits of soap finally managed to

appeal to wide European population in 17th century, and since then tradition of maintaining high

personal hygiene experienced only constant growth.

Advancements in technology and science enabled soaps to become more useful in cleaning and

received many more medicinal uses as time went by. Sadly, introduction of heavily industrialized

and mass produced soaps and detergents brought many unhealthy substances into soaps, which

had a potential to cause skin irritation and other harmful effects on human body. As the era of

environment friendly and natural products is sweeping around the world, many international

manufacturers of solid and liquid soaps try to shift their production in a direction that will satisfy

all modern customers who demand safe, biodegradable and cheap products

By general definition, “soap” is a substance that cleans off dirt when used in the presence of

water. In its most common forms, it will produce bubbles, feel slippery, and remove oils, odors,

and smudges from our skin. It leaves us feeling “clean” and often smells nice to boot.

Specifically, how people would classify soap would depend on what it’s made of. Collectively

consider anything commonly used for washing hands, whether liquid or bar, commercially

produced or home-made, to be “soap”. We do most of our eating with our fingers not our palms.

As a matter of fact, we rely on our fingers’ dexterity for a lot of important things (counting out

money, opening doors, dialing, writing, and typing etc.), so it is safe to assume that they need

more soapy attention than our palms most of the time. The next issue is the matter of

thoroughness. The time and energy spent on washing do pay dividends. The lather of soap

breaks up the oily dirt and other unwanted stuff and allows it to be rinsed away.

ACTION OF SOAPS

When used for cleaning, soap allows insoluble particles to become soluble in water, so they can

then be rinsed away. For example: oil/fat is insoluble in water, but when a couple of drops of dish

soap are added to the mixture, the oil/fat solubilizes into the water. The insoluble oil/fat

molecules become associated inside micelles, tiny spheres formed from soap molecules with

polar hydrophilic (water-attracting) groups on the outside and encasing a lipophilic (fat-

attracting) pocket, which shields the oil/fat molecules from the water making it soluble. Anything

that is soluble will be washed away with the water.

ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERN ON SOAPS

Soap is designed as a product to be used once and then flushed down the drain, so as expected,

the environmental implications of soap manufacturing process are not nearly as important as its

several other chemical processes. The two prime areas of concern include

• Safe transport and containment of the raw materials

• Minimization of losses during production

Therefore, it becomes a prime responsibility of all soap manufacturers that not only they use

natural and/or such ingredients that are not harmful to environment but also take care while

transporting these raw materials as well as minimize their ill effects during soap manufacturing

process. The three prime soaps ingredients by volume & cost are perfumes, caustic and oil. Oils

& perfume are insoluble in water and if spilled can create problems, although the oils do solidify

at room temperature. These products are transported through trained carriers, and the equipment

and systems for pumping from the truck are designed carefully. Perfumes are bought in lined

steel drums that are adequately robust, and flammable perfumes are not used in the

manufacturing of soaps. All the storage tanks are surrounded by bunds to catch the contents of

the tank, in case it ruptures or valves get failed. When the storage systems are designed, the

different safety features (like access to tank and valve) are designed in, as well as processes to

deal with the product in case it end up in the bounded area. Inside the plant, all the process and

operational areas are also bounded, and the trade waste is piped to an interception tank before

draining to the council's trade waste system. The contents of the interception tank are

consistently monitored for alkalinity or acidity, and are designed to maintain solids or light phase

chemicals in right amount. If in the case, a spill is observed in the plant itself, a part of the

interception tank can be isolated off and the consequences of the spill neutralized before the

waste is dumped.

In various cases and applications, however, potential problems can be detected and stopped

before they actually happen. At times, an off-spec product can be recycled and blended rather

than dumped, and even the wastewater can be reprocessed minimize the discharges from the

plant.

In some cases, the manufacturing method itself can be closely monitored to ensure that any

losses or wastes are kept to a minimum. Consistent measurement of key characteristics, like -

electrolytic levels and the moisture both assure that the end product is being designed to

specifications and the technique is functioning properly as it was designed to. Hence by

following these simple tips, losses in the plant can indirectly be minimized by monitoring the

process. Many soap and manufacturers now make environmental friendly products, Apart from

natural soaps; there are biodegradable soaps that can be called ecofriendly cleaning product. In

recent times, there has been seen a strong move among the soap manufacturers to use

biodegradable ingredients in place of environmentally hazardous ingredients used in the past.

The Soap manufacturers can contribute to the enhancement of human health and quality of life

by adopting responsible formulations and through the production and sale of environment

friendly cleaning products & ingredients. Some initiatives, which soap manufacturers can take

for environment / health sustainability, are -

• To only market products, which have proved to be safe for humans and the environment

• While production, the manufacturers should carefully consider the potential health and

environmental effects, exposures and releases, which will be associated with the

production, transportation, use and disposal of different cleaning products

• To encourage and promote transparent communication of safety and handling information

• To facilitate basic research to resolve uncertainties around human and environmental

safety when they arise

• To follow the spirit and intent of all national laws and regulations

CHAPTER THREE

CHEMICALS AND REAGENTS

Water

Methyl orange

Sulfuric acid

Ethyl ether

Acetone

Anhydrous sodium sulphate

APPARATUS

Analytical balance (BOECO BAS 31 plus)

Rotary Evaporator (RE200B)

Hot air oven (Labcon 5016LC)

Steam bath (Labcon WBE001) 250ml Beaker

100ml conical flask

Stirrer

Pipette

Burette

Standard flask

Separating funnel

Desiccators

Funnel

SAMPLE SIZE

Twenty (20) samples group into four different categories was analyzed in triplicate making a

total of forty (40) samples analyzed.

PROCEDURE

The soap was weighed into a beaker and dissolved completely in 100ml of hot distilled water.

The solution was then transferred into a separating funnel and the beaker was washed with small

quantities of hot water and the washings transferred to the contents of the separating funnel. A

few drops of methyl orange indicator were added and from a burette, a quantity of the sulphuric

acid prepared was added to it. The sulphuric acid was added until the color of the solution turned

pink. An excess of 5ml of the acid was added. The solution was allowed to cool to room

temperature and 100ml of ethyl ether added. The separating funnel was shaken several times

with the release of the stopper intermittently to release the pressure. The shaken repeated until

the aqueous layer had become clear and allowed to stand. The aqueous layer was run into a

second separating funnel and extracted with 50ml of ethyl ether. Another 50ml ethyl ether was

used to extract the fatty acid from the aqueous layer. The three ether extracts were combined in

the first separatory funnel. The ether extracts were washed by shaking with three successive

sessions of 50ml distilled water until the washings were neutral to methyl orange indicator. The

ether extracts were filtered with dry filter paper covered with anhydrous sodium sulphate into a

weighted flask. The separatory funnel was washed out with small quantities of ether extracts and

added to the weighted flask. The ether solution was distilled slowly on a rotary evaporator on

steam bath. 5ml of acetone was then added to the residue in the flask and warmed on the steam

bath for about one minute. The flask was shaken at an angle of about 40° to direct a current of

dry air into it to remove the acetone. The flask was then placed in an oven at a temperature of

90°C for 10 minutes. It was removed from the oven and blown with air for 15s and was cooled in

the desiccator and reweighted. The drying procedure was repeated until the difference in

consecutive weighing was less than 0.005gm. The fatty matter left was then calculated.

CHAPTER FOUR

RESULTS

Table 1: Total fatty matter content of the selected bathing soaps

SAMPLE CODES MASS OF FATTY ACIDS(gm)

TOTAL FATTY MATTER (%)

BS001 2.514 25.125BS002 3.513 35.098BS003 4.429 44.286BS004 8.906 89.030BS005 3.064 30.639

Table 2: Total fatty matter content of the selected laundry soaps

SAMPLE CODES MASS OF FATTY ACIDS(gm)

TOTAL FATTY MATTER (%)

LS001 2.754 27.531LS002 3.008 30.077LS003 4.504 45.017LS004 3.330 33.293LS005 3.597 35.956

Table 3: Total fatty matter content of the selected medicated soaps

SAMPLE CODES MASS OF FATTY ACIDS (gm)

TOTAL FATTY MATTER (%)

MS001 5.623 56.206MS002 4.565 45.626MS003 4.359 43.569MS004 4.845 48.422MS005 4.220 42.231

Table 4: Total fatty matter content of the selected toilet soaps

SAMPLE CODES MASS OF FATTY ACIDS(gm)

TOTAL FATTY MATTER (%)

TS001 6.531 65.271TS002 7.379 73.750

TS003 5.898 58.94TS004 4.264 42.614TS005 4.044 40.428

CHARTS

Figure 1: A graph of the total fatty matter content for the selected bathing soaps

Figure 2: A graph of the total fatty matter content for the selected laundry soaps

Figure 3: A graph of the total fatty matter content for the selected toilet soaps.

Figure 4: A graph of the total fatty matter content for the selected toilet soaps.

DISCUSSION

From the results obtained it was realized that all the soaps contains amounts of fatty matter in

them though some of the soaps total fatty matter fall below the minimum accepted values as

prescribed by the standard authority. The various total fatty matters of the soaps were determined

according to how it is use in our everyday life. The bathing soaps with identical codes;

BS001,BS002,BS003,BS004 and BS005 was determine to have 25.125%, 35.098%, 44.286%,

89.030% and 30.639% total fatty matter respectively, comparing with the accepted standard by

the Ghana standard Authority, only the soaps with identical code BS004 meet the minimum

accepted standard and hence can be classified as grade three (3) soaps. The remaining soaps

(BS001, BS002, BS003 and BS005) total fatty matter was lower and hence did not meet the

minimum total fatty mater accepted to be in bathing soaps. However, dry skin needs soap which

is high in total fatty matter. This re-hydrates the skin making it smooth and additionally the high

oil content in the soap act as a lubricant throughout the day. The laundry soaps with identical

codes; LS001, LS002, LS003, LS004 and LS005 total fatty matter content were 27.531%,

30.077%, 45.017%, 33.296% and 35.956% respectively, comparing with the accepted standard

the minimum total fatty matter for laundry should be 50%, implying that the soaps did not meet

the accepted total fatty matter that should be in laundry soaps. The total fatty matter for the

medicated soaps with identical codes; MS001, MS002, MS003, MS004 and MS005 were

56.206%, 45.626%, 48.422%, 48.422% and 42.231% respectively. The total fatty matter of the

toilet soaps with identical codes; TS001, TS002, TS003, TS004 and TS005 were 65.271%,

73.750%, 58.943% 42.614% and 40.427% respectively. The total fatty matter content of the

toilet soaps is appreciably accepted according to the purpose to be used.

CHAPTER FIVE

CONCLUSION

From the result obtained from the analysis, it can be concluded that most of the soaps analyzed

did not meet the standard set by the Ghana standard Authority and can therefore be classified as

sub-standard soaps.

RECOMMENDATIONS

i. Different and further studies or analysis should be conducted on the similar soaps to

established the soap quality

ii. Further studies should be conducted on different parameters in soaps which determine the

quality.

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APPENDICES

Appendix A

TABLE OF RESULTS

Table 3: Comprehensive results of the selected bathing soaps

SAMPLE CODES MEAN MASS OFSAMPLE(g)

MEAN MASS OFTOTAL FATTYMATTER(g)

PERCENTAGE TOTALFATTY MATTER (%)

BS001 10.0005 2.5594 25.5925BS002 10.0006 3.5277 35.2745BS003 10.0205 4.6006 45.9120BS004 10.0205 8.9246 88.3055BS005 10.1000 3.0506 30.2067

Tables 4: Comprehensive result of the selected laundry

SAMPLE CODES MEAN MASS OFSAMPLE(g)

MEAN MASS OFTOTAL FATTYACID(g)

PERCENTAGE TOTALFATTY MATTER (%)

LS001 10.0341 2.7388 27.2939LS002 10.0279 3.0142 30.0590LS003 10.0271 4.4840 44.7193LS004 10.0515 3.3080 32.9100LS005 10.0717 3.6014 35.7595

Tables 5: Comprehensive results of the selected medicated soaps

SAMPLE CODES MEAN MASS OF MEAN MASS OF PERCENTAGE TOTAL

SAMPLE(g) TOTAL FATTYACID(g)

FATTY MATTER (%)

MS001 10.0370 5.6373 56.1656MS002 10.0638 4.5591 45.3020MS003 10.1038 4.5959 45.4963MS004 10.0116 5.0292 50.2323MS005 10.1140 4.4104 43.5830

Tables 6: Comprehensive results of the selected toilet soaps

SAMPLE CODES MEAN MASS OFSAMPLE (g)

MEAN MASS OFTOTAL FATTYACID (g)

PERCENTAGE TOTALFATTY MATTER (%)

TS001 10.0246 6.7786 67.6253TS002 10.1273 7.3863 72.9206TS003 10.0406 5.8498 58.2573TS004 10.0186 4.2564 42.4820TS005 10.0670 4.0654 40.4052

APPENDIX B

FORMULA FOR CALCULATION

Percentages Total Fatty Matter (%TFM) = Mass of flask and fatty acid- Mass of flask / Mass of

sample x 100