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Developing Workable Standards for Design Studio E-Portfolios in Architectural Education in Nigeria

By

Dr. (Mrs.) Bogda Prucnal-Ogunsote

Department of Architecture, Faculty of Environmental Sciences,

University of Jos, Jos, Nigeria

and

Prof. Olu Ola Ogunsote

Department of Architecture, School of Environmental Technology,

Federal University of Technology, Akure, Nigeria

Paper presented at the

2008 Annual Conference of the

Association of Architectural Educators in Nigeria (AARCHES)

Main Auditorium, Imo State University, Owerri, Imo State, Nigeria

Theme: Challenges of Resources Development for Architectural Education in Nigeria

Sub-theme: Developing Workable Standards

November 13 – 15, 2008

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Developing Workable Standards for Design Studio E-Portfolios in Architectural

Education in Nigeria

By

Dr. (Mrs.) Bogda Prucnal-Ogunsote, Department of Architecture, Faculty of Environmental

Sciences, University of Jos, Jos, Nigeria

and

Prof. Olu Ola Ogunsote, Department of Architecture, School of Environmental Technology,

Federal University of Technology, Akure, Nigeria

Abstract

This paper examines architectural design e-portfolio usage in architectural education in

Nigeria and highlights the lack of standards for the production, assessment, exchange and

archiving of these e-portfolios. The paper defines portfolios, e-portfolios, drawing e-portfolios

and architectural design e-portfolios and describes the advantages and disadvantages of

architectural design e-portfolios based on field studies conducted in leading schools of

architecture in Nigeria. The advantages include drawing integrity, rich content, effortless

searching, agelessness, medium and scale independence, near-zero reproduction and storage

costs and ease of exchange, sharing or transmission. The disadvantages include ethereality,

media fragility, impersonal style, reduced confidentiality, plagiarism phobias, copy protection

difficulties, sealing and authentication problems and difficulty of maintaining revision history.

The absence of standards for design e-portfolios in the Nigerian educational system however

overshadows the advantages while magnifying the disadvantages. Thus we have situations

where team work and assessment are made almost impossible by incompatible file formats,

where drawing integrity is compromised through lack of authentication standards and where

exchange and archiving are hampered by inappropriate file formats and inefficient/unreliable

file management techniques. Yet standards for design studio e-portfolios must be flexible

enough to protect individual freedom of expression, choice of software, file management style

and copyright.

Keywords: architectural education, CAD, design studio, e-portfolio, Nigeria.

1 Introduction Electronic learning or e-learning is computer-enhanced learning and it is commonly

associated with advanced learning technology (ALT), which deals with both the technologies

and associated methodologies in learning using networked and/or multimedia technologies. E-

learning makes it possible for the teacher to teach a class from a distance and also for students

in various geographical locations as well as teachers to meet in a virtual classroom. Some of

the technologies used in e-learning are screencasts, podcasts, web-based teaching materials,

collaborative software, learning management software, virtual classrooms, computer aided

assessment, educational animation, discussion boards, blogs, wikis, hypermedia, multimedia,

email and e-portfolios (Wikipedia, 2008a).

2 The new learning environment in architectural education in Nigeria E-learning in architectural education is specific in that knowledge and skills of not only

theory but also drawings need to be transmitted using special means. Architectural education

is unique because of its peculiar practical nature requiring supervision, interaction and mind

rubbing. Thus the digital studio or e-studio is central to e-learning in architectural education.

The interest generated by the possibilities of e-learning in architectural education is increasing

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with improved funding and better access to facilities and equipment (Ogunsote & Prucnal-

Ogunsote, 1987; Ogunsote, 1991). E-learning is now considered a viable alternative to

traditional methods, but the adoption of this new technology is constrained by several factors.

Apart from inadequate funding, unreliable infrastructure and insufficient technical expertise,

adapting this imported technology to local realities has proven very challenging (Ogunsote et

al, 2007b).

3 Portfolios, e-portfolios, drawing e-portfolios and architectural design e-portfolios

A portfolio is a collection of evidence that is gathered together to show a person’s learning

journey over time and to demonstrate his abilities. Portfolios can be specific to a particular

discipline, or very broadly encompass a person’s lifelong learning. Many different kinds of

evidence can be used in a portfolio including samples of writing, photographs, videos,

research projects, observations and evaluations of supervisors, mentors and peers and

reflective thinking about all of these (Barrett, 2006). See figure 1.

Figure 1: A portfolio.

The art and design community defines a portfolio as a focused collection of pieces of visual

art and design, often accompanied by reflective and explanatory comments and usually

constructed for a specific purpose (Blaikie et al, 2004). The goal of the portfolio exercise is to

foster students’ ability to critically self-assess their own artistic work, and to help them to

form their artistic identity.

There are three types of portfolio (Zeichner and Wray, 2001). These are learning portfolios

which document a student’s learning over time, credential portfolios which are used for

registration or certification purposes and showcase portfolios which students can use when

applying for employment (figure 2).

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Figure 2: Types of electronic portfolios.

3.1 e-portfolio

An electronic portfolio, also known as an e-portfolio, digital portfolio, efolio or webfolio,

is a digital container for content assembled and managed by a user to support a variety of

pedagogical and assessment purposes. The container may include text, images, sound, video,

blog entries and hyperlinks. E-portfolios are both demonstrations of the user's abilities and

platforms for self-expression, and, if they are online, they can be maintained dynamically over

time. An e-portfolio can be seen as a type of learning record that provides actual evidence of

achievement (Wikipedia, 2008b). An electronic portfolio is a selective and structured

collection of information gathered for specific purposes, stored digitally and

showing/evidencing one’s accomplishments and growth (Challis, 2005).

3.2 Drawing e-portfolio

A drawing e-portfolio is an electronic portfolio that contains drawings. It is essentially a

digital version of the traditional drawing portfolio.

3.3 Architectural design e-portfolio

An architectural design e-portfolio is essentially an electronic version of the traditional

architectural design portfolio. It showcases designs of an architect, firm or group and is often

prepared for a particular audience (figure 3).

Figure 3: Portfolio, e-portfolio, drawing e-portfolio vis-à-vis architectural design e-portfolio.

4 The advantages and disadvantages of architectural design e-portfolios

4.1 Advantages of architectural design e-portfolios

The advantages of architectural design e-portfolios include drawing integrity, rich content,

effortless search, agelessness, medium and scale independence, near-zero reproduction and

storage costs and ease of exchange, sharing or transmission (Butler, 2006).

Drawing integrity

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Due to the digital nature of architectural design e-portfolios, the drawings contained therein

are very accurate and precise. This accuracy is several orders of magnitude greater than what

is possible with traditional architectural drawings. This accuracy and precision covers lengths,

areas and even colour and 3D objects.

Rich content

E-portfolios can contain virtually limitless amount of content, high quality digital images,

audio and video clips and even animations. This makes the content of e-portfolios rich and

diversified. However, audio, graphics and video files occupy large amounts of digital storage

space and can slow down the access.

Effortless searching

It is possible to finding key phrases, topics of interest and titles through automated e-portfolio

search. File formats with search capability include the PDF format.

Agelessness

An e-portfolio is not exposed to wear and tear, bad weather conditions, rot or physical damage

simply because it is digital. It does not lose its quality over time, and can be used, re-used,

transferred, copied and distributed as long as the digital portfolio exists. It is only the medium

that can be affected by age.

Medium and scale independence

Architectural design e-portfolios can be viewed using various electronic devices ranging from

cell phones to handheld digital tablets to computer screens and widescreen television displays.

The same portfolio can also be projected onto screens using multimedia projectors or printed

on paper and transparencies of various sizes, textures and physical properties. The portfolios

can be viewed in different scales and levels of magnification. Thus people with visual

difficulties can enlarge text and drawings in order to see well.

Near-zero reproduction and storage costs

An e-portfolio can be distributed by simply putting it on a website on the Internet, copying to

a CD, sending to an email address or transferring through a network connection to other

computers. Changes can equally be made to e-portfolios by their producer without significant

extra cost. An electronic drawing portfolio eliminates the cost of hard paper copies because it

is in digital form. This environment friendly characteristic equally preserves scarce natural

resources. Storage space is not an issue because digital storage media are very efficient and

compact.

Ease of exchange, sharing or transmission

E-portfolios can be shared using Internet download, e-mail, computer transfer as well as

various forms of digital storage devices. An e-portfolio is easily distributed. Access to the

Internet and reading permission are the only requirements for accessing an electronic drawing

portfolio on the Web. An electronic drawing portfolio can be delivered instantly, without the

need to wait for several weeks for delivery by post. There are also no packaging and shipping

costs. An e-portfolio is portable and transportable with ease.

4.2 Disadvantages of architectural design e-portfolios

The disadvantages of architectural design e-portfolios based on field studies in leading

schools of architecture in Nigeria include ethereality, media fragility, impersonal style,

reduced confidentiality, plagiarism phobias, copy protection difficulties, sealing and

authentication problems and difficulty of maintaining revision history.

Ethereality

An architectural design e-portfolio is stored on mass storage media such as hard disks,

compact disks, flash drives and other electronic data storage media. It is therefore invisible

and weightless. In fact it cannot be detected by any of the five senses, not even by the so-

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called sixth sense. For example a compact disk with data is visually identical with one without

data. The weight is also identical. A client may understandably be hesitant to pay an architect

tens of millions of Naira for a multi-billion Naira project after the architect has submitted his

design on a compact disk worth less than a hundred Naira. The client may be far less hesitant

if the compact disk is used to print out hundreds of large drawings, several voluminous

reports and to produce a detailed model using Computer Aided Manufacturing (CAM)

technology. This lack of physical presence found in architectural design e-portfolios does not

enhance confidence and challenges the perception of their material value.

Media fragility

The mass storage media used to store architectural design e-portfolios are very susceptible to

damage by magnetic fields, physical shock, abrasion and even to damage by computer

hardware and software malfunction. Even when handled using ‘kid gloves’, hard disks and

other magnetic storage media will fail, often long before the rated mean time before failure

(MTBF). Compact disks are especially susceptible to scratching, rendering them unreadable.

They also break easily. Flash drives are notorious for corrupting data stored on them. This

unreliability of storage media can sometimes be ameliorated by using backups, but the rapid

changes in technology can render ‘healthy’ storage media obsolete and therefore unreadable

by current devices.

Impersonal style

Traditional architectural drawings, even architectural working drawings are more than purely

technical drawings. They possess qualities akin to those of paintings and sketches. They are

subject to interpretation, and are art works in their own right. Thus drawings by Frank Lloyd

Wright and even Leonardo da Vinci are still yielding fresh interpretations. Electronic

architectural designs are however little more than technical drawings, and the tools used to

create them promote impersonal style. Unique handwritings have been replaced by standard

fonts, imperfections in lines that personalize drawings have been ‘corrected’ by software. Pen

pressure, ink choice, paper texture and specifications as well as corrections and modifications

cannot be captured by current CAD software. This loss of uniqueness has made it difficult to

identify drawings prepared by individuals, and has effectively taken the craftsmanship out of

draftsmanship.

Reduced confidentiality

Traditional architectural drawings on paper can be kept confidential by locking up the

drawings and protecting access to them. Security of electronic drawings is much more

difficult to implement, as copies can be made from a highly protected computer, even from

half way around the world. This is made possible by unintentional or sometimes deliberate

security gaps in operating system, Internet and CAD software.

Plagiarism phobias

Architects understandably protect their designs and details to which they legally have

copyright. Protecting this copyright is very difficult with electronic drawings. An architect

can easily claim copyright to a plagiarized electronic drawing and even accuse the original

producer of the drawing of plagiarism.

Copy protection difficulties

While it is possible to copy-protect electronic drawings, there is no copy protection technique

that cannot be bypassed. Since the original electronic drawing and copies are identical, it is

very difficult to tell the difference. In fact any difference may be in the form, in the storage

medium, maybe even in the legal ownership, but not in the content.

Sealing and authentication problems

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While sealing of electronic documents is now possible, this is achieved by using encryption

technology, which can always be cracked using powerful enough computers. Faking

traditional architectural drawings and seals is much more difficult.

Difficulty of maintaining revision history

CAD software can make backups of drawings when saving changes, but archives of these

changes are not saved in the same file. This archiving capability is already found in word-

processing software such as Microsoft Word which uses a functionality called Versions to

save incremental changes to a document into the same file. Any of the previous versions can

be opened and saved as a separate file. The lack of such functionality in CAD software means

that revision histories are lost, or at best very difficult to manage. The closest to maintaining a

revision history is often the regular creation of DWF files from sheet sets.

5 Architectural practice in Nigeria and the potential use of e-portfolios in architectural education

Most architectural practices in Nigeria now use CAD for projects and they also use various

software packages for office management. A recent survey of ten architectural firms in Lagos,

the economic hub of Nigeria, showed that all the surveyed firms had computers and used

them for CAD and presentation (tables 1 and 2).Very few have local area networks, although

some have some form of Internet access. Although few firms maintain a digital portfolio

showcasing projects and the history of development of the firms, the gradual accumulation of

digital archives and the trend towards maintaining web sites has increased interest in the

development and maintenance of e-portfolios.

Table 1: Ownership of computers in selected architectural firms in Lagos, Nigeria.

Ownership of computers Percentage of respondents

Desktop computers 100

Laptops and notebooks 70

Palmtops and i-pods 20

Source: Adapted from Adejimi (2007b).

Table 2: Purposes of computer usage in selected architectural firms in Lagos, Nigeria.

Purposes of computer usage Percentage of respondents

Computer Aided Design and presentation 100

Construction Management 20

Data analysis/GIS 0

E-Construction Management 0

Estimation/calculation 20

Internet connectivity 30

Word processing and spreadsheet 100

Source: Adapted from Adejimi (2007b).

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6 Developing Workable and Flexible Standards for Design Studio E-Portfolios in Nigeria

There are several techniques for enhancing the management of architectural design e-

portfolios. They include the innovative use of batch plotting and various file formats for e-

portfolio management including creation, publishing to the Web, archiving, review,

compression, protection, authentication, electronic transmission and exchange of electronic

documents.

6.1 Recommended standards for creating architectural design e-portfolios

Architectural design e-portfolios are created using various software packages. One of the most

popular is Adobe Acrobat which has the ability to combine and modify documents created in

various file formats. Autodesk software can create the popular DWF format files while several

other graphics and CAD software can be used to create files in the formats described in this

paper. Files in these various formats are usually combined together with text, photographs,

sound, video and other files to create an e-portfolio in the PDF or DWF format.

6.2 Recommended techniques for publishing and sharing of architectural design e-portfolios to the Web

While architectural design e-portfolios are a good means of preserving architectural designs,

they are usually created for access by others. This is achieved by publishing and sharing the

architectural design e-portfolios. Publishing can be to a storage medium such as compact

disks, on an intranet or on the Internet. In each case, there is often a restriction placed on

access and distribution to limit access to a target population.

6.3 Recommended techniques of archiving architectural design e-portfolios

An archive is a collection of historical records or the location in which these records are kept.

A digital archive is a long-term storage area for files that are no longer in active use, or a file

containing one or more files in compressed format for more efficient storage and transfer. A

backup is a copy of a program or file that is stored separately from the original or a copy of a

system or data file that is stored in a separate location in the event that the original or archived

file becomes corrupt or unusable. The purpose of archiving architectural design e-portfolios is

to preserve them for future use. This often involves compression to reduce file size and

sometimes encryption to protect against unauthorized access.

6.4 Recommended techniques of reviewing architectural design e-portfolios

The review of architectural design e-portfolios includes viewing and modification of the e-

portfolio. Viewing is done using the appropriate software for the file format of the e-portfolio.

The most popular DWF and PDF file formats allow zooming, panning, slide show and

printing. The DWF format in addition allows layer control, properties management, orbiting

and turntable views.

Modification is usually limited to markups and annotation. Autodesk Design Review allows

combining multiple DWF files to create a composite DWF file. Sheets within a DWF file can

be deleted, reordered, renamed or copied from the DWF file to another. Snapshots of any

aspect of a DWF file can be taken and saved as a DWF file, which can then be merged with

the same or another DWF file. Markup is the addition of callouts, text blocks, shapes

(freehand, line, polyline, rectangle and ellipse), stamps, symbols and measurements to 2D and

3D DWF files (Autodesk Corporation, 2008b).

Adobe Acrobat is used to modify PDF files. Comments, extensive markups, text, graphics,

audio and video clips can be added to a PDF file. Pages in a PDF file can also be added from

another file, deleted or reordered. Advanced editing options include cropping, linking, touch-

up and embedding of various tools such as buttons, radio buttons, check boxes, list boxes and

text fields.

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Apart from modifying PDF and DWF files, they can be recreated from modified files from the

original modelling, graphics and word-processing programs.

6.5 Recommended techniques of compressing architectural design e-portfolios

There are two approaches to compression of computer files: lossless compression and lossy

compression. Lossless compression reduces file size while retaining all the details of the file.

When the file is decompressed, a file identical to the one before compression is obtained. This

is the preferred method of compression used for data and text files. It is used by several file

formats, including the GIF, PNG and ZIP file formats. Lossy compression on the other hand

reduces file size by sacrificing some level of detail. Some file details are irretrievably lost, but

the choice of the details to be omitted is such that the compressed file still closely resembles

the original. This technique is best suited to bitmap files such as digital photographs. It is also

used for audio and video files.

The compression technique used for an e-portfolio depends on the format in which the e-

portfolio is saved. A combination of both compression techniques is common in e-portfolios

made from a combination of files of different formats, such as photographs and text files.

6.6 Protection of architectural design e-portfolios

Architectural design e-portfolios can be protected in many ways including access restriction,

copy protection, modification restriction and encryption. The type of protection used depends

on the target audience.

Access restriction gives specific members of a project team access, copy and modification

rights. This is normally achieved by using shares and user access rights on NTFS volumes in

Windows 2000/XP/Vista.

Copy protection allows access and even opening of portfolios but not copying. This

functionality is provided by several software packages including software packages that

generate PDF files such as Adobe Acrobat. Access is often based on passwords or certificates.

With modification restriction, users can view the portfolio but cannot modify it, even though

they can annotate the portfolio. Both the DWF and PDF formats permit modification

restrictions. This type of restriction is usually placed on portfolios meant for public access, for

example via the Internet.

Encrypted files require a password to open, even though they may be accessed and copied.

They are used when the portfolio content is confidential or secret, and when such content is

restricted to a specific person or persons.

The use of a combination of these techniques is common.

6.7 Authentication of architectural design e-portfolios

Authentication of architectural design e-portfolios is the unique identification of an

architectural design e-portfolio such that any change in content can be detected or the identity

of the sender/creator can be confirmed. Copies of authentic architectural design e-portfolios

are also authentic, since authentication is not meant to differentiate between a copy and an

original. Authentication of e-portfolios is achieved through digital signatures, checksums and

public key certificates. Authentication of the persons dealing with the e-portfolio can be

achieved using tokens such as passwords, cryptographic keys or biometrics.

6.8 Electronic transmission and exchange of electronic documents

E-portfolios are transmitted or exchanged over local area networks, intranets and the Internet.

Since delivery and access is practically instantaneous, it is common to have teams working on

the same project and sharing files even when team members are separated by large distances.

There are several collaboration software used to manage review and update of electronic

documents by teams members distributed over diverse geographic areas and time zones.

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7 Potential use of design e-portfolios in architectural education in Nigeria The current stand of most schools of architecture is that students cannot submit design

projects in digital format, not even for final-year projects. Even printed drawings from CAD

files are discouraged. This conservative attitude is fuelled by fears of plagiarism and lack of

computer hardware and software for efficient supervision and assessment of CAD-based

projects. A recent study by Ogunsote et al (2007b) in eight federal universities indicated that

the computer hardware available for e-learning in schools of architecture is inadequate (table

3).

Students therefore have little incentive to develop architectural design e-portfolios. Gradual

improvement in the provision of computer facilities and pressure from practice and the

professional bodies is however making exceptions possible, with the tendency towards

prevalence of CAD in architectural education in the near future (Prucnal-Ogunsote & Ude,

2008).

Some pilot projects aimed at accelerating the adoption of e-learning in architectural education

in Nigeria have been carried out. The most recent include projects in the Federal University of

Technology, Yola (Ogunsote et al, 2006) and the Olabisi Onabanjo University, Ago Iwoye

(Adejimi, 2007a).

Table 3: Computer hardware available for e-learning in selected schools of architecture in Nigeria.

University

AT

BU

AB

U

FU

TA

FU

TM

FU

TY

OA

U

UN

IJO

S

UN

ILA

G

Tot

al

Ave

rage

Computer systems 9 31 9 43 3 30 4 76 205 26

Monitors 9 34 9 43 3 30 4 58 190 24

Printers 5 2 2 5 2 2 4 22 44 6

Plotters 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0.1

UPS 4 21 3 12 2 30 3 33 108 14

Power generators and stabilisers

2 2 2 2 2 0 2 0 12 1.5

Other equipment 2 1 0 3 1 1 0 6 14 1.8

Average undergraduate student population

421 379 315 422 270 320 340 270 2,737 342

Computers per 1000 students 21 82 29 102 11 94 12 215 566 71

Source: Ogunsote et al (2007b).

7.1 Discussion on relevant file formats

The most popular file formats for architectural design e-portfolios that can effectively be used

in Nigeria are the DWF and PDF file formats. Other popular formats that may be used for

architectural design e-portfolios include the 3DS, DWG, DXF, GIF, JPEG, MAX, MPEG,

PLN, PNG, RAR and ZIP file formats (Fileinfo.net, 2008b).

The Design Web Format (DWF)

This is by far the most popular and the most powerful file format for architectural design e-

portfolios. It is a highly compressed 2D/3D vector file format that is easy to publish and view

on the Web. DWF files can be created using current Autodesk products and can be viewed or

modified in the parent application, the Autodesk Design Review (formerly Autodesk DWF

Viewer), Autodesk Inventor View or the DWG Trueview. Autodesk Design Review

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incorporates round-trip mark-up integration to overlay changes and comments on the original

CAD file. It can also create files in the new DWFx format for design collaboration without

additional software.

The Portable Document Format (PDF)

PDF is a postscript file format used by the Adobe Acrobat software to capture all the elements

of a document as a compact and complete electronic image and is the de facto standard for the

secure and reliable distribution and exchange of electronic documents. It is a universal file

format that preserves the fonts, images, graphics and layout of any source document,

regardless of the application and platform used to create it. Adobe Acrobat can set file-

viewing multimedia preferences, embed 3D documents and also include tags and descriptions

of audio and video attachments.

The 3D Studio (3DS) file format

This is a 3D image format containing mesh data, material attributes, bitmap references,

smoothing group data, viewport configurations, cameras and lighting information, and object

animation data. 3DS files can be opened with the Autodesk 3D Studio Max (3ds Max) and 3D

Studio software applications.

The DWG file format

The DWG file format is a proprietary vector image file format that stores design data created

with AutoCAD and other Autodesk software in a database. It is used for storing two and three

dimensional design data and metadata. DWG files can be viewed using the free DWG

Trueview software (Fileinfo.net, 2008a). The format is supported non-natively by several

hundred application software by translation to and from various file formats.

The Drawing Exchange Format (DXF)

This is a vector image file format developed by Autodesk. It is similar to the .DWG format,

but it is ASCII (text) based. This makes it more compatible with several other programs and it

can be opened by these programs.

The Graphics Interchange Format (GIF) file format

GIF is a graphic or bitmap image format commonly used on the World Wide Web due to its

wide support and portability. GIF supports colour and various resolutions. It also includes

data compression using the LZW lossless data compression technique to reduce the file size

without degrading the visual quality. However, because it is limited to 256 colours, it is more

effective for simple images such as graphics or logos with solid areas of colour and unsuitable

for reproducing colour photographs and other images with continuous colour. The GIF format

also supports animations and allows a separate palette of 256 colours for each frame. An

Internet committee has developed an increasingly popular patent-free replacement for the

GIF, the PNG format (Panasonic Security Products, 2008).

The Joint Photographic Experts Group (JPEG) file format

The JPEG file format standard was developed by the Joint Photographic Experts Group and it

is the format most used for storing and transmitting photographs on the World Wide Web. It

commonly uses a lossy compression technique, and produces better colour and smaller file

sizes than the GIF and PNG standards. The most common file extension for this format is

JPG, but JPEG, JPE, JFIF and JIF are also used.

The 3D Studio Max Model (MAX) file format

The MAX file format stores three-dimensional models created with 3D Studio Max, a 3D

graphics and animation program. The file may include polygon shapes, textures, lighting, and

shading effects. MAX files can only be opened by 3D Studio Max, but files can be exported in

3DS or FBX format. Using the 3DS format is the easiest and cleanest way of exporting

geometry from 3D Studio Max. The latest versions of 3D Studio Max now include the new

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.XAF file format for storing and loading animation data in an XML file (Autodesk

Corporation, 2008a).

The Moving Picture Experts Group (MPEG) file format

MPEG is the name of the family of digital video compression standards and file formats

developed by the MPEG group, a working group of the International Standards Organization

and the International Electrotechnical Commission in charge of the development of standards

for coded representation of digital audio and video. The major advantage of MPEG compared

to other video and audio coding formats is that MPEG files are much smaller for the same

quality. This is because MPEG uses very sophisticated compression techniques and high

compression rate by storing only the changes from one frame to another, instead of entire

frame (the Moving Pictures Expert Group, 2008). The major MPEG standards and examples

of products based on the standards are shown in table 4.

Table 4: The major MPEG standards and examples of products based on the standard.

MPEG standard Examples of products based on the standard

MPEG-1 Video CD and MP3

MPEG-2 Digital television set top boxes and DVD

MPEG-3 Originally designed for HDTV but abandoned.

MPEG-4 Multimedia for the fixed and mobile web

MPEG-7 Description and search of audio and visual content

MPEG-21 Multimedia Framework

Source: The Moving Pictures Expert Group (2008).

The PLN file format

An ArchiCAD project file has a PLN file format. ArchiCAD is CAD software that allows the

user to work with data-enhanced parametric objects, often called smart objects. The product

allows the user to create a virtual building with virtual structural elements like walls, slabs,

roofs, doors, windows and furniture. This differs from the operational style of most CAD

programs. Other popular CAD software for architects that work with smart objects are

Autodesk Architectural Desktop and Autodesk Revit Architecture.

The Portable Network Graphics (PNG) file format

The PNG file format is a bitmapped image format that was designed for transferring images

on the Internet. PNG was created to improve upon and replace the GIF format, and unlike the

GIF format, it does not require a patent license. The PNG format does not support animation,

but an extension to the format, the MNG format, does. The PNG format supports transparency

and both colour and greyscale images. It employs lossless data compression using the deflate

(ZLIB/GZLIB) method.

The RAR file format

The Roshal ARchive was developed by Eugene Roshal and it is a very efficient method for

compressing and archiving files. RAR works like ZIP files do on Windows. RAR files are

archives which can contain one or more compressed files, with option for encryption. RAR

files can also be segmented into smaller chunks. Popular utilities for creating and

decompressing RAR files include the WinRAR and 7-Zip utilities. Although compression is

slower, smaller file sizes are produced (Wikipedia, 2008c).

The ZIP file format

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A file in the ZIP format is a file that has been compressed into an archive so that it occupies

less disk space. There are several free compression utilities for zipping and unzipping files

with WinZIP being one of the most popular.

7.2 Discussion on new techniques of managing architectural design e-portfolios using the DWF format

There are several novel electronic drawing portfolio management techniques made possible

by the DWF file format. These include batch plotting and scripting, named views (snapshots),

3D views, layering, property sets and compression of DWF files.

Using named views (snapshots) in DWF files

A named view is a view created and named in Autodesk products such as AutoCAD. The view

may show a portion of the model space from a specific point of view, and is commonly used

to create plans, elevations, sections, axonometric and perspective views from a model. Each

named view is shown in the Views palette of Autodesk Design Review. Apart from named

views, the Views palette also displays standard, saved and published views as well as

bookmarks.

Using 3D views in DWF files

The DWF file format has the ability to display 3D models. These 3D models can be viewed

from various angles in axonometric and perspective views and also rotated freely. Various

types of shading and display can be applied and tours of the interiors of architectural models

can be conducted. Cross sections can be created and models can be disassembled. Autodesk

Design Review even allows application of lighting effects to the 3D models.

Layering of DWF files

CAD drawings are organized in layers to enhance display and editing. Turning off some

layers will make them invisible, making editing of objects on visible layers easier. Freezing a

layer will make all objects on the layer unavailable for editing. Layers are also used to assign

global properties such as line thickness, line type and colour to all objects on the layer. DWF

files contain layer information from the DWG file. Thus layers can be turned on and off in a

DWF file for selective viewing and plotting.

Property sets of DWF files

Properties of objects can be exported when creating a DWF file and these properties can be

viewed by DWF file viewers. For example, properties of a door may include manufacturer

and cost.

Compression of DWF files

The size of a DWF file can be reduced by using compression utilities such as WinZIP. When

drawings are saved in several DWF files, a single ZIP file can be created containing all the

DWF files. This makes file transfer easier and faster.

7.3 Actual and recommended use of portable file formats

The integration of e-portfolios into architectural education in Nigeria is an inevitable

consequence of introduction of computer-based training. The factors that limit e-learning

utilization have been identified as psychological, environmental and technological (figure 4).

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Figure 4: Factors that limit e-learning utilization.

These barriers in the specific content of adoption of e-portfolios in architectural education are

evidenced by the following deficiencies:

Absence of enabling pedagogical policies

The absence of enabling pedagogical policies is a major obstacle in the integration of e-

learning into architectural education in Nigeria. Embracement of e-portfolios demands

integrated action at all levels of architectural education and this can be achieved by systematic

academic planning. Adejimi (2007a) recommends the actions that can be taken at

departmental, institutional and national levels to promote the use of e-portfolios. Such actions

include improved funding of education, training of lecturers, curriculum development at both

secondary and tertiary levels, provision of computer and Internet facilities including

departmental web sites, encouragement of local production of electronic training materials

and improvement in power infrastructure.

CAD illiteracy

Nigerian universities still produce CAD-illiterate graduates despite the high demand for CAD

literate graduates. This is not helped by the fact that many architecture lecturers are not CAD

literate. Students are forced to acquire CAD skills after their graduation in order to be

marketable (Ogunsote et al, 2007a). The demand for effective e-portfolios will increase with

the level of CAD literacy.

Deficiencies in the architecture curriculum

There is general agreement on the need to improve the architecture curriculum and introduce

a standard curriculum that guarantees CAD proficiency. Thus graduates of architecture will

acquire CAD proficiency as part of their regular training through integration of CAD related

courses into every year of the training programme. Ogunsote et al (2007a), propose computer

courses necessary for CAD proficiency in architecture graduates with a clear distinction

between regular courses and components integrated into studio and practical courses.

Lack of computer hardware and software

Inadequacies in the provision of computer hardware and software have been a major

constraint in the introduction of e-learning in architectural education in Nigeria. Despite the

continuing crash in the cost of computing, funding remains inadequate. A scenario for

funding e-learning proposed by Ogunsote et al (2006) recommends that stakeholders

including students, the university, private individuals, national and international organizations

should be involved in various degrees (table 5).

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Table 5: A possible scenario for funding CAD proficiency.

Cost Centre Funding

Initial setup of computer workshop or laboratory including premises, furniture, computer equipment, printers and plotters, power equipment, power generator, networking, air conditioning, et cetera.

The institution should have the largest share, though this can be done through donors to the institution.

Maintenance, upgrading and refurbishment This should be financed by students through laboratory fees

Consumables such as paper and cartridges This should be financed by students through laboratory fees

Computer equipment in each student’s room Students

Computer equipment in each staff office Staff with support from the institution

Source: Ogunsote et al (2007a).

Lack of enabling infrastructure

The absence of reliable power and communication infrastructure has been identified as a

major obstacle to e-learning (Ogunsote et al, 2006). Recommendations proffered include the

installation of dedicated VSATs and the provision of standby generators, stabilizers, inverters,

Uninterruptible Power Supplies (UPS) and solar power solutions.

8 Prospects of architectural design e-portfolios in architectural education in Nigeria.

The prospects of a permanent shift from traditional training methods to e-learning in

architectural education in Nigeria are very bright. This shift is already being experienced and

is enhanced and accelerated by the following:

Pressure from practice and the professional bodies for CAD literacy.

Crash in the cost of computing.

Global trends towards e-learning.

Peer pressure from other disciplines now embracing e-learning and CAD.

The authors strongly believe that the following recommendations will enhance the use of

architectural design e-portfolios in Nigerian schools of architecture:

Use of efficient file formats for architectural design e-portfolios.

Innovative use of batch plotting and scripting.

Compression of e-portfolios for transmission and exchange or sharing.

Incorporation of multimedia elements into architectural design e-portfolios.

Efficient techniques for filing and archiving e-portfolios.

Use of efficient file formats for architectural design e-portfolios

The choice of file format for architectural design e-portfolios is determined by software

availability, transmission method and technical constraints. The DWF and PDF file formats

are very popular and are highly recommended. Both can combine files created using different

file formats and can be further compressed using the ZIP and RAR file formats.

Innovative use of batch plotting and scripting

Most versions of AutoCAD allow scripting while recent versions include batch plotting

functionality. Batch plotting is used to publish (plot) several drawing sheets as a batch using a

single command. These drawing sheets are usually organized into sheet sets which are named

collections of sheets from several drawings. The plotting can be done to various output

devices such as printers, plotters and e-plotters for output to DWF, JPG, MDI, PDF and PNG

16

files. There is a multi-sheet option for combining all the sheets into a single DWF file

(Autodesk Corporation, 2008).

A script is a text file with one command on each line. Scripts are run at startup or during work

sessions to automate the execution of several consecutive commands. Scripts also provide an

easy way to create continuously running displays for product demonstrations and trade shows.

Compression of e-portfolios for transmission and exchange or sharing

Compression is very important in making practical use of architectural design e-portfolios.

Without this, transmission and viewing on the Internet will be very slow and frustrating. Most

graphics file formats include some form of compression. This compression can be further

enhanced using archiving software. Thus numerous large DWG files can be saved into a small

DWF file and further compressed using WinZip or WinRar.

Incorporation of multimedia elements into architectural design e-portfolios

Movie and sound clips can be added to PDF files. PDF files can play video and audio clips in

many media players including Apple QuickTime, Flash Player and Windows Media Player.

Playback options include volume control and repetition. The DWF format can embed and

play animations.

Efficient and reliable techniques for filing and archiving e-portfolios

Filing refers to the organization of e-portfolios in an orderly manner, so that they can be easily

found when needed. Archiving is the storage of e-portfolios that are no longer in use. Efficient

filing habits contribute significantly to maintaining a well organized filing system. Such

habits include separation of data files from program files, storage of data files in subfolders

under a single or few folders, organization of data files by content and date and automatic

generation of thumbnail views of graphic files. Google Desktop makes searching for e-

portfolios and other files stored on a computer easy and effortless, irrespective of filing habits,

but efficient filing habits also aid archiving. Google Desktop also searches for phrases within

emails, graphics, data, compressed and other files stored on the computer. It can even search

within deleted and password protected files.

There are several software packages for digital archiving. These software packages automate

archiving, but good archiving habits are as important as powerful software. Good archiving

habits include regular archiving preferably by automated software, maintenance of both

online and offline copies of archives, synchronization of archives, reduction in duplication of

identical files in the archives without sacrificing redundancy and keeping archives current and

accessible by contemporary software and storage devices.

9 Conclusion The adoption of e-learning in architectural education in Nigeria and the resultant ascendancy

of e-studios and e-portfolios appear inevitable. Batch plotting of DWF files, use of the PDF

file format and the development of efficient and reliable electronic filing and archiving

systems can reduce the problems associated with architectural design e-portfolio management

currently experienced in architectural education in Nigeria.

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