Determining the Most Efficient Method of Power Transmission

Student Number: ___________ Page 1 of 41

MACQUARIE FIELDS HIGH SCHOOL

SCIENCE EXTENSION REPORT

MAJOR PROJECT

Determining the Most Efficient

Method of Power Transmission

Author

_____________

Grade

12

September 9, 2020


ABSTRACT

This scientific investigation determines the most effective method of power

transmission by comparing and contrasting various practical methods of mobile phone

charging. There are two major technological streams of charging in the modern society,

wired and wireless. The most prominent wireless transmission of energy is wireless

power transmission (WPT). Near field is a non-radiative technique which is done by

means of resonant inductive coupling and magnetic dynamic coupling. The methods

used in this investigation were selected based on the following criteria: (a) Practical

capabilities, (b) Economic constraints and (c) Accessible facilities. The following four

charging methods were selected: (1) ‘Resonant Inductive Charging’, (2) ‘Direct Wired

Charging’, (3) ‘Photovoltaic Panel Charging – Day & Night’, (4) ‘Power Bank

Charging’. The main data collected for each of the methods is time taken for fully

charging the mobile phone battery. This was measured on three selected phones: Galaxy

J1, Galaxy S3, and Galaxy S7. Additionally, minimum and maximum amps, charging

amperes, temperature, charging voltage are also collected using ampere app. From all

the data analysis, it is very evident that the direct charging method produces the least

amount of time for charging. Portable Charging using Battery Bank of high capacity is

most effective with least amount of charging time. The main difference from all other

methods is clearly that it is a direct DC battery of Battery Bank to DC Battery of the

phone. The losses contributed by various circuits to cover AC to DC. Further

investigation is needed for compatibility across android version, firmware version,

development platform for android apps and to optimise results. This investigation aims

to prove that ‘Direct Wired Charging’ is the most effective method of power energy

transmission.


Table of Contents

ABSTRACT ........................................................................................................................................... 2

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................. 5

LITERATURE REVIEW ................................................................................................................ 5

Relevant History of WPTT........................................................................................................... 5

Contemporary WPTT................................................................................................................... 6

Review of Related Work ............................................................................................................... 7

SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH QUESTION ........................................................................................ 9

SCIENTIFIC HYPOTHESIS .......................................................................................................... 9

CHAPTER TWO: SYSTEM DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION & TESTING .................................... 10

METHODOLOGY ......................................................................................................................... 10

Common to All Methods in Investigation ................................................................................. 10

Inductive Coupling Charging .................................................................................................... 12

Photovoltaic Day Charging ........................................................................................................ 16

Photovoltaic-LED Night Charging ............................................................................................ 19

Direct Phone Charging ............................................................................................................... 23

Portable Power Bank Charging ................................................................................................. 24

Data/Statistical Analysis ............................................................................................................. 25

Possible Errors ............................................................................................................................ 27

CHAPTER THREE: RESULTS........................................................................................................ 28

COMMON NOTE TO ALL RESULTS ........................................................................................ 28

INDUCTIVE COUPLING CHARGING ...................................................................................... 28

0mm .............................................................................................................................................. 28

2mm .............................................................................................................................................. 29

4mm .............................................................................................................................................. 29

6mm .............................................................................................................................................. 29

8mm .............................................................................................................................................. 30

10mm ............................................................................................................................................ 30

...................................................................................................................................................... 30

PHOTOVOLATIC DAY CHARGING ........................................................................................ 31

PHOTOVOLATIC-LED NIGHT CHARGING .......................................................................... 31

DIRECT PHONE CHARGING .................................................................................................... 31

PORTABLE POWER BANK CHARGING ................................................................................. 32

Precision ....................................................................................................................................... 32

Joway ............................................................................................................................................ 32


COMPARISON BETWEEN ALL METHODS ........................................................................... 33

CHAPTER FOUR: DISCUSSION .................................................................................................... 34

OBSERVED PHENOMENONS & DATA ANALYSIS .............................................................. 34

FUTURE & LIMITATIONS OF SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH ................................................... 37

CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSION ................................................................................................... 38

CHAPTER SIX: REFERENCES ...................................................................................................... 40


CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

LITERATURE REVIEW

Relevant History of WPTT

Currently, there are approximately 14.02 billion mobile phones; as it has been

predicted to rise to 16.2 billion in the next three years. Nikola Tesla was a

Serbian-American inventor who commenced the growth of wireless power

transmission. Through his research, he derived concepts which not only

explained this phenomenon but were practically applicable. Tesla’s idea soon

flourished as he created a structure which successfully transmitted power

wirelessly from an origin to a destination. He achieved this revolutionary piece

of technology through numerous trials involving the Earth’s ionosphere. The

evolution of WPTT is explained in detail below.

1839: Edmond Becquerel discovered that voltage is created when a material is

exposed to light.

1883: Charles Fritts discovered that selenium on a thin layer of gold generated

electricity with 1% efficiency.

1899: Nikola Tesla discovers practically that there is a discrepancy in frequency

and efficiency if there is a medium (other than air) between the origin and its

destination.

1905: Wireless communication systems are commercially demonstrated.

1916: Nikola Tesla states that the electromagnetic radiation isn’t necessarily

radiated but it is conserved.

1920: Flat-plate collectors were used to develop solar-hot water.

1954: David Chapin, Calvin Fuller and Gerald Pearson converted sunlight into

electric power using the first photovoltaic solar cell. Using this model, they soon

achieved 11% efficiency.

1955: Hoffman Electrics produced solar cells with 10% efficiency.

1961: William C. Brown discusses a wide range of possibilities/applications of

WPTT.


1968: Peter Glaser proposes the idea of ‘Laser Light Wireless Power

Transmission’. Glaser discusses the possibilities of this method in space using

a satellite.

1985: Solar power stared to be used to power cars, communication satellites,

spacecrafts, and commercial buildings.

2001: Professor Shu Yuen and Dr. S.C. Tang discussed the layers of an

electromagnetic shield. Their conversation involves a thin layer of ferrite and a

copper sheet as this would protect the circuit against electromagnetic radiation.

2007: Dr. Xun Liu and Professor Ron Hui discover that by utilising a double

layer electromagnetic shield to enclose the transmitter and receiver coil, it is

possible to minimise flux linkage and EM radiation.

2008: Professor John’s group successfully replicates Tesla’s findings and

wirelessly powers a light bulb with an efficiency of 75%.

2009: Companies start to introduce WPTT.

2010: WPTT starts to appear in the mainstream market.

2012: Research in the University of Toronto presents new models with slight

modifications.

2015: Solar power started becoming amongst all mundane activities.

Contemporary WPTT

(Trieb, F., Nitsch, J., Kronshage, S., Schillings, C., Brischke, L.-A., Knies, G.

and Czisch, G, 2003, pg. 1) Wireless power transmission technology (WPTT)

possesses the ability to transmit electrical power without wires; as these devices

utilise technologies based around: electric, magnetic, and electromagnetic

fields. These devices are particularly useful for embedded sensors, actuators,

and communication devices. There are numerous wireless power transmission

technologies as these are explored below:


There are numerous electrical and electronic appliances in the contemporary

society, ranging from home to office products. Many appliances include:

computers, mouses, toothbrushes, mobile phones and more. Considering the

proportions of electronic devices in the world, mobile phones have taken the top

position. Charging these mobile phones by various methods is important and

useful for larger appliances.

Review of Related Work

(Da Huang, Yaroslav Urzhumov, David R. Smith, Koon Hoo Teo, and Jinyun

Zhang, 2012, pg. 13) investigated the purpose of using a negative-permeability

lens, as this was hypothesised to assist in enhancing the transfer of power

between the two current carrying conductors. It was recorded that the negative

permeability slab, helped to focus the magnetic flux created between the origin

and destination. This mathematical discovery was compared with the theory of

dipoles being separated by a thin magnetic material. The authors of this

investigation predicted a trend between the metamaterial loss and finite width

of the slab. Post-investigation, it was discovered that the less the geometries,

the coupling between the two coils increased. Hence, they concluded that use of

a metamaterial slab in a WPT system will increase the collective performance.

(Jerry R. Whittaker, 1980, pg. 7-11) investigated the effect of a blocking diode

in a photovoltaic power supply and battery on solar power supply. A

photovoltaic panel was connected in a circuit which opened for varying periods,

which disturbed the output of the variable pulse generator. This pulse width

generator was connected to a controlled output as the voltage comparator


produced pulses of different widths. Hence, proving the effectiveness of

implementing a diode in a photovoltaic power supply.

(Yong-Seok Lim, and Seung-Jun Lee, 2013, pg. 24) explained and peer reviewed

Sun-Hee Kim’s architecture and methods for sharing wireless communication

in line with world standards. Their demonstration showed how this was used,

practically implemented and tested with detailed circuits and how

measurements were recorded. The conducted experiments had shown the

wireless power transmitting system and the wireless power receiving system as

they successfully formed a network. The power wirelessly transmitted with an

efficiency of about 40% at 20 cm was recorded using the communication

between the two systems.

(Dean Clark, 2005, pg. 2) demonstrated all variables and aspects to be

considered when designing and constructing wireless charging systems. Clark

detailed how various aspects of the components of the design affected the

performance and efficiencies. In relation, (John Macharia, 2013, pg. 94) peer

reviewed a thesis which explained the contemporary wireless power

technologies and its changing standards. Macharia’s project covered inductive

charging and resonance charging principles and their practices as he explained

various aspects of power loss. Macharia’s thesis prototype had been tested in

several simulations as the data collected from the prototype analysed all aspects

for efficient performance. The relevant data sets were identified and discussed

as possible future work was also detailed.

(Gerhard Kines 2003, pg. 36) insight into photovoltaic power charging and

power bank charging provided formulas to calculate requirements and suitably

matching sources. Whereas, (Matthew Bates, 2013, 27) described and peer

reviewed how inductive coupling works as he provided formulas used and

hence, determined resonant frequency, coil capacitance and coil diameter. Bates

showed in detail how a prototype was built and tested. This provides

information on possible approaches for troubleshooting and enhancements.

(Sanjay Gupta, 2011, 17) collaboration with VP Product Management and

WiTricity covered all advantages and disadvantages of magnetic resonance

technologies. This was discussed with reference to commercial product designs,


safety precautions, biological side-effects and efficiency ratings. The

construction of a photovoltaic charger and peer revision was provided by

(Angelo A.Beltran Jr., 2017, pg. 5) projection construction as he also discussed

advantages and disadvantages of both battery and non-battery designs.

SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH QUESTION

Which is the most effective method of power transmission; between ‘Resonant

Inductive Coupling’, ‘Photovoltaic-Diode Panel Charging’, and ‘Direct Wired

Charging’; measured through the rate of electric current flow?

SCIENTIFIC HYPOTHESIS

It is hypothesised that ‘Direct Wired Charging’ will be the most efficient in comparison

to ‘Resonant Inductive Coupling’ and ‘Photovoltaic-Diode Panel Charging’. This is due

to the limited loss in energy between the origin and destination. Since ‘Inductive

Coupling’ utilises magnetic fields to direct the current flow, it creates a circular-shaped

magnetic field around the transmitter. There will be a large dip in efficiency when the

distance between the transmitter and receiver is increased. However, since the power

transmission is directly proportional to the number of loops of conductive coil. To

measure ‘Light Energy Transmission’, measurements will be taken in relation to solar

and artificial light. This method is considered to be inefficient due to heat energy

emission; regardless of the presence of a diode. There are numerous exterior factors

which directly affect the efficiency of this WPTT, which are: intensity and

environmental climate. Hence, it is evident that ‘wired direct charging’ will be the most

efficient/effective charging method due to the limited energy loss. This conclusion is

reinforced by (Angelo A.Beltran Jr., 2017, pg. 5), (Sanjay Gupta, 2011, 17), and

(Gerhard Kines 2003, pg. 36).


CHAPTER TWO: SYSTEM DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION &

TESTING

METHODOLOGY

Common to All Methods in Investigation

Design Components



Inductive Coupling Charging

Design Components


Project Construction

P The base-wooden plank (23cms x 15cms x 1cms) was placed and 2

holes were drilled parallel to the 23cms edge. One hole was drilled into

this wooden plank in the centre of these 2 holes, but further away in a

perpendicular fashion.

Electrical wires of the transmitter were soldered with the electrical wires

of a USB Type A Cable. The electrical wires of the receiver were

soldered with the electrical wires of a USB Type C Cable. The

intersections were taped using inductive tape.


The transmitter and receiver were taped against the cardboard strip with

the electrical wires moving freely. These systems were taped against

separate wooden blocks (9cms x 4.5cms x 4.5cms).

Two holes were drilled on each side of the transmitter-wooden block

onto two L-shaped metal plates. The transmitter-wooden block was

drilled into the base-wooden plank.

A hole was drilled on the bottom of the receiver-wooden block in its

centre. A screw was bolted in-between the metal-slit plate and the

receiver-block. These positions were secured.


The soldered electrical wires were taped using inductive tap upon the

base-wooden plank. The USB Type A Cable was connected into the AU

Adapter.

Data Collection

1. The USB Type A Cable was connected to the power source.

2. The USB Type C Cable was connected to the Samsung J1.

3. The transmitter and receiver was placed with 0mm distance.

4. ‘Ampere’ – App and ‘Charging Time’ – App were opened.

5. All results were recorded into a table.

6. The power source was switched on and off, steps 3.5 were repeated twice more.

7. The transmitter-receiver distance was changed to 2mm, repeat steps 3-5 three

times.

8. Steps 3-7 were repeated until 10mm was reached by incrementing the receiver

and transmitter distance by 2mm.

9. Steps 2-8 were repeated with Samsung S3 and S7.


Photovoltaic Day Charging

Design Components



The wooden plank () was placed on the workstation and 1 hole was

drilled 7cms from the midpoint of the 15cms edge. One hole was drilled

in the midpoint of the 20cms x 1.5cms side, opposite to the first hole.

The T-shaped metal plate was screwed to the second hole.

One hole was drilled 1cm from the edge of the wooden plank. Same was

done to the other side. Two L-shaped metal plates were screwed to the

solar panel. This was secured using bolts.

The electrical wires of the solar panel were soldered to the electrical

wires of the USB Type C Cable with diode and a capacitor.


A bolt was screwed half-way into the first hole.

All components were secured together using inductive and cello tape.

Data Collection

1. The solar power WPTT was placed outside with the solar panel being

perpendicular to the light rays.

2. The USB Type C Cable was connected to the Samsung J1.



5. Steps 2 and 3 were repeated, twice more.

6. Steps 2-5 were repeated for Samsung S3 and S7.


Photovoltaic-LED Night Charging

Design Components


The wooden plank (58cms x 9cms x 4cms) was placed on the

workstation and 2 holes were drilled


Two wooden planks (60cm x 4cms x2cms) were placed against each

other as they were bolted together using a metal screw plate. The same

was done for both sides. The assembled pair was connected by screwing

a bolt, resulting in a rectangular frame. frame.

All parts were screwed securely and a wooden plank (50cms x 5cms x

1.5cms) was screwed to the bottom.

Three holes were drilled into the wooden plank (69cms x 24cms x

1.5cms), each had a diameter of 1.5cms. The wired-parallel circuit was

placed into all three holes.


The bulbs were assembled and connected into the circuit and secured

using inductive and adhesive tape.

This circuit-wood plank was screwed onto the top of the rectangular

frame using the L-shaped metal plates.


The switch was assembled, and the circuit-wooden plank was connected

into the switch-connecting wire.

All parts were screwed.


Data Collection

1. This system was connected to a power source.

2. The solar panel system was placed perpendicularly to the LED bulbs.

3. Steps 2-6 were repeated, from ‘Photovoltaic Day Charging’.

Direct Phone Charging

Data Collection

1. The AU Adapter was connected to the power source.

2. The USB Type A Cable was connected to the AU adapter and the USB

Type C Cable was connected to Samsung J1.




6. Steps 2-5 were repeated, using Samsung S3 and S7.


Portable Power Bank Charging

Design Components

Data Collection

1. The USB Type A Cable was connected to the ‘Precision Power Bank’

and the USB Type C Cable was connected to Samsung J1.




5. Steps, 1-4 were repeated, using Samsung S3 and S7.

6. Steps 1-5 were repeated, using ‘Joway Power Pro’.


Data/Statistical Analysis

1. The means for all data sets were calculated and tabulated into separate

spreadsheets.

2. The data sets for ‘Time to Full Charge (minutes)’ and ‘Base Line

Charging (minutes)’were segregated into separate tables for all methods.

3. Graphs were drawn based on these values.

4. Tables were drawn for all results with the values being sorted in an

ascending order.


5. Separate graphs were drawn for each phone with all methods.

6. Efficiency percentages were calculated using (output/input) x 100.

7. All results were compared and contrasted, by analysing ‘Charging

Ampere’, ‘Charging Voltage’, ‘Temperature’ and ‘Output Capacity’.

This was compared to the base line value to determine if the null

hypothesis was true.

8. Possible reasons for data variations were determined with links to Physics

theory.

9. Possible errors were determined to improve the reliability of the

investigation.


Possible Errors

Systematic Errors

These Android applications present a series of systematic errors, as the

use of these applications will be justified in the ‘Discussion’.

Data inaccuracies due to firmware and hardware quality decline.

Random Errors

Australian power outlets provide AC power and this alternating current

(50-60 Hertz) may pose an inaccuracy of data values.

Variating heat energy emission in ‘Photovoltaic Panel Charging’.

Non-parallel transmitter and receiver, as this could have fluctuated the

final results.

Degree of Uncertainty

The recorded values were estimated to 2 decimal points as the degree of

uncertainty is ± 0.05 minutes for each calculated value.


CHAPTER THREE: RESULTS

COMMON NOTE TO ALL RESULTS

INDUCTIVE COUPLING CHARGING

0mm


2mm

4mm

6mm


8mm

10mm


PHOTOVOLATIC DAY CHARGING

PHOTOVOLATIC-LED NIGHT CHARGING

DIRECT PHONE CHARGING


PORTABLE POWER BANK CHARGING

Precision

Joway


COMPARISON BETWEEN ALL METHODS


CHAPTER FOUR: DISCUSSION

OBSERVED PHENOMENONS & DATA ANALYSIS

For this investigation, mobile phone charging methods have been chosen to examine

their efficiency/effectiveness. Throughout my scientific research project, there has been

a systematic error of using applications to record data variables, as this causes a form

of unreliability. Prior to my method selection process, I had researched ways to measure

voltage and amps using a multi-meter and calculations of ‘Charging Time’. In order to

measure voltage and amps using a multi-meter, the phone must be dismantled, and extra

wires must be soldered. This in-turn additionally creates a circuit between the phone

and charger which affects the overall performance of the phone. This is due to the

additional current resistance. In order to measure the battery input and output, the data

travelling through the firmware and the phone must be recorded (this has no additional

circuit). By using applications, no software harm nor current resistance would be

present. Through prior research, the charging time would 5x the base line charging time.

This method may be more reliable, but applications take data from the firmware. There

are commercial devices which accurately modify results based on resistance; however,

these devices vary from $300+. Regardless of the accuracy of the application used, this

investigation is not to examine the accuracy. Assuming an inaccuracy of 10 minutes in

these applications, this ‘flaw’ is common throughout all methods and measurements.

By using these applications throughout all mobile phones, the idea of disregarding

application inaccuracy is reinforced.

In relation to all methods, the recorded values have slight variations but with the same

relationship. For example, the base-line charging time for Samsung J1 is greater than

Samsung S7 but less than S3. This relationship is constant throughout all data sets, but

these minor variations are due to hardware and/or software decay. Regardless, this form

of inaccuracy is kept constant throughout all measurements, which becomes negligible

in terms of their relationships.

In relation to ‘Resonant Inductive Charging’, ‘0mm’ seems to have maximum

efficiency in comparison to other transmitter-receiver distances. It is evident that there

are no systematic errors or due to the consistency in results throughout the

measurements recorded in this research project. When comparing all transmitter-

receiver distances, it is shown that the distance is proportional to the current


transmission. The charging voltage is consistently showing similar values throughout

all data sets as we see no deviate from the norm. However, when looking at the

temperature of the device once the transmitter-receiver distance increases. It is clearly

shown that the quality of the product is put at risk as we see possible hardware damage

due to prolonged use. This qualitative and quantitative observation is theoretically

justified by the concepts of magnetic flux and Faraday’s Law: “The induced EMF, in a

closed circuit, is directly proportional to the rate of change of magnetic flux.”. The

input of AC current initiates the change in magnetic field strength as this would in-turn

produce a magnetic field. This idea is directly related to ‘Faraday’s Law’ as this law

governs the behaviour of magnetic fields in the presence of an alternating current.

However, since this device does not utilise an iron core to direct the magnetic field into

the receiver, there is a major loss of energy (similar to the construction of transformers).

This becomes an aspect of application industrial inductive charging devices.

In relation to ‘Photovoltaic Panel Charging – Day & Night’, we see a dramatic increase

in charging time, which immediately shows a significant decrease in efficiency, in

comparison to ‘Inductive Coupling’. However, the temperature of the devices is similar

to ‘Inductive Coupling’. This is promising as we see the diode limiting the energy loss

to heat within the conversion from the solar panel to the device. There is a major

deviation is ‘Charging Ampere’ which suggests a human error; however, this doesn’t

affect the relationship between ‘Charging Time’ and methods as that variable is

independent. In relation to ‘LED Night Charging’, there is the same data analysis,

however; there is slightly more energy loss. In comparison to the ‘Charging Ampere’

of other methods, this method is much higher which shows a higher current input but

outputs less current. There are three main types of energy losses in photovoltaic panels.

These factors are: nameplates, mismatches, and light-induced degradation. Nameplates

are is the simple capacity of the photovoltaic panel, as the input may have put stress on

the wiring of this device, hence affecting the flow of current. Mismatch losses are refers

to energy losses caused by differences in electrical components. The addition of a diode

may have affected the flow of current. Light-induced degradation refers to the

degradation of crystalline-silicon cells; however, this concept is rejected as the solar

panel was purchased from the manufacturer. This qualitative and quantitative

observation is theoretically justified by the concepts of the photoelectric effect and light

intensity. The photoelectric effect is present within both methods due to the conductive


panel layer as this would in-turn liberate electrons from the surface when light struck

the surface. This causes energy loss as this relates to the intensity of light. The intensity

of the incident light is directly proportional to the emission of photoelectrons; however,

this is dependent on whether the incident light passes the threshold frequency. The

kinetic energy of the photoelectrons is proportional to the frequency of the incident

light.

In relation to both ‘Direct Wired Charging’ and ‘Power Bank Charging’, the ‘Charging

Ampere’ fluctuates slightly with an appropriate level that does not harm any hardware

or energy transmission. The temperature of the devices in both the methods suggests no

major energy loss or stress on the hardware as the temperatures are at room temperature.

The ‘Charging Voltage’ is 1V higher than the other methods, as this suggests energy

loss prior to the initial transmission. Each methodical device is designed to input 5V as

this is not achieved throughout the WPTT. By perceiving the graphical representation

of the time taken to charge, we see near to perfected ‘Charging Time’.

When comparing all methods, it is evident that both ‘Direct Phone Charging’ and

‘Power Bank Charging’ are equally efficient with slight variations. These minute

variations may be due situational inconsistencies; however, the overall determining

factors have not been affected. After these methods, ‘Resonant Inductive Charging’ is

the next most efficient. ‘0mm’ has the same level of efficiency with both ‘Direct Wired

Charging’ and ‘Power Bank Charging’ due to its direct contact with its conductive coil.

There is an inconsistency with the efficiency levels when the transmitter-receiver

distance is increased. In some comparisons, ‘4mm’ is less efficient than ‘6mm’ as this

isn’t governed by Faraday’s Law. Faraday’s relationship mentions the direct

proportionality between the number of turns in a coil and the input voltage, as this isn’t

reinforced by my first-hand data. This is due to a human error as the transmitter and

receiver may have not been parallel with an equidistance, as this causes an uncontrolled

variation in magnetic field strength. In order for electromagnetic induction to occur,

there must be an alternating current input which is controlled. Finally, ‘Photovoltaic

Day Charging’ and ‘LED Light Night Charging’ are the most ineffective. This is due

to the constant change from DC to AC and back to DC energy conversion. The quality

of the solar panel used may have some manufacturing defects which aren’t within my

scientific parameters.


‘Direct Wired Charging’ is consistently either the most or second most efficient method

as it is challenged by ‘Power Bank Charging’. This relationship acts as a trend and

becomes a commonality throughout all phones. Hence, it is evident that ‘Power Bank

Charging’ is the most efficient as this is determined by ‘Charging Ampere’, ‘Charging

Voltage’, ‘Temperature’, and ‘Output Capacity’. When comparing the ‘Base-Line

Charging Time’ and the recorded ‘Charging Time’, we can see that due to the quality

decay of the mobile phones, the default charging time has changed slightly; however,

the final relationship is kept constant. For example, we see ‘Samsung S3’ with the

greatest deviation from mean charging time. Another form of inaccuracy is due to the

application compatibility with 4.4.4 and 4.34, as the difference in android operating

systems may cause an inaccurate representation of data.

FUTURE & LIMITATIONS OF SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH

Due to the budgetary of this scientific investigation, I have not been able to further my

study in specific areas as these areas limit our understanding. There is further research

needed to fix electronic inconsistencies. These possible future research aspects vary

from: (1) operating system, (2) application algorithm and (3) firmware compatibility.

Through second-hand research, the compatibility across android versions, firmware

versions, and development platforms (application), are more specific areas of future

research. Through this future research, I will be able to optimise the results to derive an

accurate result. Due to the numerous systematic and human errors within this

investigation, the final result of ‘Direct Wired Charging’ being the most reliable is

likely to be unreliable. To disregard all these limitations, an ammeter must be attached

to the hardware of the device without any firmware resistance. Another limitation is the

quality of research available to further understand and build efficient prototypes.

Considering other limitations, research time and inexperience in electrical engineering.

By experiencing these limitations, this investigation has been limited in both recorded

data and qualitative understandings. These separate areas of study under ‘Electricity

and Magnetism’ requires a larger budget and a large team of both technicians and

physicians.


CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSION

Through my first and second-hand investigation in this scientific research project, I have been

able to deduce the fact that ‘Power Bank Charging’ is the most effective method with ‘Direct

Wired Charging’ and ‘Resonant Inductive Charging’ closely behind. The limited power loss

due to the small amounts of current as this in-turn decreases the resistance in the cable, in

‘Direct Wired Charging’. ‘Resonant Inductive Charging’ significantly decreases its efficiency

due to the increase in transmitter-receiver distance. Initially, ‘Inductive Coupling’ is at the same

efficiency as ‘Direct Wired Charging’ as this no longer becomes the cause when the distance

is increased. By increasing the number of coil-turns and coil density, the efficiency rating will

increase. With a similar efficiency as ‘Direct Wired Charging’, ‘Resonant Inductive Charging’

will become the most efficient method of power transmission. However, since the coils must

be perfectly parallel with each other; the ergonomic factor of this method is negligible. ‘Power

Bank Charging’ is also the most efficient method due to its DC to DC power transmission. In

comparison to ‘Direct Wired Charging’, which requires an AC to DC power transmission. This

method is equally as efficient as ‘Direct Charging’. Both ‘Photovoltaic Power Charging’ and

‘Photovoltaic-LED Night Power Charging’ are extremely inefficient due to its inability to

control the current input, heat energy power loss, unrequired transmission from DC to AC and

back to DC power. Solar power is originally in DC as complicated circuits require AC. This

pointless power transmission increases heat power loss and resistance power loss.

‘Resonant Inductive Charging’ has a large inefficiency ratio as this is due to: magnetic field

inaccurate direction, insufficient input voltage, and unparallel transmitter-receiver.

‘Photovoltaic Panel Charging – Day & Night’ has numerous inefficiencies as these are:

photoelectric effect emission and heat energy emission. The expected hypothesis for this

investigation is that the manufacturer's charger will have better performance than other

methods. Hence, the null hypothesis for this investigation is true. Detailed analysis of all the

methods for charging mobile phones shows that Portable Charging using Battery Bank of high

capacity is most effective with least amount of charging time. The main difference from all

other methods is clearly that it is a direct DC battery of Battery Bank to DC Battery of the

phone. ‘Photovoltaic Panel Charging’ is the most inefficient. In doing the project, the following

areas are identified for further investigation and research: compatibility across android version,

firmware version, development platform for android apps (ampere and time for charging) and

to optimise results.


Throughout my scientific research project, I have acquired numerous skills. These skills

include: (1) designing of circuits, (2) visualising & assembling using mechanical fixtures, (3)

soldering, (4) in-depth research using various media, (5) how to derive appropriate formulae

for calculations, (6) enhanced presentation skills, (7) enhanced ability to use of excel and word

for presentation, and (8) enhanced documentation skills and experience.


CHAPTER SIX: REFERENCES

Da Huang, Yaroslav Urzhumov, David R. Smith, Koon Hoo Teo, and Jinyun Zhang (2012).

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Determining the Most Efficient Method of Power Transmission

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