Development and Environment.pdf

8/12/2019 Development and Environment.pdf

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EnvironmentalConcerns present without comprumising the ability of the future generations to meettheir needs has also been discussed,in this unit.

Objectives

After reading this unit you will become aware:

of the various issues and'concems related to developmental activities andthe environment at local, regional and global levels,

how various essential human activities such as agriculture, industry andenergy generation have led to environmeritaldegradation, deforestation,soil erosion and a host of other environmental problems,

of the impact of urbanisation on the various aspects of the environment,

andof the need for sustainable development so that our environmentalresources and services remain healthy and available to our f i r egenerations.

3.2 . DEVELOPMENT: ISSUES ANDCONCERNS

It is a common myth that there was no desti-uction of the environment beforethe advent of industrialisation. In fact, human activities have resulted inchanges in the environment since early times. Some of the greatestdeforestations around the Mediterranean region took place in the Greek andRoman era when indiscriminate logging for shipbuilding and for use as fuel indaily life and activities related to mining led to rapid clearing of trees andconsequent desertification. As the human populatioil was small then, theecosystem was able to sustain the impact of human interference. But with thegrowing population the needs of the people also grew and so did the impact oftheir activities. With developments in agricultural practices, industrialisation,and mining techniques there has been a marked increase in productioil as wellas consumption, a shift towards nondegradable products (such as plastics ) andincreased 'use of non-renewable resources such as petroleum products.However, .in the last few decades the hazardous impact of human activities hasaccelerated and become more visible in all major spheres-hydrosphere,atmosphere and parts of the lithosphere. Pressure from the ever-growingpopulation, uncontrolled lavish consumption, urbanisation and industrialexpansion coupled with huge demands for energy have caused the changes thatare serious concerns for the environment.

It is a well known fact that growth an development of the human society,even the very existence of human beings, requires many natural resources bothphysical as well as biological. For all practical purposes land is limited, water

though replenishable, over a period of time can also become scarce. Air isseemingly inexhaustible but due to severe deterioration of its quality throughchanges in i ts composition can become unusable. Energy in its natural formlike sunlight appears abundant but it is critically in short supply at the level ofthe consumer. Fossil fuels like coal, petroleum, natural gas and radioactiveelements are definitely finite. Their increasing use is resulting in their fast

depletion.

The unprecedented growth in world production and consumption is leading toenvironmental stress through irreversible impacts at local, regional and global


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levels. Global warming and ozone level depletion are examples of globalenvironmental degradation; acid rain and the state of oceans in severalcountries are of international concerns and the more local impacts are due toair and water pollution, soil degradation, deforestation etc.

Even now in most developing countries poverty, malnutrition, infectious andparasitic diseases, shortages of food and water, poor sanitation and lack ofproper housing are the major concerns rather than issues of g l ~ p a lwarming orozone depletion. The major concerns of the developed and the 'underdevelopedcountries have been compared in Table 3.1.

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Table 3.1: Environmental concerns o f the developed and developing countries.

Environmental Developing countries Developed countriesaspect

Air Air pollution in major cities Air pollution, global warmingOzone depletion

Land and soil Soil erosion, desertificatioil Soil loss, solid waste disposalLoss of arable land Changing land use

Water Fresh water shortage Inland and marine water pollution

Flora and fauna Deforestation, fuel woad Loss of genetic diversity .Shortage Loss of cropland

The.environmenta1issues arising out of developmental activities have to bee x a ~ i n e dkeeping in view the growth of world popu .ation as well the

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consumption level. The '1972UN World Conference on the HumanEnvironment held at Stoclcholm also highlighted the differences in the pointsof view of the developed and the developing countries regarding developmentand environment.'The developing countries saw development above theconcerns for the environment while the developed countries saw the populationgrowth aq.fhemain reason for the environmental crisis. Amongenvironmentalists tbo, there are two opinions- one that tends to put greaterblame for environmental deterioration on the population growth mainly in thedeveloping nations. The ather viewpoint is that the over consumption patternsof the industrialized nations is responsible for the present day environmentalproblems (see Figure 3.1).

Most environmental issues are related either to the interaction b e k e e n humanpopulation and natural resources (resource consumption), that is, those caused

by taking resources from the environment or putting waste into theenvironment, or factors associated with the sheer growth of the humanpopulation. On examining resource consumption patterns we find that percapita, consumption in developed countries is far greater than in developingnations. The industrialised countries are responsible for the greatest impact ofnatural resource consumption on the global environmental problems likechanges in the atmosphere, while poverty and inability to meet even the basicneeds often forces the use of natural resourcqs in developing countries in waysthat lead to environmental degradation ( ~ o r f d - ~ e s ~ u r c e s1994-95). ,

Development andEnvironment


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Environmental Concerns

=: X X

Number Resource EnviromentalEnvironmental impact of use per impact per unit

people person of resource used

X X

I Fig 3 1: kehationshipbetween population, development and environmehtal degradation.In 1992 the Earth Summit at Rio de Janeiro was held to discuss the globalenvironmental issues and focused on the links between the environment anddevelopment. At Rio the governments agreed upon the Local Agenda 21, aplan designed to tackle environmental issues globally, nationally and locally. Itbrought out the relationship between poverty, development and environmentaldegradation. The main issue agreed upon was that the rich nations had an .ecological debt to pay to the poorer nations because of the disproportionate

consumption of natural resources in the wealthier nations. Ten years later thisissue ofunsustainable pattern of development and consumption of resourcesparticularly in the developed world was raised in The World Summit onSustainable Development held in Johannesburg, South Africa (you will readmore about this in section 3.7 of this unit).

While the world population crossing the six billion mark and expected to reach

eight billion by mid century, is a cause of concern, there is not enough effo toexamine or reduce the consumption levels in the developed nations. For

example calculations show that if petroleum used in New York was availableto the poor in the form of kerosene, the entire fire wood consumption of thethird world can be replaced! (See Box 3.1 also). ,

Apart from pollution which is a common concern of both.developed anddeveloping countries, another cause for concern is that environmental stress is

often both the causq and effect of military conflict. Thro~lghouthistory,

disputes over environmental resources has been common. Disputes over riverwaters have taken place in Noi th America over Ria Grande, in south East Asiaover the waters of the Ganges and Mekong; over the Nile in Africa. Relations

between Britain and Argentina have strained due:to a declaration of exclusivefishing zone around Maldives Falkland islands. Such conflicts ar e likely to .increase in the future as competition for.scarce resources increases.


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Box 3.1: Unsustainable consumption patterns.

The total resource consumption of 20 average families in the developing world is lessthan the consumption of one British family (having two children).India uses less paper for printing textbooks than Scandinavian countries use forprinting pornographic literature.One fifth the world's population in the North (USA, Canada, Western Europe andJapan) consumes 80% of the world's resources.

Per capita emission of greenhouse gases in the US is twelve times that of South Asia.

Issues and Concerns in India

Since independence India has made rapid progress. We are becomingprogressively iildustrialized and urbanised. We have the third largest pool ofscientific and technological manpower after USA and Russia. Industrialisationis considered a sign of development of a nation and India has seen a five foldincrease in industrial production in the last thirty years. However, issues relatedto development in India are similar to issues faced by other developingcountries. These are:

Poverty

Clean airClean water for drinking and domestic use

EducationMalnutrition, health care and sanitation

Good soil to provide food and fodder to increasing human and livestockpopulation

Fuel for cooking and heatingShelter

You are already aware that there has been a population explosion in India sinceindependence -from 300 million in 1947 to over a billion today. This rapidlygrowing population along with increased economic development has placed astrain on India s environment as well as on the iilfrastructure of the country, Ifnot managed properly, providing eve11 the basics would result in more negativeenvironmental impacts. If we are to reach the level of the developed countriesthen resource consumption is bound to increase. Since the last two decadespeople in India are becoming increasingly aware of the environmentalproblems of global warming, acid rain, scarcity of fodder and fuel wood,pollution of air, water and soil from hazardous chemicals and radiation.

The State of the Environment Report for India prepared by T E N , broadlycovers the five priority issues pertaining to the environment identified by theGovernment of India as per the UNEP guidelines. In addition, other issuesaddressing economic and social development are also included. The fivepriority issues are:

1. Land degradation, which occurs through the natural and man-madeprocesses of wind erosion, water erosion, and water-logging, has,beenidentified as one of the priority coilcerns in India. The result of suchdegradation is the loss of invaluable nutrients and lower food grainproduction. Poor l m d use practices and management are responsible for therapid land degradation in 1ndia.



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Environmental Concerns

A one meter rise in sealevel today woulddisplace 7 inillionIndians and in the futurethis number would bemuch larger.

Source:Asia

DevelopmentBank(1995)

2 Loss of biodiversity is of great concern to India since many plant andanimal species are severely threatened by a destruction of their habitat andan over-exploitation of resources. A large number of species are eitherendangered or on the verge of extinction, both of which can be attributed toa lack of policy and institutional mechanisms.

3. Air pollution with special reference to vehicular pollution in cities. Airpollution in India caa broadly be attributed to rapid industrialisation,energy production, urbanisation, commercialisation, and an increase in thenumber of motorised vehicles. Vehicles are a major source of pollutants incities and towns. Apart from the sheer numbers, other factors contributingto the increasing vehicular pollution in urban areas include the types ofengines used, age of vehicles, density of traffic, road conditions, and the

status of automotive technologies and traffic management systems.4. Management of fresh water resources. The availability of fresh water isgoi.ng to be the most pressing problem in India over the coming decades.The stress on water resources is a result of multiple factors namely urbangrowth, increased industrial activities, intensive farming, and the overuseof fertilisers and other chemicals in agricultural production. Untreatedwater from urban settlements and industrial activities, and run-off fromagricultural land c arrying chemicals, are primarily responsible for thedeterioration of water quality and the contamination of lakes, rivers, andgroundwater aquifers.

5. Hazardous waste management with special reference to municipal solidwaste management. There has been a significant increase in the quantitiesof municipal solid wastes and hazardous waste genqated in India over thelast few decades. The largest quantities of hazardous waste are generatedby the following industries: petrochemicals, p~armaceuticals,pesticides,paints and dyes, petroleum, fertilisers, asbestos, caustic soda, inorganic

. chemicals, and general engineering. The rate of generation of solid waste inurban centres has outpaced population growth in recent years with thewastes normally disposed in low-lying areas of the city's outskirts (India:State of the Environment 2001).

These core environmental issues are vital for the long-term economicdevelopment in India, needed to provide the basic amenities to all the citizens.Industrial pollution continues to remain a major problem accentuated byexpansion of the chemical industry in the recent past. Against an economicgrowth of 163 per cent in the past 20 years, the pollution load increased bymore than 475 per cent. During the period from 1975-95 industrial pollutiongrew by 247 per cent. The impact of this is being felt in the highly toxic qualityof water bodies, deteriorating ambient air quality and land degradation (IndiaDevelopment Report 2002). The threat of climatic change due to the emission

of greenhouse gases (GHG) mainly carbon dioxide, is by now well known.India is already facing pressure to reduce its emissibn of GI-IGs though theunsustainable consumption patterns of industrialized nations have led to theaccumulation of GHGs. h three impacts generally expected of climatechange are effects on agriculture, sea level rise leading to submergance ofcoastal areas and increased frequencies of extreme events such as drought,floods cyclones etc. Each of these poses a serious threat to India.

It is important that we must recognize the cyclic relationship between theenvironment, development and poverty. As poverty increases, pressure on thenatural resources increases leading to environmental degradation, the prospects


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of further employment declines. Thus environmental degradation generatesmore poverty. At least 500 million of the world's poorest people live inecologically marginal areas who may indulge in overexploitation'of the naturalresources resulting in the decline in productivity.

Thus we see that environmental challenges arise from lack of development andalso from development processes. The biggest challenge is to implement adevelopment process that will lead to greater equity, growth and sustainability.

In the following sections we will discuss the impact of various developmentalactivities like agriculture, energy generation, ind~lstrialisation nd urbanisationon the environment.


3.3 IMPACT O AGRICULTURAL PRACTICESAgriculturc is probably the oldest industry setup by humans. It is also thelargest industry as well. More than half the world's population is engaged inagriculture, hence it would be expected that agriculture would leave its impacton the environment.

Before you start reading about the changes in human~environinentwe wouldlike you to h o w about the history of land use patterns during different periodsof time, so that it is easier for you to compare and correlate the damagescaused by different agricultural practices. Figure 3.2 gives a brief account ofthe agro ecosystems. The transformatioil from traditional to i noden~agriculturedepicts the evolution of more energy intensive and more productive agriculturefrom less energy intensive and less productive agriculture. In the figure you

can see the shifts in agricultural practices that have brought in significantchanges in land use patterns, health of natural resources, quantum and directionof material flow and livelihood patterns.

Agriculture has undergone significant changes during the last century. Use ofmodem implements, electric powered irrigation systems, fossil f ~ l e lbased agromachinery, chemical fertilisers plant protection chemicals and high yieldingvarieties in traditional agriculture are some of the inputs that make it modem.While modem agriculture has brought in enormous increase in crop productionon the one hand, on the other it has caused great damage to the natural balanceof the environnient.For simplicity we have divided the impact of agro-pastoral activities into twocategories:

(a)Changes brought about by traditional agriculture. These includedefacement of land, deforestation coupled with loss of soil structure, soilerosion and depletion of soil nutrients. Some of these changes are sharedwith overgrazing which is also a by-product of efforts to exploit the landresources for maximum livestock production regardless of the ability ofthe ecosystem to withstand external interventions. Traditional agriculturesometimes has serious consequences (see box 3.2).

(b) Changes brought abovt by modern agriculture. Modem agriculturalpractices continue to share the disruptive effects of traditional agriculture,they also brings about soine changes in the environment that arecharacteristic only of modein agriculture. For example, excessive


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Environmental Concerns irrigation results in twin problems of salinisation and water- logging;addition of chemical fertilisers increases the rate of loss of micronutrientsfrom the soil, causes eutrophication of water bodies. The use of plantprotection chemicals poison food products, sometimes kill non-targetfriendly organisms and help target organisms to develop immunity; anduse of high yielding varieties makes agriculture market -oriented,encourages monoculture causing eruption of epidemics and depletion ofgenetic diversity.

HUNTING AND GATHERING

ACTIVITIES CONCERN S) FEATURE

iVery small group slze, no surpluses.

Food Regenerat~ve apaclty of ecosystemtook care of every thlng

PRIMITIVE AGRICULTURE

iFoodShelter

ACRO HOR'IICULTURAL SOCIETIES

tFoodShelterClothlng

AGRARIAN SOCIETIES

Little deliberate change in land use,settlements started small economicsurpluses.

Raid and plunder of agricultural produce

led to tiefdom and urban settlements usedmetal tools, practiced application of waterfor irrigation.

Food Economy based on exchange of goods,Shelter surpluses large, settlements amund fertileClothing valleys.Leisure

MODERN AGRICULTURAL PRACTICES

3Enormous Mechanized lnlgatlon and transfer ofrawincre se mater~al;Heavy use of fertilizersandrn food pestic~des;Darnoge to nntural environmentproductionFig.3.2:Evolution of Induced Agriculture. .

Whilst these environmental problems have the greatest impact in thedeveloping world, they are also shared to some extent by the more developed

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countries. Now we will discuss some of the major impacts of modemagriculture that lead to the environmental issue of land degradation.3.3.1 Deforestation

Removal of forest cover for a g r i c u h r a l activities is a major cause ofdeforestation in the developing countries, most of which are in the tropics.Tropical forests account for nearly half the world's remaining forests coveringan area of 2 lo krn2 In contrast, in the inore developed countries the rate ofdeforestation has stopped and in some there has been a reversal with theimplementation of afforestation programmes. In India, forest depletion has

been arrested to some extent. But forest cover still declined froin 63.89 millionhectares (mha) in 1995 to 63.34 rnha in 1997, (State of Forest Report 1997,

Forest Survey of India, Dehradun).Deforestation of forests is caused by a nun~be rof human activities, o f whicllshifting agriculture is a primary cause. Though this type of aclivily hascoexisted with the rain forests Tor thousands of years, in recent years theincidence has greatly increased as farmers forccd off land by cash-croppingand ranching turn to the rainforest for sustenance. Other causes ofdeforestation are mineral extraction, the building of roads and dams andlogging operations.

On a local level, the environnlental probleins associated with removal of forestcover involve the water cycle. The water taken up by trees reduces the amountavailable for surface run-off. When deforestation occurs surface run-offincreases lcading to severe soil erosion and floods. For example, in themountainous regions of India and Nepal enlire hillsides have been striped oftheir forest covers and the monsooil rains have washed then1 away. On aregional level the increase in surface run-off causes down stream floodingtransporting along huge amounts of sediment causing the problem of siltation.On the global scale, the burning of biomass associated with deforestatioil iscontributing to the increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide levels sce box 3.2also).

Deforestation is also a major cause o f loss of biological diversity, for tropicalforest are said to contain a t least hal f of the world's plant and animal species(World Resource Institute).

Box 3.2: Consequences of deforestation- h Indonesian forest fires.

Indonesia has the world's second largest rainforests after Brazil. During the periodfrom August1997 to May 1998 at least 2 million hectares of these rain forests weredestroyed by fire. In previous such burning incidences the fanners engaged in slashand bum agriculture were held responsible, but this time large

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scale plantationcompanies, encouraged by government policies to clear large areas of rainforest forcultivation of rubber trees or oil palms have largely been held responsible. Theextremely dry conditions at that time encouraged the deliberate burning of the forestsand also assisted the fires to turn out of control. Peat bog forests also caught fire inlarge areas and these continued to smoulder for weeks producing large amounts ofsmoke that enveloped soutll-east Asia. (Ref. Pearce, F. (1998) Playing with fire.New Scientist,21 March 36-39),

Development andEl~vironrner~t


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ravironlmentalConcerns 3.3.2 Salinisation and Water -loggingSalinisation is the accumulation of salts, mainly carbonates, chloride and,sulphates in soil, surface water and ground water. This process occurs naturallyin arid and semi-arid regions forming salt Rats where salt come to the surfacedue to capillary action as the water evaporates. The excessive irrigation of aridand semi-arid regions to enable crop cultivation has greatly increased the-salinisationof soil. Salt affected soils cover 5.5 mha of the 328 m l ~ a o fIndia'stotal land area (ICID, 2002). India has a total of 3.58 mha of alkaline soils thatcontain excessive sodium carbonate and sodium bicarbonate. Out of these halffall under agricultural land but remain unproductive.

In our enthusiasm to provide more water to agricultural fields, we have

employed canal irrigation as well as tube wells for drawing water from thedeep core of the earth. Excessive irrigation without proper drainage raises thewater table. As a result the soil becomes drenched with water or water logged.According to the Central Water Commission a total area of 8.5mha is waterlogged. Such soils cannot support plant growth as they lack air andmechanical strength. India has the largest irrigated area in the world --59.00mha and in 1997,501 billion cubic meters (BCM) water was utilised inirrigation and the demand for water is expected to increase in the coming years(ICID 1998).

3 3 3 Soil Erosion and DesertificationSoil erosion occurs when the removal of soil occurs at a much faster rate thanits replacement by weathering of underlying bedrock. It is a natural process,mediated by water and wind. Human activities involving inappropriate

agricultural practices have greatly increased the rate of soil erosion in lllailyparts of the world. The estimated annual soil loss through erosion is in theregion of75 000 million tones. Soil erosion is a problem in both developing aswell as developed countries. As mentioned earlier, high population pressure inthe developing nations have resulted in the cultivation of marginal lands. S L I Clands may inherently have low fertility as they may be on the margins ofdeserts or on land made available by clearing rainforests. Without theprotection of forest cover or crop cover, the bare soil is exposed to forces ofsoil erosion. The worst form of erosion prevalent in agricultural lands is washoff erosion or sheet erosion, which becomes in~portantin the hilly regions. Insemi-arid and arid regions soil erosion is strongly associated withdesertification.

Desertification describes the final stages by which former productive semi-arid

, and arid land is degraded into unproductive desert mainly due to huinanactivities. The global rate of desertification is estimated to be about 6 millionhectwes per year. The problem of desertification is a continuing one especiallyin the developing world as the need to increase agricultural production leads to ,cultivation of marginal lands.

3.3.4 Fertilisers and Plan t Protection Chemicals. Most of the chemical fertilisers used in modern agro ecosystems contain

macronutrients that is, nitrogen , phosphorus and potassium (NKP) .Butexcessive use of NPK causes the plant to draw more micronutrients as wellfrom the soil. The rate of growth of pIants often exceeds. the soil's ability to

106 replenish the micronutrients. Thus excessive use of fertilisers causes


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Environmental Concerns the discovery of methods for using chemical energy stored in fossil fuels suchas coal and later oil and natural gas. Horse drawn vehicles and wind -powered

ships were replaced by coal burning steam engines. Within a few decades theagriculture based rural societies were transformed into more urbanized early

industrialized societies. From England the new ways spread to form what are

now known as the core nations of the 'developed' world. By 1870 there were

distinct industrial regions in France and Belgium, Russia, Geimany USA andJapan. All these were characterized by an increased per capita consumption of

energy, based on coal as fuel.Along with industrialisation, the population also grew. By 1880 the population

of Great Britain had trebled in less than a century and these people

concentrated into towns and other emerging urban centers. Once set in motion,the industrial growth was rapid everywhere. The development of inore efficientmachines and techniques for mass production and advances in scicnce aqdtechnology led to the level of industrialisation that we see today.

Impact on Environment

To understand the impact of industrialtsation we can take up the example of asteel mill or a coal mine and examine its e~lvironmentalimpact at the local andregional level. Let us start at the local level. The impact on the localenvironment would be in the form of changed land use, with a large area

covered by buildings, sheds, heaps of materials, roads and hard surfaces (seeFig. 3.3). During construction there must have been vast amounts of bare soilthat would contribute to silt in the runoff and when completed, the plant would

show urban features. A heavily built up zone would therefore affect the localwater bodies. The quality of water is also likely to be affected throughpercolation of wastes from the factory. Its load of suspended as well asdissolved matter would be therefore higher and some of the substances carriedare likely to be toxic to life. There would be greater organic component of

sewage in the watercourse downstream too.

Water not necessarily piped to each dwellingI

And plant, draipage off tip water transportFig 3.3: Impact of an Industrial Plant on the Local Environment.


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Similarly the air near the plan would be polluted. There would be greaterfallout of soot near the chimney, which would affect the people living nearby.hl downwind direction the impact reduces progressively but sulphurcompounds will rain as dilute acid rain and destroy buildings as well as

vegetation.

We call extend this model to the whole planet. The developed regions can beregarded as this plant and the rest of the world the outreach for its raw materialand waste products. With the industrialisation of the planet, using thetemperate grasslands to grow food crops, or converting them into ranches toprovide meat in the developed countl-iesmet the denland for food. Demand forother cash crops such as tea, coffee, rubber, and paper increased and large

areas of forests were converted into plantations.

Most developing countries started at independence with virtually no modemi n d ~~s t t y .During the 1960s and 1970s their industrial production, e~nploylnentand trade consistently gl-cw. Tildustry an d its products have an impact on thenatural resource base through the entire cycle of raw nlaterials exploration,extraction, and transformation illto products, energy consumption, wastegeneration and the use by the consumer. These impacts may be positive,enhancing the quality of the resource or extending its use, or they may benegative, as a result of process and product pollution and of the depletion ofresources (Our C o r n ~ n o ~ lFuture 1987)The negative impacts were first perceived as localized probleins of air land andwater pollution in the develbped coulltries as the Los Angeles Smog or thedeath of large lakes as Lake Erie in the US; and the progressive pollution of allthe major rivers in the west. Sinlilar problems have also been found in manyparts of the developing world as industrial growth, increase in automobilenumbers and urbailisation spreads.llldustrial developmellt has contributed sig~lificatltlyto economic growth inIndia; however, not without an environmental price, India has seen a fivefoldincrease in industrial production in the last three decades. With the newindustrial policy it is expected to further accelerate. With coal accounting for52% of total primary energy consumption in 1999, this industrial developmenthas been fuelcd by a relatively high-polluting energy source. Not only isindustrial pollution increasing public health risks, but abatement efforts alsoare consuming a significant portion of India's GDP. A rcport from Ministry ofEnvironment and Forests estimates that the annual cost of environmentaldegradation in India in the past few years is averaging about 4.5% of GDP(Source: Energy Information Administration, June 2001).In many cities in the developing world eilvironn~cntalpollution is much worsethan any that was experienced in the developed world in the 1950s or the1960s Vehicle exhaust, coal burning and particles from coal combustion andfactories in air that causes serious health problems. More than 2000 peopledied in Bhopal in India in 1984, from release of methyl isocyanate out of theUnion Carbide Factory. Such industrial accidents too that are disastrous forboth the environment and the people.

Development and~ i v i r o ~ ~m e ~ l t,

Whether industries are large or small, they all create pollution related problemsas they generate huge amounts of waste. Therefore environmental pollution isalso compounded by rapid industrialisation and increase in the number of


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Environmental Concerns automobiles. Most of our industrial cities are often referred to as cities offunctioning chaos, as the haphazard and uncontrolled growth of differentindustries in our industrial cities pose environmental challenges in the shape ofsluins, toxic wastes and gases and discharge of effluents into water bodies.

Box 3.3: Haphazard industrialisation and urbanization - Ludhiana.Ludhiana known as the Manchesterof India. is the fastest growing city in Punjab state of the IndianUnion. It is located 250 km from New Delhi .It is the most populous city in the state and the mostpolluted too. According to the 1991 census the population now exceeds I million. The fast industrialgrowth and rapid population growth has led to many problems typical of unplanned development. Theliving standard is perhaps at its minimum tolerable level. The city faces water pollution, depletion ofground water sources due to excessive and unsustaillable use. The water in and around industrialestates of the city is unfit for drinking.

The city's dyeing industiy and hosiery units and the sewerage system have converted the water bodyBudda Nala into an open sewer, polluting the ground water dowi~strearnbefore the ilalajoins the riverSutlej. The air hangs thick with pollutants and on account of high population density the incidents ofT.B. have increased especially in the congested localities of migrant labour.

Mega cities - currently.defined by the UnitedNations as cities o over10million inhabitants.The number of megacities will increase from 5in 1975,of which 3 werein the developing world,to29 in 2015 of which allbut 4will be in thedeveloping world.

With the advancements in technology, increase in econc)mic development andhuman population, we are becoming more of an urban species. Urbanisation is aglobal phenomenon. People move from villages to cities as cities provide bettereconoinic opportunities, educational facilities, and health care and entertainmentoptions. From less than 10% of the global population in 1700, city dwellers nowaccount for more than half (about 5 i ) of a much larger total. Rapidurbanisation first o c c u l ~ e din the developed countries but recent urban growthhas occurred dramatically in the large cities of the developing countries. In 1900,thirteen cities in the world had populat ioi~over 1 million each. Exccpt Tokyo allwere in either Europe or North America. In 2000, however, there were 400metropolitans with more than 1 million inhabitants of which a large number was

in India and China. In the developing countries urban growth has been the most .rapid in a I ew cities, which are referred to as 'megalopolises' or mega cities. Themega cities of the poorer countries have been growing at a much faster rate thanthose in the developed world (see Table 3.2).Altliough there are nuinerous examples of mega cities in the developed world,they are primafily t phenomenon of the developing world. According to the~ o ~ u l a t i o nr o j e c f i ~ sfor the 11 largest urban agglolnerates in 2015, in 12years most of the largest cities of the world will be in the developiilg world, asignificant chktnge from the largest city populations in 1980 and 1994.Although Tokyo will remain the largest city in the world, New York, at secondplace in 1980 and 1994, is projected to be at the bottom of the list by 2015,while Mui l ~ba i i l l have climbed from sixth to second place.Both Tokyo and New York are experieilcing relatively modest populationincreases, and a number of other large cities in the developed world are

experiencing population declines. In contrast, the populations of developingworld mega cities are typically growing over one to f ive percent per year,although these growth rates are expected to abate somewhat in the next 15

years UIY, 1998).


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Table 3.2: Population and growth rates in the world's mega cities. evelop~nentandElnviron~ncntCity Population (millions) Growth rate

1990 2000 (tentative) ( ITokyo, JapanSao Paulo, BrazilMexico city MexicoNew York, USAShanghai, ChinaMurnbai IndiaLos Angeles, USABuenos Aires ArgentinaSeoul, South KoreaBeijing ChinaRio de Janeiro, BrazilKolkata, IndiaOsaka, JapanJakarta, IndonesiaTianjin ChinaManila, PhilippinesCairo, EgyptNew Delhi, lndiaKarachi. PakistanLanos Nigeria 7.7 13 5 5.8~ l l ik a L n ~ la d c sh 6.6 11.5 7.2Source:World evclcprrzent Indicators, World Bank 2001.Urbanisation alters the enviroilment locally as well as regionally, affecting theclimate, water flow and biodiversity creating new hazards and problems ofsecurity and safety. The consuinption of land is the most obvious impact ofurbanisation but the impact spreads to Srontiel-sfar beyond areas actuallyconvei-ted for settlements. Timber fuel, building lllaterials and water areextracted from ever widening zones arouiid the cities to meet their cver-growing needs, and at the same ti me growing quantities of solid wastcslandfills, water and air pollution are exported out to the hinter land by theurban centres. The extent o f resou

r

ces used by a city can be visualized as its"ecological footprint".

Box 3.4: Ecological footprint,

The term ecological footprint has been coincd by the Canadian Environmentalists William Rees and MathiasWackemagel of the Univorsily of British Columbia. Their methodology measures how much of the carryingcapacity of thc earth has been appropriated by huinans. It defines the amount of land that is required lo supply a citywith food and natural resources as well as the area of growing vegetation required lo absorb its carboil output.Ecological footprint calculatioils are based on average per capita consillnption of food, forest products nnd fuel in agiven geographic area. The size of the footprint is determined by calculati~lghow much land would be needed toproduce that food, wood and paper and the equivalent amount of biomass needed to substitute ethanol for oil or gas,Using 1993 United Nations data on population and consumptioil levels, Wackemagel and his colleagues working atthe Center for Sustainability Studies in Veracruz Mexico, calculated the ecological footprints of 52 nations, as wellas a global average, The results show a wide range ofdifferent national footprints ranging from a modest 0.7hectare per person in Bangladesh and 0.8 hectare in India and Pakistan to 9.8 hectares per capita in New Zealand8.4 hectares in the United States and 7.0 hectares in Canada. European nations generally have smaller footprintswith France and Nonvay using 5.7 hectares per inhabitant and Germany 4.6 hectares,


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Environmental Concerns Urbanisation in India

India is probably one of the least urbanized countries in the world. Between1951 and 200 1 ,.the level of urbanisation increased only by 13 percentagepoints, However, if population sizes are taken into account, India has thesecond largest urban population in the world.

More than two thirds of this population lives in regions having populationgreater than one million and one fourth of this population lives in the fourinega cities namely Muinbai Kolkata, Delhi and Chennai with populationsmore than 10 million each in 2001 (see also Table 3.3).

Table 3.3: Total and urban population in India in the la st 100 years.

Year Cities UAs with Urban population Urban populationmillion+ (millio t i ) ( of total)

population)

190 1 238.9 10.841921 2 25 1.3 11.18

1951 5 36 1 . 1 17.29

197 1 9 548.2 19.911981 12 683.3 23.34

1991 23 844.3 25.72

200 1 40 1027.0 30.5Source:Census of India (2001).

3.5.1 Positive Impacts of Urbanisation

The process of urbanisation is often accompanied by major eco~lomicandstructural changes, New jobs are created and improved services are provided.Urban regions provide better facilities of electricity, health, education,infr;gstructure and safe drinking water and toilet facilities in conlparison torural areas. For example, 6lper cent of urban households have electricity,toilets and safe drinking water where as, only 12.3 per cent in rural areaspossess these facilities. In case of energy use, 35 per cent of urban householdsuse liquefied petroleum gas and 27% use kerosene whereas, in rural areasnearly 80 per cent of households use inconvenieilt bion~ ass-b asedfuels,There is better exposure to inass media in urban areas. More t h a ~ lhalf of thetotal population in rural areas in 1990 was not exposed to any type of media.With the spread of satellite TV network the situation is changing, but thedifference is likely to persist.

3.5.2 Problems of Urbanisation

The negative effects like the deterioration of the physical environment andquality of life caused by the shortfall in demand and supply o f t h e essentialsoverwhelm the positive impact of urbanisation.Urbanisation has resulted in environmental degradation in a number of ways,such as,

i) Changes in Land Use: Towns and cities grow with economic growth ofhuman societies. As towns grow they invade the productivc crop landsand rich forests. Both intracity and regionally open lands are convertedinto built-up area. Thus, the land with all its biological resources is


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irreversibly lost. An estimated area of 1.5 rnha of good agricultural landhas been gobbled up by towns and cities since 1950 and another 8 mha ofsuch land may have been si~nilarlydiverted for this purpose by 2000 AD.The first Master Plan of Delhi, envisaged an area of 44,000 ha and calledfor acquiring 32,000 ha of agricultural land. Within 20 years, the city hasexpanded by more than 35per cent. Indian cities which are 30 years orolder, have lost practically all wild life from their suburbs due toencroachment on agriculture land in their surroundings

ii Depletion of Water Resources: Water requirements of the rapidlygrowing urban population also increases many times but due to the limitedresources it is becoming increasingly difficult to meet the requirements ofthe municipal water supply. In Munlbai as against the demand of 3026million litres per day (mld) in 1995, only 60 percent was supplied. Delhiis no better with average water demand for over 3600 mld only 2947.5mld is being supplied. It may be mentioned that these are 'A' class cities;in smaller towns the position of water supply is much worse. Due toextensive built-up areas, the local groundwater recharges decline and thecities have to draw water from outside. With further growth, the increasedwater demand can be met only by drawing water from distant sources.Presently Delhi is drawing water from Rsunaganga, 180 kin away. Indorefrom Narrnada, 75 km away and Bangalore from Cauvery at a distance of100 km. Chennai is seeking water from Krishna in Andhra Pradesh andCauvery in Karnataka with 600 m lift. 111 each of these cases, water fromthe cities has to be drawn at the cost of cultivation and rural demands.

iii) Building Materials: Construction of houses and other structures need largequantities of building materials. Delhi's estimated need is 80,000 newhouses every day. Material for t l ~ i shas to be brought froin adjoining areascomprising fertile land causiilg further damage to good agricultural areas,

iv) Industries: Industrial development goes almost hand in hand withurbanisation. For examples, nearly 60% of the industries in Maharashtraare located in Mumbai alone. Industries draw upon water resourcesheavily. Water requirement per tonne of produce in a crude oil refinery isbetween 1-3 m3, it is 5-8 rn3 for daily, 20-403for textiles, 100-250 in3 forsteel, 250-400 m3 for pulp and paper and 400-600 m3 for viscose rayon.

v Slum: United Nations estimates that at least 1 billion people live ncrowded, unsanitary slums of the central cities and in the vast shantytownsand squatter settlements that ring the outskirts of most of the mega citiesof the developing world, Slums represent one of the worst types ofenvironmental degradation, which have become concomitant tourbanisation and industrialisation. About 18.75% of India's urbanpopulation lives in slums. Sixty percent of Mumbai's population is slumdwellers and more than half a million people sleep on the streets,

sidewalks and traffic circles because they have no homes. While about20% of the population of Delhi live in overcrowded informal settlementsin bastis or slums. Amongst the states, Rihar has 37.50% of its urbanpopulation as slum dwellers followed by Maharashtra 32.63% and WestBengal31.53%. Kerala with 8,81% and Karnataka with 14,43%, are thetwo states with lowest percentage of urban population in slums. The slumdwellers have an environment with inadequate living space, water supply,and sewerage facilities. This causes steady deterioration of surroundingregions as well as human health.vi Water Pollution: About 200 million people in the developing world donot get safe drinking water, according to United Nations. Pollution of


Area of Delhi is 1485 sqkm and the total populationby2002 year end was morethan 14.5 million. It has apopulation density of9 94lsq m against thenational density of 324persons/sq km (Census ofIndia, 2001). Commercialand industrial demands ofresources have grown 4times in the last 5 vears.


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Environmental Concerns fresh water bodies like urban lakes and rivers through urbanisation andindustrialisation is colossal. About 90% of the drinking water in Indiacomes from rivers polluted by these human activities. About 873 mld ofwaste water drained into the Ganga before the Ganga Action Plan wasinitiated. Sabarrnati a small river alone receives 998 mld of dirty waterfrom the city of Ahmedabad (Source: State of India's Environment, 2001).About 2,700 large and small units contri buts 70% by volume of thepolluted effluents and 30% comes from small and cottage industry sector..Further, few cities in the developing world can afford to build modernwaste treatment systems for their rapidly growing cities. It is estimatedthat 300 million of the world's urban residents havc inadequate sanitation.Only 217 of the India's 3119 towns have even partial sewage systems andwater treatment facilities Thus, sewage both seeps into the soil andpollutes ground water or it flows through streams and rivers. Table 3.4gives the status of wastewater generation and treatment in a few largecities in India in the year 1994-95. Delhi alone pours over 500 millionlitres of untreated sewage into Yamuna every day. Whi le, Ganga receivessewage and industrial wastes from 24 urban settlemeilts along its bank.

Table: 3.4: Waste watergeneration in selected cities of India 1994-95).Metro city Waste water generated Waste

in million litres/dav mld) Water collectionDomestic Industrial Total Total (rnld) As of total Treattnel~t

Generated capacity rnld)Ahmedabad 520 3 6 556 445 80.0 10Bangalore 375 25 400 300 75.0 290Kolkata ' 1384 48 1432 1075 75.1 NAChennai 276 276 257 93.1 257Delhi 1270 1016 80.0 1071Hyderabad 348 25 373 299 80.1 115Mumbai 2228 228 2456 2110 90.0 109Pune 432 432 367 85.0 370

Source: Anon 1997, Status and supply of waste water generation, collection, treatment and disposal in metro cities 1994-5),ControI of Urban Pollution Series, CUPS/42/1997-8,Central Pollution Board, New Delhi.vii) Air Pollration: The dense traffic, commonly old and poorly maintained

vehicles, smoky factories, and use of coal or wood fires for cooking oftencreate a thick pall of smoke in the world's mega cities. Mos t of the airpollution in urban locations results from the discharge o f sulphur dioxide,

. oxides of nitrogen, hydrogen sulphide and suspended particles, such as flyash etc., and cause considerable damage to plants, animals and to humanhealth (you will read more about the sources and ef fects o f pollution inthe next unit).viii)Waste Prt~duction:Solid waste produced by households, industry,hospitals, construction sites etc., management and disposal problems in

. the urban areas of most countries. In India uncontrolled dumping of wa teon the outskirts of cites has created overflowing landfills which areenvironmental hazards. At the present rate of solid waste generation thefour landfill sites of Delhi are likely to be filled very soon. This solidwaste also leads to pollution of ground waterand air. Table 3.5 shows theamount of solid waste generaled by some of the major cities of India andit is clear that the amount is increasing day by day.


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Environmental Concerns 3 6 1 Impact on AirThe burning of fossil fuels such as coal, oil and natural gas in the generation of

electricity and in the internal combustion engine are altering the earth's

climate. Bunling fossil fuels releases carbon that has previously been lockedup in coal, oil and natural gas for millions of years. The carbon in these fossil

fuels is transformed into carbon dioxide COz), the predominant gascontributing to the "greenhouse effect," during the combustion process. The

release of large quantities of fossilized carbon threaten to raise average global

temperatures at an accelerated pace Energy-related ventures account for about

86 percent of all greenhouse gas emissions linked to human activities. The

generation of electricity by thermal power plants is the single largest source of

C OZemissions. Burning coal produces far more COz than oil or natural gas.Global warming also poses a major threat to human health by way of increased

infectious diseases. Increasillg temperatures nurture the spread of disease-carrying mosquitoes and rodents. As global temperatures rise, sea levels willalso rise. Water previously bound to mountain and polar glaciers melts andflow into the world's seas. Much of the world's population, especially the

poorer people of the world, live at or close to sea level, areas vulnerable to thelethal combination of rising sea level and increasingly severe ocean storms.Sea levels have already risen 4 to 10 inches over the last century.

(Source: www.whrc.orgElectricity generation using fossil fuels enl it s su l f ~~ rdioxides and oxides ofnitrogen, which are a major cause of acid precipitation. Acid precursors call bccarried in the atmosphere for several days and travel several hundred miles

downwind of the power plant stack before being deposited on the earth'ssurface, For example, because of prevailing winds, the northeastern United

States and Canada receive significant quantities of acid precursors from coal-fired power plants in states stretching from Missouri to the west andPennsylvania to the east.

Of course, not all power plants generate the same level of air pollutants

contributing to acid rain. Emissions rates vary widely depending upon Factorsas the precise fossil fuel type used, the nature of the coillbustion process, pre-and post-combustion air emission controls, as well as vintage of the powerplant. Older coal plants especially those designed to burn high sulfur content

coal are the most significant source of acid rain pollutants,

India's large reserves of coal are a major asset to the country, accounting for 70percent of India's current productio~lof electricity. However, excessive use ofthis fonn of energy productioll-especially withoui the use of strategies tomitigate its effects

-

will cause the quality of the country's air, land, and water

resources to deteriorate.

While climate change and cid rail1 impact the general environment on aregional or global scale, air en~issionsfrom fossil h e 1 power plants also havedirect impacts on human health. Most especially, human health is jeopardized

from the formation of ozone (or "smog") and fine particles that ]nay formeither in power plant smokestacks or in the air as a result of the e~llissionsofally of the.three primary gases - carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide or nitrogenoxides. Both ozone and fine particulates pose health risks within the vicinity ofthe emitting power plants or inay travel hundreds of tniles and pose health risks


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far from the sources o f the precursor emissions (see Box 3.5). Electric powerplant emissions account for about one-third of al l NOx released into theatmosphere from human sources.

Box 3.5: Kolaghat thermal power plant.

West Bengal prides itself in its giant thermal power station (210MWx6) inKolaghat.Built in the eighties the station has won the award for "Best performingIndian power plant" several times. There is no doubt that this power station haschanged the image of West Bengal from a power deficit state to a power- surplusstate. Yet for a large number of people staying in the vicinity the power plant is asource of misery. Their problems stein fsoin the daily emission of about 4000 tonnesof fly ash by the plant. The fly ash which is a by- product of coal combustion andother materials for power generation, is suspected to have traces of alumina, variousother toxic heavy metals and carcinogenic elements. It has adversely affected thequality of life in a large area.

The gravity of the situation is manifested in the large heaps of fly ash stacked alongthe roads even 20 km from the power plant. Men playing cards on rickety cotsperched on top of fly ash heaps, children playing in the ash are corninon sights. Avast grey sheet of fly ash particles remain hanging in the sky over Kolaghat andadjoining areas observing the vision. The large ponds nearby smell of the leaden ash.KTPS is fast acquiring vast tracts of land f creating ash ponds. According to thepower sector norms, one MW of thermal power requires onc to ten acres of land fordisposal of ash over 30 years.The ash handling system accounts for five per cent ofthe total cost of a power project, A part of the ash and certain gases inevitablyproduced by burning of coal, escape into the air through the chimneys even thoughthe cllimneys are fitted with electrostatic precipitators.

Coal f i e l ed electric power plants are also the single largest source of mercuryemissions. An inventory of mercury emissions conducted by EPA of USAfound that one-third of all mercury air emissions come from coal burn ing inelectric power plants. Mercury is present in the coal used as feeds tock in theutility boiler. As the coal is cornbusted in the utility boiler, mercury i svaporized and released as a gas. Pollution controls employed by utilities tcurb other pollutants are not effective in removing mercury. At present, thereare no commercially viable control technologies for mercury. As aconsequence, this highly toxic air pollutant continues to go largely unabated .

3.6.2 Impact on Water

Thermal electric generating facilities make electricity by converting water into

high-pressure steam that drives turbines. Once water has gon e through thiscycle, it is cooled and condensed back to water'and then reheated i o drive theturbines again. The process of c o n d e n s a t i o ~requires a separate cooling waterbody to absorb the heat o f the steam.

The amount of water us ed for power plant cooling als o varies by each specificp'ower plant's electricity generating technology and, size. For example, nuclear

reactors require the most water for cooling, and fossil fuel power plants co mein second. However, mos t renewable energy teclmologies require little or nowater for cooling.

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Environmental Concerns Nydroelectric GenerationTo generate, hydroelectl-icpowcr water from a fast flowing river or a stream isdiverted through turbines. Usually it involves the damming of a river andflooding of a valley. However there are serious enviroilmental problemsassociated with the constn~ctionof hydro electrical power stations. Reservoirsinundate forests, farmlands, and wildlife habitats. Large tracts of land are lostand often local population displaced as a consequence of developing ahydroelectric project.

Wate r Use and Consumption

Most electric power plants require water to operate. Nuclear and fossil fuel

power plants use over 185 billion gallons of water per day. Hydropower plantsuse water directly to generate power. These power plants represent the singlelargest consumer of water among any industrial, governmental or residentialactivity. Withdrawal of large volunles of surfqce water for either power plantcooling o r hydropower generation call adversely affect the fisheries resourcesby killing fish, larvae and other aquatic organisms trapped against intakestructures, or swept up in the flow through the different sectioils of a powerplant.

The use of water to generate power at hydroelectric facilities imposes unique,and not insignificant, ecalogical impacts. The diversion of water out of a riverremoves water healthy in-stream ecosystems. By slowing river flows, damsalso allow silt to collect on river and reservoir bottonls and bury fish spawninghabitat. The impoundment of water by hydropower facilities f~indainentallyreshapes the physical habitat from a riverine to an artificial pond community.This often eliminates native populations of fish and other wildlife. This impactis most significant on migratory fish, which breed in upstreail1 reaches of theriver and must migrate downstream early in life to the ocean and again migrateupstream to lay their eggs (or "spawn"). For instance, the construction of theFarraka dam in west Bengal has disrupted the migration of hilsa. Silt trappedabove dams accumulates heavy metals and other pollutants. Disrupting thenatural flow o f sediments in rivers also pronlotes erosion of ~ i v e r l ~ e d sdownstream of the dam and increases risks of floods.Large fossil fuel and nuclear power plants are generally located near bodies ofwater as they need huge quantities of c o o l i ~ ~ gwater. A variety of processesassociated with fuel handling and ongoing maillleilance of large tllerinal powerplants create or concentrate chemical pollutants that are then discharged intonearby water bodies. Even when releases are limited to what is allowed inwater use permits there is still the occasional but inevitable accidental release.3.6.3 Impa ct on Land

Power generating facilities alter the land use. Large electric generatingfacilities occupy acres upon acres of land just for the power plant componentsalone. These power plants also require on-site fuel storage facilities as well asstructures for connecting to the transmission grid, which requires additionalland. Depending on the fuel burned at any one power plant, electricitygenerators can leave their sites irrevocably scarred or polluted causing on-siteland impacts which often can never be completely cleaned off. Power plantsites may become sacrifice zones, sealed off from any future land use due tocontamination linked to the operation of a power plant.


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Most generating facilities also produce solid waste by-productsof cornbustioi~that can be toxic. Solid wastes fro111power plants are typically landfilled,another way in which a generating facility impacts land as it extends itsenvironmental footprint beyond the boundaries of the power plant site. In thiscase, the waste will likely remain at the landfill forever. Mining, collecting andtransporting the natural gas, coal, oil, and n ~ ~ c l e a rfuel necessary to generateelectricity can also impact land in much the same way by precluding other usesand leaving pern~ anent cars.All of these are known as off-site land impacts.Environnlentally sound waste disposal techniques can reduce, but notelirhinate, these impacts.3.7 SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

The earlier sections of this unit had a look at environmental issues in both ahistorical as well as a conteinporary context. The objective was t o raisequestions about the process of development seen in terms of industrialisationand economic growth. However, environment and development are inexorablyinter-linked. Development cannot subsist upon deteriorating environmentalresources and environment, in turn, cannot be prolected if development doesnot take into account the environillental problems. Failure to manage theenviroilrnent and to sustain developinent threatens the very basis of ourexistence. The issue of environment and development led to the concept ofsustaiilabledevelopment, which we will discuss in this section.3.7.1 Concept of Sustainable evelaprllentThe concept of sustainable development was advanced for the first time duringthe Stockholm intergoveinmental conference on Human Enviroiul~entof June1972 to emphasize the links between development and environmentalproblems and to promote political and economic change locally, nationally andglobally to tackle these problems. The World Con~nlissionon Environment andDevelopment(l987) also known as the Biundtland Report" ill-ther defined theconcept of sustaiilable develop n~en tas developn~cntthat meets the need of epresent without compromising the ability of the future generations to meettheir own needs".

Sustainable development is the concept af needs and limitations imposed bytechnology and society on the environment's ability to meet the present andfuture needs. . Thus, the concept of sustainable development provides aframework for the iiltegration of environmental policies and developmentstrategies llaving implications at international, national, regional and locallevels. Development should not endanger the natural systems that support lifeon earth. Many people in the industrial world today operate with the frontier

mentality, which is a human-centred view based an three erroiieous basic

assumptions:

the world has an unlimited supply of resources for human use;

humans are apart from nature, and

nature is something to overcome.

With this attitude towards nature, technological advances increase our abilityto use earth's resources and thus, increase the damage. However, therealization is growing fast that we are in a world of limits, and ever-increasing



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oncerns growth of material consumption can only damage, the life giving physicalcoinponents of the environment.

Hence, the concept of sustainable developinent leads us to new resourceconsumption strategies which are:

conservation or reduction of excessive resource use,

recycling and reuse of materials andmore use of renewable resources like solar energy rather than non-renewable resources such as oil and coal.

Sustainable development also requires meeting the basic needs of all deprivedpeople in this world and extending to all, the opportunities to satisfy theiraspiration for a better life. Otherwise the world, in which poverty and inequityare endemic, will always be prone to ecological and other crisis. In Gandhiji'swords, "Earth provides enough to satisfy every man's need but not any man'sgreed.

The UN Conference on Environment and Development held in Rio de Janerioin 1992 confirmed the pursuit of economic and social progress and equitywithin the limits of the world's natural resources as a workable aim foreveryone, from individuals to governments. The measures needed to ensuresustainable development were fuither outlined in Agenda 2 to promotesustainable development at local level in developed as well a s in developingcountries. Though Agenda 21 was a voluntary declaration, it has beconle a partof several countries' local government. Among developing countries Indialeads the way and has implemented 20 Agenda 21s.

3.7.2 Equity and the Common Interest

A decade after the Rio Summit, we find that sustainable developn~entis nothigh on international agenda. In many countries there is a perception thatsustainability is expensive to implement and ultimately puts a stop todevelopment. The poorer countries are quite sceptical about the coillmitn~entsof the rich countries and demand a more equitable sharing of resources,environmental costs and responsibilities.

The World Summit on Sustainable Development held in Johannesburg, SouthAfrica from24th August to 4thSeptember 2002 also known as Earth Summit2002 reviewed the progress since 1992 in impleinenting sustainabledevelopment, and discussed the way forward. The issues of equity andcommon interests were taken up again. The Summit reaffirmed sustainabledevelopment as a central element of the international agenda and gave new

impetus to global action to fight poverty and protect the environment. Theimportant linkages between poverty, the environment and the use of naturalresources were emphasised and govertln~entsagreed to and reaffirmed a widerange of concrete commitments and targets for action to achieve more effectiveimplementation of sustainable development objectives. One of the importantoutcomes was the establishment of a world solidarity fund to eradicate povertyand to promote social and human development in the developiilg countries.


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3 7 3 Strategic ImperativesA shift to a sustainable society will require both policy and institutionalchanges at local and global level as well as basic changes in the way peopleinteract with the environment. We will now discuss some of these aspects.

Technology

We are aware that advanced technology has played a major role inenvironmental deterioration and destruction throughout the world. Although aboon to society, technology has taken its own price. The challenge, then,before mankind is to redirect its use to make it more energy efficient, lessrisky, cleaner and more humane. As you have read earlier, the new resource

consumption strategies in sustainable development are conservation, recyclingand reuse of waste material and use of renewable resources, wherever possible.

Environmentally appropriate technology, which relies basically on the use ofsmaller, repairable machines with production methods that use optimumenergy and materials and cause less pollution may be developed. It benefitspeople, communities and nations helping them become inore self-reliant byusing raw materials that are available locally.Such technology is advantageous as it increases employment and requires lessinvestment. It is also efficient on small scale and is compatible withenvironment because of low energy requirement and minimal pollution. It isespecially useful in developing countries that have neither the capital nor theenergy resources for advanced technologies more suitable to conditions in thedeveloped world. Countries like India, who have an abundance of manpower

should look for labour-intensive rather than capital-intensive technology.Sophisticated technology often puts people out of work, although it increasesthe production. In addition the maintenance cost and high energy requirementof these technologies are sometimes too much for developing countries.

In all countries, rich or poor, the process of economic growth to achievesustainable society must be based upon the realities of available renewable andnon-renewable resources. I-Iowever, most of the times it is not so. For cxsunpleincome from forestry operations and mining is generally measured in terms ofmonitory value of timber and other pro d~~ ctsextracted minus the cost ofextraction. Whereas the cost of regenerating the forests or rcclarnatio~lof landafter mining is not take11 into account. Similar incomplete accounting is used to

justify the growing exploitation of other natural resources.

Population

The sustainability of development is intimately linked to the dynamics ofpopulation growth. Overall rate of population growth in developed countries isunder 1%.However, levels of material and energy use are much higher in thesecountries. Greater part of global population increase is in developing countriesand it far exceeds their capacity to cope with the demands of the growingpopulation. Therefore, sustainable development can be perused more easily ifpopulation growth is stabilized at a level consistent with productive capacity ofthe ecosystem.

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Environmental Concerns Conservation

As you have read earlier, to meet our basic needs on a sustainable basis, earth's

natural resources must be conserved and enhanced. The shift toenvironmentally appropriate technology and efficient a s well as increased useof renewable resources such as solar energy, wind energy etc. can help usconserve our natural reserves. Apart from meeting the developmental goalsconservation of nature is also our moral obligation to other living beings andthe to future generations.

Today, however, there is a general awareness of environmental impact in both

rich and poor nations, Worldwide, many organizations are involved in the

studies of critical issues of energy, population, resources and environment.Many people in developed countries are simplifying their life-style. Thenumber of government l agencies responsible for environmental protection inpoorer nations has increased many-folds between 1972 and the present. Allthese indicate the beginning of a environmental society. Still we are a long wayfrom becoming a truly sustainable society which means changes at global levelso as to maintain the ecological balance with equitable distribution of benefitwithout discrimination to all for satisfying the legitimate needs and aspirations.

3.8 ACTIVITIES

1. a) Write an essay on the developmental activities in the last 20 years inyour local area.

b) Mention the stresses those activities have imposed on theenvironment.

c) Give your suggestions regarding solutions to those environmentalstresses.

I

2 If you were the mayor of a mega city, what would you do to controlgrowth and improve the qu lity of life?

3.9 LET US SUMUP

Human activities have resulted in changes in the environment since early

times. The growing world population and resource consumption is leadingto environmental stress through irreversible impacts at global regional andlocal levels.

Most environmental issues are related either to interaction between human

populations and natural resources or factors associated with the increasing

human population. However, the environmental issues and concerns of

developing and developed countries differ. Priority environmental issuesidentified by India are in the areas of poverty elimination, education andhealth care; land degradation; air pollution; loss of biodiversity;

management of fresh water resources and management of hazardous waste.These environmental challenges arise out of developmental activities andthe biggest challenge is to implement development that will lead to greaterequity, growth and sustainability.

The imp cts of various developmental activities on the environment havebeen discussed.

Agriculture being the oldest industry in human history has left its impact, on the environment. Traditional as well as modern agricultural methods


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have changed the land use patterns, affected the health of the natural Developmentand

environment and changed the flow and direction of materials and Environment

livelihood patterns. The impact of modern agriculture has resulted in

deforestation; excessive irrigation leading to salinisation and water logging .The use of fertilisers and plant protection chemicals has increased cropproduction tremendously but also resulted in loss of micronutrients and

caused eutrofication of water bodies. Use of high yielding varieties.andtheir monoculture had lead to outbreaks of crop diseases and depletion of

genetic diversity.

Industrialisation changed the agriculture based nlral societies to moreurban societies and formed what is known as the developed world. All t he

countries of the developed world are characterized by increased per capita

resource and energy consumption. Industry and its products have an impacton the natural resource base of civilization through the entire cycle o f raw

material exploration, extraction, transformation into products, energyconsumption, and waste generation. The negative impacts ofindustrialisation are pollution of air, land and water seen first locally in thedeveloped countries but are now major issues at regional and global levels.Similar problems are seen in most developing countries as industrial

growth, increase in automobiles and urbanisation spreads.

Urbanisation occurred rapidly in the developed countries and is now aglobal phenomenon. In fact most of the urban growth in the future is

expected to be seen in the developing world. Aillong the worstenvironmental problems faced in the megacities of the developing worldare traffic congestion, growing slums, water and air pollution , inadequate

sanitation and sewage and solid waste disposal systems.

a Most of the energy generated for human consumptioil is from fossil fuelswhich leaves its impact on the environment locally in the forin of airpollution, acid precipitation, consumption of water for cooling, land

degradation and displacement of human populations. The global effects o f

the generation of energy through nonrenewable resaurces a re climatechange and acid rain. Energy generation using nuclear fuel also basproblen~sof radioactive waste disposal.The concept of sustainable development was advanced for the first time inthe Bruntland Repoi t of 1987. It empl~asizesthe links betweendevelopment and environmental problems, and promotes the need forpolitical and economic changes locally, regionally and globally to tackle

these problems, It leads to new resource consum ptio~l trategiesconservation or reduction of excessive resource use, recyclii~gand reuse ofmaterials and more use of renewable resources rather than non-renewable

resources. The issues of eq~l i tyand common sharing were emphasisedagain during the ~ a r t hSummit 2002 held in Johannesburg South Africawhere nations of the world agreed upon to establish a world solidarity fundto eradicate poverty and to promote social and human development in the

developing countries. Sustainable development implies a concern about thea) relationship between resource use, population growth and technological .

development; b) production and distribution o f resources of food, energy,and industry amongst the developing and developed countries; c) unevendevelopment and imbalances between the rich and the poor nations and

d) environmental degradation and ecological disaster.

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Environmental Concerns3.10 FURTHER READING

1. Kupchella, CE and Hyland M.C., Environmental Science, (1986). Allyn

Bacon.2. Weizsacker Ernet Urlichvon, (1994) Earth Polities. Offers more than a

collection of facts: you will get a chance to understand the history of allthe themes and that they are interwoven and approaches to solution exist.

3. Cunningham W.P.& Saigo B.W. Envirnoninental Sciences -A globalconcern (1990). WMC Brown. The chapter on Energy and Use&Traditional Fuels Chapter 15 and Chapter 19 on Nuclear fuels are haveexpanded coverage.

4. Meyer William B., Human Impact on the Earth, (1996) CambridgeUniversity Press.

5. Aggarwal S.K., Environmental Issues and Themes 1997), APHPublishing Corporation.

6. Agarwal Anil Narain Sunita and Sen Srabani.,Ed.,The State of India'sEnvironment. The citizen,^ Fifth Report Part 1 1999), Center for Scienceand Environment.

References

Human Environment AHE-01, Block 2 and 5), IGNOU Publication.Asia Development Bank (1995) Climate changes in Asia, V. Asthana.World Resources 1994-95.India Development Report 2002.Rees, W., 1992 Ecological footprints and Appropriate carryingcapacity: What Urban Economics Leaves Out, Environment and

Urbanisation Vol., 4 No. 2, pp. 121-

130.The World Commission on Enviro i~n~entand Development. "OurCommon Future" 1987.George Bugliarello, The Bridge, VoIume29, No. 4, Winter 1999.India: State of Environment 2001, Report no. 1999 EE4J, Submitted toUnited Nation Environment Programme, TERI.United Nation 1998. Trends in urbanisation and the components of urbangrowth. In proceedings of the Symposium on InternaI Migration andUrbanisation in Developing Countries, 22-24 January 1996. New York:United Nations Population Fund.Silvertown J and Sarre P., Environment and Society (Eds) 1990.London, Hodder and Stoughtonl Open University, UK Chapter 5 TheImpact of human societies on the environment.Botkin, Daniel B., Keller Edward A., Environmental Science-Earth as aLiving Planet (Third Edition), John Wiley Sons. Chapter 11, 15 26.http://www,wri.orqEnergy Information Administration http://www.eia.doe.govh t t p : / / m . ox ics1 ink.org


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UNIT 4 DEVELOPMENT AND

N V I R O N M N T U POLLUTIONStructure

4.1 IntroductionObjectives

4.2 What is Pollution?4.3 Build Up of Pollution in the Enviroilment4.4 Air Pollution

Types of Air PollutantsMajor air PollutantsAir Pollution and Atnlospheric Problems

4.5 Water PollutionTypes of Water Pollutants

State of Indian Water ResourcesEutrophicationMarine Pollution

Thermal PollutionWater Quality Paramcters

4.6 Soil Pollution4.7 Noise Pollution4.8 Pollution by Radioactivity4.9 Activities4.10 Let Us Sum Up4.1 1 Further Reading

4.1 INTRODUCTION

In this unit 'pollution' is the topic for discussion. Pollutioi~is caused by anyundesirable physical, biological or chemical change in thc components of theenvironment i.e. air, water and soil. In our daily usage pollution implies theadverse state of environment we live in, In the preceding units you havestudied about the concept of environment and earth's resources available formeeting the basic requirements and developmental needs of ever-growinghuman population. Unmindful use of resources and energy intensivetechnologies that generate lot of wastes have resulted in degraded and pollutedenvironment. The adverse effects are on living systems including l~urnansbuildings and other materials. Eveiltually none of us can escape from direct orindirect encounters with pollutants as pollution created in air, water or soil areultimately bound to become global i.e. spread throughout the biosphere as ithas one continuous environment.

In this unit you will study about the pollutioil in air, water and soil, theirsources and their effects in brief. Apart from gaseous and other chemicals,

noise, radiations and thermal pollution also have adverse effects on livingorganism and create problems of survival for humans and other living beings.Though natural processes also affect the environment but at an extremely slowrate. The pollution we are going to study in this unit is generated at anaccelerated rate as a result of our own activities. In the next unit you will studyabout the adverse effects of polluted environment on human health.

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