Diabetes mellitus Normal blood glucose levels = 80 to 120 mg/100 ml of

blood When not absorbed to rises, spills into urine Glucose is expelled, water follows leading to dehydration Not using glucose, fats and proteins used

Loss of weight and issue with infections Blood becomes acidic (acidosis) due to ketones in blood (ketosis)

Two types Type II – adult onset, Insulin resistant, insulin produce, cells don’t

recognize. Treated with diet and drugs to help with insulin sensitivity

Type I – juvenile, no insulin made. Treated with pump or injections

Pineal Gland In brain, function not completely understood Melatonin – sleep trigger

Peak levels at night, make sleepyLowest levels at noonSecretion highest age 1-5, 75% smaller in

adolescenceHelps regulate mating behaviors in animalsHumans coordinates hormones of fertility

○ Inhibits reproductive system – inhibits gonadotropins

Thymus Gland

Upper thorax, posterior to sternum Thymosin and thymopoietin

Normal development of T cells, lymphocytesDecreases in size throughout life, mostly

fibrous connective and fat by old age.What effect on immune system?

Gonads Sex hormones same as adrenal cortex Ovaries – Ova (exocrine)

Estrogen – sex characteristics of womenProgesterone and estrogen – breast development

and menstrual cycle Testes – Sperm (exocrine)

Testosterone – sex characteristic of men, voice, muscle, sex drive, continuing sperm production

Ovaries Each follicle contains egg with

Granulosa cells Granulosa cells secrete

estrogen called estradiol ½ of menstrual cycle, copus lutem secretes estradiol and progesterone after ovulation and 8-12wks of pregnancy Reproductive system

development Feminine physique, Bone growth Regulate menstrual cycle Sustain pregnancy

Follicle and corpus luteum secrete inhibin suppresses FSH via neg feedback

Testes Interstitial cells secrete

testosterone and other androgens Male reproductive system Male physique Sex drive Sperm production and

sexual instinct all life Sustentacular cells

secrete inhibin Inhibits FSH, regulates

sperm production

Diseases associated with the Thyroid Gland

Figure 9.8

GoiterFigure 9.9

Grave’s Diseaseexophthalmos

Hyperthyroidism – rapid heartbeat, high metabolism, agitated, hard to relax, thyroid gland enlarges, eyes bulge. Treated with surgery, or drugs.Hypothyroidism – results in myxedema, physically and metally sluggish, puffy, dry skin, obese, low temp. Treated with Thyroxine

Addison’s Disease Hyperpigmentation Bronze coloring of

skin Aldosterone is low,

water and Na lost, electrolyte problems

Muscle weakness

Hormone Chemistry Most are either

Steroid hormone – derived from cholesterol○ Sex steroids, corticosteroids, Calcitriol (not

steroid but derived from one)Peptide hormones – chains of 3-200+ aa

○ Hormones from Post Pit, most releasing and stimulating hormones from Hypothalamus, most hormones from Ant Pit

Monoamines – chain of aa and amino group○ epinephrine, NE, dopamine, melatonin, and

TH

Hormone Synthesis -Steroids All made from either cholesterol or AA Steroids

Synthesized from cholesterol, functional group attached to 4 ring structure differs

Hormone Synthesis - Peptides Gene transcribed to mRNA,

mRNA translated into preprohormones

Small chain of AA direct preprohormone to ER, snipped off = prohormone, inactive

Off to the Golgi for modification and packaging

Hormone Synthesis - Monoamines From AA that retain amino group

Melatonin from Tryptophan, others from Tyrosine

TH unique- TH comes from a larger protein called Thyroglobulin, not part of finished TH○ TH two tyrosine linked together○ TH requires Iodine

Synthesis of TH 1) ______ cells secrete thyroglobulin

into lumen of follicle = colloid 2) I absorbed by follicular cells from

blood, transported into lumen 3) I added to tyrosine of thyroglobulin

= monoiodotyrosine (MIT) 4) Another I added, diiodotyrosine

(DIT) 5) DIT + either MIT or DIT 6) DIT + MIT = T3, DIT + DIT = T4 but

both still connected to Thyroglobulin 7) TSH stimulated follicular cells to

take up colloid by pinocytosis, lysosome fuses, cleaves off thyroglobulin

Get 10%T3 and 90%T4

Hormone Transport Transport via blood, hydrophilic

Peptides and monoamines are good, hydrophilic as well

What about Steroids?○ Need transport proteins – albumins and

globulins from liverBound vs. Unbound

○ Transport ○ Prolongs ½ life

TH over 99% bound, removal of Thyroid, TH up to 2 weeks

Aldosterone - ½ life twenty minutes

Figure 9.1

Mode of Action Direct Gene

Activation – lipid soluble, steroids and thyroid hormone

Second-Messenger System – water soluble, nonsteroidalDifferent cellular

responses to same hormone

Thyroid Hormone Specifically Carried by transport TBG, dissociates in blood

T3 and T4 enter cytoplasm

T4 – I cleaved ->T3Mitochondria – stimulate

aerobic respirationRibosomes – incr. mRNA

translationReceptors on chromatin,

incr. gene transcription○ Sodium potassium pump

Peptides and Catecholamines Hydrophilic Two second messenger

systems cAMP and Diacylglycerol and

Inositol Triphosphate (IP3)

Enzyme Amplification Hormones only needed in small amounts to

get effect in cell needed due to cascade 1 glucagon molecule trigger production of

1000 cAMP 1 cAMP makes 1 kinase 1 kinase activates 1000 enzyme molecules Each enzyme activates 1000 end product

1 glucagon produced 1 billion end molecules

Hormone Clearance

Most cleared by liver and kidneys, excreted in bile or urine

Some degraded by target cells Bound take longer to clear than

unbound Metabolic clearance rate (MCR) = rate

hormone cleared Higher MCR shorter ½ life

Modulation of Cell Sensitivity Up-regulation – target cell increases receptors

for hormone to make itself more sensitiveUterus and OT for labor

Down-regulation – reduction in receptors so target less sensitive to hormones,Happens when long exposure to high hormone levels

○ Cells of testis down regulate in response to high lutenizing hormone

What happens with long term hormone treatments?

Hormone interactions Lots of different hormones in blood and cells

sensitive to more than one hormone Cells have to have specific receptor to be

sensitive to a hormone Interactions

Synergistic – 2+ hormones work together = FSH and testosterone inc sperm #’s

Permissive – one hormone enhances a targets response to a later hormone○ Estrogen stim up-regulation of progesterone receptors in

uterusAntagonistic – oppose actions

○ Insulin and glucagon○ Calcitonin and Calcitriol