DiarmaidMacCulloch’sChristianity:TheFirstThreeThousandYears

AStudyGuidebyJeannieBabb

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HowtoUsethisStudyGuide

ForeachchapterofDiarmaidMacCulloch’sChristianity:TheFirstThreeThousandYears,thisguideoffersashortintroductorysummaryfollowedbyalistofsomekeypointsandsomesuggestedexercisesforreflection.Readthesummaryandkeypointspriortoreadingthechapterforapreviewofwhattoanticipateinthebook,orreaditafterwardforareviewofsomemajorpointsinthechapter.Itisimpossibleinthisslimguideeventohitallthehighlights,butthehopeistohelpreadersselectsomeofthemoreimportantinformationthatshouldberetained.

TheReflectionsectionprovidesquestionsfordiscussion,topicstoinvestigatefordeeperunderstanding,andsuggestionsformakingthereadingrelevanttoyourownlife.Manyofthesetopicsareappropriateforsmallgroupdiscussionoressays.

PagenumberscitedintheStudyGuidearetakenfrom2010VikingPenguinhardcoveredition(USA).

HowtoReadChristianity:TheFirstThreeThousandYears

Readforsweeprathertryingtomemorizenamesanddates,whicharefairlyeasytoretrievewhenyouneedthem.Itismoreimportanttograspthedirectionandforceofhistoricalmovement.ThosewhostrugglewithMacCulloch’swritingstylemayfindithelpfultorememberthatChristianity:TheFirstThreeThousandYearsisnotwrittenasatraditionaltextbook.Rather,theauthorusesareminiscentnarrativestylethatsometimesconnectstopicallyorgeographicallyratherthanchronologically,sothattheflowismoreweb-likethanlinear.Inanattempttoofferbothpanoramicviewsandmemorabledetails,theauthorzoomsinandout,anddrawsconnectionstodifferentpointsinhistory–includingpeopleorperiodswhichhavenotyetbeencoveredinthetext.Itcanbeunsettlingtoencounteraseeminglyparentheticalnoteaboutanunfamiliartopic,andyoumaywonderwhetheryoumissedsomething.

ReaderswholackastrongbackgroundinworldhistoryorChristianhistorymaystrugglewiththeauthor’stendencytorefertopeopleandincidentswithoutfullyexplainingthem.Attimeshemakesliteraryorhistoricalreferenceswithoutnotingthose.Manyreadersbenefitfromusingasearchengineastheyread.Takingafewsecondstograsptheauthor’smeaningbeforemovingtothenextparagraphwillpreventconfusiondowntheline.

IfyoufindthatyoustrugglewithMacCulloch’snarrativestyle,considerwatchingsomeofhisBBCdocumentariesonChristianhistory.Hearinghisvoiceandlearningthecadenceofhisspeechpatternsmaymakethereadingeasier,andthetopicscanonlyhelpyourgraspofChristianhistory.

CriticsofMacCulloch’sbookcontendthatitcontainsalotoftrivialinformation.Certainlyheincludessomeobscuredetailsamongthemajordevelopmentseverystudentofhistoryneedstoknow.Thisemphasisondetailsrevealstheauthor’sloveforturningpointsinhistory.Notehowoftenhereferstoan“accidentofhistory”whichchangedthedirectionofanationoraChurch,andwhatmighthavebeendifferenthadthestorytakenjustaslightdifferentturn.MacCullochisnotmerelyusingthesedetailstoflavorthetext;theysupporthisnarrativeoftheChurchasadynamicorganismchanginghistoryandbeingchangedbyit.

Introduction

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Studentsareoftentemptedtoskipovertheintroductionanddigintothebodyofatext;however,theintroductionprovidesimportantcluesaboutthelensthroughwhichweareabouttopeer.Heretheauthorstepsbacktoexaminehisownpurpose,bias,andstartingpoint.MacCullochrevealshimselftothereaderasapreacher’schildandgrandchild,affectionatetowardChristianityalthoughhestronglyimplieshehashadacrisisoffaith.HecallshimselfnotaChristianbut“acandidfriendofChristianity”(11).

TheintroductionalsosetsthestageforthefoundingofChristianity,withinbothGreeceandIsrael.GreeceandIsraelsharedasenseofuniqueprivilegeanddestiny.Theculturesdifferedintheirunderstandingofdivinity.WhileIsraeltrustedinanintenselypassionateandpersonaldeity,Greeceassertedthataperfectcreatormustbedevoidofemotionandunabletobeswayed.ChristianityattemptstoreconcilethesetwoviewsofGodthroughthepersonofChrist.

• Christianityis,atroot,apersonalitycultbasedonthestoryofapersonbelievedtobetheChrist.• ConversionandrepentancearekeyconceptsintheChristianvocabulary.• Christianityhasusuallybeenintoleranttowardotherfaiths,exceptsometimesJudaism.• TheBiblespeakswithmanyvoicesandgenres,includingcriticismofchurchortempletradition

(prophecy).• ThehistoryofChristianitydivergedintothreedifferentlanguagefamilies:

o ThosewhospokeLatino ThosewhospokeGreeko ThosewhospokeOrientallanguages

• Theselanguagedifferencesaffectedthedevelopmentoftheology,especiallyasthethreegroupssoughttodiscussthedivineandhumannaturesofChrist

• Christianityismoreuniformandunifiednowthatatanypointinhistory,evenamongthesethreegroupsandallthedivisionsineachofthem.

• Christianityhasdisplayedanamazingabilitytomutate(ashavealltheworldfaiths).ManyChristianshavetroubleadmittingthisandprefertobelieveitisunchangedfromthebeginning.

ForReflection

1.Thesubtitle“TheFirstThreeThousandYears”invitesreaderstoconsiderChristianity’sfuture,andsuggeststhatChristianitydidnotstartwiththebirthofJesus.Howdoesthatshiftaffectyourapproachtothistext?

2.MacCullochsaysmodernhistorianshaveamoraltask:Topromotesanitybycurbingtherhetoricoffanaticism.Hesaysbadhistory(thatis,historyoversimplified)isarootcauseoffanaticism.Considertherelationshipbetweenhistoryandfanaticism,inmodernorhistoricalexamplesyouknow.Whatmightbethemoraltaskofstudentsofhistory?

3.Inthisintroduction,theauthorreflectsonChristianity’sclaimtotruth,noting,“thestoryofChristianityisundeniablytrue,inthatitispartofhumanhistory”(11).HestateshisconvictionthatShakespeare’sHamletistrue,eventhoughitneverhappened.HowdoesthisideaofwhatistrueinformyourstudyofChristianhistory,andyourfaith?

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Chapter1 GreeceandRome(c.1000BCE-100CE)

ThischapterestablishestheGraeco-RomancontextofChristianity.AlthoughmanypeoplethinkofearlyChristianityinamoreJewishcontext,thereligionisalsofirmlyrootedinGreeklanguageandphilosophy.RomeconqueredGreecemilitarily,butGreeklanguageandphilosophydominatedthecultureduringtheemergenceofChristianity.ChristiansthereforeinheritedGraeco-Romancultureandthoughtprocesses,whichcontinuetoinformChristianethicsandourinterpretationoftheChristiannarrativeandhistory.

• LogosisaGreekword.TheGospelofJohnalsoreliesheavilyontheGreekwordChrist,preferringitovertheHebrewMessiah.

• ThephilosopherSocratescontributedtoGraeco-Romanculture(andthereforetoChristianity)theideathatwhatweseeinthislifeareonlyshadowsandechoesoftrueforms.

• PlatoprovidedaradicalnewconceptofGodlateradoptedandadaptedbyChristianity,whenheassertedthattheultimateGodmustbegoodandmustbeone,perfect,separatefromcreation,andunchanging.

• WhilePlatoleftusdialoguesontheethicsofdeity,Aristotleleftusfilesandlecturenotesclassifyingandcategorizingideasandpractices.

• ManyChristiandebatesarisefromtakingaPlatonicorAristotelianperspective.Indeed,itisalmostimpossibletotalkaboutChristianitywithoutresortingtoPlatonicorAristotelianconstructs.

ForReflection

1.Logosistypicallytranslated“word,”thoughtheconnotationoftheGreekwordismuchbroader,oftenreferringtothewholeactofspeechorintentbehindit.IntheGospelofJohn,theLogosisnamedasaperson,JesusChrist.JohnusesthisveryGreekthought,conveyedinGreeklanguage,tolookbackatthebookofGenesisoftheHebrewScriptures,whichportrayscreationasanactoflanguage.ReadJohn1:1-15.ConsiderthecompletepictureJohnpaintsofJesus.WhatdoesJohngainbyportrayingJesusasLogosaswellascreator,God,life-giver,light,etc.?

2.AreyoumorelikePlato(relyingonintuition,spiritualityandmysticism)orArtistotle(preferringscience,order,logic,andanalysis)?ArthurHerman,authorofTheCaveandtheLight,offersthishelpfulquiz:http://www.biographile.com/the-personality-divide-are-you-more-like-plato-or-aristotle/25239/

3.Ekklesia(translated‘church’intheNewTestament)isborrowedfromGreekpoliticalvocabulary.Inthepolis,theekklesiawasanassemblyofcitizenswhomadedecisions.WhilepoliswasthelocalformofHellas(bothsignifyingthecultureaswellasthepoliticalbody),ekklesiaintheNewTestamentandinchurchtraditioncouldbothexpandandcontract;thatis,eitheralocalcongregation,oragroupofcongregations,ortheentireChristianpopulationmightbecalledtheekklesia.HowistheEnglishword”church”usedtoday?Howhavevarioustraditionssoughttoexpandormoreclearlydefinetheword?

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Chapter2 Israel(c.1000BCE–100CE)

ThischapterprovidestheJewishcontextinwhichChristianitytookroot,includingahistoricalpastthatlooksquitedifferentfromthesimplelinearheritageprovidedintheGenesisandExodusaccounts.Thebiblicalaccountsofthepatriarchsweremostlywrittenathousandyearslaterthanthesettingofthestories.Theywerewrittenandcompiledtogiveasenseofpurposeandidentitytoagroupthatlikelycametogetherovertimeratherthandescendingcohesivelyfromasinglefamilyasdepictedinthenarrative.TheHebrewsenseofidentity(fortheywerenotcalledJewsuntillate,aftertheJudeanplacename)wascenteredmoreonreligionthanbloodlinesorethnicity,butsoughtcommonalitythroughthesestories.

• NamesfortheregionincludeIsrael,Palestine,thePromisedLand,andtheHolyLand.• ThestoriesofthePatriarchsaresetaround1800BCE,butseemtohavebeenwrittenafterthe

writingsofIsaiah,Jeremiah,andHoseaintheeighthandseventhcenturies.• FivescrollsknownasthePentateuch(Genesis,Exodus,Leviticus,NumbersandDeuteronomy)

sharethethemeofIsrael’sjourneyfromEgyptintothePromisedLand.• ThethousandyearsbetweenKingDavidandJesusChristaresoimportanttoChristianity,

MacCullochlabelsthem“thefirstmillenniumofChristianhistory,”fortheseyearsestablishedthenotionsofGod’schosenone,theTempleinJerusalem,YahwehasonesupremeGod,and“theforeordainedsalvationoftheJewishpeople”(56).

• Duringtheeighthcentury,thenationalcultwasreformedbytwogroupsofpeople:prophetswhodeliveredimpassionedspeechesandthewriters/editorsoftheDeuteronomicpartywhocleverlywovetogethernewandoldstoriesandlaws.

• InHebrewscripture,prophetsarenotfortunetellers;theyarethemouthpiecesofYahwehwhointerpretthewillofGod,typicallyindictingtheentiresocietyratherthanattackingindividuals.

• TheDeuteronomiccodeemphasizesmonotheisticworshipofYahweh,editingoldstoriestorecastAbrahamasthefirstoftheirpartyandfirsttoreceivethecovenantofcircumcisionandsettheTenCommandmentsasthecenterpieceforthesetoflaws.

• ManybeliefsembracedbyChristianscameintoJudaismfromotherculturesduringthismillennium,includingresurrectionandafterlife,andtheconceptofthehumansoul.

ForReflection

1. ThesuccessoftheDeuteronomicreformprogramreliedonaGreek-influencedshifttowardfocusingreligiousidentityonthecontentsofatext.ConsiderhowthisshiftinJewishidentitysetthestageforChristianity.

2. AlthoughtheDeuteronomicpartyreworkedtheirownsacredliteraturerigorously(MacCullochimaginesmanycollaboratorsworkingacrossseveraldecades),theymaintainedolderstorythreadsanddetailsthatdidnotfitcurrentreligiouspractice.Whatdoesthepreservationofthis“conflicting”materialsayabouttheirattitudetowardtheliterature,towardthepast,andtowardcontradiction?

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Chapter3 ACrucifiedMessiah(4BCE–100CE)

Inarelativelyshortperiod,ChristianityemergedasasectofJudaism,spreadtonon-Jews(especiallygentile“God-fearers”whoworshipedattheJewishtemple),andthenseparatedfromJudaism.AlthoughChristianityarosewithinarichandcomplexhistoricalcontext,itwascharacterizedbyandcatalyzedbyanumberofprecedents,includingthegospelsasanewgenreofliteratureandtheinstitutionofnewritualscelebratingthedeathandresurrectionofJesus.Bytheendofthefirstcentury,ChristianityhadsplitfromJudaismandevenrejectedtheJewishChristiansnowexiledfromJerusalem.

• AlthoughdrawnfromtheJewishPassovermeal,theEucharistisunlikeanythinginprevioustradition.ItquicklybecameacentralfeatureofChristianworship.ItincludesarecitationofthewordsofJesusandare-enactmentofhislastmealwithhisfollowersbeforehisdeath.Itlinksthecrucifiedmessiahtothosewhotookthebreadandwine.

• Paul,attributedauthorofmostoftheNewTestamentletters,tookChristianityinanewdirection,focusingonbaptismratherthanJudaismastheunifyingfactor.

• JohnandhisfollowersdevelopedtheGospelinasimilardirection,rejectingJudaismtodevelopChristologythroughmetaphorandmajesticdiscourse.

• TheJewishChristianchurchfledJerusalemduringtheJewishrevoltof66CE,andbecameseparatefromthegentileChristiancommunity.These“Ebionites”werelaterdisownedbygentileChristiansbecausetheydidnotacceptthegentileChristianmisreadingofHebrewscripturerequiringavirginbirthforJesus.Meanwhile,ChristianityhadmovedfurtherfromJudaismbyworshipingJesus(anotherprecedent)andrecognizingSundayastheirprincipalfeastdayratherthantheSabbath.

• Mark,Matthew,andLukeareknownasthe“SynopticGospels”becausethey“seetogether”fromdifferentperspectives(likeasynopsis).

• Markiswidelyconsideredtheearliestgospel.MatthewandLukewerewrittenusingMarkandseparatematerialexclusivetoMattheworLuke.AllthreewerewrittenaboutfiftyyearsafterthedeathofJesus.

ForReflectionQuestion

1. Theterm“Christian”wascoinedinAntiochofSyria,buthasaLatinwordform,andisbasedonChristos,aGreektranslationoftheJewishMessiah.Considerhowtheetymologyofthewordreflectsthehistoryandtransitionofthemovementitself.

2. FindmoreexamplesintheSynopticGospelsofthesespeechpatternsorquirksofJesus:a. Antitheticparallelism-Settingonepropositionagainstanopposedproposition,with

stressonthesecond(c.f.Mark10:27)b. Assertingauthoritybysaying“Amen!”beforemakingapronouncement(c.f.Matt5:18)c. Ironyandindirectness,suchascallinghimself“theSonofMan”whichbothpointed

backtoDaniel’sapocryphal“onelikeasonofman”andalsosuggested“peoplelikeus”d. Speakinginparables,whichdonotappearasaliteraryforminlaterJewishwritingsuntil

afterthedeathofJesuse. Anemphasis(especiallyintheparables)onacomingkingdomthatwouldtransformthe

worldandupsethierarchies

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Chapter4 BoundariesDefined(50CE–300)

Duringthesetwoandahalfcenturies,thechurchwasshapedbymanyforcesandcharactersseekingtoinfluenceandunifyamovementthatwasatfirstheldtogetheronlybyabeliefthatJesuswastheChrist(whichmeantdifferentthingstodifferentgroups)andearlyritualpracticessuchastheEucharist.Paulandhisfollowers,whooftenwroteinhisname,weretheinitialshapersofthechurch,followedbythosewelooselycalledGnostics.Thethreeforcesthatunifiedthechurchasweknowittodayarecanon,creed,andCatholicism.Oncethecanonwasestablished,thequestionofhowtointerpretthewritingsemerged.

• Theearlychurchsetaprecedentofnotradicallychallengingsocialdistinctions(e.g.,classandslavery),initiallybecausetheyexpectedtheimminentreturnofChristtochangetheworld.

• “Gnostics”didnotexistasasectofChristianitylikeadenomination;thisisaseventeenth-centurydesignation.

• TheinfluenceofGnosticthoughtwaswidespread,lastedforcenturies,andpermanentlyalteredChristiantheology.

• DiscoveryofCoptictextsinNagHammadirevealsthatGnosticChristianitywasadialoguebetweenJudaismanddualism,andwasinfluencedbybotheasternreligionandGreekideas.

o Gnosticismwascharacterizedby:o DistrustoftheJewishcreationaccount,especiallyrelatedtotheproblemofevil.o RejectionofJesusasGodtakingflesh,leadingtoarejectionofaliteral,fleshly

crucifixionandbodilyresurrection;Christonlyseemedtodieandrise(Docetism).o Oppositiontomartyrdomsoesteemedbytherestofthechurch,sincetoGnosticismthe

bodywasnotworthsacrificing.

ForReflection

1. Paul’swritingsshowmoreinterestinwhoJesuswasthaninwhatJesussaid.Inwhatwaysdoesthechurchtodayemphasizeoneofthoseinterestsovertheother?Whichseemspreferable?DoesyourownlifeseemmoreinfluencedbyabeliefinwhoChristis,orbywhatJesussaid?

2. Christianitygavewomenanewlyactiverole,thensuppressedtheirofficialparticipationasthemovementbecameaninstitution.The“newprophecy”ofMontanismagainofferedwomenfreedomandleadership,andwasquicklytampeddownbythenewauthoritystructureofpresbytersandbishops.SomehavecalledthisaPriscillaeffect,observingthatwomen’sleadershipiswelcomedinthemessyexcitementofrevival,butsuppressedbyauthoritystructureasmovementssolidifyintobureaucracies.Whatareyourthoughts?

3. OrigenintroducedallegoricalreadingtoChristianity,byreadingChristiantextsthewayAlexandrianphilosophersreadHomer.Doyoulookforlayersofmeaninginatext?

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Chapter5 ThePrince:AllyorEnemy(100-300)

HostilitybetweentheearlychurchandtheRomanEmpirewasexacerbatedmorebyChristiansecrecythanbypreachinginthestreets.EarlyChristianswithdrewfrompubliclifetoavoidparticipatinginculticpractices,avoidedpublicbathhouses,andrefusedtofightinthearmy.Still,persecutionwasmostlylocalandsporadic,onlybecomingwidespreadandlong-lastingunderEmperorDiocletian.

• MostearlyChristiansregardedmilitaryserviceasantitheticaltoChristianity,sincebaptismwasaninitiationintoatypeofarmy.Infact,theword“pagan”asappliedtonon-ChristiansmaycomefromRomanmilitaryslangfornon-combatants.

• TheprophetManirosetopopularityinthethirdcentury,combiningBuddhismandHinduismwithCatholicandgnosticChristianity.TheManichaeancultresultingfromtheseinfluencesfocusedonexplainingtheworld’ssufferingasastrugglebetweengoodandevil,withJesusasjudge,teacherandhealerwhospeaksinparadox.

• DiocletianpersecutedandburnedManichaeesevenbeforehestartedpersecutingotherChristians.

• Centralized,systematicpersecutionofChristiansbeginningin250resultedindivisioninthechurchwhenitwasover,withsomerallyingaroundbishopswhosupportedforgivenessofthe“lapsed,”othersdenyingforgivenesstothosewhoobeyedtheedicttosacrificetothestatecult,andotherssimplyarguingthatforgivenesscouldonlybeofferedbybishops.

• In303,EmperorDiocletianlaunchedthemostviciouspersecutionofChristiansyet,attackingclergy,churchmembers,buildings,andsacredtexts.AsmanyChristiansweremartyredinthispersecutionasinallpreviousattackscombined.

• IntheEast,SyriacChristianitycontinuedtothrive,andhadneverseveredtieswithJudaism.• SyriacChristianspioneeredchurchmusic,hymnodyandchant.Evensomeofthepolemic

writingsofEphremaresettometer.• ChristianitybecametheofficialreligionofArmeniaattheturnofthe4thcentury,aboutadecade

beforeRomelaunchedwesternChristendombyedictofConstantine.

ForReflection

1. Read“ThePassionofSaintsPerpetuaandFelicity,”foundonlineorinmostlibraries.(AnexcellentnewtranslationisfoundinPerpetua'sPassions:MultidisciplinaryApproachestothePassioPerpetuaeetFelicitatis,editedbyJanN.BremmerandMarcoFormisano,translatedbyJoshFarrellandCraigWilliams,14-23.Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,2012.)ThistexttellsthestoryofPerpetua’smartyrdomtwice:onceassheseesitinadreambeforeherfinaltrial,andonceastoldbyaneditorafterherdeath.Whatarethedifferencesbetweenthetwostories?CanyoufindtracesoftheearlystrugglebetweenMontanismandCatholicChristianityinthetwoversions?

2. MacCullochdescribesanancientChristianchurchpreservedinDuraEuropa(p.179).Describeoneofyourfavoriteworshipspacesandcontrastthetwo.

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Chapter6 TheImperialChurch(300-451)

TheEmperorConstantine,encouragedbyasmashingmilitaryvictoryheattributedtotheChristianChiRhosymbolonhistroops’shields,madeitillegaltopersecuteChristiansin312.WithChristiansafetyintheRomanEmpireassured,theChurchspendthenext150yearsfocusedonmattersofdoctrine;thatis,whichversionofChristianityshouldhavethestate’sprotection?

• Churchesbegantobehousedinbuildingsbuiltforthispurpose.Thebasilicawasdesignedtodrawonewest-to-easteverclosertothealtar,Eucharist,andbishop.

• MonasticismemergedasanalternateexpressionofChristianity,emphasizingspiritualtranscendenceincontrasttotheearthlysplendorreflectedinthearchitectureandfashionsofthechurch.

• MonasticsaroseasearlyChristiancelebrities,withtheirreputationsdependingonadoptingseverelyausterelifestylesorengaginginextraordinarypracticeslikelivingforyearsatopapillar.

• WhileAntonyandSimeonwerehermits,BasiltheGreatdiscouragedasolitarylifestylebecauseitconflictedwiththelawoflove.Basilwrotesomeofthefirstrulesformonasticlife.

• ConstantineborrowedfromNorthAfricathepracticeofsubmittingchurch-widedisputestocouncilsofbishops.Hecalledcouncilstosettlequestionsaboutwhohadlegitimateauthoritytoforgive(theDonatistschism),thenatureofJesus(especiallyArianism),andthenatureoftheTrinity.Theseearlymeetingssettheprecedentforresolvingproblemsviacouncils.

• Constantine’ssuccessorscontinuedtobedeeplyinvolvedintheaffairsofthechurch.• ArianChristianity,effectivelyerasedfromtheimperialChurchbythecouncils,continuedto

flourishacrossthenorthernfrontieramongtheGothsandtheVandals.• TheCouncilofChalcedonin451declaredthatChristwas“consubstantialwiththeFatheras

regardshisdivinity,andthesameconsubstantialwithusasregardshishumanity,”keepingthetwonaturesdistinctwhiletakingcaretomentiontheTheotokos.

ForReflection

1. MacCullochwrites,“AllChristianmonasticismisanimpliedcriticismoftheChurch’sdecisiontobecomealarge-scaleandinclusiveorganization”(201).Discuss.

2. ContrasttheAlexandrianandAntiocheneapproachestotheology.Trytoteaseoutremnantsofeachincurrentfaithtraditions.

3. WhydidNiceneenthusiastsconsiderdevotiontoMaryasafeguardagainstArianism?

4. EpiscopalpriestandarchitectJohnRunklesays,“Architecturealwayswins;youcannotfightthespace.”Considerhowarchitectureandfurnitureshapeworshipinyourowngroupandindividualexperiences.

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Chapter7DefyingChalcedon:AsiaandAfrica(451-622)

MiaphysitesandDyophysites(Nestorians)werethetwogroupsdisenfranchisedbytheCouncilofChalcedon.TheMiaphysiteheadquarterswasinthestill-powerfulcityofAlexandria,Egypt.TheEgyptianbishopshadrefusedtosigntheDefinitionatChalcedon,arguingthattheywouldbekilledforitwhentheyreturnedhome.Historysupportedthisassumption,sinceseveralpriesthadrecentlybeenslaughteredforcompromisingonthemiaphysis(onenature).Inthe540s,Christianityspreadasfarastoday’sSudan,NigeriaandDarfur,backedbyTheodorathewifeofEmperorJustinian,whowaspromotingtheMiaphysitefaction.TheodoraalsosupportedaSyrianinitiativetopropagateMiaphysiteclergy,outofwhichemergedtheSyrianOrthodoxChurch.AnothergreatMiaphysitecenterdevelopedinEthiopia,whichhadepiscopalconnectionstothechurchinAlexandriaandlinguistic,historical,andmissionalconnectionstotheSemiticworld.

• CopticChristianityalreadyusedadistinctlanguageandliturgy,andhaditsownmonasticheroes;disagreementwithChalcedongaveCopticChristiansmotivationtodigdeeperintotheirownheritageandfurtherseparatefromtheCatholicChurch.

• EmperorZenotriedtobringtheSyrianMiaphysitesbackintothefoldbypromotingthecultofSimeonStylitesandconstructingamagnificentchurcharoundhispillar.

• EastSyrianChristianitybecameincreasinglydevotedtotheDyophysite(Nestorian)cause.• NestorianChristianityspreadeastasfarastheChinaSeaandtheIndianOcean.• ChristiansinIndiareveredtheapostleThomasastheirmissionary.Theysettledintolifestyles

andallianceswiththeirHinduneighbors,butmaintainedtieswiththeChurchintheWestuntilCatholicarmiesmostlydestroyedtheirwayoflifeandhistoryinthesixteenthcentury.

• TheChurchintheEastreveredtheAlexandriantheologianOrigen,andadoptedfromhimthebeliefthatintheend,allwillbesaved.

• WhiletheMiaphysitestranslatedtextsintodiverselanguages,theNestorianChurchclungtoSyriac.HavingasinglelanguagegavetheChurchsomecohesiveness,butalsomeantDyophysite/NestorianChristianswerealwaysminoritiesusingaforeignlinguafranca.

• WhiletheMiaphysitescapturedroyalpatronageinEthiopia,NubiaandArmenia,theChurchoftheEastdidnotfindsuchanallegiance

ForReflection

1. Whichmonasticsappealmosttoyou?

2. ConsidertheeffectoflanguageonthegrowthandestrangementofvariousbranchesofChristianity.WhatlanguagesdoChristiansspeakinyourarea,andhowaretheyareconnected?

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Chapter8Islam:TheGreatRealignment(622-1500)

MuhammadwasinfluencedbyJudaism,ChristianityandArabicreligions.Hesynthesizedanddistilledthesefaiths,enhancedbypersonalrevelations,tocreateanewone.Fromitsveryroots,Islamwasbothmilitantandpoetic.InArabia,MuslimssoughttoeradicateChristianity,despiteearliercommitmentstotolerateall“peopleofthebook”anddespiteageneraltolerationelsewhereofbothChristiansandJews.MeanwhileinChina,Christianmissionwassuccessfulduringcertainperiods,dependingonthecurrentrulingpowers.ChristianitywasfacingextinctioninAfrica,withtheMamlukstakingoverEgypt.TheEthiopianCopticChurchsurvived,thoughisolatedanddevelopingitsowncanonandtraditions.ItretainedtieswiththeCatholicChurchthroughtheepiscopacy,sinceEthiopiahadnonativebishops.

• ChristiansremarkedonIslamintermsandmannersreservedforsectsofChristianitytheyconsideredheretical,notthewaytheywroteaboutZoroastrianismorRomancults.

• SomeMuslimrulerssuppressedChristianity.OthershonoredChristianpriestsandsupportedthemonasteriesfinancially.TheQur’anitselfiscontradictoryinitstreatmentofmonasteries.

• MiaphysitesandDyophysitesoftenexperiencedlessgriefunderIslamicrulethantheyhadundertheimperialChurch.

• AblacklimestonestelediscoveredbyaJesuitmissioninthe1620smemorializestheprotectionsofChristiansinChina.

• DyophysiteChristianswhoevangelizedChinausedlanguageandimageryfromTaoism,whichemphasizedoriginalgoodnessinhumannature.TheyalsoincorporatedelementsofBuddhismthatwerefamiliartotheirconverts.

• Fortwocenturies,manyoftheMongolrulers(includingGenghisKhanandKublaiKhan)wereDyophysiteChristiansorweremarriedtoChristianKeraitprincesses.

• ChristianityinChinalackedindigenoussupportandwaslaterallbutwipedoutbytheMingDynasty.

ForReflection

1. InwhatwaysdoestheroleoftheQur’aninIslamparalleltheroleoftheincarnateSoninChristianity?

2. DyophysiteChristianspreferredbarecrossestocrucifixesbecausetheideaofJesusmakingGodsufferonthecrosswasproblematictotheirunderstandingofthetwonaturesofJesus.MiaphysiteArmeniansalsokepttheircrossesbare,becausetheimageofJesusonthecrosschallengedtheirnotionofJesushavingasinglenature.Bycontrast,ChalcedonianChristianspreferredthecrucifixtothebarecross.Whereisyourcomfortlevel,why?

3. ForexcitingreadingontheMamlukrisetopower,lookupShajaral-Durr,akidnappedslavegirlwhorosetoruleEgypt.

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Chapter9TheMakingofLatinChristianity(300-500)

Sincethethirdcentury,theCatholicChurch(whichMacCullochsuggestsshouldmoreaccuratelybecalled“theWesternChurchoftheLatinRite”)hasdependedonthecharismaofPeter,fromwhomtheyclaimapostolicdescent.Inthefifthcentury,PopeLeobegantoseetheCatholicChurchasthearbiterofallChristiandoctrine.Thepope’sclaimtoauthorityhasneverbeengroundedintheologicaltraining,butratheronthetombsoftheapostles.ThegreatestshaperofLatinChristiantheologywasnotapopebutabishopandtheologianknownasAugustineofHippo.

• Jerome’stranslationoftheBiblefromGreektoLatin(theVulgate)wasunchallengedinWesterncultureforoverathousandyears.

• StrongbishopslikeAmbrose,oftenhastilyappointedfrompoliticalratherthanasceticbackgrounds,becametheorderoftheday.

• Theempirewasbesiegedbyattacksfromthenorth,andfinallythecityofRomewassackedbytheVisigotharmy,whicheventuallyledtotheemperorinConstantinoplerulingthewholeempire.

• AugustinespokeLatin,wasnotterriblyfamiliarwithPlatoorAristotle.HebecamemoreinfluentialinwesternChristianthoughtthananyoneexcept,perhaps,PaulofTarsus.Infact,itisdifficultforwesternerstoreadPaulwithoutthelookingthroughthelensofAugustine,sothoroughwashisreinterpretation.

• TheimportanceofPlatoandAristotletoChristiandoctrinewasdiscussedinChapter1.Augustine’slackofknowledgeinthisarea,andChristianity’sdependenceonAugustiniantheology,createdanopportunityforlatertheologianstoreturntothese“lost”ideasandplacethemindialoguewithAugustine’swork.

• Augustinedevelopedadoctrineoftheodicytorespondtothevexingquestion,“IfGodcreatedeverything,andGodisallgoodandall-knowingandallpowerful,whyisthereevilintheworld?”Augustinerepliedthatevildoesnotexist.Evilwasnotcreated;itisjustthelackofthegoodnessthatGoddidcreate.

ForReflection:

1. Forfurtherreading,acquireacopyofProba’sCento.Readaportion,anddiscussthestyle,mechanics,andpossiblemotivesofthework.

2. Augustinethoughtthataskingwhereevilcomesfromislikewantingtohearwhatmakesthesoundofsilence,ortryingtoseedarkness.Whatdoyouthink?

3. DoesAugustine’sdenialoftheexistenceofevilsolvethetheodicyproblem?Doesitcreatenewproblemsinhowweunderstandtheadequacy,love,orgoodnessofGod?

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Chapter10 LatinChristendom:NewFrontiers(500-1000)

Midwaythroughthemillennium,Latincultureverynearlydisappeared.Textsstopbeingcopiedforovertwocenturiesandmanywerelost.Theareaoftheformerempiredevolvedintosmallkingdoms,oftenruledbyGoths(typicallyArianChristians).ArianandCatholicChristianityexistedsidebysideformanyyears,withtheimportanceofsaintscontinuingtoattestCatholictriumphoverArianismamongthecommonpeople.MissionsintonorthernEuropeprospered,andtheBritishIslesbecametheirownmissionpowerhouse.Inthelastquarterofthemillennium,theMerovingiandynastyinFrancegavewaytoCharlemagneandtheCarolingians.

• CelticmonasterieswereinfluencedbySyrianorEgyptianliterature;theytendedtobemoreoptimisticthaneasternmonastics;however,thisdidnotcausethemtobelessascetic.

• Celticmonasteriesdevelopedtariffbooks,predecessorstothesystemofpenancethatwouldlatercauseconflictintheWesternChurchandcontributetotheProtestantReformation.

• BeforethemissionofBishopAugustine,CanterburyalreadyhadabishopandachurchdedicatedtoSt.MartinofTours;thus,themissionwasnotaboutmakingnewbelieverssomuchasconvertingtheregiontopapalobedience.

• Missionarieswereoftenofnoblebloodandappealeddirectlytolocalnobles,seekingsubmissionofthecommunityratherthanindividualconversiontotheGospel.

• Inthe7thand8thcenturies,theBritishIsleswerethesourceofahugeamountofmissionwork,mostlyviasearoutesintothelowcountriesandSaxony.

• Inthecenturyfrom650-750,elevenofeighteenpopes(over60%)hadGreekorotherEasternbackground,thusChristianitywasmoreconsolidatedthanusual.

• InFrancia,PippinandCharlemagneusedmonasteriesasawaytodisposeofinconvenientmonarchs.Women,however,wereabletoturnthisconceptonitshead;noblewomenoftenenteredconventstoleademancipatedlivesandrisetopowerasabbesses.Religiouslifeaffordedwomenmorefreedomandpowerthanmarriage;sometimestheyevenadoptedthemitrewornbybishops.

• BenedictinemonasteriesgrewintonewrolesnotmentionedintheRuleofSt.Benedict:o Scholarshipo Eucharisticintercessiono Socialengineering

ForReflection

1. ContrastGenevievetoJoanofArcasafemaleiconofChristiancharacter.

2. CompareaphotographofJesusasGoodShepherdinthelunetteintheMausoleumofGallaPlacidiatootherartisticdepictionsofJesusasGoodShepherd.Wheredoesthisdepictionfitonthespectrumbetweenthesimplygarbedearlier(evenpre-Christian)depictionsoftheshepherd,andtheeventualshepherd-kingoflaterChristianart?

3. Visithttp://www.ravennamosaici.it/toseeimagesofArianartinSant’ApolinnareNuovo.

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Chapter11 TheWest:UniversalEmperororUniversalPope?(900-1200)

Thisistheageofsplendidabbeys,soaringcathedrals,serfs,knightsandthebeginningofthecrusades.Whereasbefore,wealthhadbeengatheredchieflyfromtheedgesoftheempirethroughwarfare,nownobilitypulledwealthfromwithintheirownterritorybyexploitingthelandtheycontrolled.Thepopulationwaslargelyreducedtoserfdom,andeconomicproductivitywasdemanded.

• NewabbeysinspiredbytheBenedictinemonasteryinClunywerededicatedaspriories,constitutingapowerfulCluniacOrder.

• ClunycapitalizedonthepopularityofChristianpilgrimages,settingupprioriesaswaystations.• Cluny’sinvestmentinthepilgrimrouteledthemtodiscardthepacifistwaysofearlier

monasteriesandespousetheideaoffightingforGod.• Thechurch’spastoralconcernexpanded,alongwiththedemandforchurchsupport;

parishionerswithfarmswerepressedtocontribute10%oftheirproduce,thescripturaltithe.• Theexpansionofpastoralcarealsoextendedtothechurch’sinterestinsexualrelationshipsand

marriage.Churchweddingsbecamepopularandthusbeganthechurch’sinsistencethatpriestsperform(ratherthanmerelywitness)thecontract.

• Thecustomofprimogeniture(eldestsontakesall)wasestablishedinthetwelfthcentury,strengtheningtheconcernformarriage,andshiftingthechurchtowardacelibatepriesthoodtoprotectchurchlandsfrominheritancebypriests’children.

• Withtheintroductionofcanonlaw,marriedpriestswereconsideredsinful,theirwivesconcubines,andtheirchildrenillegitimate.

• PopeUrbanassertedthatdeathwhileoncrusadeassuredthesoldierofaplaceinheaven.• TheCrusadesstrengthenedtheWesternChurch,butweakenedtheChristianempireintheEast

–particularlyin1204whenoverzealouscrusaderscalledtodefendConstantinoplefromMuslimsinsteadsackedthecity.

• TheideaofMary’sperpetualvirginitydevelopedduringthistime,astheWesternChurchstruggledwiththeimplicationsofcallingMary“MotherofGod.”

ForReflection

1. Theparishwasintroducedinthisperiod,ideallyrepresentinganareawithboundariesthatcouldbewalkedwithinanhourortwo.ConsiderhowtheLatinempireandthechurchwereinmanywayssettlingdownduringthisperiod,usingandthinkingoflandinnewways.Considerhowtravel,pilgrimage,andthecrusadescontrastorfitintothispicture.

2. ContrasttheconcernsoftheCisterians,Carthusians,andthoseoftheAugustinianmovement.

3. TheauthorreferstoPopeGregory’sreformsasatop-down“Reformation”andevencapitalizestheword.Howdidyoureacttothiswordchoice?Whatassociationsdoyoumakewithreformation,andhowdotheGregorianreformsfitorcontrastwiththoseassociations?

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Chapter12 AChurchforallPeople?(1100–1300)

Theageofcathedralsgavewaytotheperiodofscholasticism,wherethecenteroflearningmovedfromeleventh-centurycathedralschoolsfocusingonafieldnowcalled“theology,”tocity-ownedschools(especiallyinItaly)modeledafterIslamiclearningwithlectures,professors,anddegrees.WesternChurchauthoritiesfeltthreatenedbyscholasticism,withitsemphasisondiscussionandharmonizationofthought,atatimewhentheywerealsothreatenedbyconcernsabout“heresy,”achargeoftenleveledatcharismaticandvocalgroupsthatdidnotfalleasilyunderchurchhierarchyandcontrol.

KeyPoints:

• ScholasticismbroughtaboutarevivalofAristotelianthoughtintheLatinWest,mostlychampionedbyThomasAquinas.

• Aquinas,aDominican,didnotseektocontradictthePlatonic“unmovedmover,”buttoreconcilethisconceptofdivinitywithAristotle’ssystem,inhisvoluminousSummaTheologica.

• Personalmysticismofferedanotheravenueoflearning,particularlyforwomen,sincetheywereexcludedfromtheuniversity.Famegainedthroughmysticspiritualitywasfickleandaslikelytoearnacondemnationasanaccolade.

• Franciscanspiritualitycontinueditsinfluence,especiallypopularbecauseFrancis’sJesuswassopersonal.

• LaterFranciscanswereresponsibleforgrowinganimositytowardJews,originallysparkedbyAugustineofHippo’sremarkthatJewswereonlyleftintheworldasasignandwarningtoChristians.

• IntheChristianWest,Jewswereusuallytoleratedbutweremarginalizedandsometimesattacked.ManyJewstookupmoneylendingasaniche,sinceChristianswereprohibitedfromearninginterest.

• Mendicantpreachingbecamesopopular,itinfluencedarchitecture,resultinginanumberofhallchurchesalloverEurope,withsinglenavesforlargecrowds.

• AttheFourthLateranCouncil,PopeInnocentIIIaddressed:o Whichreligiousorderstorecognizeandwhichtocallheretical.o AllChristiansshouldreceivetheEucharistonceperyear,precededbyconfession.o PriestsweretoinstructthefaithfulontheEucharistandtransubstantiation.o Proceduresfortheinquisitionofheretics.

ForReflection

1. HowweretheDominicanandFranciscanordersdifferent?

2. MeisterEckhartwrotethat“EverycreatureisawordofGod.”Reflectontheprecisionandtheimplicationsofthisstatement.

3. ReadexcerptsfromTheCloudofUnknowingorotherworksbysomeofthemysticsmentionedinthischapter:BridgetofSweden,MargueritePorete,andHildegardofBingen.Whatideasconnecttheexcerptsyouchose?

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Chapter13 FaithinaNewRome(451-900)

ThischapterbeginsPartVofthebook,coveringOrthodoxy,sothedatesarenotsequentialwiththepreviouschapter.WhiletheWesternChurchfocusedonChristiandoctrineandheresyduringthelasthalfofthefirstmillennium(seechapters9and10),theOrthodoxChurchwrestledwithitsloveoficonsversustheSecondCommandment,anddevelopeditsowndistinctivedoctrines.

• TheByzantineEmpiredidnotburnmanyheretics.Instead,theOrthodoxChurchwrotepointedhymnsaboutitsenemies.

• HagiaSophiainConstantinopleissomewhatanalogoustoSt.Peter’sbasilicainRome.• Theosis(unionwithdivinity)isexpressedthrougharchitecture,literature,andhagiography.For

instance,theiconostasiswhichmayseemtobeabarrierbetweentheworshiperandGod,isconsideredawindowintodivinitybecauseoftheiconsitholds;thus,itdoesnotseparatetheworshiperfromGodbutdrawstheworshipercloser.

• TheiconsofOrthodoxyweredefendedfromtheSecondCommandment’sprohibitionagainstgravenimagesbytheirartform(flat,bothinmediumandperspective)andsometimesbydenyingthattheprohibitionwasastand-alonecommandment;subsumingitintothefirstcommandmentmadeimagesadangerousmediumratherthananoutrightsin.

• Inthelate700s,EasternChristiansbegantoworrythatperhapsMuslimsandWesternChristianswererightabouttheirimagesafterall,andaperiodoficonoclastpoliciesensued,ledbytheByzantineEmperorhimself,LeoIII.

• Asthependulumfinallyswungbacktofavoricons,theiconophilesstrengthenedtheirargumentsandtheirposition,bothbyemployingAristoteliancategoriesandcauses,andleaningontheintricatenuancesoftheGreeklanguageasinprevioustheologicaldebates.SomeofthesedistinctionsweremisunderstoodbyChristiansintheWest,whothoughtOrthodoxChristianswereworshipingimagesequallywithGod.

• Thegreatestdefendersoficonswerebothempresses:IreneandTheodora.• PalestinianmonasteriesexertedapowerfulandlastinginfluenceonthemusicofOrthodoxy.• ThecreationoftheCyrillicalphabetallowedKhanBoris-Michaelandhisclergytopromote

ChristianityintheSlavoniclanguageandevendevelopSlavonicliturgy–pushingbackagainsttheChurchintheWestandtheMoravianswiththeirLatinliturgy.

ForDiscussion

1. WhilethechurchintheWestemphasizedoriginalsin,theGreektraditionfocusedontheosis,theideathathumanitycouldbesanctifiedordeifiedthroughtheChurch.Accordingly,hagiographiestracingthebiographyofsaintsundergoingthisprocessbecameextremelypopular.Alternately,onemightsuggestthatthepopularityofsuchliteraturefueledthetheology.Doesartimitatelife,ordoesnotlifeimitateart?

2. DrawingonthewisdomofDionysiustheAreopagite,Orthodoxscholarshipbeganinthiseratodevelopastrongapophatictradition.TheyfounditusefultotalkaboutwhatGodisnot,ratherthanwhatGodis.Workfromthisperspectiveinsomemediumthatappealstoyou,perhapspoetry,wordcollage,orthinkingaloudwithasmallgroup.

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Chapter14 Orthodoxy:MorethananEmpire(900-1700)

Havingsurvivedtheinternalstruggleoficonoclasm,theChurchintheEastwasnowchallengedbyanumberofcrises.WhentheFourthCrusadegaveVenitianstheopportunitytosettlepersonaldebts,theysackedConstantinople,lootedrelics,andleftEast/Westrelationsinastatealmostbeyondrepair.TheByzantineEmpiresoonfelltotheOttomanEmpireandcameunderMuslimcontrol;however,itwaswithinthisenvironmentthattheOrthodoxChurchdevelopedmuchofthecharacteritstillretains.

KeyPoints

• MacedonianemperorsbefriendedMiaphysiteChristiansandotherpeopleChalcedonianChristiansviewedasheretics.

• MountAthos,“theonlystateintheworldwithanentirelymalepopulation,”becamethemostsignificantholymountainintheByzantineEmpire.

• ThefalloftheSecondRometotheOttomanEmpirehadrootsintheFourthCrusade,whichbeganasaVenetiannavalcampaignagainstCairobutturnedagainstConstantinoplewhenCrusaderscouldnotmusterenoughtroopstofilltheships.

• CrusaderslootedtherelicsofByzantium;Romewasmoreconcernedwithhowtoauthenticatethemthanwiththeethicsofthelooting.Eventuallyduplicatecopiesofthestolenrelicsreappearedattheiroriginalsites,andtheirrestorationswerehailedasmiracles.

• Lessthanacenturylater,ConstantinoplewasreturnedtoByzantinecontrol,butneveragainregaineditspoliticalstrengthandcohesiveness.

• AftertheFourthCrusadein1204,thestructureofOrthodoxybecamelessimperialandmorestrictlyreligious.

• ManyOrthodoxChristiansfoundthemselvesunderIslamicruleastheOttomanEmpireencroachedontheempire.

• Monasteriestendtoflourishwhensecularadministrationfails.• GreektheologiansrecognizedtheargumentsofOrigenintheLatindevelopmentofpurgatory,

drivinganadditionalwedgebetweenEasternandWesterntheology.• Hesychasmisamysticalstyleofprayermeaning“tokeepstillness.”Oneofthemajor

contributionsofhesychasmisTheJesusPrayer.

ForReflection

1. TheJesusPrayerisarepetitionofasingledevotionalrephrase,renderedinEnglish,“LordJesusChrist,SonofthelivingGod,havemercyonme.”HesychaststaughtthatonemightconcentrateonaprayersuchasthisuntilGod’sveryessencewasperceived.Barlaamarguedthatprayerslikethisranafoulofapophaticwisdom,whichsaystheindividualcannotperceiveGod’sessence.MakeanargumentfororagainstBarlaam.Thenswitchsides.

2. CriticsofDomenikosTheotokopoulos(ElGreco)complainedthathisartworkwasoddandincomprehensible.Lookatexamplesofhiswork.Whatdidhedowithlight,elongation,andotheremotivedepictionsthatwasnewtothoseaccustomedtotheiconographersoftheCretanSchool,forexampleAndreasRitzos?YoumayalsocompareElGreco’siconstohislaterworks,suchasTheOpeningoftheFifthSeal.

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Chapter15 Russia:TheThirdRome(900-1800)

ThischaptertracestheriseofRussiafromagroupofsmallkingdomsestablishedbytheRus’,NorsemanandVikingswhohadinvadedthearea.TheRus’alsoattackedConstantinople,andPhotiosrespondedbysendingoutmissionariestoevangelizethem.Asaresult,OrthodoxChristianityandarchitecturespreadintoareaofLithuania,Muscovy,andthesurroundinglandsthatwouldbecomeRussia.

• KievhadwarmerrelationswiththeLatinChurchthantheGreekOrthodoxdid,becauseKievanChristianswerenotinitiallyconvincedCatholicswereheretics.

• TheTatars(notdifferentfromTartars,butamorecorrecttermwhenappliedtopeople)werenomads.ATatararmyledbyasonofGenhisKanseizedRus’andestablishedtheKipchakKhanate.

• ThegrandprincesofLithuaniaremaineduncommittedtoanyofthethreegreatmonotheismsforaslongaspossible,formingandre-formingstrategicalliances.

• GrandPrinceOlgredofLithuaniaexecutedthreeChristiansinVilniusforrefusingmeatwhilefasting.Constantinoplecelebratedtheexecutedmenas“theVilniusmartyrs”andusedtheirmemorytostrengthenrelationsbetweenConstantinopleandMuscovy.

• LithuaniaeventuallybecameCatholic,becausetheGrandPrincesecuredamarriagetoaPolishprincess,andthePolishwerealreadyCatholics.

• Foralongtime,Rus’hadnoacademiccentersofscholarship.Therewasnosustainedinterestinrevivingpre-ChristianGreekorRomanart;theonlyartwastheartoftheChurch,whichprizedtraditionoverinnovation.AndreiRublevsoexemplifiedthisstyle,inmoderntimestheartist/monkwasdeclaredasaint.

• SergiusofRadonezhestablishedTrinityLavrabecausehesoughttoliveinisolation.Whenseekersflockedtohim,headoptedtheofficeofabbotandaStoudite(orStudite)rule.Thispatternwasrepeatedbyothersasmonasticlifespread.

• Muscoviteclericsweresosuretheworldwasgoingtoendafterwhattheyconsideredtheseventhmillenniumsincecreation,theirliturgicalkalendarsdidnotextendbeyond1492.

• Whentheworlddidnotinfactend,thecalculationwasnotperceivedasamistake;ratherthepeoplehadreceivedGod’sgraceandthustheMuscovitesenseofimperialmissiononlygrewstronger.Morechurcheswerebuilt,justasinWesternEuropeafterthesurvivaloftheexpectedendtimein1000.Oniondomesandextravagantspiresandgablescharacterizethearchitectureofthisera.

• Conflictbetween“possessors”and“non-possessors”overthegoodorevilofmonasticwealthwasoftenabattleovercontrolofthatwealthandinfluence.

• IvantheTerrible(asheisknownintheWest)waspartiallyraisedbyamonkofthe“possessor”persuasion.ThepopetriedtoinviteIvantotheCouncilofTrent,butCatholicPoleskidnappedthemessengerandpreventeddeliveryofthemessage.

ForReflection

1. MacCullochdescribestheRedSquareCathedralasatributetoIvan’seightfoldvictories,andtothebiblicalsymbolismofthenumber8.WhereisthatsymbolismfoundintheBible?

2. Theauthorisfondoftheterm“historicaccident”todescribevariouseventsthatturnedthecourseofhistory.Whatdoesthatphrasemeantoyou?Howdoyoufeelwhenyouencounterit?

19

Chapter16 PerspectivesontheTrueChurch(1300-1517)

TheBlackDeathkilledoneinthreeEuropeans;insomeplacesthedeathtollwasashighastwothirds.Europebecamepreoccupiedwithdeath,withprayerasthelinkbetweenthelivingandthedead.Attheendofthisperiod,humanismledpeopletothinkofabrighterfuturehereonearth.

• Purgatorybecamemorepronounced,especiallyinthenorth.Prayerwasthelinkbetweenlivinganddead;thelivingprayedforthoseinPurgatoryandthedead(inHeaven)prayedforthosestillliving.

• Thesaleofindulgencesraisedfundsforbuildingchurches,hospitals,andelderhomes.• Inthe14thcentury,thepapalmonarchywaschallengedbyWilliamofOckhamandothers,

whodeclaredthePope“Antichrist”oraheretic.Imperialistssupportedtheseattacks,hopingtoswaypowerawayfromthechurch.

• Conciliaristspromotedtheideathatachurchcouncilhasthegreatestauthorityinthechurch,evenoverthepope.Thefirstexperimentfailed,resultingintworivalpopesbothlawfullyelected,andtheresolutionledtoathird.

• PiouslaypersonsturnedtotheDevotioModernaasameanstoreachouttoGodthroughtheprintedtext.EspeciallyintheNetherlandsandGermany,peoplewereaslikelytobereadingattheMassaslistening.Wealthyparishionersevenbuiltenclosedpewstoblockoutdistractions.

• JohnWyclifsaidthetrueChurchwasinvisible,sincewecannotknowwhoissavedordamned.HetranslatedtheBibleintoEnglish.Decadesafterhisdeath,theChurchburnedhisbonesandcalledhimaheretic,butduringhislifetimehewasprotectedbytheprince.

• JanHuswasinfluencedbyWyclifbuthismovementwasanassertionofCzechidentityintheBohemianChurch,whichhadbeentakenoverbyGermans.BecauseHussitesofferedconsecratedwinetolaity(whileonlybreadwasthenorm),thechalicebecamethesymboloftheirmovement.

• HumanismdevelopedinItalyinthefourteenthcentury(thoughthenamecamelater),closelyassociatedwiththeRenaissanceandtherediscoveryofGreekandLatintexts.

• Erasmuswas“thesupremehumanistscholar;”hemadeaparallelGreekandLatinNewTestament,andchallengedallegoricalinterpretationrunamok.

ForReflection

1. SurvivorsoftheBlackPlagueoftensoughtsomeonetoblameforGod’sanger:oneself,society,orsomescapegoat.ConsiderhowallthreeimpulsesarereflectedintheflagellantmovementinnorthernEurope.

2. ArecentarchaeologicalfindinEdinburghunearthedacommunalgraveyardusedbyahospitaluntil1640.Forensicartistsreconstructedthefacesofthedead,manyofwhomwerelikelyvictimsoftheplague.See:http://www.culture24.org.uk/history-and-heritage/archaeology/art492359-eerie-reconstructions-show-faces-and-diets-of-medieval-men-and-women-in-edinburgh-graveyard#.U9i9yWaHfH8.twitter

20

Chapter17 AHouseDivided(1517–1660)

Duringthisperiod,theChurch,salvation,andthesacramentswerecompletelyreconsidered.Theeventualresultwastwodistinctlydifferenttraditions:CatholicandReformed,withtheChurchofEnglandstraddlingthem.

• ForMartinLuther,salvationwasnotGodmakinghumansrighteous,butGodcallinghumansrighteous,eventhoughtheywerenotbeforeorafter.ThisviewmadePurgatoryobsolete,butLuthertookafewyearstorealizeit.

• LutheropposedtheEucharistasaMass,whichseemedtoclaimthatChristwasbeingre-sacrificedeverytime.Whilemaintainingtheclaimoftherealpresenceinthebreadandwine,herejectedtransubstantiation.

• ZwinglirejectedtheRomanCatholicChurchformanyofthesamereasons,yetstrongargumentskeptthetwoatadistance:

o ZwinglicouldnotunderstandwhyLutherkepttheideaofrealpresence.o ZwingliviewedsacramentsassomethingpeopledidforGod,notsomethingGoddidfor

people.EucharistandbaptismwerecommunalpromisestoGod,butnothingmagichappenedateither.

o LutherwassohorrifiedatZwingli’sviewofthesacraments,headvisedpeopletohavetheirchildrenbaptizedCatholicratherthaninoneofZwingli’schurches.

o LuthersupportedinfantbaptismbecausehesawbaptismassomethingGoddoesforpeople.ZwinglisupporteditbecausehesawtheChurchofZurichasbeingforallofZurichandthusachildwasbaptizedbythecommunityratherthanhavingtooptin.

• RadicalswhocameafterLutherandZwinglirevertedtoanearlierformofChristianity,refusingtoswearoathsortakeuptheswordandexpecting(andreceiving)persecution.Othersactuallytookupthesword(e.g.JohnofLeyden).

• KingHenryVIIIwasthefirstEuropeankingtorepudiatepapaljurisdiction.• ThomasCranmer,ArchbishopofCanterbury,reorganizedthechurchinEngland.Cranmershut

downallthemonasteries.ManypriestswhostillheldtoCatholicbeliefswentintohiding,untilCranmerwasburnedatthestakewhenLadyMarytookthecrown.

• UnderQueenElizabeth,EnglandsettledintoaReformedtradition,butwithbishops,cathedrals,andmedievalworship.

• Meanwhile,reformationwassuccessfulinStrasburg(underBucer)andGeneva(underCalvin).

ForReflection

1. Erasmuswrote,“IwillputupwiththisChurchuntilIseeabetterone;anditwillhavetoputupwithme,untilIbecomebetter.”Haveyoueverfeltthisway?Haveyoueverchangedchurchesordenominationsfortheologicalreasons,orconsidereddoingsobutremained?Why?

2. SomeradicalscalledtheBible“thepaperpope,”insistingthatChristianslooktotheirowninnerlighttohearGod’svoiceratherthanrelyingontheBible.HowhasthetensionbetweenpersonalrevelationandScriptureplayedoutinyourlife,andinthetraditionsoffaithtowhichyou’vebeenexposed?

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Chapter18 Rome’sRenewal(1500-1700)

RomanCatholicChurchwasalsochallengedandchangedbynewtheologicalthinkinganddevotionalpractices,bothinconversationwithReformerslikeLuther,andfromtheChurch’sownclericsandlocalmenandwomen.ConflictintheRomanCatholicChurchissometimescharacterizedasacontestbetweentheSpirituali(CardinalReginaldPole,poetVitoriaColonna,Michelangelo,andJesuitswhowantedtoadoptsomeofLuther’sideasonjustificationbyfaith)intensionwiththeZelanti(Franciscansandotherconservativestryingtopreservecentralizedpower).However,itisavastoversimplificationtoimaginetwosuchteams.

1. TheSpanishhereticJuandeValdesfledtoItalytoavoidtheSpanishInquisition,andfoundtheGildsameansofspiritualcommunityandrenewal.

2. TherevelationofIgnatiusledhimtorevereratherthanrejectchurchauthority;hisSpiritualExercisesreceivedpapalapprovalforuseinsystematicself-examinationwithaspiritualdirector.

3. ThosewhogatheredaroundIgnatiuswhenheleftSpaintoavoidtheSpanishInquisitionbecameknownasJesuits,thoughtheycallthemselvesaCompagniaorSocietyofJesus.TheyquicklyfoundofficialfavorandbecamepartoftheSpirituali.

4. MostoftheSpiritualileadersfledtoeasternornorthernEuropewhenthepoliticalclimatechanged.ARomanInquisitionwasinstituted,andremainingSpiritualifeltlittleloyaltytotheRomanCatholicChurch.

5. TheCouncilofTrentemphasizedtheneedtoseetheBibleinthecontextoftradition,explainedbyChurchauthority.

6. TheCouncilofTrentlaunchedaneraof“Counter-Reformation”characterizedbyuniformliturgyinLatin.Thecelibatepriesthoodwasreaffirmed,andthepope’sauthorityoverbishopswasemphasized.

7. TheSpanishInquisition,intentonkeepingSpainCatholic,wassuspiciousofJesuitsandDominicans,andotherdeepthinkerslikeTeresaofAvilaandJohnoftheCross.

8. FranceandPoland-LithuaniawereslowertocomeunderthereachesoftheCouncilofTrent;FrancebecausetheHuguenotshadachievedprivilegedstatus,andPoland-LithuaniabecauseoftheearlyProtestantworkthere.Thelatterwaseventuallywonoverbysteadymissionarywork,especiallyfreeJesuiteducation.

9. AsCatholicandProtestantChristianitysettledintotheirownrhythms,theirarchitecturedivergedtoreflecttheirownpractices:Protestantchurcheswerelockedduringtheweekandthepulpitwasmostprominent;CatholicChurchesbecamemoremajesticthanever,withthehighaltarasthevisualfocus.

ForReflection:

1. Considerhowthemarriageofclergyaffectedmasculinityexpectations,notonlyamongProtestantclergybutalsoCatholics,andextendedtotheincreasedsuppressionofhomosexualityamongbothclergyandlaypersons.

2. ReadexcerptsoftheMalleusMaleficarum,orstoriesofEuropeanwitchtrials.Somewritershavecalledthewitchhuntsawomen’sholocaust,sincearound85%ofthoseexecutedwerefemale.Considerwhywomenwouldbedisproportionallyaffected.

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Chapter19 AWorldwideFaith(1500-1800)

Duringthesethreehundredyears,Christianitybecamemoreprominentaroundtheglobe–Catholicismprimarilythroughmission,andProtestantChristianityabitlaterthroughtheimmigrationandre-settlingofProtestantChristiansseekingtocreateanewEden.

1. PortugueseandSpanishexportationofChristianityintotheNewWorldmitigatedsomewhatagainstpapalandmonarchialgreed;FranciscansandDominicansprotestedagainsttheenslavementandforcedconversionofnatives.

2. NativeAmericankingdomsdidnotsuccumbtoforceuntiltheyhadalreadysuccumbedtodisease.WithinthreecenturiesofEuropeancontact,indigenouspopulationsinthewesternhemispherewereattenpercenttheiroriginalnumbers.

3. TheSpaniards,perhapsmoresecureintheirownculture,weremorereadythantheEnglishtorecognizetribalsocietiesandmarryintothem.

4. FriarsandJesuitslearnednativelanguages,partlytoprotecttheirconvertsfromcolonistmeddling.

5. ChristianmissioninbothAsiaandAfricawerebasedonPortuguesetradingroutesandconnectionswithnobles.

6. InAsia,Counter-Reformationmissionwaslargelyunsuccessful,sinceconversiontoChristianitymeantlosingone’scaste.Missionariesweresomewhatsuccessfulwiththosealreadyinthelowestcaste.

7. SomeJesuitsbeganadaptingthemselvestotheculturebydressinglikeConfucianscholarswithlongbeards.

8. EventuallytheChinesemissioncountedaquarterofamillionconverts,butwithonly75prieststoservethem.Unwillingtogiveindigenouspeopleequalityasclergy,themissionariesinstalled“Chinesevirgins”who,likeUrsalines,pledgedcelibacyandlivedathome.Thesevirginsministeredtothelaitywhenpriestscouldnotbepresent.

9. JesuitsdominatedtheJapanesemissionandtookJapanesecultureseriously.WhenFranciscanfriarsarrived,theyopposedJapaneseculturemostlytospitetheJesuits;asaresult,manyfriarswerecrucified.

10. InAfrica,greaterattemptsweremadetoestablishindigenousclergy.11. Baptismalministrieswereestablishedatbothendsoftheslavetraderoute.

ForReflection:

1. Cortes,aRomanCatholic,callednativetemplesheencountered“mosques.”ProtestantsinteractingwithindigenouspeopleoftenusedCatholictermssuchas“priest”whenwritingaboutnativereligions.Whatcanwelearnfromthesewordchoices?

2. ReflectontheunintendedconsequencesofLasCasasmakinghisargumentagainstslaverybasedontheperceivedcharacterandintelligenceofhisconvertsratherthantheirintrinsicrightsashumanbeings.

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Chapter20:ProtestantAwakenings(1600-1800)

WhileCatholicpowerswerebusywithconquestsandworldwideevangelism,Protestantswerestillwrestlingwithidentityissues.TheysoughttodistinguishthemselvesfromCatholicism,andtodistinguishamongthemselvesaseachgroupclaimedtodefineexactlywhatProtestantismwas.Duringthistime,pietism,amovementfocusedonspiritualgrowththroughpersonaldevotion,spreadfromLutheranGermanyacrossEuropetoEnglandandtheAmericancolonies.

1. Pietismemphasizedparishlifeandencouragedthedevotionoflaypeople.Children’seducationwasparamountandextendedtoorphansandthepoor.

2. Musicplayedanimportantroleinpietism,inProtestantismingeneral,andintheriseofAfricanChristianspiritualityinNorthAmerica.

3. PuritanswerelessinclinedtoevangelismbecausecovenanttheologyimpliedthenativesshoulddemonstratetheirelectstatusbytakinginitiativeorimitatingChristianneighbors.

4. BeliefsabouttheLastDaysaffectedmanyattitudesinthisperiod.Forexample,OliverCromwelltoleratedJewsbecausehebelievedtheirconversionwasneededtocatalyzethereturnofChrist.

5. JohnEliot’sprayertownswereestablishedalongsideEnglishsettlementstoteachNativeAmericanshowtoliveasChristians.

6. PennsylvaniawasnotlongsuccessfulinfulfillingWilliamPenn’svisionoffreeexerciseofreligionforallmonotheists;however,thestatedidsuccessfullyfosterahatredforslavery,especiallyamongQuakers.

7. Inthelate17thcentury,theChurchofEnglandagreedtotolerateProtestantDissentinggroups.TheunintendedconsequenceofthisdecisionwastoencourageAnglicansatvariancewiththeChurchtodeclarethemselvesdissenterswhensomewouldhavepreferredtoremainwithintheChurch.

8. TheMoravianChurch,originatingwithBohemiansfleeingHabsburgrecatholicization,emphasizedanderoticizedthesufferingofChristandspokeoftheHolySpiritasMother.

9. TheEvangelicalRevivalsprangfromanumberofdevotionalgroupsandvoluntaryactivismsocieties,andculminatedinthemovementcalledMethodism,whichfounderJohnWesleyneverintendedtobecomeanewchurch.WesleysteppedoutsidetheChurchofEnglandwhenhebeganordaininghisownministerswithoutabishop;however,hemaintainedthathelivedanddiedanAnglican.

10. Parisheswereoriginallyestablishedbywalkingdistance,asystemthatdidnotexpandwellforpopulationgrowth;thusMethodismemployedopenairpreachingastheJesuitshaddone.

ForReflection:

1. HowdidthepowerstructureofparishesintheNewWorlddifferfromintheChurchofEngland?Howmightthishaveaffectedthegovernmentthatwouldlaterbeformed?

2. Considertherelationshipbetweenbaptismandslavery.

3. Discussthedifferencebetweenreligioustolerationandreligiousliberty.

4. Theauthorusesthetermadjective“extrovert”repeatedlytocontrastTheAwakeningtothestatusquoagainstwhichitreacted.Discussitsmeaninganditssignificanceinchurchestoday.

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Chapter21Enlightenment:AllyorEnemy?(1492–1815)

Inthisera,religionwasinfluencedbymanyofthesameleaderschangingthefaceofphilosophicalthoughtthroughscienceandnaturallaw–Hobbes,Newton,Locke,Voltaire,Rousseau,Kant,etc.TheriseofnaturalphilosophyandascientificrevolutionchallengedblinddevotiontoChurchtradition,whilereaffirmingthevalueofClassicalliterature.

1. Christianscouldnotadmitdoubtwithoutbeingaccusedofatheism,butthewealthyandeducatedcouldshieldthemselvesfromsuchfall-outbystudyingClassicalliteratureandposingquestionsanddiscussionsoftheoryratherthanpersonalbelief.

2. FreemasonryisaScottishphenomenonbornofReformedChristianity’senthusiasmforrediscoveriesofClassicalwisdomandhostilitytowardtheCatholicChurchinstitution.

3. Coercivereligiousconversionsandinquisitionsbreddoubtaboutallreligions,sothemoodinEuropewasincreasinglyskeptical.

4. Spinoza,influencedbySephardicJewsandDutchLibertines,treatedtheBibleascriticallyasothertexts,andassertedthatsacredliteraturewasahumanartefact.HeregardedGodasundifferentiatedfromtheuniverse,neithergoodnorevilbutsimplyGod.

5. Evenbeforethetheoryofevolutionwasputforth,beliefsaboutapre-Adamicraceofhumanscalledoriginalsinintoquestion.

6. GenderrolesbecamemorerigidduringtheEnlightenment,withwomenregardedasfrailandpassive.However,asreligiouschoicecausedskewedchurchattendance(withtwiceasmanywomenasmen),womencametoberegardedasthemorespiritualsex.ThisopenedthewayforagreaterroleforwomeninEvangelicalandQuakerchurches.

7. Autonomouschurchgovernmentwitheredinallquarters,asCatholic,ProtestantandOrthodoxbodieswerecontrolledandsilencedbythestate.

8. TheFrenchRevolutionledtoanattemptatanationalChurchinwhichbishopswouldbeelectedbyallmalecitizens.Parishpriestsobjected,andmanywereexecutedalongwitharistocrats.

9. TheFrenchRevolutionfailedbutitssloganshadhithome,andincreasinglythemiddleclass(anewdevelopment)longedtooverthrowtheregime.Socialismemerged.

ForReflection

1. MacCullochsays,“ThegreatestquestionmarksetagainstReformationandCounter-ReformationChristianitywasposedbythecontinuingexistenceofJudaism”(777).ExplainwhythiswasatheologicalconundrumforChristiansoftheEnlightenment.HasitsincebeenresolvedbyChristians?

2. Throughoutthistext,Classicalliteraturehasemergedandre-emerged,beingrepeatedlyrediscoveredtoreneworgalvanizeChristianthought.GiventhatClassicalliteratureisnotChristianand,infact,predatesChristianity,howcanwemakesenseofthisphenomenon?

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Chapter22 Europe:Re-enchantedorDisenchanted?(1815-1914)

WhereastheCatholicChurchsoughttoresisttheEnlightenment,theProtestantChurchmorereadilyengagedwithit.ThequestionsentertainedwouldchangethefaceofChristianityforever.TheheritageoftheEnlightenmentincludednotonlydeepsuspicionaboutChristianity’sGodandtheBible,butalsoahostofvisionarypersonalitiesfrombothCatholicandProtestantrealmswhoweremovedbyconvictionsabouttheEndTimes.Thesevisionarieswerebusybuildingnewchurchesandmonasteries,andemployingnewsciencesandtechnologiesinthepursuitofChristianity.FeminismalsobeganasamovementwithinChristianity,bothCatholicandProtestant.

1. Ultramontanefeminismresultedinmorenunsthanmonks,withonlyasmallpercentageincontemplativeorderswhilethemajorityworkedinthestreetswiththepoor.

2. WomensometimesreceivedfromMarytheauthoritynotofferedbytheChurchhierarchy.Marianvisionstypicallyappearedtowomenwithoutmoneyorpower,ofteninremotelocationswhichcreatednewpilgrimagepathways.

3. ProtestantwomenlackedMarytolendvaliditytotheirvoice,sotheytendedtocastthemselvesasOldTestament-styleprophets.JoannaSouthcott’sapocalypticvisionsledtoafeministmovementtheAnglicanbishopscouldneitherrenouncenoraccept.

4. TheBritishhistoryofdissentallowedvariousEnlightenmentriftstodevelopandflourishwithoutcausinghostilitytowardtheestablishedChurchortowardChristianityitself.

5. SocialisminBritainwasinfluencedbyMethodismandtheCatholicMass,aswellasMarx.6. TheOrthodoxworldcamethroughtheEnlightenmentwithfaithintact,seeingtheRussian

OrthodoxChurchstrengthened.However,JewsandGreekCatholicssufferedoppressionunderOrthodoxleadership.

7. CatherinetheGreatrestrictedmonasticism,butafterwardmalereligiousordersdoubledtheirnumbersandwomen’sreligiousordersincreasednearlytenfold.

8. Evolutionandhumanismledtooptimismaboutthefuture,butsuspicionofChristianity’spictureofGod.StraussandtheTübingenSchoolsuggestedNewTestamentnarrativeswerefilledwiththeologicalsymbolismratherthanhistoricalfact.

9. Fundamentalistsemphasizedfivemainpoints:1.)verbalinerrancyoftheBible,2.)divinityofJesus,3.)VirginBirth,4.)penalsubstitution,and5.)physicalresurrectionandreturn.

ForReflection

1. OurLadyatLourdesoriginallymanifestedasapowerful,frighteningfigure.Whatissuggestedbyremovalofsomeofthesestoriesfromtheofficialrecord?

2. TheEnlightenmentchallengedtheplaceoftheologyasaseniordisciplineintheuniversity.FriedrichSchleiermacherarguedthattheologystillhadtwoimportantroles:1.)asapracticaldisciplineforpastoralcare,and2.)asageneralbranchofscholarshiptobesubjectedtoresearchananalysislikeanyhardscience.Considerhowtheologyisstudiedtoday,forwhatpurpose,andbywhom.DoesSchleiermacher’sschememakesensetoday?

3. Hegelsaid“Withouttheworld,GodisnotGod.”LaterKarlBarthwouldrespond,“GodcouldbeGodwithouttheworldbutchoosesnottobesuchaGod.”HowdotheseclaimsfitorcontrastwiththeconflictingGreekandJewishviewsofdivinityuponwhichChristianitywasfounded?

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Chapter23:ToMaketheWorldProtestant(1700-1914)

The18thand19thcenturiesofChristianhistorywerecharacterizedbyglobalinteractionwithProtestantism.SlaverybecamethenewChristiantaboowhilepolygamy,whichhadbeenrejectedbyEuropeanChristians,camebackintotheChristianconversationthroughAfricanmissionsandMormonrevelation.

1. Christianabolitionistsfoundscripturalbackingfortheirposition,butalsofacedtheclearandobviousfactthattheBibletakestheinstitutionofslaveryforgranted.

2. BritishmissionsprangfromEvangelicalfervor.ManymissionarieswereMethodistsormembersofDissentingChurches;oncetheirmissionaryeffortsresultedinastrongBritishpresence,colonialexpansionsoonfollowed.

3. Indiawasanexceptionwherecolonialexpansionprecededmissionarywork.TheEastIndiaCompany,whichhadlargelyrespectedHindupractices,wasreluctanttoacceptmissionariesinIndia.Whenmissionariesdidarrive,IndianslargelyenjoyedtheirschoolsbutbecamemoreconfidentinHinduism,withtheirWesterneducationleadingtoaHindurenaissance.

4. TheMaoriofNewZealandadoptedChristianityandregardedtheirtreatieswiththeBritishCrownasbiblicalcovenants.OldTestamentstoriesalsoinspiredthemtounitefeudingtribesunderalocalmonarchy.

5. InAfrica,localconvertsappliedtheirownexegesistoquestionssuchaspolygamyandordination.IndigenouspeopledemonstratedthattheycouldinterprettheBiblethemselves,andoftenrejectedChurchhierarchytoadapttheirownliturgicalandmusicalstyles.

6. TheancientCopticChurchreceivedhelpfromEnglishmissionarieswhowereeagertobeassociatedwithachurchthathadalwaysresistedpopery.EthiopianChristiansalsoenjoyedcontactwithProtestantmissionaries,buttheChurchmaintaineditsMiaphysitecharacter.

7. ProtestantinroadsinAsiawerenotsmoothorquick.MissionarieslikeHudsonTaylorfoundsuccessinaprogramofindigenousleadershipandadoptingChinesedress.

8. ChristianityenteredKoreaatgreatcosttohumanlife,flourishinginundergroundchurcheswithindigenousleadershipandpracticinglaybaptism.InKorea,Christianitybecameasymbolforresistancetocolonialism.

ForReflection

1. Atleasttwiceinhislife,SamuelSewallmadeamomentousdecisiontochangecourse.Whatenablessomepeopletomakedecisionslikethis,inthefaceofpublicpressurefrombothsides,whileothersdigin?Isthisatraityoucancultivate?

2. ThetensionintheiconicmovieTheMission(1986)isbetweenslavetradersandJesuitmissionaries.ThemoviedepictssomeChristiansopposingslavery,otherscomplicit,andthoseinpowertorn.Althoughthemovieisonlylooselybasedonrealeventsandemploysplentyofartisticlicense,considerviewingorreviewingitasyoudigesttheissuesinthischapter.

3. TheUnitedStatesofAmericaisoftendepictedasaChristiannationengagedinafallawayfromGod.Howdoesthischaptersupportorrefutethatnarrative?

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Chapter24 NotPeacebutaSword(1914-60)

Theglobalizationofwarbegan(andcontinues)toalterthefaceofreligionalongwithpoliticalboundaries.Asmonarchiesgavewaytorepublics,popesandpatriarchsfounditmoredifficulttomaintainpowerorevenprotecttheiradherents.

1. WithinafewyearsoftheendofWorldWarI,theBritishKing-EmperorwastheonlyEuropeanimperialpowerwhostillworehiscrown.TheAustro-Hungarianmonarchyfell,WilhelmII(KaiserofGermanyandKingofPrussia)wasoverthrown,andtheOttomanSultanatewasendedbytheTurkishWarforIndependence.

2. TheYoungTurkregimethatemergedandtookovertheOttomanEmpirekilledoveramillionArmenianChristiansfrom1915-1916,promptingtheAlliestothreatenpost-warretribution.Approximately80%ofArmenianswerekilled,buttheAlliesdidnotrespond.

3. Assyrian(Dyophysite)ChristiansinTurkeywerealsobetrayedinpost-wardealings,whentheyweresectionedintothenewlyconstructedstateofIraq,dominatedbyMuslims

4. GreekOrthodoxyalsosuffered,withreligiousidentitytransmutingintonationalidentityinthe1923populationexchangefollowingtheTreatyofLausanne.

5. Intherevolutionof1920,Mexicanchurcheswereburneddownorpaintedred.Decadesofpersecutionfollowed,duringwhichCatholiccristerosraisedthebannerofChristtheKing.Layleadershipwascrucialtotheresistance,whichsetthetoneforincreasedlayleadershipinLatinAmericanCatholicism.

6. TheVaticanregardedSocialismorCommunismasthechiefenemyofChristianity,andhadmixedinteractionswithFascismandNaziGermany.In1937PiusXIissuedanencyclicalthatcondemnedthetenetsofNaziracismasidolatry,butmadenomentionoftheplightofJews;hisencyclicalmostlydefendedtheVatican’sfailedconcordantwithGermanyanddemandedtherighttoworshipasCatholics.

7. LutherantheologiansinandaroundGermanybothinfluencedandrespondedtothenationalistictoneandanti-SemitismofNazism.BaurbegantoseetheNewTestamentasaconversationbetweenJewishChristiansandPaulineChristiansrejectingJudaism.HarnackwaspreparedtojettisontheentireOldTestament.BarthpushedbackagainstGermannationalismandformedtheConfessingChurch,withBonhoefferandothers.

8. DuringtheSpanishCivilWarinthelate1930s,Republicansburnedchurches,torturedandkilledclergy.TheNationalists,ledbyFranco,eventuallyprevailedandmadeSpainCatholicagain.

9. ThedevastationofWorldWarIIshiftedChristianstrength(ProtestantandCatholic)fromEuropetoAmerica,AfricaandAsia.

10. InAfrica,ChristianityinteractswithlocalculturestoproduceuniqueexpressionsofChristianity,suchasEthiopianprophetsmixingAnglicanhierarchywiththecharismaofprophecy,andtheMaasaiofKenyausingfemininepronounsfortheChristianGod.

ForReflection

1. DoChristianshavearesponsibilitytootherChristiansintimesofwar?Orisourresponsibilitytohumanbeingsofallreligionsequal?

2. WhatshouldchurchesdowitharchitecturalvestigesofracismlikethepulpitintheMartinLutherMemorialChurchinMariendorf?

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Chapter25 CultureWars(1960-Present)

HellhasdroppedoutofpopularconcerninChristianity,alongwithburial.Theologicalconcernshavelargelybeenreplacedbycurrentconcerns:prosperityforPentecostalsandpoliticaljusticeforliberals.InCatholicism,liberalismisexpressedastheGospelshowingapreferentialoptionforthepoor.ThiserahasbeencharacterizedbyanewhumilityandrepentanceonthepartofbothCatholicandProtestantChristians.

1. ApartheidinSouthAfricawasorchestratedbytheAnglicanChurch,withtheSouthAfricanDutchReformedChurchmovingratherquicklytorepentance.

2. TheSouthernBaptistexpressedrepentancefortheiroriginasaChurchinsupportofslavery.3. TheChurchofEnglandsoughttolegalizehomosexuality,evenbeforepublicopinionshifted.4. CivilrightsforAfricanAmericanswerehardwon.MartinLutherKing,Jr.,synthesizedEvangelical

preachingwiththesocialgospelandthetheologyofReinholdNiebuhr.OtherProtestantsinthecivilrightsmovement,suchasBelleHarrisBennett,campaignedagainstlynching,helpedregistervoters,andfoughtsegregatedseatingonSunday.

5. InSouthKorea,minjungtheologybeganasanotherkindofliberationtheology,usheringingrassrootschangeinthefaceoftorture,imprisonmentandexecutionfromSouthKoreanmilitarydictators.MinjungtheologybothcontributedtoandbenefitsfromKoreandemocracy–andnowmustcompetewithPentecostalismimportedfromAmerica.

6. ThedeclineofcolonialisminAfrica(aphenomenoninfluencedbyChristianmissionaryorganizations)didnotresultinadeclineinChristianityaspredicted;African-initiatedchurcheshavemadeChristianityasindigenousasIslam.

7. TheMoralMajoritywasformedasacoalitionofAmericanEvangelicalsfavoringRepublicangovernment,inresponsetotwolegaljudgments:Roev.Wadelegalizingabortion,andthebanofofficialschoolprayer.ThisvotinggroupfavorssidingwithIsraelagainstPalestine,despiteIsraelioppressionofPalestinianChristians,becauseofapocalypticbeliefsregardingIsrael.However,thepoliticalsolidarityofEvangelicalsisbeingfragmentedbyenvironmentalism.

8. PopeJohnPaulII’slegacyincludesencouragingthetransitionofEasternEuropetodemocracy,tighteningCatholicteachingbystrippingdissentersoftheirteachinglicense,anervousresponsetoliberationtheology,thechildsexabusecover-up,andopposing“acultureofdeath”whichincludedabortion,birthcontrol,thedeathpenalty,andtheAmericainvasionofIraq.

ForReflection

1. MacCullochwritesofliberalEnglishChristians,“Theywereacknowledging,evenfurtheringandcelebrating,thedeathofChristendom,withaconvictionthatbeyondittherelaybetterprospectsforChristianity”(988).DistinguishChristendomfromChristianity,andconsiderwhatonemaybecomewithouttheother.

2. ThefirstwomanordainedintheAnglicanCommunion,LeeTimOi,laidasideherordersfordecadesuntiltherestoftheCommunioncaughtupwiththeideaoffemalepriests.Considertheimplicationsofherchoice,andhowelseshemighthavechosen.