TheoriginofsociologyandsocialanthropologyinIndiacanbetracedtothedayswhentheBritishofficialsrealizedtheneedtounderstandthenativesocietyanditscultureintheinterestofsmoothadministration.However,itwasonlyduringthetwentiesofthelastcenturythatstepsweretakentointroducesociologyandsocialanthropologyasacademicdisciplinesinIndianuniversities.

Thepopularitythatthesesubjectsenjoytodayandtheirprofessionalizationis,however,apostindependencephenomenon.Attemptshavebeenmadebyscholarsfromtimetotimetooutlinethehistoricaldevelopments,tohighlightthesalienttrendsandtoidentifythecrucialproblemsofthesesubjects.

Sociologyandsocial/culturalanthropologyarecognatedisciplinesandareinfactindissoluble.However,thetwodisciplineshaveexistedandfunctionedinacompartmentalizedmannerintheEuropeancontinentaswellasintheUnitedStates.ThisseparationbearstheindelibleimpressofwesterncolonialismandEurocentrism.

However,Indiansociologistsandanthropologistshavemadeanattempttointegratesociologyandanthropologyinresearch,teachingandrecruitment.TheyhavemadeaprominentcontributiontothedevelopmentofindigenousstudiesofIndiansocietyandhavesetanenviableexamplebeforetheAsianandAfricanscholars.

AnothersignificantcontributionofIndiansociologyandsocial/culturalanthropologyliesintheirendeavortosynthesizethetextandthecontext.ThissynthesisbetweenthetextandthecontexthasprovidedvaluableinsightsintothedialecticofcontinuityandchangetocontemporaryIndiansociety(Momin,1997).

ItisdifficulttounderstandtheoriginanddevelopmentofsociologyinIndiawithoutreferencetoitscolonialhistory.Bythesecondhalfofthe

19thcentury,thecolonialstateinIndiawasabouttoundergoseveralmajortransformations.

Land,andtherevenueandauthoritythataccruedfromtherelationshipbetweenitandthestate,hadbeenfundamentaltotheformationoftheearlycolonialstate,eclipsingtheformationofCompanyruleinthatcombinationofformalandprivatetradethatitselfmarkedtheformidablestatelikefunctionsofthecountry.

Theimportanteventthattookplacewastherevoltof1857,whichshowedthattheBritishdidnothaveanyideaaboutfolkwaysandcustomsofthelargemassesofpeople.IftheyhadknowledgeaboutIndiansociety,therebellionof1857wouldnothavetakenplace.ThismeantthatanewsciencehadtocometounderstandtherootsofIndiansociety.Theaftermathof1857gaverisetoethnographicstudies.Itwaswiththeriseofethnography,anthropologyandsociologywhichbegantoprovideempiricaldataofthecolonialrule.

HerbertRisleywasthepioneerofethnographicstudiesinIndia.HeenteredtheIndianCivilServicesin1857withapostinginBengal.ItwasinhisbookCasteandTribesofBengal(1891)thatRisleydiscussedBrahminicalsociology,talkedaboutethnographyofthecastesalongwithothersthattheimportanceofcastewasbroughttocolonialrulers.NicholasDirks{InPostColonialPassages,SourabhDube,Oxford,2004)observes:

Risleysfinalethnographiccontributiontocolonialknowledgethusritualedthedivinenessofcaste,aswellasitsfundamentalcompatibilitywithpoliticsonlyinthetworegistersofancientIndianmonarchyormodernBritainsbenevolentdespotism.

Thus,theethnographicstudiescameintoprominenceundertheinfluenceofRisley.HearguedthattoruleIndiacasteshouldbediscouraged.This

wholeperiodof19thcenturygaverisetoethnographicstudies,i.e.,studiesofcaste,religion,rituals,customs,whichprovidedafoundationtocolonialruleforestablishingdominanceoverIndia.ItisinthiscontextthatthedevelopmentofsociologyinIndiahastobeanalysed.

SociologyandsocialanthropologydevelopedinIndiainthecolonialinterestsandintellectualcuriosityofthewesternscholarsontheonehand,andthereactionsoftheIndianscholarsontheother.Britishadministratorshadtoacquiretheknowledgeofcustoms,mannersandinstitutionsoftheirsubjects.

Christianmissionarieswereinterestedinunderstandinglocallanguages,folkloreandculturetocarryouttheiractivities.Theseoverlappinginterestsledtoaseriesoftribal,caste,villageandreligiouscommunitystudiesandethnologicalandlinguisticsurveys.AnothersourceofinterestinIndianstudieswasmoreintellectual.

WhilesomewesternscholarswereattractedbytheSanskritlanguage,VedicandAryancivilization,otherswereattractedbythenatureofitsancientpoliticaleconomy,lawandreligion.BeginningfromWilliamJones,MaxMullerandothers,therewasagrowthofIndologicalstudies.KarlMarxandFredericEngelswereattractedbythenatureoforientaldispositioninIndiatobuildtheirtheoryofevolutionofcapitalism.

Similarly,HenryMainewasinterestedintheHindulegalsystemandvillagecommunitiestoformulatethetheoryofstatustocontract.Again,MaxWebergotinterestedinHinduismandotherorientalreligionsinthecontextofdevelopingthetheory,namely,thespiritofcapitalismandtheprincipleofrationalitydevelopedonlyintheWest.

Thus,Indiansocietyandculturebecamethetestinggroundofvarioustheories,andafieldtostudysuchproblemsasgrowthoftown,poverty,religion,landtenure,villagesocialorganizationandothernativesocial

institutions.Allthesediverseinterestsacademic,missionary,administrativeandpoliticalarereflectedinteachingofsociology.

AccordingtoSrinivasandPanini(1973:181),thegrowthofthetwodisciplinesinIndiafallsintothreephases:

Thefirst,coveringtheperiodbetween17731900AD,whentheirfoundationswerelaid

Thesecond,19011950AD,whentheybecomeprofessionalized

andfinally,thepostindependenceyears,whenacomplexofforces,includingtheundertakingofplanneddevelopmentbythegovernment,theincreasedexposureofIndianscholarstotheworkoftheirforeigncolleagues,andtheavailabilityoffunds,resultedinconsiderableresearchactivity.

Here,threemajorphasesintheintrospectioninsociology,whichhavebeendiscussedbyRege(1997)inherthematicpaperonSociologyinPostIndependentIndia,mayalsobementioned.Phaseoneischaracterizedbytheinterrogationsofthecolonialimpactonthedisciplineandnationalistresponsestothesame,phasesecondismarkedbyexplorationsintotheinitiativenatureofthetheoreticalparadigmsofthedisciplineanddebatesonstrategiesofindigenization.

ThisphasealsosawcriticalreflectionsonthedeductivepositivisticbaseofsociologyandtheneedforMarxistparadigmsandthemorerecentphaseofpoststructuralism,feministandpostmodernexplorationsofthedisciplineandthefield.Lakshmannaalso(1974:1)triestotracethedevelopmentofsociologyinthreedistinctivephases.Thefirstphasecorrespondstotheperiod19171946,whilethesecondandthethirdto19471966and1967onwardsrespectively.

SociologyinthePreIndependencePeriod:

Asisclearbynowthatsociologyhaditsformalbeginningin1917atCalcuttaUniversityowingtotheactiveinterestandeffortsofB.N.Seal.Lateron,thesubjectwashandledbyRadhakamalMukerjeeandB.N.Sarkar.However,sociologycouldnotmakeanyheadwayinitsbirthplaceatCalcutta.

Ontheotherhand,anthropologyflourishedinCalcuttawiththeestablishmentofadepartmentandlaterontheAnthropologicalSurveyofIndia(ASI).Thus,sociologydrewablankintheeasternpartsofthecountry.But,thestoryhadbeendifferentinBombay.BombayUniversitystartedteachingofsociologybyagrantofGovernmentofIndiain1914.

TheDepartmentofSociologywasestablishedin1919withPatrickGeddesatthehelmofaffair.HewasjoinedbyG.S.GhuryeandN.A.Toothi.ThiswasindeedaconcretestepinthegrowthofsociologyinIndia.AnothercentreofinfluenceinsociologicaltheoryandresearchwasatLucknowthatitintroducedsociologyintheDepartmentofEconomicsandSociologyin1921withRadhakamalMukerjeeasitshead.

Later,hewasablyassistedbyD.P.MukerjiandD.N.Majumdar.InSouthIndia,sociologymadeitsappearanceatMysoreUniversitybytheeffortsofB.N.SealandA.F.Wadiain1928.InthesameyearsociologywasintroducedinOsmaniaUniversityattheundergraduatelevel.JafarHasanjoinedthedepartmentafterhecompletedhistraininginGermany.

Anotheruniversitythatstartedteachingofsociologyandsocialanthropologybefore1947wasPoonainthelate1930swithIrawatiKarveasthehead.Between1917and1946,thedevelopmentofthedisciplinewasunevenandinanycasenotveryencouraging.Duringthisperiod,Bombayalonewasthemaincentreofactivityinsociology.BombayattemptedasynthesisbetweentheIndologicalandethnologicaltrendsandthusinitiatedadistinctivelineofdepartments.

Duringthisperiod,Bombayproducedmanyscholarswhorichlycontributedtothepromotionofsociologicalstudiesandresearchinthecountry.K.M.Kapadia,IrawatiKarve,S.V.Karandikar,M.N.Srinivas,A.R.Desai,I.P.Desai,M.S.GoreandY.B.Damlearesomeoftheoutstandingscholarswhoshapedthedestinyofthediscipline.Theproductsofthisuniversityslowlydiffusedduringthisperiodinthehinterlanduniversitiesandhelpedintheestablishmentofthedepartmentsofsociology.

Certaintrendsofdevelopmentofsociologymaybeidentifiedinthepreindependenceperiod.Sociologywastaughtalongwitheconomics,bothinBombayandLucknow.However,inCalcutta,itwastaughtalongwithanthropology,andinMysoreitwaspartofsocialphilosophy.

Teachershadfreedomtodesignthecourseaccordingtotheirinterests.Norigiddistinctionwasmadebetweensociologyontheonehandandsocialpsychology,socialphilosophy,socialanthropology,socialwork,andothersocialsciencessuchaseconomicsandhistory,ontheother.Thecoursesincludedsuchtopicsassocialbiology,socialproblems(suchascrime,prostitutionandbeggary),socialpsychology,civilizationandprehistory.Theycoveredtribal,ruralandurbansituations.

Atthegeneraltheoreticallevel,onecoulddiscerntheinfluenceoftheBritishsocialanthropologicaltraditionswithemphasisondiffusionismandfunctionalism.InthecaseofteachingofIndiansocialinstitutionstheorientationshowedmoreIndologicalemphasisontheonehandandaconcernforthesocialpathologicalproblemsandethnologicaldescriptionontheother.Strongscientificempiricaltraditionshadnotemergedbeforeindependence.Sociologywasconsideredamixedbagwithoutaproperidentityofitsown.

SociologyinthePostIndependencePeriod:

Thenextphase,asmentionedbyLakshmanna(1974:45),inthegrowthof

thesubject,correspondstotheperiodbetweentheattainmentofindependenceandtheacceptanceoftheregionallanguageasthemediumofinstructioninmoststatesofthecountry.Towardstheendofthisperiod,wealsowitnessedtheinterestonthepartoftheCentralGovernmenttopromotesocialscienceresearchthroughaformalorganizationestablishedforthepurpose.

Thisphasealoneexperiencedtremendousamountofinteractionwithintheprofessionastwoparallelorganizationsstartedfunctioningforthepromotionoftheprofession.InBombay,IndianSociologicalSocietywasestablishedandSociologicalBulletinwasissuedastheofficialorganofthesociety.Thishelpedtoalargeextentincreatingaforumforpublicationofsociologicalliterature.

Lucknowschool,ontheotherhand,startedtheAllIndiaAnnualSociologicalConferenceforprofessionalinteraction.Lakshmannaidentifiesthattheresearcheffortsmainlyprogressonthreelines.First,therewaslargescaledoctoralresearchintheuniversity.Second,thegrowingneedsoftheplannersandadministratorsontheonehandandtherealizationofincreasingimportanceofsociologicalthinkingandresearchintheplanningprocessontheother,openedupopportunitiesforresearchprojects.

Third,duringthisperiod,thegrowingimportanceofsocialscienceresearchalsoresultedintheestablishmentofresearchinstitutes.Thedevelopmentofresearchactivityalsomeanttheenlargementoftheemploymentopportunitiesatalllevels.

Correspondingly,therewasalsoanincreaseinthenumberofuniversitiesandcollegedepartments.Thisperiodalsonoticedconsiderableverticalandhorizontalmobilityintheprofession.Teachingofsociologygotwellestablishedinthefifties.ThisperiodreflectedthreethingsasmarkedbyRao(1982).

First,sociologyachievedgreateracademicstatus.Notonlymanymoreuniversitiesandcollegesbegantoteachatthepostgraduateandgraduatelevelsbutthedisciplineitselfbecamemorefocusedintheoreticalorientationandhighlydiversifiedinitsspecialization.Secondly,sociologyestablisheditsidentityasdisciplinebyseparatingitselffrompsychology,anthropology,socialphilosophyandsocialwork.

Although,insomeuniversities,stillsocialpathologyandsocialpsychologyaretaughtasapartofsociologycourses.Inmanyothers,ahighlydiversifiedcurriculumstructureinpropersociologyexistsincludingsuchspecializationasruralandurbansociology,sociologyofkinship,sociologyofreligion,sociologyofstratification,sociologyofeducation,politicalsociology,medicalsociology,socialdemographyandsociologyofeconomicdevelopment.

Thirdly,diversificationfollowedthelinesofextensionofsociologicalapproachtodifferentareasofsociallife.ItwasrelatedtothegrowingneedsofdevelopmentinindependentIndia.Coloniallegacybecameathingofthepastanddemocraticprocesseswereintroducedatalllevels.

Sociologistssoonbecomesensitivetoproblemsofdevelopmentinthecontextsoftribal,ruralandurbansituations.Problemsofruraldevelopment,industrialization,andexpansionofeducation,controlofpopulation,newpoliticalprocessesandinstitutions,socialandpoliticalmovementsattractedtheirareasofsociallife.Theystartedconductingempiricalresearchwithaviewtounderstandthestructure,dynamicsandproblemsofdevelopment.Alltheseconcernshadafeedbackontheteachingofsociologyatvariouslevels.

Anotherimportantchangeintheteachingofsociology,whichcameafterindependence,hasbeeninregardtotheexternalintellectualinfluences.Beforeindependencetheteachingofsociologyandsocialanthropologywasmainly,ifnotwholly,influencedbythethencurrenttheoretical

concernsinGreatBritain.

Wehavealreadymentionedtheinfluenceofdiffusionismandfunctionalism(ofMalinowski).Thesyllabialsoreflectedtraditionsofethnology,evolutionismandIndology.Afterindependence,however,AmericansociologicaltraditionshadamajorimpactontheteachingofsociologyinIndia.Thisisevidentfromsuchtopicsinthesyllabiasstructuralfunctionaltheory(ParsonsandMerton)andresearchmethodology.

BesidestheAmerican,theFrench,GermanandMarxianintellectualinfluencesalsohadanimpact.Inthemidstofsuchdiverseintellectualstimuli,Indiansociologistsbegantocriticize,modifyanddevelopdiversesociologicalapproachesinthestudyofIndiansocietyandculture,andthesearereflectedinthecourseofstudyofdifferentuniversities.

DevelopmentsintheSeventies:

Therehavebeenafewreviewsofdevelopmentsinsociologyandsocialanthropologysinceearliertimestill1970sandonwards(see,forexample,thecollectionofessaysinUnnithan,Singhetal.,1965ICSSR,1971,1974,1985Rao,1974Mukherjee,1977Mukherjee,1979Singh,1986UGC,1978,1979,1982Lele,1981OommenandMukherjee,1986Dhanagare,1993Singhi,1996).Ofthese,RamKrishanMukherjeesreviewhasbeenmoreexhaustiveandsubstantialforthedisciplineasawhole.

TheICSSRtrendreportscoveredindetailthedevelopmentsineachofspecializations.Rao(1982:1623)reviewedthedevelopmentsintheseventiesunderthreeheads:

(i)areasoftheinterestsandspecializationwhichgotcrystallized

(ii)areasofinterestwhichhasdevelopedbutnotgotcrystallizedand

(iii)emergenceofnewapproachesintheestablishedareas.

Theseventiesofthelastcenturysawafurthercontinueddiversificationofinterestsandspecializationinsubstantiveareasofresearchandteachinginthesixties.While,earlier,villagecommunitystudiesdominatedresearches,buttheinterestsintheareasofagrarianrelations,landreforms,peasants,agriculturallabourers,andscheduledcastesandtribesbegantoattractgreaterattentionofsociologistsandsocialanthropologistsintheseventies.

TheproblemsofruralsocietywereformulatedintheMarxianframeworkofanalysisemphasizingconflictsandcontradictions.Theotherareasofintereststhatwerecrystallizedintheseventieswereindustrialsociology,urbansociologyandsocialstratification.Secondly,thereweresixareasofinterestthatstartedgettingsomeattentionintheseventiesbuthavenotreallygotoffthemark.

Thesewere:sociologyofprofession,sociologyoforganization,medicalsociology,socialdemographyandstudiesonwomen,MuslimsandHinduMuslimrelations.Thirdly,itissignificanttonotethattheseventiessawnewapproachesandfociinthelargeareasofresearchandteachingsuchascaste,kinship,religion,politicsandtribalstudies.

PerspectivesintheEighties:

Manyoftheareasofspecializationmentionedintheforegoingaccount,nodoubt,gainedstrengthintheeightiesofthelastcentury.Someareasofenquiry,suchassocialdemographyandmedicalsociology,werecrystallized.Afewotherareasofinvestigationopenedupandmoreresearchintheestablishedareaswasundertakenonnewlines.Someofthenewareashavebeenintroduced.

Thesewere:sociologyofdeviance,sociologyofknowledge,sociologyof

scienceandtechnology,andhistoricalsociology.Rao(1982)anticipatedtheseareasforresearchintheeighties.Therewasanindicationthatinterestinsociologyofscienceandtechnologymightgetmorewidespread(Uberoi,1978Vishwanathan,1977).ThegrowinginterestinhistoricalsociologywasreflectedinFox(1977).

Damle(1982:5758)anticipatedthetaskofsociologyfortheeightiesinIndia,whichwastoanalyse(1)thetransformationofIndiansociety,(2)thelimitsofsuchtransformation,and(3)theimpactoftheselimitstosuchtransformation,whichwasreflectedeitherinthefrustrationsoftheeffortstosurmounttheobstacles.Inthiscontext,newideologiesandprotestmovementsacquiredaspecialsignificance.

Inmanyofthenewlydevelopingbranchesofsociology,scholarshavemadenotablebutisolatedcontributions.Therehasbeenthinkingthatresearchshouldbepromotedintheninetiesintheareasofsociologyofplanninganddevelopment,sociologyofprofessions,sociologyoforganizations,socialdimensionsofpoverty,lawandsocialchange,sociologyofnationalintegrationetc.

ImperativesintheNineties:

Thecountryduringtheninetiesofthelastcenturywaspassingthroughradicalpolitical,economicalandsocioculturalchangesasaresultofwhichthescopeandfocusofIndiansociologyhasexpanded.Undertheinfluenceofsuchdevelopments,theIndiangovernmentthatadoredthepolicyofmixedeconomyeversinceindependenceandcherishedtheidealsofwelfarismproceededtoallowthemarketorientedpolicytoprevail.

Toachievethisgoal,thegovernmentadoptedanewpolicyofeconomicreformsintheyear1991withaviewtoglobalizeitseconomy(Singh,1997).Globalizationisamovepromptedbytheleadersofthedeveloped

world.Liberalizationpolicy,includingthefreedomaccordedtotheforeigncompaniesandcapitaltoenterintoIndianmarket,isthetwomajorstepsofthegovernmentinthisdirection.

TheimpactofglobalizationonIndianculturalheritageandgenerallifesituationofthepeopleofthecountryhasgeneratednewareasthatdeservetheattentionofIndiansociologistswhodoseemtobeattentivetosuchrelevantareasascivicsociety(Gupta,1997),crisisandresilienceintheprocessofsocialchange(Singh,1993)andsecularismandnationalintegration0oshi,1997)butspecificsocialimplicationoftheneweconomicpolicyisyettobeanalysed.

Afewcourseshavebeenintroducedrecentlyonglobalthemesinsomeoftheuniversities.Theyareasfollows:ecologyandsociety,issuesofhumanrights,sociologyofmanagement,humanresourcedevelopment,mediaandsociety,actionsociologyetc.Thereisalsoneedtostartsomemorenewcourseslikesociologyofpublicorderpeace,securityanddevelopmentsecuritymanagementandinformationtechnologyetc.Thesecoursesarenotonlyimportantforteachingbutalsoforresearchintheconstructionofsocietyandusefulforthemodernoccupationandprofession.

TeachingofSociologyinIndia:

TheoriginofsociologyinIndiaasadistinctdisciplinecanbetracedbacktotheperiodaround1920s.TeachingofsociologystartedinBombayUniversityasearlyas1914butthebirthofcurrentacademicsociologytookplaceonlywiththeestablishmentofdepartmentsofsociologyinBombayandLucknow.

Asforteachingandresearch,nothingsuchhappenedexceptnominalteachingofthedisciplinewhereveritwasintroducedforalmostaquarter

ofacentury.WhatParvathammastatesaboutMysoreUniversityremainstruefortheentirecountryandforthedisciplineofsociologyasawhole.TheundergraduatesyllabiinsociologyasframedbyWadiacontinuedalmostforaquarterofacentury.

Onlyinthelate1950s,itwaschanged(Parvathamma,1978).Thoughonefindsanominalbeginning,nothingofanyconsequencehappenedintherealmofsociology.Itremainedmoreorlessstaticduringthe192047periods.ThiswasthelastphaseofthecolonialruleinIndiawhenthenationalleaderswerepreoccupiedwiththeliberationmovement.

PreindependencescholarshavecontributedtothefoundationofsociologybyprovidingatraditioninwhichsociologyinIndiacouldgrowandevolve(Unnithanetal.,1967).Theircontributions,however,begantomakeanimpactonlyafterindependence,thoughthenumberofuniversitiesincreasedfrom11in1920to16in1945.However,thenumberofsociologydepartmentsremainedjusttwoandofthese,onlyonewasconcernedforindependentdegreeinsociology(Unnithan,1982).

Thepercentageofuniversities,havingsociologydepartment,hadbeenfallingduring192050.Itbegantoshowatrendtowardsregularincreaseafter1950.By1960,23.8percentofuniversitiesinIndiahadsociologydepartments.By1965,thisnumberroseto29.6percent.Now,thereare95universitiesincludinginstitutionsthataredeemedtobeuniversities.Fiftyoneofthemorabout54percentaccommodatedepartmentsofsociology.

Inspiteoftheirrelativelygreatergrowthinsociologydepartments,itisinterestingthat44(46.3%)outof95universitiesdonothaveanysociologyteachingatall.Ofthe51universitiesthatteachsociology,only32haveseparatedepartments,whereas14conductundergraduateandpostgraduateprogrammesincludingPhD.

Thereare16universitieswheresociologyiscombinedwithothersocialsciencedepartmentsbutanindependentdegreeisawardedinthreedepartmentsnodegreeisawardedthoughthesubjectistaught(Unnithan,1982:64).Besidesthese,accordingtotheUniversitiesHandbookofIndia,1973,the16AgriculturalUniversities,thefiveAllIndiaInstitutesofTechnology,thethreeInstitutesofTechnology,thethreeInstitutesofManagement,theIndianStatisticalInstitute,Kolkata,theTataInstituteofSocialSciences,Mumbai,andtheGujaratVidyapeeth,Ahmedabadalsoofferedsociologyasasubjectofstudyand/orresearch.

SociologyisverypopularsubjectintheuniversitiesandcollegesofIndiatoday.Currently,outof133traditionaluniversities,about85havedepartmentsofsociologyapartfromotherdepartmentsofsocialsciencesrelatedtosociologylikepopulationstudiesandwomenstudies.

Amajorityofstudentsoptforsociologyasoneoftheirsubjectsatgraduationlevel.Itisconsideredasaneasysubjecttogetthroughinexamination.Itisusuallypreferredbygirlsparticularlythosewhoarenotmuchcareerconscious.Similarly,atthepostgraduateleveltoo,sociologyreceivesalargenumberofstudents.

Therankofsociologycomesfifthintermsofthenumberoftheuniversitiesofferingsocialsciencesandalliedsubjects.Thisshowsthatfromthequantitativepointofview,thepositionofsociologyasanacademicdisciplineisnotverylowinspiteofthefactthatitenteredtheuniversitycurriculumonlyveryrecently.

Itisalsoseenthatatthepostgraduatelevel,sociologyhasestablisheditselfasasubjectofmajorimportance,attractingthelargestnumberofstudentsnextonlytoeconomics,historyandpoliticalscience.Postgraduateenrolmentintheyear196970wasalone4,918takingsociology(4,442)andanthropology(476)togetherwhichcontributed11.57percentofthetotalenrolment(42,479)forpostgraduateeducation

insocialsciences.

However,thepercentagewasalittlehigherforPhD(16.34%).Ofthe2,153studentsenrolledforPhDinsocialsciences,352wereinthefieldofsociologyalone.AccordingtotheUGCreport,outoftotal2,582facultymembersofthepostgraduatedepartmentsinsocialsciencesintheuniversitiesandcolleges,243weresociologistsand119anthropologists.Until1971,thecountryhasproducedatotalof485PhDscholarsinthefieldsofsociology,socialanthropology,criminologyandsocialwork.

Since1968,theaveragerateofPhDsinsociologywas46peryear.Thisisanimpressivefigure,indeed,comparedtothefiguresforpreviousperiods.Thus,34PhDsweresubmittedduringthedecade193140and79inthesubsequenttwodecadesof194160.

ThereweremorethanahundredPhDsfromtheuniversitiesofUttarPradeshandofMaharashtraupto1970whereasthepositioninotherstateswasasfollows:Bihar(43),Delhi(42),MadhyaPradesh(23),Gujarat(15),WestBengal(14),Rajasthan(12),Punjab(9),Karnataka(7)andothers(13).

ThecoursesandthesyllabiinsociologyofthevariousuniversitiesrevealyetanotherdimensionofdevelopmentofthedisciplineinIndia.SociologyisbeingtaughtatalllevelsintheuniversitiesfromgraduationtoMPhil/MLittlevel.Somecoursesgivespecialemphasistoresearchmethodology.

Asregardsthesubjectmattertaughtatthegraduateandpostgraduatelevels,thereseemstobesomeroughsimilaritybetweenuniversitiesinthecourse.PrinciplesofSociology,IndianSocialInstitutionsandSocialChangeareofferedatboththeBAandMAlevelsinmostuniversitieswhileResearchMethods,RuralandUrbanSociology,SocialAnthropologyandSocialPsychologyareamongtheothersubjectsincludedinthecore

coursesatMAlevel.

Therestofthesubjectscoverawiderangeofspecialareasinthediscipline,namely,politicalsociology,educationalsociology,industrialsociology,sociologyofkinship,religion,marriageandfamily,andsoon.Itseemsthatfromthenationalpointofview,thereisawiderchoiceofoptionalsubjectsforthestudentsofsociologythanisavailabletostudentsofotherdisciplines.

Ananalysisofthecoursesrevealsseveraldeficiencies.Atpresent,thereisalackofintegrationofsyllabiatalllevelsthatcouldensureastandardofuniformminimalknowledgeinsociologyalongwithpossibilitiesforspecializationandadvancetraininginsociology.Hardlyanyeffortisnoticedtointroducenewcoursesonthebasisofrationalesocietalconsiderations.

Largely,theoldcoursescontinue.Thegravityofproblemisaccentuatedbythecontentsofthecoursesandthetextbooksprescribed.ThecontentsofthecoursesareoftenirrelevanttothestudentsofsociologyinIndiaasinstructionisbasedmostlyonbookswrittenbyforeignscholarsforstudentselsewhere.AllthesepointsreflecttotheoverallunderdevelopednatureofsociologyinIndia(Unnithan,1982:68).

Overall,thequantitativeexpansionofsociologyisincreasingbutthequalityaspectofthedevelopmentofsociologyasanacademicdisciplineincollegesanduniversitiesisappalling.Exceptafewprestigiousuniversities,thestatusofsociologyinmostoftheuniversitiesinthecountryisreallydegraded.

Hence,thequalityresearchandteachinginsociologyhasconsiderablyslumped.Singh(1997)writes:Professionalanxiety,achievement,motivation,entrepreneurialaspirationandchangingmodeofconsumptionhaveimmenselyaffectedthestandardofsociology.

Therefore,theteachersandotherscholarsofsociologywillhavetotakecareandpainsforitsrevival.Importantly,andspecifically,weneedtobeacademicallyandpoliticallyactivetoinfluencethedevelopmentofanewsociologicalcurriculum.

SociologicalResearchinIndia:

Sinceindependence,withtherapiddevelopmentoftheteachingofsociologyinIndianuniversitiesandcolleges,therehasbeenaconcomitantincreaseinthenumberofresearchstudiesondifferentaspectsofsociology,resultingindoctoraldissertationsandinthepublicationofmanyvolumesandarticlesinvariousprofessionaljournals.SeveralprevioussurveysofthedevelopmentofsociologyinIndiapresenttheprocessindifferentphasesandtrends,notablythosebyBeckerandBarnes(1961),Saran(1958),Bottomore(1962),ClinardandElder(1965),Vidhyarthi(1972),andtheIndianCouncilofSocialSciencesResearch(ICSSR)(1972).

Despitetheseattempts,littleattentionhassofarbeenpaidinthedirectionofproperresearchtakingstepsofmethodsofdatacollection,techniques,degreeofquantityandquality,arialunitofstudy,andtheoreticalorientationsinspecificsubstantiveareasofsociology.

Usually,itisseenthatwhileattheuniversitydepartmentlevel,therearefacilitiesofdoingresearchwhichdonotexistatthecollegelevel.Evenatthedepartmentlevelthereisnosystemofsabbaticalleavewheretheteachercantaketimeofffortheresearch.Fieldworkisanessentialaspectofresearchinsociologyandunlessateacherhasayearorninemonthsoff,hecannotconductresearch.

TheICSSRandtheUGChavesuitableschemesforprovidingthesefacilities.Thereisthusnownodearthofmoneytoconductresearch.Theproblemistocontrolspuriousresearch.TheICSSR,whichisthemainagencyforpromotingresearchinsociologyandsocialanthropology,has

laiddownprioritiesinkeepingwithsocialgoals.Itisnecessarytoinitiateresearchtoteachnewcoursesasresearchandteachingareintimatelyrelatedinthedevelopmentofthediscipline.

Researchinsociologygotaconsiderableboostinthecountrysinceindependence.Severalstudiesconductedbysociologistswerefinanced,sponsoredandsupportedbyseveralagencies.TherewasanotherwelcometrendintheintroductionofthecoursesonmethodsofsocialresearchaspartoftheMAsyllabus.Infact,thiswasalsoemphasizedbytheUGCReviewCommitteeonSociology(1960).

Significantsophisticationinresearchmethodologyisanurgentdesideratumforpresentassessmentoftherapidlychangingandcomplexsocialorganizationtowhichwebelong.Inthefieldofdoctoralresearch,theprogressinsociologyhasbeenremarkable.

Inspiteofthefactthatalmosttillthemiddleofthefifties,amuchlessnumberofrecognizedsupervisorswereavailablefortheguidanceofthedoctoralresearchstudentsinthedepartmentsoftheuniversities.Besidestheselimitations,sociologyandotheralliedfieldsgrantedasmanyas438doctoraldegreesupto1970andeconomicsandpoliticalscienceexceededthesefigures.

Thepersonnelpositioninsociologyisstillonthelowerside.Thereareonly243sociologyteachersascomparedtolargernumberineconomicsandpoliticalscience,psychologyandgeography.Thishastobefurtherviewedinthelightofthenumbersoftheuniversityandcollegedepartments.

Intermsofthenumberofdepartmentsattheuniversitylevel,sociology(51)isbehindonlyfromeconomics(72),politicalscience(59)andcommerce(56).Thepositionatthecollegelevelisroughlythesame.Whenwetrytomatchthespreadofthedisciplineanditsmanpower

requirements,itbecomesclearthattherehadbeensomedefectintherecruitmentpatternasrevealedbytheexistenceofalargenumberofunfilledprofessorialpostsinseveraluniversities.

Seniormembersoftheprofessionshouldtakenoteofthisunsatisfactorysituation.Inspiteofthelimitationofpersonnel,averylargenumberofresearchprojects(50),constitutingthehighestshare(25.5%)oftheICSSRgrants,wereundertakenbythescholarsbelongingtothesociologydiscipline.

Atotalof19theseswerepublishedinsociology.Thepositionisstillbrighterifweaddinitsocialanthropology.Infact,theacceptanceofthelargestnumberofprojects(above20%)insociologywasamatterofsatisfactionbecausetheformulationsoftheproblemswererealisticandsound.

Therehasbeenarealizationthatdiverseresearchmethodswerecomplimentaryratherthanconflicting.Theearlyseventiessawabitterdebatebetweenthesurveyorsandparticipantobservers.But,bothrealizedthatthetwocouldbecomplementary.Therehasbeenmoreresearchesusingstatisticalsurveysmethods.

Therewereanumberoftrainingcoursesinquantitativemethodsincludingcomputerprogramming.Besidesquantitativetechniques,othertechniquessuchashistoricalanalysis,casestudiesandparticipantobservationarealsoincreasinglyusedbysociologistsandsocialanthropologistsdependingonthenatureoftheproblemofinvestigationanditsaim.

SociologicalResearchinIndia:TheStateofCrisis:

TherecentyearshaveseenthepublicationsinEPWofanumberofarticlesdiscussingandforthemostpartdeploringthecurrentstateofresearchandteachinginsociology.Speakingespeciallyofthesituationin

westernIndia,theysupporttheviewthatsociologyinIndiahasbecomearatherlacklustrediscipline,itsleadingconceptspresentedthroughoutdatedmassmarketAmericantexts,andnotablydevoidofengagementwiththesocialworldoutsidetheclassroom.

The1990shaveseenengageddebateonthecrisisinthediscipline.Thisdebatesawaseriesofresponsesfromthescholarsinthefieldassessingthetirednessofthediscipline(Deshpande,1995),thepossibilitiesofacommunityofdiscourse,thedangersofuncriticalmetropolitanism(Murthy,1993)andtherelevanceofgenderandfeministpedagoguesasstrategiestoconfrontthecrisis(Rege,1994Uberoi,1994).

Thediscussionhasbeenmadeontheconstructionofsociologicaldiscipline(Thappan,1991Hegde,1992)andteachingofsociologyinIndianuniversities(Uberoi,198990Deb1997).Intherecentyears,anewdimensionhasbeenreflectedinthedebatetakingtheissueofgenderstudies(Dube,1986,1996,1997Desai,1997BhagwatandRege,1991Patel1994Uberoi,1994)andwomensmovement(Niranjana,1992John,1996).

VeenaDas(1993)triestolocatethecrisisinsociologicalresearchinIndiainthreeinstitutionalstructurestheuniversities,theUGCandtheprofessionalbodiessuchastheIndianSociologicalSociety.Attheleveloftheuniversities,theproliferationofthesubjecthassimplynotbeenmatchedbythewilltoensurecompetenceinteachingandresearch.Inseveraluniversities,textbookssuchasthatofMacIverandPage,writtenalmost50yearsago,continuetobetaught.

Second,whereteachingandresearchareconductedinregionallanguages,studentsdonotacquireproficiencyeveninreadingintheEnglishlanguage.Thisisinfactthatrhetoricalstatementsaboutnationalselfrespectnotwithstanding,neitherthetranslationsofcompetentsociologicalworksintheregionallanguagesnororiginalcontributionsadd

uptoasufficientbodyofliteraturethatmaybeavailableintheselanguages.

Thus,astudentfailstoacquirecompetenceinhissubjectonthebasisofthisliterature.Third,thepoliciesforrecruitmentandpromotionofteachersincreasinglysacrificeacademiccompetenceforpoliticalexpediency.Fourth,theexaminationofPhDdissertationsismanagedwithinsmallcoterieofscholars.

Iftheuniversitiesaretotakeashareoftheblameforthefallingstandardsforresearch,theUGCcannotescapeitsmajorresponsibilityeither.ThedecisionmakingbodiesintheUGCseemtohavecompletelymisguidednotionsaboutthestateofsocialscienceresearchinthecountry.Finally,theprofessionalbodieshavedonelittletosalvagethesituations.Theinterestsoftheprofessionlienotonlyinproducinggreaternumberofjobsforsociologistsbutinensuringthatethicalpracticesinthedisciplinearemaintained.

PossibleSociologicalDiscourses:

WeneedtoconcentrateonsomeoftheessentialsofsociologicaldiscoursestodevelopsociologyinIndia.Theyare:

(1)ThedevelopmentofsociologyinIndiamaybeviewedintermsofthehistoricityofsocialconditionsthathaveshapedthesociologicalperspectivesfromtimetotime.Thetheoreticalandcognitivesystemsofsociologyaresociallyconditioned(Singh,1986).

ItistobehopedthatthinkinginthisdirectionwillresultintheconcentrationofcontestedthemesandintherecoveryofkeyIndiansocioculturalrealitiesandtextualtraditions,traditionsthathaveremainedorcontinuetoremainasanexcludedpartofhegemonicsociologyoritsmargin(Nadarajah,1996).Perhaps,thisistherighttimetoresumetheIndiansociologybyrecognizingcontextandcultureofthesocietyandto

overcomefromtheidentificationofsociologyassolelyawestern.

(2)Theproductionofsociologicalknowledgecanbequalitativelychangedwithasociologicalcurriculumhelpingthemultifacetedcontestationofwesternsociologicalknowledge.Thereisaneedtoconsidernotonlythecontentofsocialscienceeducationinouruniversitiesbutalsothemethodologyusedintheproductionofsuchknowledge(Nadarajah,1996).

(3)Institutionalizationofresearchrequiresaproperfitbetweenthegrowingneedsoftheoryandtheincreasingdemandsofsociety.Generally,publicfundsaremadeavailablebythegovernment,UGC,ICSSRandotheragenciesintermsofthecriteriasetoutforpriorities.Thequestionofprioritieshastobeansweredinthecontextoftherelevanceofresearch.

(4)Whilepayingattentiontoresearchpriorities,theneedsofindividualscholarspursuingapromisingbutoutofthewayenquiryshouldnotbeneglected.Researcheffortsinvolvinginterdisciplinaryapproachorboldmethodologicalinnovationshould,onprinciple,beencouraged.TheICSSRstandingcommitteehasalsorecommendedthesesuggestionsintheeighties.

Toconclude,thehistoryofthedevelopmentofsociologyhasnotbeenmuchencouraging.Atitsbeginninganthropologyandethnologyhelpedthecolonialruletoestablishitsfoundation.Inotherwords,thedisciplineofsociologywaspartlyresponsibleforthesurvivalofcolonialismandfeudalisminprincelystates.ThefeudalmentalityofIndianpeopleisthusduetosociology,anthropologyandethnology.ItmustbesaidthatthisdisciplinehasnotbeenworthitssaltinIndia.

Ifwemakeasurveyofthesociologicalliteraturewhichhascroppedupduringthelastabout100yearsdoesnottakeintoaccountanymassiveeventwhichtookplaceinIndia.Indiasfreedomstrugglewasalong

struggleanditsoughttheparticipationofthemasses.AllthepeopleparticipatedinthemovementnotwithstandingthepluralcharacteroftheIndiansociety.

ItwasagreateventinthehistoryofIndia.Thesociologistsdidnothingtoanalysethefreedomstruggle.Itisdifficulttofindanybookonsociologywrittenbyoursocalledsociologists.Whenthemasseswerebusyfightingfortheirfreedom,oursociologistssuchasN.K.BoseandG.S.Ghuryewerewritingoncasteandethnicity.Sucharecordofsociologycaneasilybecalledungratefultothenation.Howcanwebeproudofsuchsociologists?

AnothermemorableeventinIndiashistoryhasbeenthemassexodusofpeoplefromPakistanafterthedivisionofcountrybetweenIndiaandPakistan.BurningtrainsfromPakistanwerecomingtoIndiaandthebloodstainedtrainswereleavingIndiaforPakistan.Lakhsofrefugeescrossedtheborders.ItneverhappenedearlierbutthesociologistswhoclaimedtobetheanalystsofIndiansocietydidnotmentionanythingaboutthistragicevent.

Besides,anevent,whichisaremarkableinthebuildingofournationstate,istheeraofbuildingmodernIndia.NehrujiandhisgenerationofnationalleadersstartedFiveYearPlansforthedevelopmentofindustryandvillageagriculture.Thesociologistsagainturnedtheireyestothiseraofdevelopment.

Itisdiscouragingtolearnthatthesociologistsobservedsilenceonthisprocessofdevelopment.However,thesociologistsmadesomevillagestudies.Actually,therewasafloodofsuchstudies.Thesestudiesmadesomecontributions.But,thesecontributionshavefalsetheoreticalclaims.Dominantcaste,sanskritization,westernization,parochializationanduniversalizationaresomeofthecontributionswhichhavenotprovedtobeofanyhelpforthedevelopmentofvillages.TheyhaveprovedtobeUtopianforthenation.

Thereareseveralproblemsforthecountry.Theproblemsaremultiethnic,multicaste,multireligion,multiregionandmultilinguistic.Economicproblemscoupledwithunemploymentaredisasters.Itisexpectedofsociologytoanalysethesocialillsandbringoutsomesolutions.Inthepresentwork,wearediscussingsocialthinkersofcontemporaryIndia.Theyarealsoresponsibletorelaxincomfortablearmchairsandenjoytheacademicstatus.