Developments in Applied Phycology 9

Series editorMichael A. Borowitzka, Algae R&D Centre, School of Veterinary and Life Sciences,Murdoch University, Murdoch, WA, Australia

More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/7591

Anicia Q. Hurtado • Alan T. Critchley Iain C. NeishEditors

Tropical Seaweed Farming Trends, Problems and OpportunitiesFocus on Kappaphycus and Eucheuma of Commerce

EditorsAnicia Q. HurtadoIntegrated Services for the Development of

Aquaculture and Fisheries (ISDA) Inc.Jaro, Philippines

Iain C. NeishPT Sea Six Energy IndonesiaBali, Indonesia

Alan T. CritchleyThe Evangeline TrailParadise, Nova Scotia, Canada

Developments in Applied PhycologyISBN 978-3-319-63497-5 ISBN 978-3-319-63498-2 (eBook)DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-63498-2

Library of Congress Control Number: 2017952065

© Springer International Publishing AG 2017This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed.The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

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Hanging long-line technique, the most common technique of cultivating eucheumatoids

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According to recently published data, the seaweed hydrocolloid industry, comprising agar, alginate and carrageenan extracts, continues to grow in the order of 2–3% per year with the Asia-Pacific region increasingly dominating the raw material and manufacturing aspects of the industry.

Except for Japanese nori, the production of seaweed hydrocolloids consumes the largest amount of macroalgae annually, and carrageenan is the largest consumer of this group. The industry has been and is still undergoing structural changes largely led by Indonesia which is now the world’s largest producer of agar- and carrageenan-bearing seaweeds. In addition, China is now the world’s largest combined processor of seaweed hydrocolloids and is, to a considerable extent, reliant on imported raw materials. As noted in one of the chapters of this book, in 2016, about 250, 000 dry shades of Kappaphycus and Eucheuma (referred to together as the eucheumatoid seaweeds) entered value-chains as raw materials for single-stream pro-cessing that led to the production of carrageenan. The present work focuses fundamentally on these species in the industry of carrageenan extraction at the present time.

The developed topics cover areas ranging from the commercial development of eucheuma-toid algae to biodiversity, biogeography, molecular genetics, ecophysiology, cultivation, micropropagation, diseases, the impact of climate change, harvesting and transport, biorefin-ery, applications of iota and kappa carrageenan variants and the development of value-chains.

Department of Life Sciences, IMAR-CMA Professor Leonel Pereiraand MARE (Marine and Environmental Sciences, Centre)University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal

Foreword

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Contents

1 Reflections on the Commercial Development of Eucheumatoid Seaweed Farming ..................................................................................................... 1Iain C. Neish, Miguel Sepulveda, Anicia Q. Hurtado, and Alan T. Critchley

2 Biodiversity, Biogeography and Molecular Genetics of the Commercially Important Genera Kappaphycus and Eucheuma .......................................................................................................... 29Ji Tan, Phaik-Eem Lim, Siew-Moi Phang, and Anicia Q. Hurtado

3 Reproductive Biology and Eco- physiology of Farmed Kappaphycus and Eucheuma ................................................................................... 45Rhodora V. Azanza and Erick Ask

4 The Cultivation of Kappaphycus and Eucheuma in Tropical and Sub- Tropical Waters ......................................................................................... 55Leila Hayashi, Renata P. Reis, Alex Alves dos Santos, Beatriz Castelar, Daniel Robledo, Gloria Batista de Vega, Flower E. Msuya, K. Eswaran, Suhaimi Md. Yasir, Majid Khan Majahar Ali, and Anicia Q. Hurtado

5 Micro-propagation of Kappaphycus and Eucheuma: Trends and Prospects ............................................................................................... 91C.R.K. Reddy, Nair S. Yokoya, Wilson Thau Lym Yong, Maria Rovilla J. Luhan, and Anicia Q. Hurtado

6 Impacts of AMPEP on Epiphytes and Diseases in Kappaphycus and Eucheuma Cultivation ...................................................................................... 111Rafael R. Loureiro, Anicia Q. Hurtado, and Alan T. Critchley

7 Impacts of Climate change on Eucheuma-Kappaphycus Farming ...................... 121Danilo B. Largo, Ik Kyo Chung, Siew-Moi Phang, Grevo S. Gerung, and Calvyn F.A. Sondak

8 Post-Harvest Handling of Eucheumatoid Seaweeds ............................................. 131Majid Khan Majahar Ali, Ahmad Fudholi, Jumat Sulaiman, Mohana Sundaram Muthuvalu, Mohd Hafidz Ruslan, Suhaimi Md. Yasir, and Anicia Q. Hurtado

9 Economics of Kappaphycus spp. Seaweed Farming with Special Reference to the Central Philippines ................................................ 147Giselle P.B. Samonte

10 Carrageenan and More: Biorefinery Approaches with Special Reference to the Processing of Kappaphycus ................................... 155José G. Ortiz-Tena, Doris Schieder, and Volker Sieber

x

11 Applications of Carrageenan: With Special Reference to Iota and Kappa Forms as Derived from the Eucheumatoid Seaweeds ....................... 165Rafael R. Loureiro, M.L. Cornish, and Iain C. Neish

12 Development of Eucheumatoid Seaweed Value-Chains Through Carrageenan and Beyond ........................................................................ 173Iain C. Neish and Shrikumar Suryanarayan

13 Carrageenan Industry Market Overview .............................................................. 193Ross Campbell and Sarah Hotchkiss

Index .................................................................................................................................. 207

Contents

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Majid Khan Majahar Ali School of Mathematical Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang, Malaysia

Seaweed Research Unit (UPRL), Faculty of Science and Natural Resources, Universiti Malaysia Sabah, Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, USA

Erick Ask FMC Bio Polymer, Philadelphia, PA, USA

Rhodora V. Azanza The Marine Science Institute, University of the Philippines, Diliman, Quezon City, Philippines

Ross Campbell CyberColloids Ltd, Carrigaline Industrial Park, Carrigaline, Co. Cork, Ireland

Beatriz Castelar Fundação Instituto de Pesca do Estado do Rio de Janeiro (FIPERJ), Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

M.L. Cornish Acadian Seaplants Limited, J.S. Craigie Research Centre, Cornwallis, NS, Canada

Alan T. Critchley The Evangeline Trail, Paradise, Nova Scotia, Canada

Ik Kyo Chung Department of Oceanography, Pusan National University, Busan, Metro City, Republic of Korea

K. Eswaran Division of Marine Biotechnology & Ecology, CSIR-Central Salt & Marine Chemicals Research Institute, Bhavnagar, India

Ahmad Fudholi Solar Energy Research Institute (SERI), Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia

Grevo S. Gerung Faculty of Fisheries and Marine Science, Sam Ratulangi University, Manado, Indonesia

Leila Hayashi Aquaculture Department, Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina (UFSC), Santa Catarina, Brazil

Integrated Services for the Development of Aquaculture and Fisheries (ISDA) Inc., Jaro, Philippines

Sarah Hotchkiss CyberColloids Ltd, Carrigaline Industrial Park, Carrigaline, Co. Cork, Ireland

Anicia Q. Hurtado Integrated Services for the Development of Aquaculture and Fisheries (ISDA) Inc., Jaro, Philippines

Danilo B. Largo Office of Research/Department of Biology, University of San Carlos, Talamban, Philippines

Contributors

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Phaik-Eem Lim Institute of Ocean and Earth Sciences (IOES), University of Malaya (UM), Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

Institute of Biological Sciences, University of Malaya (UM), Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

Rafael R. Loureiro Blue Marble Space Institute of Science, Seattle, WA, USA

Maria Rovilla J. Luhan Aquaculture Department, Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center (SEAFDEC), Tigbauan, Iloilo, Philippines

Flower E. Msuya Institute of Marine Sciences, University of Dar es Salaam, Zanzibar, Tanzania

Mohana Sundaram Muthuvalu Department of Fundamental and Applied Sciences, Faculty Of Science and Information Technology, Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS, Tronoh Perak, Malaysia

Iain C. Neish PT Sea Six Energy Indonesia, Bali, Indonesia

José G. Ortiz-Tena Chemistry of Biogenic Resources, Technical University of Munich, Straubing, Germany

Siew-Moi Phang Institute of Ocean and Earth Sciences (IOES), University of Malaya (UM), Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

Institute of Biological Sciences, University of Malaya (UM), Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

C.R.K. Reddy Division of Marine Biotechnology and Ecology, CSIR-Central Salt and Marine Chemicals Research Institute, Bhavnagar, India

Renata P. Reis Instituto de Pesquisa Jardim Botânico do Rio de Janeiro (JBRJ), Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

Daniel Robledo Cinvestav Unidad Mérida, Departamento de Recursos del Mar, Mérida, Yucatán, Mexico

Mohd Hafidz Ruslan Solar Energy Research Institute (SERI), Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia

Giselle P.B. Samonte ERT, Inc., Silver Spring, MD, USA

Alex Alves dos Santos Empresa de Pesquisa Agropecuária e Extensão Rural de Santa Catarina (EPAGRI), Centro de Desenvolvimento de Aquicultura e Pesca, Florianópolis, Santa Catarina, Brazil

Doris Schieder Chemistry of Biogenic Resources, Technical University of Munich, Straubing, Germany

Volker Sieber Chemistry of Biogenic Resources, Technical University of Munich, Straubing, Germany

Fraunhofer IGB, Straubing Branch BioCat, Straubing, Germany

Calvyn F.A. Sondak Faculty of Fisheries and Marine Science, Sam Ratulangi University, Manado, Indonesia

Jumat Sulaiman Mathematics with Economics Programme, Faculty of Science and Natural Resources, Universiti Malaysia Sabah, Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia

Miguel Supelveda Ilha Grande, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

Contributors

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Shrikumar Suryanarayan PT Sea Six Energy Indonesia, Bali, Indonesia

Ji Tan Department of Agricultural and Food Sciences, Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman (UTAR), Kampar, Perak, Malaysia

Gloria Batista de Vega Director de Investigación y Desarrollo (I+D) de Gracilarias de Panamá S.A., and Facultad de Ciencias Naturales y Tecnología, Universidad de Panamá, Panamá

Suhaimi Md. Yasir Seaweed Research Unit (UPRL), Faculty of Science and Natural Resources, Universiti Malaysia Sabah, Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia

Nair S. Yokoya Institute of Botany, Environmental Secretary of São Paulo State, São Paulo, Brazil

Wilson Thau Lym Yong Biotechnology Research Institute, Universiti Malaysia Sabah, Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia

Contributors

xv

Anicia Q. Hurtado was a senior scientist at the Aquaculture Department, Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center (SEAFDEC-AQD), Tigbauan, Iloilo, Philippines, for 20 years. She spearheaded the Seaweed Program of AQD during her entire career at the centre. She is at present the Chair of the Integrated Services for the Development of Aquaculture and Fisheries (ISDA Inc.), an organization of past and present scientists of SEAFDEC-AQD. She finished her Doctor of Agriculture (Phycology) at Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan, as a Monbusho Scholar. She is an awardee of DA-BFAR Best Research Paper in Fisheries and Aquaculture (1991, 1992), Dr. Elvira O. Tan Memorial Award for Best Research

Paper in Aquaculture in 2003 and Best Poster Presentation in 2007 at the International Seaweed Symposium, Kobe, Japan. She works mainly on the aquaculture of Kappaphycus as a consul-tant to international and local government and non-government agencies directly involved with seaweed farmers. At present, she is developing “new strains” of Kappaphycus using tissue culture techniques for possible sources of propagules for commercial farming. She works also on the mitigation of Neosiphonia infestation in Kappaphycus farms using seaweed extract from the brown seaweed Ascophyllum nodosum. She has published several papers on Kappaphycus, Eucheuma and Gracilaria as senior and co-author in peer-reviewed journals and book chapters; she has written manuals, flyers and posters as teaching and training materi-als for seaweed farmers. She is a trainer, resource person and lecturer to local and international training programmes and workshops particularly on ecophysiology, land-sea-based nurseries, seaweed aquaculture, crop management (disease and epiphytes), post-harvest management and research methodologies. She is a speaker in plenary and mini- symposium sessions in inter-national congresses. She joined the editorial board of Botanica Marina for 6 years, and she is a regular reviewer of manuscripts submitted to the Journal of Applied Phycology and other international fisheries and aquaculture journals.

Alan T. Critchley grew up in Birmingham, UK. In 1981, he gradu-ated with a PhD from Portsmouth University, in marine ecology, having been based at the university’s Hayling Marine Laboratory studying the invasion of the brown seaweed Sargassum muticum. This was followed by a Royal Society European Postdoctoral Fellowship at the Delta Institute, Yerseke, Netherlands. He then moved to South Africa to teach in the Botany Department of the University of KwaZulu- Natal, Pietermaritzburg (7 years), and the University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg (10 years). He researched sub- tropical seaweeds to the east and cold-water, upwelling- influenced species to the west and developed a much

keener interest in seaweed benefits and their applications. He also collaborated with Professor M. Ohno of Kochi University, Japan, to co-edit volumes of Seaweed Cultivation and Marine Ranching and Seaweed Resources of the World. In 1998, he moved to the University of

About the Editors

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Namibia, Windhoek, to become a research professor at the Multidisciplinary Research and Consultancy Centre; seaweeds and their uses were at the centre of a number of novel projects there.

In 2001, he made the transition from academia to the commercial world. The call of carrageenan- bearing seaweeds took him to Normandy, France and a processing facility, then operated by Degussa Texturant Systems, to be in charge of their New Raw Materials Laboratory. It was at that time that his passion for the Eucheuma seaweeds, their biology, production, uti-lization and socio-economic importance, was fostered. It was here that he was most fortunate to begin collaborative research with Dr. Anicia Q. Hurtado.

In 2005, he moved to Nova Scotia, Canada, to work with a local seaweed processing com-pany. This role involved the management of multidisciplinary, collaborative projects based on commercial seaweeds (browns and reds). Ensuring sustainable production techniques for sea-weed resources and the scientific validation of biostimulant and bioactive properties of their extracts was a major focus.

Carrageenophyte seaweeds continue as a research focus. It was through these activities that Dr Iain Neish and Alan were introduced. A common goal led Anne, Iain and Alan to co-edit this current collation of the broad spectrum of science associated with the Eucheuma seaweeds, their production, processing, applications and most importantly socio-economic contributions to coastal communities. For this book, they turned to the expert teams included in each chapter to bring their vision to reality; the expert teams did a marvellous job!

He is currently pursuing sustainable utilization of resources, including encouraging research to stimulate 100% multiple-stream utilization of a variety of seaweed biomasses for their applications in a myriad of current and future potential uses, from nutrient-dense food to bio-logically active properties, which can collectively provide greatly beneficial goods and ser-vices to terrestrial and marine ecosystems, humans, animals, plants and microbes.

Iain C. Neish is a Canadian marine biologist and businessman who has worked with seaweeds in aquaculture systems since 1965. He followed the lead of his father, Arthur C. Neish, who played a role in the development of seaweed cultivation in Nova Scotia, Canada. Since 1977, most of Iain’s career involved seaweed farm develop-ment and factory installations in the Philippines, Malaysia and Indonesia. He has also worked in the Americas, Africa and India. More than 25 years of this work was conducted while Iain was working as consultant, then employee of Marine Colloids (later FMC Corporation and then DuPont) until 1997. During that time, he was project manager for seaweed farm development and for the

construction of the world’s first factory that made semi-refined carrageenan (SRC) in Cebu City, Philippines. From 2003 to 2015, Iain undertook projects with various international orga-nizations including IFC, GTZ, USAID, AusAID FAO, ILO and UNIDO, and he also undertook seaweed-related projects with several private companies. He is currently engaged with innova-tive seaweed business ventures in Indonesia in his role as a director of PT Sea Six Energy Indonesia. He lives with his family in Bali.

About the Editors