ii

An Abstract of

Study of Parameters in the Development of Sustainable Transportation System:

A Case Study of Mumbai, India

By

Bhairavi S. Dhakras

Submitted as partial fulfillment of the requirements for

Master of Civil Engineering

The University of Toledo

August 2004

Urban transportation forms one of the most important components of urban

development. With the growing business, trade and urbanization all over the world, there

is a growth in demand for transportation. Transportation problems mainly arise due to

this growing demand and the inadequacy of the supply of transport facilities. This

imbalance between capacity or supply of transport facilities and the increasing demand

from people causes an unsustainable condition. Traffic congestion, trave l delays and

dissatisfaction amongst the travelers are all the results of this imbalance. These are

accompanied by environmental problems like air and noise pollution with high vehicular

emissions and excessive fuel consumption. Concept of sustainability thus arises from the

iii

need of having a transportation system which would efficiently cater to the needs and

travel demands of citizens, without causing any adverse effect on the environment. In this

study, literature regarding transportation planning and urban designing is reviewed for

various developed and developing countries. Most populous city in the world, developing

city in Asia and the financial capital of India, the City of Mumbai, is selected as the study

area. Views of the citizens of Mumbai and information about their regular traveling

pattern are collected through a web survey. Transportation scenario and problems in this

city are closely observed and studied which lead to interesting findings and facts. These

include congestion index, loss in working hours, vehicular emissions, average speed,

distance, travel time, expenses and commuter satisfaction. A statistical analysis is carried

out to measure the commuter satisfaction and different aspects of the transportation

system affecting the performance of the system as a whole. It is deduced that congestion,

rush, delay, parking, pedestrian facilities and road quality are major factors from people’s

point of view, which significantly affect their satisfaction or acceptability of the

performance of Mumbai Transportation System. Environmental problems are also studied

for the City of Mumbai, and recommendations made to alleviate them. It is finally

inferred that there is an urgent need for comprehensive transportation planning,

dispersing population, curbing private vehicle use and effectively facilitating the public

transportation in the City of Mumbai.

iv

Dedicated to My parents, brother and sister in law in Mumbai, India

Thank you for being with me, always!

v

Acknowledgements

I take this opportunity to thank Dr. Jiwan Gupta for his guidance, suggestions and

co-operation. I am grateful to Dr. Candace Ayars for her immense help with the statistical

analysis. Without her effort and help, this analysis would not have been possible. I

appreciate Dr. Heydinger and Dr. Mostaghel for being on my defense committee.

I am thankful to my parents, my brother and my sister in law in India, who have

been a constant source of support and inspiration throughout my stay in the United States.

I appreciate Anirban’s help with technical details and comments, Amit’s suggestions and

guidance, Priya for sharing pictures of Mumbai, Mr. Vijay Sidhaye for Mumbai maps and

Tanvi, Srilakshmi and Rachana for their co-operation and understanding throughout their

stay with me. I express my gratitude towards Mr. Seeman Corey, Rachana and Anirban,

who helped me design the online questionnaire.

I am thankful to Save Bombay Committee, Mumbai Metropolitan Region

Development Authority, Regional Transport Office of Mumbai, Mumbai Municipal

Corporation, Sustainable Transportation Yahoo Group and all the other web sites and

books, which provided me with a great deal of information.

I am especially thankful to Mr. Kisan Mehta, president of Save Bombay

Committee, who has been my greatest inspiration in making Mumbai a sustainable city. I

thank the citizens of Mumbai, who by their responses and comments have made this

research possible.

vi

Table of Content

Page

Abstract ii

Dedication iv

Acknowledgements v

Table of Content vi

List of Figures, Maps and Photos ix

List of Tables xii

Chapter 1: Introduction 1

1.1 Background 1

1.2 Sustainability

1.2.1 Definition 3

1.2.2 Measures (Indicators) of Sustainability 6

1.3 Research Objectives 9

Chapter 2: Literature Review 11

2.1 Urbanization and Unsustainable Transportation 11

2.2 Demand Management – Means to Sustainability 13

2.2.1 Land Use Planning 14

2.2.2 Non-Motorized Transportation 22

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Page

2.3 Role of Policy Implementers – Government 29

2.4 Towards Sustainable Transportation – Meaning and Indicators 31

Chapter 3: Study Area – City of Mumbai, India 34

3.1 Information of the City – History and Development 34

3.2 Geography and Population 35

3.3 Employment 40

3.4 Transportation 42

3.5 Traffic in Mumbai 48

3.6 Environmental Crisis 51

Chapter 4: Taking a closer look at Transportation Problems

Focus on Andheri, a Mumbai suburb 55

4.1 Overview of the area 55

4.2 Transportation Infrastructure 57

4.2.1 Streets 57

4.2.2 Sidewalks 60

4.3 Planning and Management 62

4.4 Heterogeneous Mix of Traffic 66

4.5 Environmental Pollution 70

4.6 Spreading Localities 70

4.7 Indiscipline and inefficient control of traffic 71

4.8 Land Use Planning – Concentration of Employment Centers 72

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Page

Chapter 5: Data Collection and Analysis 74

5.1 Data Collection 74

5.1.1 Online Survey 74

5.1.2 Survey Design and Observations 76

5.2 Analysis 83

5.2.1 Commuter Satisfaction 83

5.2.2 Statistical Analysis 85

5.3 Environmental Aspect 99

Chapter 6: Results and Inference 106

6.1 Interpretation and Inference 106

6.2 Suggestions for Mitigation 107

6.2.1 Dispersion of Population and Employment –

Satellite Towns 107

6.2.2 Facilitation of Public Transportation 108

6.2.3 Parking 110

6.2.4 Pedestrian Convenience 110

6.2.5 Curbing personalized vehicles on roads 111

Chapter 7: Conclusion and Recommendations 113

7.1 Conclusion 113

7.2 Recommendations 115

References 116

Appendix 122

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List of Figures Page

Figure 1.1 Sustainability Curves 6

Figure 3.1 Graph of increase in population in Mumbai from years

1911 to 1991 with estimated population in the year 2003 40

Figure 3.2 Motor vehicles (all types) from 1980 to 2003 in Mumbai 49

Figure 3.3 Increase in private motor ownership (two-wheelers and cars) 49

Figure 3.4 Average Air Pollution Levels at Traffic Junctions of

suburbs of Wadala, Mahim and Andheri in Year 2002-03 52

Figure 5.1 Graph showing AM and PM peak hours of travel 77

Figure 5.2 Graph showing percentile speeds for AM Road Traffic 80

Figure 5.3 Graph showing percentile speeds for PM Road Traffic 80

Figure 5.4 Distribution of scores for Mumbai Transportation System

as a whole 86

Figure 5.5 Distribution of responses about Road Quality 86

Figure 5.6 Distribution of responses about Congestion 87

Figure 5.7 Distribution of responses about Delay due to Speed 87

Figure 5.8 Distribution of responses about Frequency of Buses and Trains 88

Figure 5.9 Distribution of responses about Pedestrian Facilities 88

Figure 5.10 Distribution of responses about Rush in Public Transport 89

Figure 5.11 Distribution of responses about Parking 89

x

Figure 5.12 Distribution of responses about Availability of

alternate modes 90

Figure 5.13 Distribution of responses about Cost of Travel 90

Figure 5.14 Distribution of scores for Crowding 93

Figure 5.15 Distribution of scores for Availability of Transportation

Modes 93

Figure 5.16 Distribution of scores for Infrastructure 94

Figure 5.17 Distribution of scores for Cost 94

Figure 5.18 Graph of Linear Regression 98

Figure 5.19 Emission levels (gm/km) for buses and trucks with

respect to speed 100

Figure 5.20 Emission levels (gm/km) for cars with respect to speed 101

Figure 5.21 Emission levels (gm/km) for two wheelers, four stroke

with respect to speed 102

Figure 5.22 Emission levels (gm/km) for two wheelers, two stroke

with respect to speed 103

List of Maps

Map 3.1 Map of Mumbai 36

Map 3.2 Mumbai with significant areas 38

Map 3.3 City of Mumbai with roadways and important locations 44

Map 3.4 City of Mumbai showing Western Railway and

xi

Central Railway 46

Map 4.1 Focus Area in Mumbai – The suburb of Andheri 56

List of Photos

Photo 3.1 Over-crowding of typical Mumbai Railway 47

Photo 4.1 Prolonged road constructions and maintenance 58

Photo 4.2 Prolonged road constructions and maintenance 58

Photo 4.3 Fenced and Narrow Medians on street in Andheri, Mumbai 59

Photo 4.4 Jay walking due to lack of pedestrian signals and road

Markings 60

Photo 4.5 Hawkers on the pedestrian sidewalks 61

Photo 4.6 Sidewalks occupied by hawkers in Mumbai 61

Photo 4.7 Over-saturated flows at traffic signals 63

Photo 4.8 Traffic Jam during peak hour 64

Photo 4.9 Rush for the buses during peak hours 65

Photo 4.10 Rush at a railway station to board train 66

Photo 4.11 Heterogeneous Mix of Traffic in Mumbai 67

Photo 4.12 Heterogeneous Mix of Traffic in Mumbai 68

Photo 4.13 Heterogeneous Mix of Traffic in Mumbai 68

Photo 4.14 Cattle on Mumbai streets 69

Photo 4.15 Vehicle-Pedestrian Conflict outside Railway Station 69

Photo 4.16 Slums around railway tracks 71

Photo 4.17 Over-crowding of typical Mumbai Railway Station 73

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List of Tables Page

Table 3.1 Push Factors affecting Migration to Mumbai 41

Table 3.2 Pull Factors affecting Migration to Mumbai 42

Table 3.3 Number of vehicles in 2003 in Mumbai 48

Table 3.4 Air Quality Monitoring at Traffic Junction (2002-03) 52

Table 3.5 Ambient Air Quality Levels at fixed monitoring sites 53

Table 3.6 Emission Load of Mumbai City in tons/day for

year 2002-03 from Transportation 53

Table 5.1 Percentage of respondents based on their profession 76

Table 5.2 Percentage of Trips in mornings and evenings to and

from suburbs and city 77

Table 5.3 Percentage by number of trips, distance, and average

AM and PM speeds for each mode of travel. 79

Table 5.4 Percentage rating for the acceptability of Mumbai

Transportation System and the parameters 82

Table 5.5 Commuter Satisfaction Index calculation 84

Table 5.6 Coefficients from Factor Analysis

(Rotated Component Matrix) 92

Table 5.7 Summary of basic statistics for the four factors 95

Table 5.8 Model Summary 95

xiii

Table 5.9 Correlations 96

Table 5.10 Coefficients from regression analysis 96

Table 5.11 Correla tions and Significance 97

Table 5.12 Model Summary 97

Table 5.13 Coefficients and significance values for linear regression 98

Table 5.14 Percentage decrease in fuel consumption and

emission of pollutants 104

Table 5.15 Emission values in gm/km for the actual speed

and ideal speed of vehicles in Mumbai 104

1

Chapter 1

Introduction

1.1 Background

Transportation is essential for the movement of people and goods. Deb [1] states

that the productive efficiency of urban areas is maintained when mobility requirements in

the cities are fully met. With the growth of cities, demand for transportation grows with

the growing business and trade all over the world. Thus urban transport forms one of the

most important components of urban development. A good network of roads and an

efficient transport system make a substantial contribution to the working efficiency of a

city. The evolution of industrial development calls for an expansion of transportation

systems to cater to the increasing demand.

Most of the population and economic growth in the world is occurring in

developing countries [2]. The occurrence of rapid urbanization in the world has created

the migration of people from rural areas to metropolitan cities. This has resulted in more

people and more goods making more trips in urban areas, often over longer distances [2].

Approximately 45 per cent of world population lived in urban areas in 1995. By the year

2025, this figure is estimated to rise to 60 per cent [3]. In 2003, 38 per cent of population

(around 1.2 billion persons) of Asia lived in cities. By 2020, the proportion of urban

residents will have increased by 50 per cent with the urban population reaching over 2

2

billion [4]. By some estimate at least 153 cities in Asia will have population exceeding 1

million persons [4]. Rapid urbanization is accompanied by an alarming rate of increase in

the number of vehicles. In fact, the inventory of vehicles has been rising at a faster rate in

terms of percentage as compared to the population. There is a high growth of auto-

ownership in cities for better accessibility. Besides, in many of the developing countries

owning a car is a symbol of prestige. With this, there is higher demand for the use of

transportation facilities. However transport infrastructure development and provision of

public transport facilities have severely lagged behind as compared to the demand. Road

networks in cities are clogged by the explosion of personalized vehicle and have resulted

in acute traffic congestion, steeply increasing number of accidents and levels of pollution.

Process of urbanization with an improper controlled planning has resulted in

disproportional spatial distribution of population and economic activities necessitating

large-scale intra-city movement of people, goods and vehicles.

Transportation problems mainly arise due to the imbalance between capacity or

supply of transport facilities and the demand from the people. Traffic congestion, travel

delays and dissatisfaction amongst the travelers are all the results of this imbalance.

These are accompanied by environmental problems like air and noise pollution. Non-

motorized transportation modes (which mostly include pedestrians and cyclists) have

become the most vulnerable in the present vehicular dominant transportation system.

They are deprived of safe movement on roads, due to growing traffic. This causes

increase in the number of accidents, pedestrians being the victims most of the times.

Travelers spend money on their travel directly (traveling expenses) or indirectly (local

taxes), but are unable to get desired satisfaction. There is a gap between increasing traffic

3

and existing infrastructure (in terms of bridges, roads, traffic control devices, subways

etc). This gap is increasing leading to unsustainable condition, which prevents the smooth

flow of traffic and healthy environmental conditions, suppressing economical

development. Concept of sustainability thus arises from the need of a transportation

system which would efficiently cater to the needs and travel demands of citizens.

1.2 Sustainability

1.2.1 Definition

The World Bank provides the following definition of sustainability:

“Sustainability is defined as the condition in which there is a balance and stability

between the social, economic, environmental and physical factors, satisfying the present

needs as well as not compromising on the ability of the future condition.”

Pearce, Makandia & Barbier (1989) [5] define sustainability as:

“Sustainable development involves devising a social and economic system, which ensures

that these goals are sustained, i.e. that real incomes rise, that educational standards

increase, that the health of the nation improves, that the general quality of life is

advanced.”

Sustainability is a condition when there is maximum fulfillment of needs with

least resource consumption, optimum cost and without causing negative impact on

environment and society. Sustainable transportation can be defined as the most efficient

and convenient movement of people and vehicles with least amount of energy (in terms

of fuel and efforts), at most favorable costs and with least amount of congestion and

environmental impacts such as air and noise pollution.

4

Sustainable transportation is a long-term goal to achieve, and the progress towards

it is incremental. Improvement in transportation is often misinterpreted as only building

bridges, widening roads and having rapid transit systems. Although it includes all these

techniques, transportation can become sustainable only when it holistically considers

social, economical and environmental aspects. Good land use planning requiring

minimum need to travel, transportation network friendly for all classes of people,

transportation modes causing minimum amount of air pollution, and transportation

options demanding least cost and effort of people can be considered as various aspects of

a sustainable transportation system. Thus sustainable transportation concerns with the

impacts of transportation developments on economic efficiency, environmental issues,

resource consumption, land use, and equity. It includes the application of systems,

policies and technologies, which would help achieve the continuous economic

development without having a detrimental effect on environmental and human resources.

It aims at the efficiency of transit of goods, services and delivery systems with minimum

accessibility problems. Sustainable transportation system aims at designing of

congestion-free urban planning, with bicycle and pedestrian friend ly design of the areas.

It focuses on moving people and not only the vehicles, which in turn would reduce air

pollution as well as the increasing congestion. Sustainability can be achieved with the

change in behavioral aspects of people. When people understand the impacts of

transportation, they can in turn make choices that reduce the need for resources and thus

minimize the adverse impacts.

A report by the World Bank (1996, 4-6) defines sustainable transportation as

made of three components:

5

• The economic and financial component, which includes the issues of adequacy of

transportation infrastructure funding, organization and scale.

• The environmental and ecological component, which includes issues of how

transportation investments and mode options influence the reduction in

consumption of energy, pollution etc.

• The social component, which emphasizes adequate access to transportation

services by all segments of society.

Sustainability is also said to be a measure of transport impact on all aspects of the

natural and human environment. All costs are accounted for, including those costs that

indicate the quality of the trip for the traveler. A principal human cost is the time spent in

transport. This cost is the largest single cost after the systems capital and operating costs

[6]. Sustainability cannot be achieved only by changing the vehicular designs, patterns

and their management. It implies changes in the way we think to identify and evaluate the

solutions to transportation problems. It focuses on accessib ility, which can be improved

by having better means of communication and land use management that will reduce the

need to travel. Sustainability can be graphically defined as shown in Figure 1.1.

6

Figure 1.1 Sustainability Curves

Source: Sustainable Transportation: Conceptualization and Performance Measures, Texas

Transportation Institute

Socio-economic needs of the people increase with the growth in technology.

Figure 1.1 shows the increasing needs and the depleting resources. After a certain point

of time, the resources are unable to satisfy the needs and the unsustainable condition

arises. Thus an imbalance is created as the supply gets diminished as compared to

demands.

1.2.2 Measures (indicators) of Sustainability

Various researchers are conducting research to define measures of sustainable

development, but no definitive set of measures has been arrived at as acceptable by

everyone. Indicators of sustainability can be the units of measuring progress towards

sustainable development. There are three basic functions of indicators - simplification,

Sustainability

Needs

Technology Resources Environment

Ecological System So

me

App

ropr

iate

Mea

sure

s

Time

7

quantification, and communication. Indicators generally simplify in order to make

complex phenomena quantifiable so that information can be communicated. The general

public is concerned about sustainable development and the environment. They like to be

informed about the state of the environment and the economy and how and why they are

changing [5].

Performance should be measured in ways that meet both governmental standards

and public needs and wishes. A primary performance measure can be devised which

indicates how regional travel time delay is affected by the recommended strategy. Other

secondary benefits could be identified and measured that are of interest to stakeholder

groups. A clear additional benefit is how equitably people across a region share in the

primary benefit of congestion relief. For some travelers, having more travel choices,

especially safe non-motorized modes, is a benefit. Money that is freed up with a cost-

effective regional solution would also constitute a benefit. It could be applied to local

transport problems or to important social purposes. Other measurable benefit indicators

include: reductions in health impacts, environmental damages, and accident costs, as

travelers shift to transit, ride share and non-motorized modes [6]. The University of

Reading [5] gives the indicators for sustainable transportation in terms of car use and

total passenger travel, short journeys, real changes in the cost of transport and freight

traffic.

While there is no simple or single means of achieving efficient transportation,

measures for the study could include the following:

• Congestion index.

• Reduction in pollution levels.

8

• Per capita energy consumption (Alberta Round Table on the Environment and the

Economy -- May, 1993).

• Reduction in travel times or the traveling costs.

• Percentage of excess of capacity over the demand.

• Benefit-Cost Ratio (B/C) of travel; B/C > 1 is a sustainable condition.

Transportation planners face major challenges in exploring affordable, efficient

and reliable transport services for the citizens, minimizing negative environmental

impacts. For achieving the sustainability, impact of each development and improvement

has to be studied in deep and its benefits have to be calculated. Sustainability is attained

when there is social comfort and equity with least consumption of resources.

Urban areas in developing countries require new approaches to address their

transportation problems. Although the problems appear to be universally the same, their

solutions differ. Developing countries face a challenge in finding innovative solutions.

Transportation planners often tend to apply methods developed in developed countries to

problems in developing countries with little concern for differences in causes, need,

condition, resource availability and climate [7]. These solutions may demand enormous

costs. It is important for developing nations to develop a transportation system with

limited resources, thus avoiding consumption of excessive amounts of land and other

sources. Policy makers should realize that solutions designed for cities of developed

countries cannot be directly applied to the urban areas of developing countries. They can

and should learn from the experiences of developed countries. These countries should

also acknowledge the interrelationships that exist between different urban trends and

impacts. Addressing problems in isolation would not be very effective because of the

9

complex nature of the urban transportation system. Interrelated problems require

integrated strategies implemented over time, from the immediate and short term to the

gradual and long term. Developing countries need to make approaches city specific, even

for cities within the same country. For instance, developed countries face a problem of

urban sprawl, which essentially means the dispersion of population in low densities. Such

countries encourage mixed land use pattern consisting of residences, work places,

shopping malls, schools etc. This reduces the commuting distance and thus the car

dependency. In contrast to this, the City of Mumbai has a mixed land use pattern. The

city consists of industries, factories, schools, offices, residential complexes, big and small

employment centers and slums in a small area of 438 sq. km. Still the city faces a large

number of transportation and environmental problems, all of them being very severe and

serious. Mumbai, with a very high population density, mixed land use pattern and a good

network of public transportation, is a very congested city. It means that the causes of

these problems are not exactly similar to the ones in the developed countries, and demand

innovative and different solutions.

1.3 Research Objectives

The main objective of this study lies in identifying transportation problems in the

City of Mumbai, studying their causes, measuring them and suggesting feasible measures

for sustainability. Although the measures of sustainability have not been exactly defined,

sustainability of transportation in Mumbai can be measured by knowing the definition of

sustainable transportation. Various parameters related to transportation system are studied

which affect the sustainability from social, environmental and economical point of view.

10

With limited sources in obtaining data, the following tasks are envisioned to study the

sustainable transportation system in Mumbai.

• Literature study to define the sustainable transportation system for the City of

Mumbai, by considering various parameters and the historical development.

• Study of population, employment and transportation system.

• Defining a study area within the City of Mumbai for in depth study of sustainable

transportation.

• Measuring social satisfaction and acceptability towards the current system, and

defining the indicators of sustainability.

• Focusing on environmental aspect and recommending strategies to curb

environmental damages.

• Suggesting mitigation measures for achieving sustainability.

11

Chapter 2

Literature Review

2.1 Urbanization and Unsustainable Transportation

With rapid industrialization, most countries in the world are experiencing rapid

urban growth. There has been a population movement from rural to urban areas since

twentieth century. Population and economic growth in the world is occurring mainly in

developing countries [4]. As discussed earlier, in 1995, approximately 45 per cent of

world population lived in urban areas, but by the year 2025, this figure is estimated to rise

to 60 per cent [3]. In 2003, 38 per cent of population of Asia lived in cities (around 1.2

billion persons). By 2020, the proportion of urban residents will increase by 50 per cent

with the urban population reaching 2 billion [4]. At least 153 cities in Asia will have

population exceeding 1 million persons [4]. Growth in population with the improvement

in economy has caused growth in vehicle ownership. Although personal automobile

ownership rates are lower in developing countries as compared to the developed

countries, the growth rate of motor vehicles in deve loping countries has been rising in

past few years and is also expected to rise in the future. Rapid urbanization has caused

tremendous demand for supporting infrastructure such as water, transportation, electricity

etc. In particular, a gap between the demand and supply of transportation facilities is

increasing due to ineffective transportation management or due to incompetence of the

existing system. This is apparently due to lack of comprehensive planning and weak

12

institutional support. Transportation consumes more than 20 percent of the world's total

energy and produces much of the world's air pollution [8]. As more and more people will

be dependent on private automobiles, it is estimated that by 2025, the transport sector’s

energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions will be twice than that in 2000. The

health and environmental implications of the rapidly growing and poorly regulated

motorization are highly problematic. Each year, more than 750,000 people are killed by

motor vehicles, most of them being pedestrians, and another 500,000 die prematurely due

to transport-related air pollution in developing countries [9].

Transportation problems as discussed earlier are arising since the capacity or

supply is unable to satisfy the travel demand, creating an unsustainable condition. Traffic

congestion, travel delays, dissatisfaction amongst the travelers, environmental problems

like air and noise pollution are various causes of unsustainable transportation. Travelers

experience discomfort in traveling due to traffic jams, longer travel times and air

pollution. Developments of new and improvement in existing facilities are seen, but

transportation often remains a problem with increased travel demand.

Billions of dollars are spent on highways and ring roads (beltways) in the

developing countries while too little is spent on new public transit fleets which could

effectively reduce pollution and congestion [9]. Sustainable transportation includes

smooth movement of vehicles, goods and people. It demands convenience of people and

stability in the environment at optimum cost and effort. Until now, improvement of

transportation network prioritized the movement of vehicles, thus benefiting the high

income group of society. With increasing traffic and demand for travel, building bridges

and widening roads became the common solutions to transportation problems. Urban

13

growth and spread of transport networks often mismatched the supply and demand,

projecting unsustainable trends. Conventional approaches which consist in providing new

infrastructure along traditional lines to solve these problems no longer appear relevant.

Transportation solutions include much more than providing only infrastructural facilities.

Meeting future transport and travel needs, in line with sustainable development, calls for

a review of urban transport infrastructure in terms of new investment and innovation.

Developing a sustainable transportation system is a challenge for transportation engineers

and planners.

2.2 Demand Management – Means to sustainability

There are two basic approaches to solve transportation problems. One approach is

to increase capacity in terms of infrastructure, and the other is to manage demand.

Increasing capacity to a certain extent is wise and reasonable. However, it is impractical

and expensive to increase capacity to uphold the continuously growing demand.

Management strategies are affordable and real-time solutions. Comprehensive planning

and management considers a wider range of potential solutions to transportation

problems. When all impacts are considered, Transportation Demand Management (TDM)

is often the most cost effective solution to transportation problems [10]. TDM can

provide multiple benefits, including reduced congestion, road and parking facility, cost

savings, crash cost savings, consumer cost savings, pollution reduction and more efficient

land use. It includes use of alternative modes, facilitation of non-motorized transport,

parking management strategies and effective land use planning.

14

2.2.1 Land Use Planning

(1) Concept and Importance

A city's form greatly influences and is influenced by travel patterns. Development

of improper urban form has been one of the root causes of many transportation problems

throughout the world [3]. Rapid, unplanned and uncoordinated growth of cities has

dispersed their populations, with more people moving from the city centers to their urban

periphery. This dispersion reduces access to public transportation and makes the cost of

building and maintaining new public transportation systems prohibitive. An increase in

public transit systems seldom accompanies the growth in population, mainly because of

high capital costs and its urban form. Non-motorized modes of transportation in the urban

areas of developing countries also get affected and influenced by the city structure. They

can remain viable options only if there is a suitably high population density and a mixed

land use development pattern [3]. Transportation problems in developed countries like

United States, Australia and European countries occur due to scattered low density

population and hence create automobile dependency. In contrast, the problems in

developing countries like India, China and Thailand occur because of high densities of

concentrated population. Thus proper land use planning to suit the conditions and

environment may need to be considered to solve the transportation problems.

Transport, land use and environment are inter-related in an urban development. A

change in one causes an impact on the others. For example, good land use planning for a

city may lose its significance due to inadequate transportation facilities and vice versa.

This can cause people to choose unusual modes of travel with longer travel times. In turn,

it causes an adverse effect on the environment.

15

Transport influences not only the land use, that is the way the land is used, but

also who uses it [11]. The travel pattern of people for various activities, most important

being the home to work link, is crucial in a transport planning. Transportation problems

tend to arise from inappropriate spatial distribution of homes, offices, shops, factories,

schools etc. It creates inconvenience for people to travel long distances and durations

through congested traffic. Traffic situations arising from improper land use planning thus

have restricting effect on movement of people.

Hayashi [12] discusses land use planning as an important aspect of urban

development. He further states that land use planning system is fundamental to improve

the environment for reasons such as:

(i) It is extremely essential in controlling urban sprawl to keep the infrastructure

development cost at an acceptably low level, particularly during periods of rapid

suburbanization.

(ii) Infrastructure improvement provides benefits not only to users, but also to

owners, tenants and developers of land properties in the vicinity. This attributes in

the form of value increase.

(2) Effects of improper Land Use Planning

(i) Urban sprawl

It can be defined as an unplanned and unconstrained growth of urban

development, which results in an inefficient and incomplete use of land and resources. It

is one of the major causes contributing to broader environmental problems through the

16

interactive mechanism of urbanization and motorization. Urban sprawl involves

developments of low residential densities over a large land space.

(ii) Automobile Dependency

Dispersed land use patterns require a high level of mobility for a given level of

access. This mobility is easily achieved from self-owned automobiles. Automobile

dependency consists of high levels of per capita automobile travel, automobile oriented

land use, and reduced transport alternatives [13]. It causes poor pedestrian and cycling

conditions, limited transit service and under-pricing of automobile travel (such as

abundant free parking, unpriced roads and low fuel taxes). In countries with large land

areas and widely distributed populations, transit services prove to be unviable, resulting

in growth in auto-ownership. For example, Australian cities, were relatively compact in

the past, and walking was the dominant mode of personal transport. But there has been a

steady progression from a compact “walking city” to a sprawling, car-dependent city at

low residential densities by world standards. Residential density and travel characteristics

in the suburbs of both Australian and North American urban areas have led to auto

dependency in these countries [14]. Americans use their automobiles more than citizens

of other developed countries, more likely due to lack of co-ordination between land-use

and transportation policies in the United States [15].

(iii) Increase in external costs

Although automobiles are expensive to own, they are not very expensive to drive.

Use of automobile has internal and external costs [13]. Internal costs (costs borne by the

17

vehicle owner) include price paid for the vehicle, maintenance, taxes and fuel costs.

External costs (costs borne by the society) in the form of environmental impacts (air

pollution, noise), congestion (delay caused to others), and accident costs (suffering and

grief) are believed to be more than the internal costs. Thus the social cost (summation of

internal cost and external cost) is always high.

An inappropriate land use planning can lead to automobile-oriented city, poorly

suited for walking, cycling and transit. The growth and development of such city is

unsustainable and depicts a lack of co-ordination amongst stakeholders. For instance, in

Bangkok, large tracts of land remain undeveloped between and behind the main roads.

This development is the result of improper planning with inefficient use of land. Since

much potentially valuable land is either not used or used only for small-scale farming,

this type of development is highly uneconomical for transportation as it simultaneously

causes obstruction of the main roads and produces deplorable living conditions for the

people who live and work along the roads [11].

Urban sprawl is a serious issue in developed countries like United States. Poland

reports widespread uncontrolled and unmanageable out of town development as one of

the major forces driving urban areas away from sustainable development [16]. There is a

different type of land use planning problem existing in Mumbai, India as compared to the

urban sprawl problems of developed nations. In Mumbai, the urban growth is in the form

of conurbations, that is a high density development along the main transportation routes.

Conurbation development creates congestion problem on main arterial roads. Thus,

whether a city is developed or developing, densely populated or sparsely populated, land

use planning holds particular importance.

18

(3) Implementation of Land Use Planning and Control

As discussed earlier, most of the population growth is occurring in the

metropolitan cities and suburbs. This rate and pattern of growth which is totally or

substantially unplanned is expected to continue. Such unplanned growth will move jobs

farther form homes, increasing commuting distances and thereby longer travel times.

Land use planning techniques are thus required for co-ordination between travel and

transport facilities. Smart Growth, a concept associated with ‘growth management’ is

used as an anti urban-sprawling technique. It aims at establishing land use strategies to

increase population and housing densities and make transit more feasible [17]. It also

intends to create resource efficient and livable communities.

In the United Kingdom, land use control has been an effective planning tool for

protection against rapid urban sprawl and environmental degradation in the suburbs. It

has been implemented through several legislative measures such as the Restriction of

Ribbon Development Act of 1935. In Japan, legal land use planning through the

designation of ‘restricted urbanization area’ has reduced the speed of urban sprawl.

Sustainable planning and zoning measures relating to transportation include the

development of high-density, mixed land use areas, rather than segregating commercial

and residential districts. Mixed-use areas combine homes and businesses; residents

simply walk or bicycle, rather than drive, to work. Specific examples of this type of

development include pedestrian zones, which include roadways converted to pedestrian

and bicycle use [18]. Specific examples of ‘pedestrianization’ are discussed further.

One of the best examples of efficiency and sustainability gains that come from

coordinated transportation and land use planning is that of Stockholm, Sweden. The last

19

half century of strategic regional planning has given rise to a regional settlement and

commutation pattern that has substantially lowered car dependency in middle- income

suburbs. Stockholm planners have created jobs-housing balance along rail-served axial

corridors. This in turn has produced directional- flow balances. During peak hours, 55 per

cent of commuters are typically traveling in one direction on trains and 45 per cent are

heading in the other direction. Such balanced directional splits stand in marked contrast

to the United States where, because of lack of coordination in infrastructure and

development, trains and buses are often filled in the morning inbound but back-haul

three-quarters empty [19].

Countries like France, Denmark and Sweden have held sprawl in check by

heavily taxing electricity and petroleum consumption at a rate three to four times higher

than in United States [19]. Increasingly, policy makers around the world are promoting

measures like fuel taxing, road pricing and tolls, which will discourage the use of private

vehicles.

New suburban developments in The Netherlands and Germany are designed to

provide safe and convenient pedestrian and bicycling access. Residential developments

almost always include other uses such as cultural centers, shopping and service

establishments that can easily be reached by foot or bike. New residential areas are

located adjacent to town centers, connected by a fine mesh of local streets. The proximity

to town makes trips shorter, while the finer grain of the road network allows pedestrians

and bicyclists to choose quieter, less heavily traveled streets over busier, more dangerous

roads [20].

20

In Germany, the concept of short distances is gaining around in many cities.

German cities have begun to put an emphasis on mixed development, preserving areas

where housing, employment and social services exist in close proximity, developing

other activities in single use areas such as housing, employment, services and leisure

facilities [16]. Heidelberg and Freiburg have been pioneers in introducing low-noise

vehicles in noise protection districts.

In Switzerland, land use and transport planning are integrated effectively at the

regional level in the Cantonal (county) master plans. At a federal level, sectoral land use

plans are developed by the ministries responsible in close collaboration with the Federal

Office of Spatial Development with sectoral plans, for example covering railways and

public transport. In Finland, transport system plans have been drawn up for most urban

areas taking full account of land use development plans [16].

Holland has implemented a strict development control mechanism called ABC

system that is based on transportation need. In this system, transit-dependent activities are

classified as "A", which requires that they be of specific density and located within

walking distance of public transit service. This category includes offices, residences,

retail, and entertainment facilities. Wholesale, distribution, or business services are

categorized as "B" activities, and must be located on the outskirts of "A" districts, with

specific arterial road connections. Industrial firms and warehousing facilities are

classified as "C", and must be located near to major highways and motorways. The way

this system works is that the local communities produce a zoning plan, based on the

National ABC guidelines. This plan takes into account current mode splits (such as 40

per cent of trips by bicycle, 30 per cent by public transit and 30 percent by automobile),

21

as well as an "efficiency model" (developed by the Department of Transportation) which

measures how the plan will improve transportation connections from a current base of

100 per cent. When a business wants to build a facility within the community, it is

offered a selection of sites within its category. This would be considered very

deterministic, except that there is flexibility in the application of the system, based on the

community's needs. So, for example, a Class “C” firm could select a site outside of its

normal choices (often a green field site) if it is willing to provide the community with

some additional service or facility that it needs [21].

Berlin, Germany, has adopted a regional approach to transportation and land use.

Berlin itself is an artificial construct, created out of seven conurbations that occupied the

northern part of the State of Brandenburg. Each of these smaller areas is presented with a

regional plan, including current and planned transportation infrastructure, which lays out

planned densities, intended development zones, and growth boundaries. This regional

plan is negotiated between the seven towns that make up the Berlin metropolitan area.

Once it is agreed upon, the regional plan is passed into law, to be implemented by the

several towns. The towns then set zoning and development parameters on specific parcels

and neighborhoods within their boundaries. While they have significant flexibility in this

effort, each town has a performance measure that may not be exceeded, since it has been

passed into law. Thus, each town must contribute to meeting the goals of the regional

plan through neighborhood level implementation [21].

22

2.2.2 Non-Motorized Transportation

(1) Importance

Walking and cycling are sustainable means of transport. All journeys, whether

short or long involve walking. A pedestrian friendly city is more humane. In many ways,

walking and cycling are ideal ways to get around cities. These non-motorized travel

modes cause virtually no noise or air pollution. The only energy they require is provided

directly by the traveler. Moreover, they are quite economical, costing much less than auto

or public transit, both in direct user costs and public infrastructural costs [20].

Conventional transportation evaluation practices usually seem to prioritize

automobile-oriented planning to non-motorized transportation (NMT). This is because

the benefits of NMT are difficult to quantify. Walking and cycling are inexpensive and

hence tend to be ignored. It may be difficult to determine the number of non-motorized

trips in an area because they are often under-recorded in travel surveys and traffic counts.

Some travel surveys exclude non-motorized trips altogether and when included, walking

and cycling trips are often undercounted because they include many short, non-work and

recreational trips, and trips by children, all of which tend to be overlooked. Automatic

traffic counters do not record non-motorized travel and manual counts usually focus on

arterial streets, ignoring side streets and paths that may be popular walking and cycling

routes. Most trips involve non-motorized links that are often ignored in traffic counts.

Trips classified as “auto” or “transit” are usually “walk-auto-walk,” or “walk-transit-

walk” trips, yet the walking component is often not counted, even if it takes place on a

roadway [22]. One study finds that the actual number of non-motorized trips is six times

greater than what conventional surveys indicate. This suggests that 20 to 30 per cent of

23

all trips are non-motorized, yet a much smaller portion of transport funds are spent on

facilities and safety programs for non-motorized modes [23].

There is considerable latent demand for non-motorized travel. That is, people

would walk and bicycle more if they had suitable conditions. For example, two-thirds of

U.S. urban trips are less than five miles, distances suitable for bicycling. A U.S survey

indicates that 17 per cent of adults would sometimes bicycle commute if secure storage

and changing facilities were available, 18 per cent would bicycle commute if employers

offer financial incentives, and 20 per cent would bicycle commute if they could ride on

safe bike lanes. This survey indicates that non-motorized travel could increase

significantly with appropriate support and encouragement. Residents in neighborhoods

with suitable street environments tend to walk and bicycle more, ride transit more, and

drive less than comparable households in other areas. One study found that walking is

three times more common in a community with pedestrian friendly streets than in

otherwise comparable communities that are less conducive to foot travel [22].

Researches and studies have proved the importance of non-motorized

transportation and its planning. Significance of walking and cycling has been realized,

and improvements towards it are being done or proposed for the future. Some countries

have undertaken a wide range of measures to improve safety including better facilities for

walking and bicycling, urban design sensitive to the needs of non-motorists, traffic

calming of residential neighborhoods, restrictions on motor vehicle use in cities, rigorous

traffic education of both motorists and non-motorists, and strict enforcement of traffic

regulations protecting pedestrians and bicyclists [20]. Some of the measures are described

below.

24

(i) Pedestrianization – Facilitation for walking and bicycling

Over the last few decades, European countries have implemented a range of

policies to make walking and cycling safer. Copenhagen, Denmark has recognized the

social value of pedestrian streets [24]. There were heated discussions when Copenhagen

started the pedestrianization. However, it became a great success almost immediately.

Pedestrianization continued over a period of 30 years and the downtown parking policy

aimed to remove 2-3 per cent of the parking spaces every year. With the improvement of

the public transport system and the enlargement of the bicycle network, more and more

space has been taken away from the traffic and given to people. Oulu, Finland is

extending its pedestrian zone, which is proving to be very successful, even in

temperatures of -30° C. Italian cities have been leading a way to create pedestrian cultural

environments. In Naples, places like Piassa del Plebiscito are rediscovering their former

splendor after the removal of private cars. Venice remains the archetype of a car-free city

[24].

Pedestrianized zones are currently found in Munich in Germany, Boston in

Massachusetts and Denver and Boulder in Colorado. Pedestrianized commercial areas

generate up to 25 per cent more revenues than spaces developed to encourage automobile

use. This financial success is attributable to easy access by foot and public transportation

[18]. When people walk through shopping display, they tend to buy and spend money on

small items that may generate lot more profit in terms of per square foot of shop area.

Curitiba, Brazil, presents one of the best illustrations of pedestrian zone

development. Located close to mass transit and residences, one such zone features

restaurants, and other businesses. The city has combined these zones with a highly

25

efficient bus system and carries more passengers as compared to Rio subway system

although Curitiba city is one sixth of Rio. The integration of mass transit with pedestrian

zones in this city of 1.5 million people has created more disposable income for residents

due to decreased transportation costs and new markets for locally produced goods [18].

Another excellent example of pedestrian mall is Caracus, Venezuela. The pedestrian walk

is 400 to 600 feet wide and 2 miles long with small shops, restaurants and music stands.

Walking and cycling have been more developed in northern cities than in southern

cities, although the southern climate is more suitable for such activities. Amsterdam has

the most elaborate bicycle network, complementing the road and canal routes. A pilot

program in Delft, a city in The Netherlands indicates that up to 55 per cent of all urban

trips may be done by bicycle. In Copenhagen, Munster, Erlangen and other cities, up to

35 per cent of all transport needs are satisfied by bicycle, while in cities of the former

German Democratic Republic, such as Desaau, the use of bicycle is falling. Cities such as

Basle can be traversed and enjoyed by bicycle, while cities of Zurich and La Rochelle

lend bicycles free to citizens and visitors [24].

In The Netherlands and Germany, new suburban commercial developments have

sidewalks and bicycle paths to serve non-motorists. Parking lots almost never surround

buildings, as in the United States; instead, they are built next to or behind buildings, thus

permitting easy access to pedestrians and bicyclists. When an obstacle such as a highway,

railroad, or river must be traversed, Dutch and German cities usually provide safe and

attractive pedestrian and bicyclist crossings. German and Dutch cities have invested

heavily to expand and improve facilities specifically for bicycling; many of these

investments have focused on increased safety. The most obvious symbol of this

26

investment is the already massive and ever expanding network of bike lanes and bike

paths, which provide completely separate rights of way for cyclists. Unlike the

fragmented cycling facilities, the bike paths and lanes in The Netherlands and Germany

form a truly integrated, coordinated network covering both rural and urban areas. Dutch

and German bikeway systems serve practical destinations for everyday travel, and not

just recreational attractions. In The Netherlands, the network of bike paths and lanes

more than doubled in length in less than 20 years: from 9,282 km in 1978 to 18,948 km in

1996. The German bikeway network almost tripled in length: from 12,911 km in 1976 to

31,236 km [20].

Under Norway’s inter-ministerial program for environmentally friendly urban

development, strengthening the role of cycling as an important urban transport is

considered an important task. Germany provides statistics on cycling, which it estimates

to account for 12 per cent of all trips and averages 300 km per head of population per

year. It foresees significant potential to increase these figures, noting that the figure is

nearer 27 per cent of all trips in The Netherlands and as much as 40 per cent in some

country’s towns and cities. A national cycling promotion plan is under preparation to co-

ordinate federal, state and local measures. Finland also aims at improving the pedestrian

environment and non-hindrance is one of the principles for transport planning [16].

(ii) Restraint on automobile-use

In Europe, large fuel taxes have reduced use of automobile [18] and encouraged

NMT. Other regulations include toll collection and congestion pricing. Pricing proves to

be a major disincentive for car-ownership, and people avoid living at places accessible

27

only by cars. Congestion pricing schemes essentially employ tolls based on time-of-day

use and thereby serve to reduce peak time traffic. Other proposed incentives include

“feebates” and pay-at-the-pump auto insurance. Feebates, proposed in both California,

United States and Ontario, Canada, encourage the purchase of fuel-efficient vehicles by

providing rebates for their buyers, creating a system that pays for itself. Pay-at-the-pump

insurance, another California proposal, adds an insurance surcharge to each gallon of gas

purchased my motorists. Hence drivers of more efficient cars pay less for insurance [18].

In London's borough of Hammersmith and Fulham, a method was developed for

controlling the addition of parking (and thus car use) through new or in-fill

developments. The borough Council calculates an accessibility index called public

transport accessibility level (PTAL) for all locations within a specific area. Currently

these range from high accessibility (level 6) to low accessibility (level 1). The higher the

accessibility level, the lower the permitted parking spaces per unit of occupancy. This can

apply equally to residential and to office space. Discussions are under way to develop

measures for retail and other motor-vehicle oriented functions. The focus of this method

is that it provides a basis for dialogue before a development is planned out. Rather than

depending on national averages for ratios of parking to residential or office space, the

London boroughs are using their own experiences, based on existing and planned public

transit services. They are being supported by London Transport, because one goal of

using the PTAL is to at least maintain the competitive balance between auto use and

public transit use. Just as the local road infrastructure can only accommodate very

gradual increases in automobile traffic, the public transit system cannot accommodate

28

sharp peaks and troughs in patronage which might be caused by severe fluctuations in

traffic congestion due to sharp increases in auto use [21].

Parking policies are one of the most important and widely used instruments

employed in restraint of car use and thus promoting a more sustainable urban

environment. The Tokyo metropolitan government has long practiced a regulatory policy

of requiring proof of a rented or owned off-road parking space for the purchase of private

cars. In Europe, Switzerland has developed the parking policy to the greatest degree.

Charging and policies to reduce the number of public parking spaces in central urban

districts and private parking lots in new buildings have been employed for a number of

years. In the latest stage, negotiations are underway with large property owners to begin

charging for and reducing the number of existing residential parking spaces in some

urban locations [16].

The city of Evora, Portugal, has developed integrated local traffic and land use

plans, redirecting car traffic away from the center of the city and enhancing public

transport services, including of parking charges in the center. Cordon charges are

introduced for cars entering the urban centers [16].

(iii) Public Awareness and Education

Children are often the victims in accidents involving pedestrians. Hence, traffic

education for children should be given importance. Some European countries have

already started spreading awareness. There are Children’s Traffic Clubs in Scotland. In

The Netherlands and Germany every school provides comprehensive programs to educate

children to walk and bicycle safely. Approximately by the age of 10, every child has

29

received extensive instruction on safe walking and bicycling practices. They are taught

not just the traffic regulations but how to walk and bicycle defensively, to anticipate

dangerous situations, and to react appropriately. Throughout Germany, schoolchildren in

the third and fourth grades are required to take bicycling courses, often taught by special

traffic police, with a concluding exam. Children are tested by real police officers in

special traffic parks with simulated streets, intersections, traffic signals, and possible

dangers. Children take the traffic courses seriously and compete with each other for the

best grade. Even bike safety inspections are a special event [20].

Driver training for motorists in The Netherlands and Germany is much more

extensive, thorough and expensive than in the United States. Dutch and German drivers

are required to take a minimum number of hours of driving instruction with private firms,

usually costing at least $1,500 [20].

2.3 Role of Policy Implementers – Government

A single authority for public transport and private car parking could internalize

more equitably the environmental costs of private motoring and improve public transport.

In Evora, one of the World Heritage cities, the new traffic plan includes the creation of

large car parks outside the city walls, a high quality public transport system with mini and

micro-buses, well adapted to the existing narrow medieval streets, and the creation of

pedestrian and bicycle paths. In Orvieto, Italy, the alternative mobility system has been

created out of the need to improve urban life and revitalize the old railway that serves the

tourists [16].

30

Singapore has been seen as a developmental state because economic development

planning has been followed up with provision of industrial and business infrastructure

and their effective maintenance and management without all of which, the economy

would not exist. It has shown tremendous success in environmental and vehicle

management. Singapore’s experience with environmental management has shown that if

urban growth and industrialization do have a major environmental impact, the most

negative aspects of such impact can be managed if there is an environmental policy in

place for proper planning and effective implementation of both plans and policy [25].

From the mid 1970s, Singapore has tackled its transportation problems with combination

of planning, engineering, fiscal and administrative measures [26]. The components of the

strategy are:

(1) integrated land use and transportation planning

(2) the construction of a modest and efficient road network

(3) good traffic management

(4) public transport as the dominant mode of travel

(5) road pricing to curtail excessive demand for travel

Land is too scarce in Singapore to allow provision of large buffers between

incompatible deve lopments such as industrial and residential areas. In spite of this

limitation, Singapore has managed, through coordinated efforts between town planners

and environmental engineers, to maintain a high quality environment even as it continues

its rapid industrialization and urban growth [27].

In Singapore, as in any urbanized city, motor vehicle emission is a significant

source of air pollution. The vehicular population has been steadily increasing over the

31

past decade as a consequence of rapid urbanization and economic growth. The vehicle

population would have been probably higher had the Government not discouraged the

ownership of vehicles through various measures. Singapore’s strategy for reducing

pollution from motor vehicles is two-sided: improving engines and fuel quality to reduce

emissions and using traffic management measures to control the growth of vehicle

population and fuel consumption. Ministry of Environment works closely with the

Registry of Vehicles to implement the two-pronged strategy. Between 1981 and 1987, the

lead content in leaded petrol was gradually reduced from 0.8 to 0.15 gram/liter. The use

of unleaded petrol was promoted in February 1990 through a differential tax system

which made unleaded petrol 10 cents cheaper than leaded petrol at the pump. All petrol-

driven vehicles registered for use in Singapore after July 1, 1991 are able to use unleaded

petrol. About 57 per cent of all petrol sold in Singapore at the end of 1993 was unleaded

petrol. The sulfur content in automobile diesel was reduced from 1 per cent by weight in

1976 to the current limit of 0.5 per cent by weight to reduce sulfur dioxide emissions

from diesel vehicles. The sulfur limit has further reduced to 0.3 per cent by weight from

July 1, 1996 onwards to reduce particulate (soot) emissions as lower sulfur diesel

produces less particulate emissions. Since October 1992, motorcycles and scooters have

been required to comply with the carbon monoxide and hydrocarbon emission standard

before they can be registered for use in Singapore [27].

2.4 Towards Sustainable Transportation – Meaning and Indicators

As discussed in the first chapter, there are various definitions given for the

sustainability. Similarly, no definite measures or indicators are defined for measuring the

32

sustainability. According to the Transport Canada “the goal of sustainable transportation

is to ensure that environmental, social, and economic considerations are factored into

decisions affecting transportation activity”. According to Richardson, a sustainable

transportation system is “one in which fuel consumption, vehicle emissions, safety,

congestion, and social and economic access are of such levels that they can be sustained

into the indefinite future without causing great or irreparable harm to future generations

of people throughout the world” [28]. The Organization for Economic Cooperation and

Development (OECD) defines environmentally sustainable transportation as

“transportation that does not endanger public health or ecosystems and that meets needs

for access consistent with (a) use of renewable resources that are below their rates of

regeneration, and (b) use of non-renewable resources below the rates of development of

renewable substitutes” [28].

Canadian Centre for Sustainable Transportation defines sustainable transportation

system as: A sustainable transportation system is one that (i) allows the basic access

needs of individuals and societies to be met safely and in a manner consistent with human

and ecosystem health, and with equity within and between generations; (ii) is affordable,

operates efficiently, offers choice of transport mode, and supports a vibrant economy;

(iii) limits emissions and waste within the planet’s ability to absorb them, minimizes

consumption of non-renewable resources, limits consumption of renewable resources to

the sustainable yield level, reuses and recycles its components, and minimizes the use of

land and the production of noise [28].

However, in order to find out whether or not the transportation system is

sustainable, some comprehensive sustainability criteria are to be evaluated that reflect all

33

three components of sustainable development - the economy, society and environment

[28]. Few measures like congestion index, benefit-cost ratio, reduction in the pollution

levels, reduction in travel time and costs and per capita energy consumption can be used

to evaluate sustainability. Each indicator can be evaluated independently and then the

effect of all indicators in combination can be studied.

Again, there is no particular definition for congestion index either, but different

people have different views over the term. Dahlgren [28] defines congestion index as

person-delay on any street, i.e. actual time traveling on a street minus the ideal time under

free flow conditions. Simon Li [28] views congestion index as the condition when

demand approaches or exceeds the capacity (supply) of a facility.

Developed countries have started moving towards sustainability with various

policies and reforms. There is no single solution to address the interrelated transportation

problems. These problems require a bold, solid and an integrated approach. Although

sustainability has three different aspects – environmental, economical and social – results

from feasible solutions will contribute to all three features. Thus improvement in any one

indicator will cause an enhancement to the environment as whole.

34

Chapter 3

Study Area - City of Mumbai, India

3.1 Information of the City – History and Development

Bombay, which has recently been renamed to its ancient Marathi name of

Mumbai, is the largest metropolis in India [29]. Mumbai is considered as the soul of

enterprise. The City of Mumbai is also known as the financial capital of India. Mumbai is

the busiest city in India due to large employment centers, offices, factories, film industry

and stock exchange. It is a commercial hub, where a large population commutes from

suburbs to downtown offices, banks, factories and mills for a living. Mumbai, a busy,

crowded and a commercial city has a great economic significance. It is the main

destination for international flights to and from India. Also, it is the biggest port in India

and undergoes most foreign trade in the country. Life in Mumbai is fast, similar to New

York in the United States.

Mumbai fell into British possession in the mid 17th century, where it was

immediately given in a charter to the East India Trading Company. In the hands of this

company and later under British administration, Bombay (Mumbai) prospered from a

group of seven swampy islands for fishing, to the most economically vibrant city on the

Indian subcontinent [29].

35

Mumbai is the financial and trade centre of India, and also an important cultural

centre. Bombay houses India's film industry, Bollywood. The film industry produces the

second most number of motion pictures in the world every year, next to Hollywood.

Mumbai is the centre of India's high-technology industries. It is also an important

industrial city [29].

Mumbai is a cosmopolitan city. Nearly 13 million people live in the city ranging

from wealthy industrialists living in skyscrapers to the poorest people who live in the

city's slums [30]. The population is concentrated primarily on a single island, separated

from the rest of India by the shallow Bay of Thane.

Mumbai is a tourist attraction too, with Gateway of India monument, Prince of

Wales Museum and the Hanging Gardens. In the outskirts of the city there are many

ancient caves like Elephanta caves and the Kanheri caves [29].

3.2 Geography and Population

Mumbai lies at the south of the continent of Asia. Geographically, Mumbai is

surrounded by Arabian Sea on three sides – east, west and south. Its growth is restricted

in east-west direction. Navi Mumbai (New Bombay), a city smaller than Mumbai, lies on

the north-east side of the City of Mumbai. The width of City of Mumbai ranges from 4.75

km in the north and 1.3 km at the south. Along with the eastern and the western suburbs,

the city has grown northwards. The city along with the suburbs forms the Greater

Mumbai (referred as Mumbai hereafter). Map 3.1 shows the map of Mumbai and Navi

Mumbai. The Central Business District (CBD) lies at the southernmost tip. Mumbai has a

humid tropical temperature. Its average low temperature is 19ºC and an average high

36

temperature of 29ºC in winter. The average low temperature is 27ºC and the high is 33ºC

in summer [31].

Map 3.1 Map of Mumbai

Source: http://www.geocities.com/newpanvel2001/map.html

37

Map 3.2 shows Mumbai by categorizing areas according to their significance. The

western-most region in the southern side of Mumbai constitute tourist spots like Marine

Drive, Malabar Hill and Walkeshwar. The northern side mainly constitutes middle class

residential area and small commercial complexes. The Central region in the southern side

is mostly the commercial area mixed with industries. Congested commercial areas like

Kalbadevi and Bhuleshwar are in this area. Girgaum, a middle class residential area is

also a part of this region. The northern part of this region is industrial and commercial

area that has rubber and plastic industries and small factories manufacturing spare parts

of automobiles etc. Seepz, a complex popular for software companies is in this area. The

eastern coast is mainly occupied by port activities. This area has large truck traffic. The

eastern suburbs on north side are residential areas of middle to low income groups. There

is industrial development in this region. Areas to east and north of Wadala are occupied

by oil refineries, chemical and fertilizer units and atomic energy establishment [32].

38

Map 3.2 Mumbai with significant areas

CBD Harbor Area

Tourist spots

Industries, factories Residential (mid.inc) No specific area

Res. Area (high inc) Forest

39

With a small area of 438 sq. km, the city is the most populous city in the world,

with a population of 12.38 million [33]. With a very high population density (28,265

persons per sq. km), the city is continuing to grow further. The city provides

opportunities for employment and education that have caused a severe growth of this city.

With the urbanization, population of Mumbai has risen by more than 3 times from 1951

to 1991 (population in 1951 being 2.96 million and 9.9 million in 1991 [34]). According

to Save Bombay Committee report, the island city is densely developed with residential

densities varying from 129 to 3717 persons per hectare (1 hectare = 0.01 sq. km). The

graph of increase in population from 1921 to 1991 is as shown in Figure 3.1. It can be

seen from the figure that there has been a continuously increasing population from 1911

to 2001. The population is estimated to reach more than 25 million by 2011 [35], the

reason being high birth rate as well as migration of people from other parts of the nation

to Mumbai in search of jobs. Urbanization of Mumbai is mainly due to employment

opportunities in the city.

40

Population figures of Mumbai from 1901 to 2001 in million

0.78 0.98 1.18 1.16 1.492.97

4.155.97

8.239.90

13.00

0

5

10

15

20

1901

1911

1921

1931

1941

1951

1961

1971

1981

1991

2001

2011

Years

Pop

ulat

ion

in m

illio

n

Population

Expon.(Population)

Figure 3.1 Graph of increase in population in Mumbai from years 1911 to 1991

with estimated population in the year 2003

Source: Population statistics from Tata Institute of Fundamental Research web site

3.3 Employment

There are various types of formal and informal employment sectors. Mumbai is

considered as a city of job opportunities. Mumbai is known for its film industry,

Bollywood and is the financial capital of India. It attracts people from all parts of India

and has become the most populous city in India. There are offices of financial services,

media, printing, publishing, software, share market etc. Forty per cent of the formal

sector jobs in Mumbai are concentrated within a two-mile radius of Flora Fountain

around the Fort area. There are 144 jobs for every 100 residents in the Fort area, creating

enormous congestion [36]. According to a study on Global Change in University of

Michigan, the migration of population to Mumbai is due to ‘push’ and ‘pull’ factors [37].

For example, migrants may be 'pushed' out of a rural region because of unemployment as

41

shown in Table 3.1. It is evident form the Table that almost 70 percent of people who

come to Mumbai is due to poverty and hunting for jobs. They could be also 'pulled' out of

rural villages by the lure of friends or family in a particular city as shown in Table 3.2.

Most likely, people migrate because of a combination of the two. The understanding of

these factors working together helps in examining and explaining the driving forces of

urban migration.

Table 3.1 Push Factors affecting Migration to Mumbai

Push Factors Percent migration

Hunting for Job 39

Poverty 30.2

Someone in the house exercising persuasion 8.9

Someone in village interested in migration 8.6

Student 6.6

Others 4.7

Differences with others 1.2

Not Available 8

Total 100

Source: The Social Sphere, a study carried out in University of Michigan

42

Table 3.2 Pull Factors affecting Migration to Mumbai

Pull Factors Percent migration Some friends or relatives already there 34.3 Secured some job 23.2 Better opportunities (school, job etc) 11.5 Due to transferred post 10.5 Others 10.5 Liking for the place 7.7 Not Available 2.3 Total 100

Source: The Social Sphere, a study carried out in University of Michigan

Mumbai accounts for 20 per cent of India's total employment in industry and 11

per cent of India's employment in total. It handles 30 per cent of India's exports and

imports and is the subcontinent's largest port. However, there is still an extremely high

rate of unemployment due to the fact that there are severely fewer jobs than there are

workers [31].

3.4 Transportation

The city's transportation system was modeled after the London transportation

system with the exception of the Underground Metro. It was pretty much developed in

conjunction with London. As London developed a system, Mumbai received it

approximately five years later. Tram service in Mumbai began in 1870. It remained until

the 1950s when people felt that the trams were becoming obsolete even though their

passenger carrying capacity was 50 per cent greater than buses [31]. The tram system was

also removed for widening the roads for traffic [38]. Trams were more energy efficient,

cleaner and could be easily modernized. The government did a study and ruled that buses

43

would be more effective. The tram system closed down in 1964 and the trolley buses

were stopped in 1974. The trolley bus was much like a bus, but it ran on electricity, was

quiet and was able to follow routes that the large diesel buses could not run on [31].

Road network in Mumbai is predominantly radial along the peninsula and

comprises three main corridors, the Western Express Highway, the Eastern Express

Highway and the Central corridor as shown in Map 3.3. Although termed as

“expressways”, the roads are essentially arterial roads in terms of western standards.

When these roads pass through the older parts of Mumbai – the island city, the

operational quality decreases considerably [35].

44

Map 3.3 City of Mumbai with roadways and important locations

Source: www.mumbainet.com

45

Western Railway and Central Railway form the backbone of public transportation

in Mumbai. They divide Mumbai into three north-south corridors as shown in Map 3.4.

The Railway system in Mumbai is one of the most complex, densely loaded and

intensively utilized systems in the world [40] with a spread over 302 km. The suburban

services run by electric multiple units (EMU) consists of 184 rakes (train sets) of 9-car

and 12-car composition. On any given day there are 2067 train services carrying 6.1

million passengers per day. Two corridors (one local and other through) on Western

Railway run northwards from Churchgate terminus parallel to the west coast up to Virar

(60 km). Two corridors (one local and other through) on Central Railway run from

Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus (CST) to Kalyan (54 km), from where it bifurcates into

Kalyan-Kasara (67 km) in the north-east and Kalyan-Karjat-Khapoli (61 km) in south-

east. The 5th corridor on Central Railway runs as the Harbor line starting from CST to

Raoli Junction (11 km) from where the line splits. One line goes northwest to join

Western Railway at Bandra and goes up to Andheri (11 km) and the other goes eastward

to terminate at Panvel (39 km) via New-Mumbai. At present, the fast corridors on Central

Railway as well as Western Railway are shared for long distance (Main line) and Freight

trains [40]. Dadar forms a common railway station for the Western Railway and the

Central Railway, where people change trains while traveling from both railways.

46

Map 3.4 City of Mumbai showing Western Railway and Central Railway

Source: www.mumbainet.com

47

Public transport (railways and buses) carries 88 per cent of the trips in the city

with 6.1 million passengers per day by trains [40] and 4.5 million journeys per day by the

local buses run by Bombay Electric Supply and Transportation (BEST) [41].

Overcrowding of trains is a common scene everyday. 4,700 passengers travel per 9-car

train during peak hours, as against the rated carrying capacity of 1,700. This has resulted

in super dense crush load of 14-16 standing passengers per sq. m of floor space. Because

of the overcrowding on the mass transit system, many people are switching to scooters or

mopeds [31]. A photograph of typical suburban train is as shown in Photo 3.1.

Photo 3.1 Over-crowding of typical Mumbai Railway

Source: Mumbai Railway Vikas Corporation web site

48

3.5 Traffic in Mumbai

Mumbai traffic consists of motorized and non motorized vehicles competing on

the same road surface. Roads carry pedestrians, bicycles, scooters, auto-rickshaws, taxis,

cars, buses and trucks. Vehicle population in Mumbai as in 2003 can be categorized as

shown in Table 3.3.

Table 3.3 Number of vehicles in 2003 in Mumbai

Type of Vehicles Number

Two Wheelers 527,108

Cars 341,774

Taxis 54,809

Auto Rickshaws 98,527

Buses 11,812

Source: Motor Transport Statistics of Maharashtra – 2002-03

The rise in the number of vehicles due to urbanization is as shown in Figure 3.2

and Figure 3.3. There is a steep rise in the vehicle population from 1980 (286,132

vehicles) to 1990 (609,904 vehicles) and from 1995 (667,383 vehicles) to 2003

(1,123,562 vehicles). The private vehicle ownership in Mumbai is also rising. While in

1999, there were 379,441 two-wheelers in Mumbai and 284,964 cars, in the year 2000 the

number was 407,306 and 303, 108 respectively and in 2003 the number of two-wheelers

rose to 527,108 and cars to 341,774 [39]. Accident rate in Mumbai is also high. Although

the accident rate is seen to be decreasing, year 2002 reported 25,470 road accidents in

Mumbai [39]. It is estimated that 95 per cent of the accidents involve pedestrians.

49

Increase in vehicle population

286132

441084

609904667383

969680

1123562

0

200000

400000

600000

800000

1000000

1200000

1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005Year

Mot

or v

ehic

les

Increase invehiclepopulation

2003

Figure 3.2 Motor vehicles (all types) from 1980 to 2003 in Mumbai

Source: Motor Transport Statistics of Maharashtra – 2002-03

Increase in Two Wheelers and Cars from 1999 to 2003

379441 407306

527108

284964 303108341774

0

100000

200000

300000

400000

500000

600000

1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004Year

Num

ber

of V

ehic

les

TwoWheelersCars

Figure 3.3 Increase in private motor ownership (two -wheelers and cars)

Source: Motor Transport Statistics of Maharashtra – 2002-03

50

The physical area of the city has increased over the years, in terms of suburbs

towards the north. With this growth, there is an increase in vehicular traffic in suburbs.

With the CBD situated at the southernmost tip of Mumbai, commuter traffic to this area

is high during mornings. Due to incapability of the public transport, people have started

shifting to private modes. Over the last two decades, the number of private vehicles in

Mumbai has increased four times while taxi population has increased by six times. The

road length, however, has increased from 800 km in 1951 to about 1,800 km in 2001 [42]

(1583 km asphalt roads and 278.810 km cement concrete roads). A substantial part of this

increase in road length is because of new areas added to the city. Transport capacity

increased by 225 percent from 1951 to 1991, but is insufficient. One of the driving forces

in road transport is the increase in the car and truck fleets. The increase in population has

resulted in suburbanization and created an enormous pressure of people working in the

CBD of the city.

With the growth in population, there is a high rise in the number of motorized

vehicles. The traffic congestion has drastically reduced the average speed of the vehicles.

Due to a very high vehicular density of about 735 vehicles per km [43], the average speed

of vehicles is as low as 6 to 8 km/h [35]. As a result, emergency vehicles are unable to

move smoothly. Total number of vehicles in Mumbai in 2002-03 was 1,165,782.

Moreover, 110 vehicles are added to Mumbai everyday [43]. The vehicular count is

expected to go to 1.6 million by 2010, though the existing road infrastructure can handle

only 0.25 million vehicles [35]. The city is continuing to grow in terms of traffic but the

transportation system is unable to keep the pace. Increase in population and motor

vehicles makes it evident that the transport scenario of city of Mumbai is precarious. This

51

fact shows urgency in need of development of the infrastructure and the change in the

existing transportation policies.

3.6 Environmental Crisis

Traditionally, the industries have been blamed for the pollution, but it has been

discovered that 86 per cent of pollution is contributed by Mumbai traffic [44]. It has also

been estimated that the air quality of such metropolitan cities in India will deteriorate by

a factor of 3 in the next 10 – 15 years [45]. In addition to illnesses and lost work hours,

Urban Air Quality Management Strategy (URBAIR) Greater Mumbai Report, estimates

that air pollution in Mumbai causes approximately 2,800 premature deaths, with health

damages costing over Rs 18 billion (approximately $500 million) a year. Air pollution

levels in three important suburbs of Mumbai as in 2002-03 are as given in Table 3.4 and

Figure 3.4. These levels are measured at traffic junctions in these suburbs with the

Mumbai Municipal Corporation mobile van. The values are measured for an average of

24 hours (8 hrs maximum), with an annual standard of 60 µg/m3 for sulfur dioxide (SO2),

nitrogen oxides (NOx), respirable suspended particulate matter (RSP) and 2 mg/m3 for

carbon monoxide (CO) for residential and other areas. Air quality is very poor in traffic

congested areas of the suburb of Andheri, the reasons being explained in Chapter 4.

Ambient Air Quality average annual levels at fixed monitoring stations at few suburban

sites in Mumbai are as shown in Table 3.5. Andheri and Maravli report bad ambient air

quality with very high emissions of SPM and NO2. Table 3.6 shows the load of pollutants

from transportation in tons/day for the year 2002-03. NOx emissions are very high from

diesel and CO emissions are enormous from petrol.

52

Table 3.4 Air Quality Monitoring at Traffic Junction (2002-03)

Source: Mumbai Municipal Corporation Annual Report 2002-03

Air Pollution Levels at Traffic Junctions in suburbs of Wadala, Mahim and Andheri Year 2002-03

12

163

198

15

209231

39

254

332

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

SO2 NOx RSP

Air Pollutants

ug/m

3 Wadala

Mahim

AndheriStandard = 60 ug/m3

Figure 3.4 Average Air Pollution Levels at Traffic Junctions of suburbs of

Wadala, Mahim and Andheri in Year 2002-03

Source: Air pollution statistics from Mumbai Municipal Corporation Annual

Report 2002-03

Site SO2 NOx RSP CO

Annual Std 60 µg/m3 60 µg/m3 60 µg/m3 2 mg/m3 (1 hr std.)

Avg. 24 hrs Max. 8 hrs

Avg Max Avg Max Avg Max Avg Max

Wadala 12 32 163 551 198 402 1.5 6

Mahim 15 50 209 678 231 602 2.3 6.1

Andheri 39 144 254 635 332 700 3 6.4

53

Table 3.5 Ambient Air Quality Levels at fixed monitoring sites

(Annual Average for 2002 to 2003)

Station SO2 NO2 NH3 SPM Lead

Worli 36 43 44 184 0.13

Khar 22 82 57 276 0.19

Andheri 26 55 45 240 0.15

Bhandup 29 45 37 216 0.17

Borivali 14 24 42 172 0.06

Maravali 40 96 264 463 0.25

Source: Mumbai Municipal Corporation Annual Report 2002-03

Table 3.6 Emission Load of Mumbai City in tons/day for year 2002-03 from

Transportation

SO2 PM NOx CO HC Other Total

Diesel 16.97 17.59 97.58 52.71 19.96 19.95 224.76

Petrol 0.79 2.97 23.32 356.84 53.01 0.17 437.1

Total 49.95 49.81 131.9 414.97 72.97 32.04 751.64

Source: Mumbai Municipal Corporation Annual Report 2002-03

The City of Mumbai faces problems of improper matching of demand and supply,

shortcomings of public transport system – insufficient public transport capacity and

improper maintenance management, increasing private vehicle ownership and ineffective

54

demand management and land use planning. Transportation planners face a challenge of

solving these problems and making Mumbai a better place to live in for millions of its

inhabitants. The city is in urgent need of having an efficient and sound transportation

system, which will alleviate the urban transportation problems and make the city

“sustainable”.

55

Chapter 4

Taking a Closer Look at Transportation Problems

Focus on Andheri, a Mumbai Suburb

4.1 Overview of the Area

Andheri, a western suburb of Mumbai is selected as the study area for in depth

learning of problems through information and photos and proposing some measures to

alleviate them. The eastern part of this suburb (approximate area 8 km x 5 km) is chosen

in order to look at the typical urban problems with a closer perspective. Though this area

forms a small part of Mumbai, the problems in and around this area are common to

almost all places in suburbs. Problems related to pollution, congestion and over crowding

are focused upon in the study of this area. The proposal to curb the problem is by no

means the solution, but it is a small step towards sustainable transportation system.

Andheri is one of the busiest suburbs of Mumbai due to a mixed land use pattern.

Being one of the largest industrial suburbs in Mumbai as well as in India, the suburb

faces traffic problems with a very high rate of industrial activity, population and traffic

density. This area houses Seepz - an IT center, MIDC – an industrial estate, Larsen and

Toubro – one of India’s largest engineering and construction conglomerate, Chhatrapati

Shivaji Terminus – the International Airport and a variety of small scale factories and

software companies. In addition to this, the area also comprises of residential complexes,

56

hotels, restaurants, slums, offices, film industry, vegetable and fish markets and small and

large corporate. Due to a wide land use pattern, there are a large number of morning and

evening trips generated within the suburbs. The area is a prototype of the Mumbai

Transportation System. It has a busy railway station, bus depots, an international airport

and a complex land use pattern. Map 4.1 shows the study area of Andheri.

Map 4.1 Focus Area in Mumbai – The suburb of Andheri

Source: Original Map taken from Eicher City Map, Mumbai

The population density of this area was 29,359 persons per sq. km in 1991 [46].

With such a high density and an improper land use planning, the suburb faces a number

of transportation and environmental problems. Inefficient transportation and land use

planning, improper travel demand management and lack of traffic control and

57

infrastructure are some of the root causes of the transportation problems. Vehicle-

pedestrian conflict, high accident rate, air pollution, health disorders and many other

serious issues have been the results of improper transportation system.

4.2 Transportation Infrastructure

4.2.1 Streets

In general roads are narrow and insufficient to the growing demand of pedestrians

and vehicular traffic. Western Express Highway and Western Railway run almost parallel

in the western part of the study area. These two are the main transport systems in North-

South direction connecting to the other parts of Mumbai. An East-West arterial street

known as Andheri-Kurla Road feeds traffic to the two North-South direction transport

systems. Andheri-Kurla Road is 50 to 60 feet wide (there are no lanes in Mumbai except

for highways), has to cater to the traffic coming from the busy Andheri Railway Station

and connecting various collector roads. Bottlenecks and traffic jams are common in this

area, lasting for extended durations of time. Streets have a heterogeneous mix of traffic

comprising of motorized and non motorized vehicles, pedestrians, cattle and hawkers.

Roads are poorly maintained, and excavation works for water and telephone lines often

deteriorate them further. Photo 4.1 and Photo 4.2 show pictures of typical road

construction and maintenance in Mumbai. It is difficult and often impossible for

pedestrians to walk over them.

58

Photo 4.1 Prolonged road constructions and maintenance

(Photo taken on a main arterial street in the Suburb of Andheri)

Photo 4.2 Prolonged road constructions and maintenance

(Photo taken on a main arterial street in the Suburb of Andheri)

59

Photo 4.3 Fenced and Narrow Medians on street in Andheri, Mumbai

Roads get worse even more during monsoon. Medians are narrow and fenced (as

shown in Photo 4.3), and alternate arrangements for crossing are not provided. As a result

pedestrians haphazardly cross the roads and walk at places that are unsafe to walk. The

area of Andheri has a good frequency of buses (although not sufficient to cater to an

excessive demand). Andheri-Kurla Road, the only major arterial has a high volume of

bus traffic. Bus stops are provided at regular intervals causing addition to more pedestrian

traffic. Passengers getting down at bus-stops often need to cross the roads. Due to lack of

wide medians, pedestrian crossings and pedestrian phase in traffic signals, they have to

stand in the fastest lane on roads, waiting for the traffic to clear. A typical picture is

shown in Photo 4.4.

60

Photo 4.4 Jay walking due to lack of pedestrian signals and road markings

4.2.2 Sidewalks

Most of the sections of roads and flyovers are not provided with sidewalks for

pedestrians. While there are few sidewalks in the Island city of Mumbai, the suburban

roads hardly have any sidewalks. And if any, then sidewalks are occupied by hawkers

(Photo 4.5 and Photo 4.6). Jay walking is frequent and common due to inability to walk

comfortably and safely along the sides, thus causing confusion to the drivers. Pedestrian

crossings are not provided or maintained at critical places. Widening of roads as

suggested and implemented by various authorities, further increases the pavement for

growing traffic and discourages the concept of having sidewalks for pedestrians. Either

the sidewalks are narrowed or they are completely removed.

61

Photo 4.5 Hawkers on the pedestrian sidewalks

Source: http://www.stuartriley.net/Diary/2003_01_05.html

Photo 4.6 Sidewalks occupied by hawkers in Mumbai

Picture taken on a street in Andheri, Mumbai

62

4.3 Planning and Demand Management

Planners tend to undervalue the importance of walking. Any trip, whether long or

short, involves walking. Walking has often been considered as an insignificant factor of

transportation system. It is assumed that it is possible to walk along most roads, either on

the edges of pavement or on narrow paths that develop naturally along road shoulders, no

matter how dangerous it is. As a result, new communities are built without sidewalks, not

realizing their importance. Roads thus have more driving area than the walking area.

In order to cope up with the growing traffic, plans suggest widening of roads and

building of bridges. As a result, sidewalks are removed, trees are cut and roads are

widened to a certain extent. This can sustain more traffic for a short period of time. More

vehicles are encouraged to come on the roads, and efforts are being taken to give them

more space. Thus long term planning is neglected, and facilities and designs fail to cater

to the demand for even next 5 years. Though roads are widened and bridges are built to

accommodate the vehicles, the transportation crisis seems to continue. There is no

comprehensive and thorough planning. Environmental degradation takes place as a result

of cutting down trees and encouraging more vehicles on roads. Although feasibility

studies are done to check the practicality of building the structures, impact studies are not

even carried out. This is mainly because of the fact that there is no single authority to

handle the transportation of the city. Hence decisions taken by various authorities are

often uncoordinated and unsuccessful.

Concepts of transportation engineering are not taken into consideration at all.

Decisions and planning solely depend on perception of authorities and are not based on

real time data. Authorities due to numerous reasons do not follow warrants or guidelines

63

to approve new or existing development. Peak hour studies are not made to study the

flow characteristics of vehicles during the maximum congestion periods. Traffic signals

cycles are not synchronized considering the demand. Hence the flow is over-saturated at

road intersections creating crawling movement during peak times (Photo 4.7 and Photo

4.8).

Photo 4.7 Over-saturated flows at traffic signals

Source: http://www.stuartriley.net/Diary/2003_01_05.html

64

Photo 4.8 Traffic Jam during peak hour

Problems encountered in the study area also include over-crowding of buses

(Photo 4.9) and roads, very long travel times, low travel speeds, bottlenecks and

congestion, air pollution and dissatisfaction amongst the travelers. Average speed of

travel is around 10 km/hr during peak hours by road and often reduces more due to

gridlock conditions. Travel time for instance, is one hour from Andheri railway station to

Powai, distance between them being about 10 km. In addition to this maintenance work

on roads creates congestion for several days or weeks. Overcrowding occurs during the

rush hours (Photo 4.10). Train frequency is high during the peak hours and travelers

usually prefer to get down at Andheri because of the local bus network system. Though

people perceive that the system seems to be good enough (since people are accessible to

almost all places in Mumbai by bus or train), by any yardstick it is insufficient to carry

65

the increasing demand. As a result, people prefer to travel by their own vehicles on the

roads which further worsen the situation. Movement of vehicles is given priority but

adequate parking is often not provided considering the demand of vehicles. Vehicles

parked on road side cause hindrance to the moving traffic. There seems to be a lack of

coordination between the infrastructure and management. Thus investing funds into the

roads and bridges and not curbing or managing the travel demand does not help much to

relieve the traffic congestion.

Photo 4.9 Rush for the buses during peak hours

Source: http://www.mastgeneralstore.com/monroe/122598b.php3

66

Photo 4.10 Rush at a railway station to board train

Source: Mumbai Railway Vikas Corporation web site

4.4 Heterogeneous Mix of Traffic

With a mixed land use pattern, Andheri traffic consists of motorized and non

motorized vehicles. Roads carry pedestrians, bicycles, scooters, auto-rickshaws, taxis,

cars, buses, bullock carts and trucks (Photo 4.11, 4.12 and 4.13) Thus there is no

distinction of roads for vehicles and pedestrians. Cattle from the sheds are often let loose

by their owners, which find their way to roads (Photo 4.14). This holds up the traffic jams

even more. Pedestrians walking on roads further reduce the vehicular speeds. In order to

stop at bus stops at regular intervals, buses suddenly change their lanes making it

inconvenient and unsafe for pedestrians and cyclists on the road, who walk on the

leftmost sides. At certain times of days (during lunch hours), cycles constitute around 30

per cent of traffic in suburbs [47]. During such peak hours, buses and cycles are seen

67

moving with roughly the same speed. Low income groups in Mumbai prefer to walk or

use bicycles. As a result there is a very high pedestrian activity at any place and time.

Vehicle-pedestrian conflicts are more hindering near Andheri railway station. Vegetable

markets are situated around this area, for people returning from workplaces to shop

during evenings. Thus this place gets crowded with pedestrians, vendors, customers and

vehicles. Photo 4.15 shows the situation outside railway stations.

Photo 4.11 Heterogeneous Mix of Traffic in Mumbai

Source: http://www.sunshine-stories.de/stories2003/mumbai.htm

68

Photo 4.12 Heterogeneous Mix of Traffic in Mumbai

Photo 4.13 Heterogeneous Mix of Traffic in Mumbai

Source: http://www.sunshine-stories.de/stories2003/mumbai.htm

69

Photo 4.14 Cattle on Mumbai streets

Photo 4.15 Vehicle-Pedestrian Conflict outside Railway Station

Source: http://www.sunshine-stories.de/stories2003/mumbai.htm

70

4.5 Environmental Pollution

Andheri has maximum air pollution levels in the metropolitan Mumbai. While the

average levels of NOx, SO2 and RSP are 254, 39, 332 µg/ m3 (Safe Standards are 60 µg/

m3) at the traffic junctions, the average level of CO is 3 mg/m3 (standard is 2 mg/ m3)

[43]. Table 3.4 and Table 3.5 in Chapter 3 show the air pollution levels of the suburb of

Andheri.

Noise pollution is also high, especially due to honking of the vehicles. Honking is

a common practice to give indication. Prevailing noise level in Mumbai is 67-86 dBA at

traffic congested areas (standard levels are 75 dBA for day and 70 dBA for night

according to Central Pollution Control Board [43]. Noise levels are particularly high

during mornings and evenings due to traffic and extra recreation trips during the

evenings.

4.6 Spreading localities

The population of Mumbai is growing towards north. Andheri being in the

northern part of Mumbai has a very high population density as mentioned earlier. Fifty

five per cent population in Mumbai lives in slums [32]. These people come to Mumbai to

earn a living. Andheri also has a lot of slum dwelling, towards its northern part. Unable to

accommodate themselves anywhere, this slum population has encroached on roads

highways and railway tracks (Photo 4.16). This causes an obstacle to the smooth

movement of traffic. The Western Express Highway for instance has 6 lanes, out of

which the outermost lane is almost occupied by the slum dwellers. As a result, the

vehicular movement is constrained thereby increasing travel times. This situation is

71

equally dangerous for both the drivers and the slum dwellers. Children come on roads to

play, and then are accidentally hit upon by the vehicles. Driving becomes all the more

difficult during nights, due to insufficient illumination.

Photo 4.16 Slums around railway tracks

Source: Mumbai Railway Vikas Corporation Pvt. Ltd. Web site

4.7 Indiscipline and inefficient control of traffic

Drivers lacking proper driving knowledge are issued permanent licenses. Traffic

enforcement is weak and heavy fines are not imposed for breaking the traffic and parking

rules. As a result drivers do not respect the traffic laws. Andheri, being an industrial as

well as residential suburb has very high vehicular traffic. Due to large pockets of

congestion and delays throughout the day, vehicles are often seen unwilling to stop and

wait and yield to the pedestrians. A large number of pedestrians walk on roads (due to

72

unavailability of sidewalks), and drivers are disinclined to stop for every pedestrian. They

are often seen passing through red signals. This dangerous action at the intersections

leads to large number of road accidents.

Vehicles are parked on the roadside, due to inadequate provision of parking lots.

This blocks the already slow moving traffic, and adds more congestion.

Signals are absent at places where the vehicle and pedestrian traffic is heavy.

Most of the signals do not have appropriate signal cycle lengths, based on the traffic

flow. Thus vehicle-pedestrian conflict increases even more at the traffic controlled

intersections. Signals are pre-timed, and walk time for pedestrians is often insufficient.

The city lacks an efficient traffic control and discipline. There are no provisions made for

the disabled people, especially the blind. Plans and implementations are made for the

infrastructural developments in Mumbai. But unless the traffic is controlled, such

developments will be of no use.

4.8 Land Use Planning - Concentration of employment centers

There is a concentration of employment centers and job opportunities in Mumbai.

Almost 40 per cent of total employment is located in Central Business District (CBD).

This rate is growing towards the northern suburbs, and hence Andheri has become the

busiest of all suburbs in Mumbai. This leads to an increase in the number of trips and trip

lengths from the railway station of Andheri to various employment centers in the study

area. Railway station is always crowded, and so are the roads outside (Photo 4.17).

73

Photo 4.17 Over-crowding of typical Mumbai Railway Station

Source: Mumbai Railway Vikas Corporation web site

Again, there is a mixed traffic in such areas, and no place for parking. Due to lack

of space just around the offices, people usually park their vehicles on the roads. Roads

are not very wide, and parking becomes more problematic. There are vehicle-pedestrian

conflicts as a lot of people walk from the stations / bus-stops to the offices. Vehicle-

pedestrian conflict forms a critical issue at public places, and often a loss of working

hours occurs for employees in Andheri.

There is a need to begin programs that will curtail car use and promote an

integrated, environmentally sustainable urban transportation system with a clearly

defined place for non motorized vehicles. Transferring the real cost of driving to car users

instead of continuing to subsidize car ownership is an important concept to consider. In

addition, instead of continuing to expand road networks to meet the growing demand,

Mumbai needs to find ways to reduce existing as well as future travel demand.

74

Chapter 5

Data Collection and Analysis

5.1 Data Collection

5.1.1 Online Survey

A sustainable transportation system is socially, economically and environmentally

friendly. The economical and environmental benefits are fairly easy to quantify. Benefits

in the form of reduced pollution levels, reduction in traveling expenses, decrease in fuel

consumption etc. determine the success of sustainable transportation in a quantitative

manner. Being unable to quantify the social benefits, a transportation system often gets

designed in an incomplete manner. General views and expectations of commuters who

form the important part of any transportation system are left out while planning and

designing.

Literature related to the City of Mumbai gives a clear picture of transportation

structure in the city. However this research study also requires information about the

traveling pattern of commuters, their usual travel times, level of congestion, modes they

use and prefer and the expenses on travel per day. The study also needs information about

commuters’ views about the existing transportation, as well as their expectations from an

ideal system. In order to know the current transportation condition in Mumbai and to

study the effects and probable improvements in detail, an online survey was conducted. A

75

questionnaire seeking information about regular commuters in Mumbai was uploaded on

www.surveymonkey.com and http://eng.utoledo.edu/bdhakras/Questionnaire.html. This

questionnaire was passed on to the citizens of Mumbai through the medium of e-mails.

The online survey was conducted for a period of three months from October 2003 to

December 2003 and again in the month of May 2004. Target sample was decided as 200

or more. Total responses received were 218 after discarding few irrelevant and

incomplete responses. Although the questionnaire uploaded in the year 2003 proved to

serve the purpose of getting commuting information, it failed to get relevant information

about the people’s acceptability level for parameters affecting the performance of

transportation system. Hence, the questionnaire was again uploaded in 2004, with a

changed format in order to get relevant responses, keeping all the other questions same as

before. Thus 76 responses were received which gave an idea about the commuter

satisfaction index.

The online survey was able to collect views and opinions of people who access

internet. Thus, illiterate and poor people did not get an opportunity to participate in the

survey. However, sustainability demands equity and satisfaction of the people,

irrespective of their economical background. Hence, although a small section of

population of Mumbai accessing internet formed the sample space, the overall analysis is

not biased. Economical background affects the travel pattern, modal choice and travel

behavior of the commuters. However, the distance, time and expenses remain almost the

same when commuters choose a particular mode of transport. Walking and public

transport are more often the means of transportation for the poor people. This point has

been taken into consideration while arriving at the results.

76

5.1.2 Survey Design and Observations

The questionnaire was short and simple for the common people to understand. At

the same time the responses aimed to provide sufficient information and details about the

transportation system. The profession of people was asked to see what section of Mumbai

population responded to the survey. Table 5.1 shows the percentage of respondents based

on their occupation.

Table 5.1 Percentage of respondents based on their profession

Profession Percentage

Technical (engineers, architects, consultants, software) 38.4

Students 28

Teaching (teachers and professors) 4.7

Public Relation (counselors, psychologists, receptionists) 6.6

Medical (doctors, paramedical professionals) 2.8

Business and Commerce (share brokers, businessmen, bankers) 6.2

Others 13.3

Origin and Destination were asked to get information about trip generation and

the trip lengths. Table 5.2 shows the percentage of trip distribution in morning and

evening hours from the city to the suburbs and vice versa. This information is used to

determine the flow and direction of traffic during morning and evening rush hours.

77

Table 5.2 Percentage of Trips in morning and evening hours to and from

suburbs and city

Origin to Destination Per cent trips (A.M) Per cent trips (P.M)Suburbs to City 28 10.4City to Suburbs 10.4 28Suburbs to Suburbs 59.7 59.7City to City 1.9 1.9

Responses also provided information about the usual morning and evening travel

times. Morning and evening peak hours were then calculated from the graph shown in

Figure 5.1. Morning peak hours are 7 am to 11 am and evening peak hours are 5 pm to 10

pm. A concentrated peak travel occurs during 8 am to 9 am in the morning hours and 5

pm to 7 pm during evening hours.

Morning and Evening Peak Hours

-5

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

5:00AM

6:00AM

7:00AM

8:00AM

9:00AM

10:00

AM

11:00

AM

12:00

P M

1:00PM

2:00PM

3:00PM

4:00PM

5:00PM

6:00PM

7:00P M

8:00PM

9:00PM

10:00

P M

11:00

PMTime

Perc

ent o

f Tri

ps

Percent trips ateach hour

Figure 5.1 Graph showing AM and PM peak hours of travel

78

Type of modes used by the commuters and time spent in each mode were also

asked through the survey to analyze the vehicular speeds on roads and the average travel

time. Table 5.3 shows the travel time and speed for each mode. Maximum numbers of

trips take place by railways, followed by the buses. Thus it is seen that public transport is

more popular among the citizens of Mumbai. Travel by railway turns out to be faster and

economical than any other mode. Hence there is more demand for trains in Mumbai.

Buses also form an important part of the transportation system of Mumbai. 55 per cent by

number of trips take place by bus. Most economical short journeys on road are given by

walking and long journeys are given by buses. It is interesting to note that vehicles with

lesser occupancy give more average speed than the vehicles with higher occupancy.

Buses which carry around 4.5 million journeys per day travel at an average speed of 17.5

km / hr during morning hours and 15.5 km / hr during evening hours. This not only

increases the overall travel time and the emissions, but also encourages people to adopt

private transportation for faster travel.

Real distances between the origin and the destination were not available. The

distances were directly measured from a map of Mumbai. On the basis of the measured

distances and travel time, approximate speeds were calculated. A graph of percentile

speed is plotted for all vehicles on the road, taken together (Figure 5.2 and Figure 5.3). It

is found that 63 per cent of vehicles travel below 15 km / hr and more than 90 per cent of

vehicles travel below 25 km / hr in the morning hours. During the evening hours, 72 per

cent of vehicles travel below 15 km / hr and more than 91 per cent vehicles travel below

approximately 25 km / hr. The average speed in the evening is found to be less than that

in the morning. This may be accounted by the extra recreation trips during evening hours.

79

The average speeds of vehicles on roads are ranging from 9.5 km/hr for buses

during evenings to maximum of 21.8 km/hr for two-wheelers during mornings. Vehicles

in the peak hours are seen at crawling speeds. Average distance of travel for one way trip

is approximately 23 km and 50 per cent of trip lengths are below 18 km. Average travel

time per trip during morning hours is 62 minutes and that in the evening hours is 68

minutes.

Table 5.3 Percentage by number of trips, distance, and average AM and PM

speeds for each mode of travel.

Modes Percentage by

number of trips

Percentage

by distance

AM Average

Speed in

PM Average

Speed in km/hr Train 59.7 61.7 30.5 29.9

Bus 55 23.7 17.5 15.5

Auto rickshaw 18.5 2.2 12 9.5

Taxi 3.8 0.5 17.9 15.4

Cars 11.4 6.2 19.6 16.6

2-Wheelers 6.6 4 21.8 19.1

Walk 57.8 (considerable walk)

1.7

Here, considerable walk means walking distance of at least 100 meter on the road.

57.8 per cent seems to be an underestimated value. The reason might be that commuters

consider it to be quite not worth to mention in their responses, or they are very much

accessible to transportation modes at their origin and destination. Moreover, as discussed

earlier, this questionnaire does not consider the poor people, for whom walking is the

only affordable means to travel.

80

Graph of Percentile Speed (AM)

2

24

57

70

84

96 98 99 100 100

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50

Speed in km/hr

Per

cent

age

of v

ehic

les

PercentileSpeed Curve

90

%

63

%

Figure 5.2 Graph showing percentile speeds for AM Road Traffic

Graph of Percentile Speed (PM)

6

34

66

79

8996 99 99 100

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45Speed (km/hr)

Per

cent

age

of v

ehic

les

PercentileSpeed

72

91

Figure 5.3 Graph showing percentile speeds for PM Road Traffic.

81

Respondents also came up with the ideal travel time they would be satisfied with.

This gave an idea about the social dissatisfaction with respect to the travel time. Since

there are no posted speed limits in Mumbai, the ideal travel time is considered as the best

tool to find out the level of congestion. The ratio of actual travel time to ideal travel time

was found out. This ratio is defined as the congestion index for this study. Value greater

than 1 denotes that the area is congested. The average value of congestion index from 218

responses is 2.1. This indicates that the system is highly congested. It is evident from the

crush load of the trains and buses and crawling speed of vehicles on streets. This value of

congestion index is not very reliable, as it only depends on the perception of the

individual. But the concept can be used in the future, to get a realistic idea about

congestion.

Expenses per kilometer of travel are found out from the responses. Expenses for

public transport (trains and buses) including a combination with intermediate means of

transport is Rs. 0.64 / km and for private transport (cars and two-wheelers) is Rs. 2.01 /

km. 80 per cent of commuters prefer public transport (58 per cent prefer trains and 22 per

cent prefer buses), 14 per cent prefer cars, 4 percent opt for two-wheelers and 2 per cent

prefer intermediate transport (auto rickshaws and taxis).

Average delay per trip is found to be 9 minutes in the morning hours and 12

minutes in the evening hours. Thus a commuter on an average experiences approximately

111 hours of loss in working hours per year.

In the end, a question seeking information about the overall performance of

Mumbai Transportation System was asked. Eleven parameters were mentioned and

respondents were asked to rate the satisfaction level. A five point Likert-Scale ranking

82

from Totally Unacceptable (rating 1) to Totally Acceptable (rating 5) was used to

indicate the level of satisfaction based on the parameters. Percentage rating for each

parameter is given in Table 5.4. Statistical Analysis Tests were then carried out to study

how the parameters affect the overall satisfaction level of the commuters.

Table 5.4 Percentage rating for the acceptability of Mumbai Transportation

System and the parameters

Totally Unacceptable

(%)

Fairly Unacceptable

(%)

Average (%)

Fairly Acceptable

(%)

Totally Acceptable

(%)

Mumbai Transportation System

1.32 30.26 30.26 31.58 5.26

Pollution 42.11 38.16 13.16 3.95 1.32 Road Quality 23.68 32.89 25.00 15.79 1.32 Congestion 42.11 38.16 13.16 5.26 0.00 Delay due to Speed of vehicles

11.84 31.58 38.16 15.79 1.32

Frequency of buses and trains 3.95 7.89 26.32 42.11 18.42

Pedestrian facilities 26.32 26.32 31.58 11.84 2.63

Rush in public transport 57.89 30.26 9.21 1.32 0.00

Parking 23.68 31.58 35.53 6.58 1.32 Availability of other modes 13.16 15.79 35.53 21.05 11.84

Comparison with transportation of other cities in India

2.63 11.84 27.63 34.21 18.42

Cost of Travel 3.95 14.47 35.53 21.05 21.05

83

It can be seen from the table that commuters are highly dissatisfied with the

pollution, rush in public transport and congestion. They are fairly dissatisfied with the

road quality, delay due to low speeds and parking. Respondents seemed to have average

satisfaction levels with respect to pedestrian facilities and the cost of the travel. Although

most of the parameters are towards unacceptable levels, Mumbai Transportation System

proves to be fairly acceptable. This might be due to the fact that there are various other

parameters that influence people’s perception which are not accounted in this study.

People prefer Mumbai Transportation System, cost of travel and various alternate modes

available as compared to other cities in India. In order to measure the degree of

satisfaction among commuters during their regular travel, concept of Commuter

Satisfaction Index (CSI) is used.

5.2 Analysis

5.2.1 Commuter Satisfaction

Sustainable transportation demands maximum convenience of commuters with

minimum cost and least adverse effect on the environment and resources. Commuter

satisfaction and convenience are the measures for determining sustainability from social

aspect. An attempt is made to measure the effect of parameters on the performance of the

transportation system of City of Mumbai. It is important to understand the quality

dimensions to assess the sustainability level of a transportation system.

As described earlier, Rating of 1 denotes minimum satisfaction (total

unacceptability) and 5 denotes maximum satisfaction (total acceptability). The average

rating for each parameter is calculated from the responses. The importance level for each

84

parameter is 5, since sustainability requires maximum satisfaction with respect to all

parameters. In all there are 11 parameters, as shown in Table 5.4 above. The weight of

each parameter is calculated as given in Table 5.5. The importance of satisfaction level of

each parameter is considered maximum for sustainability. Thus the weight of each

parameter is same. The product of average rating and weight gives the actual satisfaction

level. Commuter Satisfaction Index is calculated as 2.52, considering the effect of all

eleven parameters. In terms of percentage the index is 50.4 per cent.

Table 5.5 Commuter Satisfaction Index calculation

Average Score

Importance score

Weighting factor

Commuter Satisfaction

Index

Pollution 1.87 5 0.091 0.17 Road Quality 2.38 5 0.091 0.22 Congestion 1.84 5 0.091 0.17 Delay due to Speed of vehicles 2.08 5 0.091 0.19

Frequency of buses and trains 3.42 5 0.091 0.31

Pedestrian facilities 2.38 5 0.091 0.22 Rush in public transport 1.58 5 0.091 0.14 Parking 2.30 5 0.091 0.21 Availability of other modes

2.91 5 0.091 0.26

Comparison with transportation of other cities in India

3.58 5 0.091 0.33

Cost of Travel 3.49 5 0.091 0.32 Total 60 2.52

It is seen from Table 5.5 that overall CSI is 2.52 or 50.4 per cent. Although the

overall satisfaction seems to be 50 per cent, it is essential to find out the causes for the

85

remaining 50 per cent dissatisfaction. Commuter Satisfaction Index of only 50 per cent

shows that the system is unsustainable as far as the social aspect is considered. A

detailed statistical analysis is carried out in order to see how the parameters considered as

independent variables affect the acceptability of the performance of Mumbai

Transportation System.

5.2.2 Statistical Analysis

The acceptability of the performance of the transportation system in Mumbai

depends mostly on people’s views. This research studies how the parameters discussed

earlier, based on people’s perception affect the acceptability of overall performance of

Mumbai Transportation System. Two parameters namely ‘pollution’ and ‘comparison

with transportation systems of other cities’ are not considered. These two parameters give

an overall idea of people’s views, but they do not necessarily affect the overall

performance of the transportation system. Thus the remaining nine parameters are

considered. These nine parameters are checked for normal distribution, in order to see if

parametric tests could be applied. It is observed that seven out of nine independent

variables are normally distributed, while two, namely rush in public transport and

congestion are skewed. The dependent variable (Mumbai Transportation System) is also

normally distributed. Figures 5.4 to 5.13 show the graphical distributions.

86

0.00 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00 6.00

Mumbai_as_whole

0

10

20

30

40

Fre

qu

ency

Mean = 3.1053Std. Dev. = 0.94628N = 76

Mumbai_as_whole

Figure 5.4 Distribution of scores for Mumbai Transportation System as whole

0.00 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00 6.00

Road_Quality

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

Fre

qu

ency

Mean = 2.3816Std. Dev. = 1.05789N = 76

Road_Quality

Figure 5.5 Distribution of responses about Road Quality

87

0.00 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00

Congestion

0

10

20

30

40

Fre

qu

ency

Mean = 1.8421Std. Dev. = 0.89521N = 76

Congestion

Figure 5.6 Distribution of responses about Congestion

0.00 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00

Delay_due_to_Speed

0

10

20

30

40

Freq

uenc

y

Mean = 2.2237Std. Dev. = 0.85788N = 76

Delay_due_to_Speed

Figure 5.7 Distribution of responses about Delay due to Speed

88

0.00 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00 6.00

Frequency_buses_trains

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

Freq

uenc

y

Mean = 3.4211Std. Dev. = 1.06161N = 76

Frequency_buses_trains

Figure 5.8 Distribution of responses about Frequency of Buses and Trains

0.00 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00 6.00

Pedestrian_facilities

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

Freq

uenc

y

Mean = 2.3816Std. Dev. = 1.0828N = 76

Pedestrian_facilities

Figure 5.9 Distribution of responses about Pedestrian Facilities

89

0.00 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00 6.00

Rush_public_transport

0

10

20

30

40

50

Freq

uenc

y

Mean = 1.5789Std. Dev. = 0.82078N = 76

Rush_public_transport

Figure 5.10 Distribution of responses about Rush in Public Transport

0.00 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00 6.00

Parking

0

10

20

30

Freq

uenc

y

Mean = 2.3026Std. Dev. = 0.95247N = 76

Parking

Figure 5.11 Distribution of responses about Parking

90

0.00 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00 6.00

Availability_other_modes

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

Freq

uenc

y

Mean = 2.9079Std. Dev. = 1.19083N = 76

Availability_other_modes

Figure 5.12 Distribution of responses about Availability of alternate modes

0.00 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00 6.00

Cost_of_Travel

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

Freq

uenc

y

Mean = 3.4868Std. Dev. = 1.13717N = 76

Cost_of_Travel

Figure 5.13 Distribution of responses about Cost of Travel

91

Since most independent variables along with the dependent variable are normally

distributed, parametric tests are carried out. SPSS 12.0, a statistical analysis tool is used

to carry out the statistical analysis.

There are 76 responses in all with nine independent variables and one dependent

variable. A data reduction technique called as Factor Analysis is used to group these

variables into fewer numbers of groups. This method is generally used to reduce a large

number of overlapping variables to a much smaller set of factors. Thus nine independent

variables are grouped into four factors. Table 5.6 shows the factor loadings. Loadings

from rotated component matrix are studied for the factoring of the variables. Highest

factor loadings of the independent variables are shown in bold. These factor loadings

indicate the correlation of the independent variables to each of the factors formed. Thus

congestion, rush in public transport, delay due to speed and parking are clubbed into one

group (factor 1) called as crowding. Frequency of buses and trains and availability of

alternate modes are categorized as availability of transportation modes (factor 2). Road

quality and pedestrian facilities are factored as infrastructure (factor 3) and cost of the

travel is grouped under cost (factor 4). Methods used are Extraction Method with

Principal Component Analysis and Rotation Method (Varimax with Kaiser

Normalization). Only those cases are considered in this analysis where the acceptability

level of Mumbai Transportation is average (rating 3).

92

Table 5.6 Loadings from Factor Analysis (Rotated Component Matrix)

Component

1 2 3 4

Road Quality -0.041 -0.213 0.786 0.367

Congestion 0.668 -0.236 -0.204 0.358

Delay due to Speed 0.647 0.152 -0.367 0.489

Frequency of buses, trains 0.128 0.944 -0.072 0.023

Pedestrian facilities 0.151 0.270 0.761 -0.137

Rush in public transport 0.866 -0.010 0.211 -0.057

Parking 0.790 0.177 0.112 0.021

Availability of alternate

modes -0.054 0.901 0.130 0.057

Cost of Travel 0.097 0.079 0.137 0.899

These four factors namely crowding, availability of modes, infrastructure and cost

are again checked for distribution. Three out of four appear to be normally distributed

(Figure 5.14 to 5.17). Hence linear regression is used to see which parameters affect the

overall performance of the transportation system based on people’s views. The results are

as tabulated in Tables 5.7 to 5.10.

93

-2.00000 -1.00000 0.00000 1.00000 2.00000 3.00000 4.00000

REGR factor score 1 for analysis 1

0

5

10

15

20

Fre

qu

ency

Mean = -0.0045488Std. Dev. = 1.01199717N = 76

Crowding

Figure 5.14 Distribution of scores for Crowding

-2.00000 -1.00000 0.00000 1.00000 2.00000 3.00000

REGR factor score 2 for analysis 1

0

5

10

15

20

Fre

qu

ency

Mean = 0.3200328Std. Dev. = 0.94640804N = 76

Availability of Transportation Modes

Figure 5.15 Distribution of scores for Availability of Transportation Modes

94

-4.00000 -2.00000 0.00000 2.00000 4.00000

REGR factor score 3 for analysis 1

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

Fre

qu

ency

Mean = -0.2349266Std. Dev. = 0.95380853N = 76

Infrastructure

Figure 5.16 Distribution of scores for Infrastructure

-2.00000 -1.00000 0.00000 1.00000 2.00000 3.00000

REGR factor score 4 for analysis 1

0

5

10

15

20

Fre

qu

ency

Mean = 0.0197289Std. Dev. = 0.91251744N = 76

Cost of the Travel

Figure 5.17 Distribution of scores for Cost

95

Summary of statistics for linear regression is as shown in Table 5.7 and Table 5.8. Table

5.7 shows the mean and standard deviation for the factor scores for each factor.

Table 5.7 Summary of basic statistics for the four factors

Mean Std. Deviation NMumbai_as_whole 3.1053 0.94628 76Crowding -0.0045488 1.01199717 76Availability of transportation modes 0.3200328 0.94640804 76Infrastructure -0.2349266 0.95380853 76Cost 0.0197289 0.91251744 76 Table 5.8 Model Summary

R square 0.097Adjusted R Square 0.046Significance of the model 0.118Std error of the estimate 0.92412F 1.917 The results for this analysis are tested at 90 per cent 1-tailed significance level. Thus for a

parameter or the model to be significant the significance should be lesser than 10 per cent

(0.1). From Table 5.8, it is seen that the model is not a significant model. The

significance is 0.118, which is more than 0.1. Table 5.9 shows the significance and

correlations of these independent variables with each other as well as with the dependent

variable. Crowding is low moderately correlated and is statistically significant with the

dependent variable, whereas Availability of transportation modes and Infrastructure are

significant with Crowding. Availability of transportation modes is negatively correlated

where as Infrastructure is positively correlated with the dependent variable. The

96

procedure of linear regression is again continued to get the best fit model with the most

significant parameters affecting the acceptability.

Table 5.9 Correlations Pearson Correlation

Mumbai Transportation as whole

1 0.28 0.044 0.045 0.071

Crowding 0.28 1 -0.219 0.239 -0.053 Availability of

transportation modes 0.044 -0.219 1 -0.169 0.012

Infrastructure 0.045 0.239 -0.169 1 -0.049 Cost 0.071 -0.053 0.012 -0.049 1Sig. (1-tailed)

Mumbai as whole- 0.007 0.354 0.348 0.27

Crowding 0.007 - 0.029 0.019 0.324 Availability of

transportation modes 0.354 0.029 - 0.072 0.461

Infrastructure 0.348 0.019 0.072 - 0.337 Cost 0.27 0.324 0.461 0.337 - Table 5.10 Coefficients from regression analysis

Sig.(Constant) 0Crowding 0.011Availability of transportation modes 0.351Infrastructure 0.961Cost 0.447

Conceptually thinking, it is evident that crowding (congestion, delay, rush and

parking) and infrastructure (road quality and pedestrian facilities) would affect the

performance of the transportation system as a whole. Hence regression analysis is again

carried out considering crowding, infrastructure and the interaction between them as the

97

independent variables. Interaction between crowding and infrastructure is the product of

their individual factor scores.

Results of Regression Analysis are tabulated in the following tables. Table 5.11

correlations and significance of independent variables with dependent variable and each

other. Table 5.12 shows the model summary.

Table 5.11 Correlations and Significance

Mumbai_as_whole Crowding Infrastructure

Interaction Variable

Mumbai_as_whole 1 0.28 0.045 -0.222Crowding 0.28 1 0.239 -0.118Infrastructure 0.045 0.239 1 -0.327Interaction Variable -0.222 -0.118 -0.327 1Mumbai_as_whole . 0.007 0.348 0.027Crowding 0.007 . 0.019 0.155Infrastructure 0.348 0.019 . 0.002Interaction Variable 0.027 0.155 0.002 .

Sig. (1-tailed)

Pearson Correlation

Table 5.12 Model Summary

R square 0.122

Adjusted R Square 0.085

Significance of the model 0.024

Std error of the estimate 0.9051

98

Table 5.13 Coefficients and significance values for linear regression

Constant 0

Crowding 0.018

Infrastructure 0.443

Interaction Variable 0.064

0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

Observed Cum Prob

0.0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.0

Expe

cted

Cum

Pro

b

Dependent Variable: Mumbai_as_whole

Figure 5.18 Graph of Linear Regression

From Table 5.11, it is seen that crowding and interaction variable are significant

with the dependent variable. They also have a correlation with the dependent variable at a

moderately low level. Thus, it is inferred from this statistical analysis that Crowding and

Infrastructure significantly affect the performance of Mumbai Transportation System

from people’s perspective. Table 5.13 shows their individual significance levels.

Crowding and Interaction variable are statistically significant (values less than 0.1).

99

Figure 5.18 shows the graph for linear regression.

Thus for reducing the dissatisfaction amongst the commuters, there should be

reduction in congestion, rush, delay and parking problems, with an improvement in

pedestrian facilities and road quality.

5.3 Environmental Aspect

Pollution level in Mumbai is very high as discussed in Chapter 3. Emissions of

CO, NOx, soot, particulate matter, hydro carbon have started deteriorating the health of

people. Bronchitis, Asthma and many other respiratory problems have become very

common with the citizens of Mumbai. Environmental pollution is increasing with high

growth in vehicular population, traffic congestion and due to very low speeds of vehicles.

As seen in Table 5.3, vehicles on roads have low speeds. Speeds further decrease

during evenings. As discussed earlier, it is found that 63 per cent of vehicles travel below

15 km / hr and more than 90 per cent of vehicles travel below 25 km / hr in the morning

hours. During the evenings, 72 per cent of vehicles run below 15 km / hr and more than

91 per cent vehicles run below approximately 25 km / hr. Speeds of vehicles are seen

ranging anything between 5 to 8 km/hr during the AM and PM peak hours. Apart from

causing delay, these vehicles also cause very high emissions of pollutants. Figures 5.19,

5.20, 5.21 and 5.22 show the emission levels of different pollutants in gm/km for heavy

vehicles running on diesel (buses and trucks), four wheelers running on gasoline (cars)

and two wheelers with respect to speed [48]. The graphs show that at for the speeds of

vehicles in Mumbai, emissions in gm/km are high. Moreover, if these vehicles continue

to move on for long distances, the emissions increase further. Pollution levels in Mumbai

100

have already reached alarming values as discussed in Chapter 3, and the condition will

worsen if the inventory of personal vehicles still continues.

Emission (gm/km)with respect to speedBuses / Trucks

252.3

167.6 188.8 157 158.6 159.7

667.1

499.1443.1 415.1 419.2 421.9504.3

351.9301.1 275.7

194.4226.9

0

100200

300

400

500600

700

800

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70

Speed (km/hr)

Em

issi

on (g

m/k

m)

FC

CO2

NO

Emission (gm/km) with respect to speedBuses / Trucks

6.1

4.6 4.6

3.8 3.9 4

3.2

2.52.2 2 2.1 2.1

4.6

3.43

2.92.92.8

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70

Speed (km/hr)

Em

issi

on (g

m/k

m)

CO

SO2

PM

Figure 5.19 Emission levels (gm/km) for buses and trucks with respect to speed

Source: India – Anthropogenic Emissions from Energy Activities in India:

Generation and Source [48]

101

Emission (gm/km) with respect to speedFour Wheelers (Gasoline)

10080 73.3 68 66 70

287

232212.67

165.5144.8 137

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70

Speed (km/hr)

Em

issi

on (g

m/k

m)

FC

CO2

Emission (gm/km) with respect to speedFour Wheelers (Gasoline)

1611.5 10.33

29.75

39

52

5.2 4.95 1.054.67

0.66 0.470

10

20

30

40

50

60

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70

Speed (km/hr)

Em

issi

on (g

m/k

m)

CO

NO

Figure 5.20 Emission levels (gm/km) for cars with respect to speed

Source: India – Anthropogenic Emissions from Energy Activities in India:

Generation and Source [48]

102

Emission (gm/km) with respect to speedTwo-Wheelers, Four Stroke

128.2 7 7.8

10.813.4

35.3

24.220.5 22

28.6

36.9

0

5

10

1520

25

30

35

40

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70

Speed (km/hr)

Em

issi

on (g

m/k

m)

FC

CO2

Emission (gm/km) with respect to speedTwo-Wheelers, Four Stroke

1.6

1.1 11.4

3.3 3.2

2.04

1.41.2

0.80.55

0.9

0

0.5

1

1.52

2.5

3

3.5

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70

Speed (km/hr)

Em

issi

on (g

m/k

m)

NO

CO

Figure 5.21 Emission levels (gm/km) for two wheelers, four stroke with respect to

speed

Source: India – Anthropogenic Emissions from Energy Activities in India:

Generation and Source [48]

103

Emission (gm/km) with respect to speedTwo-Wheelers, Two Stroke

14.7011.03 10.30 11.20

13.33

36.20

27.9025.15 26.10 26.80 26.68

3.60 1.95 1.40 2.03 3.757.59

1.20 1.50 1.02

11.809.26 7.59

18.30

8.84

2.25 1.30 1.16

10.30

5.00

05

10152025303540

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70

Speed (km/hr)

Em

issi

on (g

m/k

m)

FC

CO2

CO

NO

HC

Figure 5.22 Emission levels (gm/km) for two wheelers, two stroke with respect to

speed

Source: India – Anthropogenic Emissions from Energy Activities in India:

Generation and Source Characterization [48]

It is observed that an increase in speed from 15 km / hr to 25 km / hr causes a

considerable reduction in fuel consumption and pollutant emissions [48]. Thus vehicles

moving at optimum speed produce economical as well as environmental gains. Table

5.14 shows the percentage of reduction in fuel consumption and emissions with an

increase in speed from 15 km / hr to 25 km / hr in each mode of road transportation.

2W–2S = Two Wheeler, Two Stroke 2W-4S = Two Wheeler, Four Stroke

3W-2S = Three Wheeler, Two Stroke 3W-4S= Three Wheeler, Four Stroke

4W-G = Four Wheeler, Gasoline (Cars) 4W-D = Four Wheeler, Diesel (bus, truck)

104

Table 5.14 Percentage decrease in fuel consumption and emission of pollutants

with increase of vehicles from 15 km/hr to 25 km/hr

Fuel Consumption

17 23 20 25 25 16

CO 36 22 20 78 79 16CO2 11 23 17 22 22 16NO 9 21 18 Increase by

41%Increase by

46%20

HC 46 56SO2 16Soot 19

3W-4S ideal Speed 30

km/hr

4W-G ideal Speed 40 to

60 km/hr

4W-D ideal Speed 40 to

60 km/hr

2W-2S ideal Speed 30 to

40 km/hr

2W-4S ideal Speed

30km/hr

3W-2S ideal Speed 30

km/hr

Table 5.15 gives the values of actual emissions at the average speeds of vehicles in

Mumbai and the emissions that would have occurred at their ideal speeds (values taken

from graphs in Figures 5.18 to 5.21). It shows that emissions exceed the ideal optimum

values approximately 1.5 times. This information gives evidence that Mumbai traffic has

been adversely affecting the environment and causing very high air pollution.

Table 5.15 Emission values in gm/km for the actual speed and ideal speed of

vehicles in Mumbai

Emission

at Speed

Ideal Actual Ideal Actual Ideal Actual Ideal Actual Ideal Actual Ideal Actual

4W-D 3.9 5.12 419.2 557.9 158.6 197.24 2.9 3.82 2.1 2.754W-G 39 12.4 144.8 243 66 842W2S 1.4 1.95 25.15 27.9 5 8.84 10.3 11.032W4S 1 1.1 20.5 24.2 7 8.23W2S 6.22 7 45.49 68.4 3.33 19.7 19.7 30.53W4S 0.434 5.2 71.2 115.2 23 39.5

PM SO2CO CO2 HC FC

105

From the questionnaire responses, it is observed that 37 per cent of people

regularly commuting by personalized vehicles prefer public transport for traveling. This

might be due to lower cost of public transport, better speed by trains and less effort to

drive through the traffic on the roads. Thus if public transportation is enhanced, there is a

possibility that at least 37 per cent of all car and two wheeler trips will be reduced. This

gives an idea about the reduction in pollution and traffic congestion. Fuel consumption

will decrease with a reduction in CO2 and NOx emissions in particular. This modal shift

will also increase the speed of vehicles on the road. These observations and results make

it clear that public transportation and walking facilities should be improved to such an

extent that people are encouraged to use these modes of transportation. At the same time

it is imperative to curb private vehicles on the road. This is the most simplest and

economical measure for a developing city like Mumbai.

106

Chapter 6

Results and Conclusions

6.1 Interpretation and Conclusions

It is inferred from the analysis that crowding forms a significant parameter in

determining the sustainability of a transportation system. Crowding, which includes rush

in public transport, congestion, delay due to vehicular speed and parking thus adversely

affect the environment and the social well being of people. Rush in the public

transportation facilities makes people dissatisfied in the form of inconvenience, noise and

smell. Congestion hinders the smooth movement of people as well as the vehicles. It

reduces the speed of travel, thereby wasting valuable time of the commuters. It also

results into air pollution, vehicle- pedestrian conflict and unnecessary fuel consumption.

Parking at wrong places due to unavailability of proper space, causes the vehicles to

create traffic jams. Free parking further encourages the personalized vehicle use.

Apart from crowding, people are seen to be dissatisfied with respect to

infrastructure. Infrastructure in form of bad road quality and improper pedestrian

facilities mainly contribute to people’s dissatisfaction. Although availability of

transportation modes is not seen to be a statistically significant variable, people are not

very satisfied with the frequency of buses and trains. People are seen to be fairly satisfied

with the cost of travel. Although the commuter satisfaction index is found to be 50 per

cent in this study, an overall analysis of the entire city will definitely reduce the CSI. This

107

is due to the fact that the survey reached to educated people only. These people have a

better access to various means of transportation than the poor people. Attempt is made to

develop a method of calculation of social well being that affects sustainability. Hence the

mitigation measures take not only the parameters into consideration but also the overall

condition of Mumbai Transportation System in general.

6.2 Suggestions for Mitigation

6.2.1 Dispersion of Population and Employment – Satellite Towns

Problems arise in Mumbai due to high population and concentration of

employment and housing. With migration of more and more people from other places in

India, settlements have started spreading all over the City of Mumbai in form of large

numbers of residential complexes and slums. People come to Mumbai in search of

employment and in the hope of getting a shelter. This has caused a strain on all

transportation facilities. As discussed in Chapter 4, the slum formations have become

very common on the road and highway sides, causing a high risk of road accidents.

Concentration of employment is more in CBD area of Mumbai. As the city is growing

northwards, many small scale factories and job opportunities are being created in these

areas. Thus there is uncontrolled growth of population and slums in a haphazard way.

Attempts are being made to shift employment to Bandra-Kurla Complex in the suburban

area and in Navi Mumbai. This can prove to be an efficient measure if planned properly.

The concept of satellite towns similar to Singapore can be used to evenly distribute the

population and employment. These satellite towns should be connected by an efficient

rail and bus network to each other and the city center. These satellite towns will have job

108

opportunities for the residents, thus avoiding long trips to the city center and to the other

parts. Strategic planning of this kind has totally stopped the urban sprawl in Singapore,

and can be an effective measure for Mumbai.

An efficient development can be achieved only when the areas have a good

transportation system for convenient movement of people. The satellite towns should be

made self sufficient with proper pedestrian facilities and public transportation. Slum

population needs to be rehabilitated away from the dangerous traffic and given some

incentives like job opportunities, which will avoid their settlements again on roads and

highways. Improvements like increasing the frequency of trains and buses, building

flyovers and widening roads seem to be short term goals. These measures do not intend to

curb the unplanned growth. Policy measures and efficient planning is needed to bring the

situation in control. As discussed in the literature review, transportation planners can

study the examples and experiences of demand management and land use planning in

developed and developing countries.

6.2.2 Facilitation of Public Transportation

It is seen from the online survey that 60 per cent of trips are within suburbs, 28

per cent from suburbs to the city, 11 per cent from the city to the suburbs while 2 per cent

of trips are within the city. Although these figures do no necessarily give the exact

percentage of trips taking place in the entire Mumbai, it gives a fair idea in terms of

proportion. Of all the trips (rail and road) surveyed through the questionnaire,

approximately 35 per cent of trips take place in the east-west direction. Out of all railway

trips, 30 per cent of commuters have to transfer the train from Western Railway to

109

Central Railway or vice versa at Dadar Station. This increases their travel distance to

almost twice of the direct distance between the origin and destination. Thus commuters

waste their time, energy and resources. A person traveling from eastern suburb to western

suburb or vice versa by train has to travel in north-south direction at least once. This is

due to the fact that there is no railway line connecting east to west directly. Presently

there is a bus network, but buses often take longer times to travel due to the gridlocks on

the roads. This explains the main cause of longer travel time and delays. To improve the

direct east-west connection public transportation should be improved. Mumbai is

experiencing construction of flyovers which is not going to help much, since it will

attract more cars and two-wheelers. A common belief among people is that they can

travel faster with their own modes of transport. In fact this causes more traffic and

inconvenience to them as well as others. A rail system and priority to the public buses

can help solve some of the congestion in Mumbai. A railway system running east-west

can be then extended to Navi Mumbai, a proposed satellite town in order to grow trade

and business. This will also alleviate the problem of excessive concentration of

employment and population in Mumbai itself. Moreover, this will reduce the strain on

already existing Central and Western Railway. In spite of the rush and inconvenience

through railways and buses, it is found through online survey that 80 per cent of people

still prefer them (58 per cent prefer trains and 22 per cent prefer buses). This might be

due to the low costs (as discussed earlier, the cost per km for public transport modes is

three times lesser than the personalized vehicles). 18 per cent of respondents prefer to

have personalized vehicles, in the form of cars or two-wheelers. 2 per cent of people

prefer intermediate transport, which includes auto rickshaws and taxis. These statistics

110

show the need to make improvements in public transport systems.

Another improvement that can be suggested is laying new tracks or assigning

separate tracks for intercity and goods trains. These trains running during peak hours

create disturbance in the regular train schedule, causing inconvenience to people in form

of longer waiting times and rush.

6.2.3 Parking

Parking is seen to be another critical problem of Mumbai transportation system.

There are no appropriate spaces provided for parking in residential complexes and

offices. Thus people are forced to park their vehicles on nearby streets. Parking if

provided is generally free or at a reasonable rate, easily affordable by the car owners.

This encourages more use of cars and two-wheelers. Parking at wrong places creates

confusion to the drivers, occupies the narrow roads and results into vehicle pedestrian

conflict, thus causing a dangerous situation for drivers and pedestrians.

Parking should be made strict in Mumbai. Fines should be high for illegal parking

and free parking should be totally eliminated. Multi-storey parking lots can be provided

around big offices and large residential complexes, where the personalized vehicles are

bound to be more. Special parking zones should be provided for bicycles around railway

stations and other public places.

6.2.4 Pedestrian Convenience

Another important development that Mumbai requires is improvement in

pedestrian facilities. Sustainability demands convenience of people, irrespective of their

111

age and economical background. It is seen that roads are built or widened considering the

convenience of vehicle owners, without giving enough thought to the pedestrians. Most

trips involve walking and at least 60 per cent requires considerable amount of walk on

roads. Accidents mostly involve pedestrians, and hence there is a need to place them in a

safer environment. Sidewalks, pedestrian signals and pedestrian crossings should be

provided at all places. Special sound systems should be provided at the traffic signals

especially for the blind.

6.2.5 Curbing personalized vehicles on roads

Various suggestions have been given on the idea of curbing personalized vehicles.

Some people suggest that the cars be banned on roads a few days in a week, while some

feel that higher taxes should be incurred on these vehicles and fuel. While all these

measures contribute towards reduced use of cars and two wheelers on the road, it is not

practically feasible to adopt these options without arranging alternate means of public

transportation. Railway capacity which gets exceeded by almost 3 times, cannot be

further strained by allowing no cars on the road. Banning cars and two-wheelers on roads

will only add to the dissatisfaction of the commuters. Public transportation facilities

should be enhanced to such an extent that people will prefer these modes more than their

cars. Taxes on vehicles and fuel along with parking costs will definitely reduce the

vehicle use provided people have better options for traveling. People will avoid their

vehicles and shift to public transportation, only when the later offers faster means of

travel. Hence bus priority and improvements in railways would be the best solutions to

solve the transportation problems. Imposing stricter rules and policy norms on use of old

112

vehicles, on emission standards and fuel quality, will further help in alleviating

transportation problems in Mumbai.

113

Chapter 7

Conclusion and Recommendation

7.1 Conclusion

The mitigation measures suggested in the previous chapters are important steps

towards sustainable growth of transportation in Mumbai. These measures can definitely

improve the quality of transportation, with a reduction in accidents, pollution, health

problems and inconvenience. With the modal shift towards public transportation, traffic

congestion will reduce, thereby increasing the speed. Improvement of speed from 15

km/hr to 25 km/hr will cause significant reduction of pollutant emission as discussed in

Chapter 5. Bold steps that should be taken in making Mumbai a sustainable city are as

follows:

1. Land Use Planning – Population and employment should be dispersed, thus

avoiding their concentrations in a particular area. The concept of satellite town

as discussed in the previous chapter is an effective tool to reduce the travel

distance, time, effort, pollution, fuel consumption, thereby reducing strain on

the present transportation system.

2. Enhancement of Buses and Railways – East-West connection should be

provided in form of public transportation in order to increase the convenience

of people traveling in East-West direction. Funds which are invested in

developing flyovers can be directed towards improving the public

114

transportation facilities in form of frequency and infrastructure. Buses should

be given priority on roads as compared to the other vehicles. It is absurd to

note that a transportation mode which carries maximum number of people in

Mumbai travels with the lowest speed the roads.

3. Transportation Planning – Long term and a comprehensive planning is

required for Mumbai. Increasing the frequency of buses and trains, creating

spaces for parking free of cost, building flyovers are short term improvements,

as discussed earlier. These planning measures intend to cater to the present

demand, without taking into consideration the high rate of growth in vehic les

and population. Planning measures should not only include providing facilities

for transportation, but should include measures which reduce the need to

travel.

4. Restriction of personal vehicle use – Taking into consideration the current

scenario of existing pollution levels, traffic congestion and the travel speed, it

becomes an urgent need to take some bold steps before the situation goes out

of control. This can be achieved when the use of vehicles is decreased

considerably. Norms should be made in order to curtail the car use, and

provisions should be made simultaneously have a modal shift to walking and

transportation.

115

7.2 Recommendations

Most results in this study are based on the online survey posted on the web site.

Further research is needed to consider the entire section of Mumbai population. For a

sustainable transportation system, there should be a balance between the social,

economical and environmental aspect. This study is more focused on the social aspect, as

it mainly tries to quantify the social satisfaction. Detailed study is required to gauge the

social, environmental and economical benefits taken together. Benefit cost study is to be

carried out for comprehensive long term planning of the city.

In order to measure the social satisfaction, eleven critical parameters were

considered. There are many more secondary parameters that influence people’s

acceptability which the study does not account for. Research should be carried out further

with more influencing factors. This will increase the reliability of the results, thus giving

a broader understanding of achieving sustainability.

116

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122

Appendix

Online Survey

I am Bhairavi Dhakras, a graduate student in the University of Toledo (USA), doing my

masters in Civil Engineering. I am working on my thesis "Study of parameters in the

development of sustainable transportation system in the City of Mumbai". I need your help in

developing data about the current transportation scenario in Mumbai, the usual problems people

face and their expectations from a good transportation system. If you are a regular traveler in

Mumbai, please answer the following questions. The questionnaire will take only 5 to 10 minutes

to answer. Your responses are important and valuable to me. If you have question(s) or

suggestion(s) please feel free to email me at bdhakras@eng.utoledo.edu.

I appreciate your feedback.

1. Your Profession

2. Where do you start your journey for going to work / school (Origin)?

3. Where do you go for your work / school (Destination)?

4. What time do you start your journey?

In the morning Hours Minutes.

In the evening Hours Minutes.

5. Indicate your time (in minutes) and distance (km) spent in each mode

In the morning

Train

Bus

123

Auto rickshaw

Taxi

Car

Two-Wheeler

Bicycle

Walking

In the evening

Train

Bus

Auto rickshaw

Taxi

Car

Two-Wheeler

Bicycle

Walking

6. What is the average delay (in minutes) you usually experience?

In the morning

In the evening

124

7. What is the duration of time you would be satisfied with for your one way journey?

8. What are your approximate travel expenses (in Rupees) per day?

9. Which mode of transport do you prefer?

10. How would you overall rate the following?

Totally Unacceptable

Fairly Unacceptable

Average Fairly Acceptable

Totally Acceptable

1. Pollution

2. Road Quality

3. Congestion

4. Delay due to Speed of vehicles5. Frequency of buses and trains6. Pedestrian facilities

7. Rush in public transport8. Parking

9. Availability of alternate modes to 10. Comparison with transportation of other cities in India11. Cost of Travel

12. Mumbai Transportation as a whole