Date post: | 17-Dec-2015 |
Category: |
Documents |
Upload: | noreen-shelton |
View: | 218 times |
Download: | 4 times |
DictionDiction
Is at the heart of any discussion Is at the heart of any discussion about styleabout style
=word choice, figurative language, =word choice, figurative language, sound of sentencessound of sentences
Above and beyond grammar, Above and beyond grammar, creates the tone of a textcreates the tone of a text
DictionDiction
ToneTone TThe speaker’s attitude toward the he speaker’s attitude toward the
subject matter or audience, as subject matter or audience, as revealed by the choice of language revealed by the choice of language and the rhythms of speechand the rhythms of speech
E.g. sarcastic, matter-of-fact, cold, E.g. sarcastic, matter-of-fact, cold, energetic, academic, humorous, etc.energetic, academic, humorous, etc.
DictionDiction
Level of language:Level of language: FormalFormal
characterized by a learned vocabulary characterized by a learned vocabulary and grammatically correct forms. Does and grammatically correct forms. Does not usually include colloquialismsnot usually include colloquialisms
InformalInformal language closest to everyday language closest to everyday
conversationconversation; may include colloquialisms ; may include colloquialisms and slangand slang
DictionDiction
Level of language:Level of language: SlangSlang
Lively, colourful language that is often Lively, colourful language that is often limited to certain groups (social, regional) limited to certain groups (social, regional) and passes in and out of fashionand passes in and out of fashion
““Fine Writing”Fine Writing” Unnecessarily formal or pretentious Unnecessarily formal or pretentious
dictiondiction
Two-Part VerbsTwo-Part Verbs
Simple verb in combination with Simple verb in combination with another word or wordsanother word or words E.g. cool off, sit down, find outE.g. cool off, sit down, find out
Often form idiomatic expressions Often form idiomatic expressions that are informal or colloquial in that are informal or colloquial in tonetone
Avoid or use sparingly in academic Avoid or use sparingly in academic writingwriting
Figurative LanguageFigurative Language
PProvides a writer with the opportunity rovides a writer with the opportunity to write imaginatively, to write imaginatively, whilewhile also also testtestinging the imagination of the reader the imagination of the reader
Helps readers visualize what is being Helps readers visualize what is being written aboutwritten about
Enhances style by making texts more Enhances style by making texts more interestinginteresting
Sharpens meaningSharpens meaning
ImageryImagery
CCreates pictures in the reader’s reates pictures in the reader’s mind, and also suggests a number mind, and also suggests a number of imaginative associationsof imaginative associations
Figure of SpeechFigure of Speech
An example of figurative language An example of figurative language that states something that is not that states something that is not literally true in order to create an literally true in order to create an effecteffect
Some common figures of speech Some common figures of speech are:are:
SimileSimile
A comparison using “like” or “as.” A comparison using “like” or “as.” The similarity between two objects The similarity between two objects is made explicit; there is no is made explicit; there is no pretence of absolute identity.pretence of absolute identity.
Example:Example: The river The river is likeis like a snake winding a snake winding
across the plain.across the plain.
MetaphorMetaphor
An assertion that two things in some An assertion that two things in some way similar are identicalway similar are identical
Example:Example: The river The river isis a snake winding across the a snake winding across the
plain.plain. The river The river snakessnakes its way across the its way across the
plain.plain. The river winds snakily across the plain.The river winds snakily across the plain.
IronyIrony
Recognition of the difference Recognition of the difference between real and apparent between real and apparent meaningmeaning
There are many different types of There are many different types of irony, but the most common irony, but the most common in in academic writing isacademic writing is::
Verbal IronyVerbal Irony
The contrast is between the literal The contrast is between the literal meaning of what is said and what meaning of what is said and what is meant; the meaning of the is meant; the meaning of the words used is the opposite of their words used is the opposite of their sense.sense.
Satire (and its cousin sarcasm)Satire (and its cousin sarcasm) is a is a form of verbal irony.form of verbal irony.
Figurative Language Gone Figurative Language Gone WrongWrong
Inappropriate MetaphorsInappropriate Metaphors Create images that don’t make sense Create images that don’t make sense
or are inappropriate for your audienceor are inappropriate for your audience Overextended MetaphorsOverextended Metaphors
Are too long, and the metaphor takes Are too long, and the metaphor takes control; in other words, the point you control; in other words, the point you want to make is lostwant to make is lost
Figurative Language Gone Figurative Language Gone WrongWrong
Dead Metaphors & ClichDead Metaphors & Clichésés Have little force and tend to be Have little force and tend to be
ineffective ineffective Mixed MetaphorsMixed Metaphors
Abruptly switch from one comparison Abruptly switch from one comparison to another without intending toto another without intending to
Concrete and Abstract Concrete and Abstract DictionDiction
Concrete wordsConcrete words Denote tangible things capable of Denote tangible things capable of
being apprehended by the physical being apprehended by the physical sensessenses
Abstract wordsAbstract words Denote intangible things like ideas or Denote intangible things like ideas or
qualitiesqualities
Concrete and Abstract Concrete and Abstract DictionDiction
You need a combination of both, but You need a combination of both, but be sure to ground your writing in the be sure to ground your writing in the concrete (use specific examples to concrete (use specific examples to illustrate your points)illustrate your points)
Readers remember the concrete – it Readers remember the concrete – it illustrates and lends meaning to the illustrates and lends meaning to the abstractabstract
The more specific (i.e. concrete) your The more specific (i.e. concrete) your writing is, the clearer and more writing is, the clearer and more effective it will beeffective it will be
Weak GeneralizationsWeak Generalizations
AVOID AT ALL COSTS!!!AVOID AT ALL COSTS!!! Use examples and always be Use examples and always be
specificspecific Employ:Employ:
Figurative languageFigurative language ImageryImagery Research sourcesResearch sources
as necessitated by the assignmentas necessitated by the assignment
Denotation and Denotation and ConnotationConnotation
DenotationDenotation What a word means (dictionary What a word means (dictionary
definition)definition) WWhat a word signifies without emotional hat a word signifies without emotional
associations, judgements, or opinionsassociations, judgements, or opinions ConnotationConnotation
WWhat a word suggestshat a word suggests UUsually determined through contextsually determined through context
Denotation and Denotation and ConnotationConnotation
When choosing words, pay attention When choosing words, pay attention to connotative meanings that you to connotative meanings that you may not intendmay not intend
Example:Example: Brash denotes confidence, but has Brash denotes confidence, but has
negative connotationsnegative connotations Self-assured also denotes confidence, Self-assured also denotes confidence,
but it carries more positive but it carries more positive connotationsconnotations
EuphemismEuphemism An inoffensive or positive word or An inoffensive or positive word or
phrase used to avoid a harsh, phrase used to avoid a harsh, unpleasant, or distasteful realityunpleasant, or distasteful reality
A tactful word or phrase which avoids A tactful word or phrase which avoids directly mentioning a painful realitydirectly mentioning a painful reality (from William Lutz, “The World of (from William Lutz, “The World of
Doublespeak”Doublespeak” Only the first definition constitutes Only the first definition constitutes
“doublespeak”“doublespeak” doublespeak is misleading or deceivingdoublespeak is misleading or deceiving
JargonJargon
The specialized language of a The specialized language of a trade, profession, or similar grouptrade, profession, or similar group
Is doublespeak if it is used to make Is doublespeak if it is used to make the simple seem complex, “used the simple seem complex, “used not to express but to impress” not to express but to impress” (Lutz)(Lutz)
BureaucrateseBureaucratese
A method of piling on words to A method of piling on words to overwhelm the audienceoverwhelm the audience
it sounds good but really makes no it sounds good but really makes no sensesense
Inflated LanguageInflated Language
Remember “Fine Writing”?Remember “Fine Writing”? Political correctness can fall into Political correctness can fall into
this categorythis category Often also constitutes a kind of Often also constitutes a kind of
euphamismeuphamism
Wrong WordWrong Word
Incorrect word choice is a common Incorrect word choice is a common student errorstudent error
If you aren’t sure what word to If you aren’t sure what word to use, consult your dictionaryuse, consult your dictionary
Wordiness & RedundancyWordiness & Redundancy
Clear the deadwoodClear the deadwood Strive for clarity and precisionStrive for clarity and precision As you proofread and revise a text, As you proofread and revise a text,
delete unnecessary words but delete unnecessary words but keep or add exact oneskeep or add exact ones ..
Wordiness & RedundancyWordiness & Redundancy Wordy first draft: Wordy first draft:
In the early part of the month of February In the early part of the month of February there was a really mean blizzard with very there was a really mean blizzard with very high winds that was moving threateningly high winds that was moving threateningly toward Halifax.toward Halifax.
First revision: First revision: In In thethe early early part of the month ofpart of the month of February February
there wasthere was a really mean blizzard with very a really mean blizzard with very high winds high winds thatthat was moving threateningly was moving threateningly toward Halifax.toward Halifax.
Wordiness & RedundancyWordiness & Redundancy
Second revision: Second revision: In early February a In early February a ((really meanreally mean) vicious) vicious
blizzard with blizzard with ((very highvery high) ) 150-kilometer-150-kilometer-per-hourper-hour winds was winds was ((moving threateningly moving threateningly towardtoward)) threatening threatening Halifax. Halifax.
Finished copy: Finished copy: In early February a vicious blizzard with In early February a vicious blizzard with
150-kilometer-per-hour winds was 150-kilometer-per-hour winds was threatening Halifax.threatening Halifax.
Wordiness & RedundancyWordiness & Redundancy
Compare:Compare: In the early part of the month of In the early part of the month of
February there was a really mean February there was a really mean blizzard with very high winds that was blizzard with very high winds that was moving threateningly toward Halifax.moving threateningly toward Halifax.
In early February a vicious blizzard In early February a vicious blizzard with 150-kilometer-per-hour winds with 150-kilometer-per-hour winds was threatening Halifax.was threatening Halifax.
Wordiness & RedundancyWordiness & Redundancy
Make every word countMake every word count OOmit words or phrases that add mit words or phrases that add
nothing to your meaningnothing to your meaning GGuidelines uidelines forfor omitting wordiness: omitting wordiness:
Wordiness & RedundancyWordiness & Redundancy
Avoid tautology (the use of Avoid tautology (the use of different words to say the same different words to say the same thing)thing) Wordy: Wordy:
Commuters going back and forth to work Commuters going back and forth to work or school formed carpools.or school formed carpools.
Concise: Concise: Commuters formed carpools.Commuters formed carpools.
Wordiness & RedundancyWordiness & Redundancy The useless words in brackets below The useless words in brackets below
serve only to echo meaningserve only to echo meaning Avoid such wordiness in your own writingAvoid such wordiness in your own writing::
yellow [in colour]yellow [in colour] circular [in shape]circular [in shape] at 9:45 pm [that night]at 9:45 pm [that night] return [back]return [back] [basic] essentials[basic] essentials bitter[-tasting] drinkbitter[-tasting] drink but [though]but [though]
Wordiness & RedundancyWordiness & Redundancy Do not use many words when a few Do not use many words when a few
will express the idea wellwill express the idea well Wordy: Wordy:
In the event that the evaluation system is In the event that the evaluation system is changed, expect complaints on the part of changed, expect complaints on the part of employees.employees.
Concise: Concise: If the evaluation system is changed, expect If the evaluation system is changed, expect
complaints from employees. (2 words take complaints from employees. (2 words take the place of 8)the place of 8)
Wordiness & RedundancyWordiness & Redundancy
Wordy: Wordy: As far as sexism is concerned, it As far as sexism is concerned, it
seems to me that a woman can be as seems to me that a woman can be as guilty of sexism as a man.guilty of sexism as a man.
Concise: Concise: A woman can be as guilty of sexism A woman can be as guilty of sexism
as a man. (11 useless words deleted)as a man. (11 useless words deleted)
Wordiness & RedundancyWordiness & Redundancy
Beware ready-made phrases:Beware ready-made phrases: at this point in time→nowat this point in time→now bring to a conclusion→concludebring to a conclusion→conclude during the same time that→whileduring the same time that→while in a great many instances→oftenin a great many instances→often on account of the fact that→becauseon account of the fact that→because situated in the vicinity of→nearsituated in the vicinity of→near was of the opinion that→believedwas of the opinion that→believed by means of by means of →→byby due to the fact that due to the fact that →→becausebecause
Passive VoicePassive Voice
Passive voice is wordy.Passive voice is wordy. Active voice is direct.Active voice is direct. Example:Example:
Be assured that action will be taken.Be assured that action will be taken. I assure you that I will act.I assure you that I will act.
Passive voice often leaves the actor Passive voice often leaves the actor of the verb out of the construction of the verb out of the construction (as in the example above).(as in the example above).
Awkward RepetitionAwkward Repetition
Avoid careless or needless repetition Avoid careless or needless repetition of a word or phraseof a word or phrase
Faulty: Faulty: This interesting instructor knows how to This interesting instructor knows how to
make an uninteresting subject make an uninteresting subject interesting. interesting.
Revised: Revised: This instructor knows how to make a dull This instructor knows how to make a dull
subject interesting.subject interesting.
Awkward RepetitionAwkward Repetition Awkward:Awkward:
We had problems solving these problems.We had problems solving these problems. Revised:Revised:
We had a hard time solving these problems.We had a hard time solving these problems. Awkward:Awkward:
His boss is not like her boss. Her boss is more His boss is not like her boss. Her boss is more reliable than his boss.reliable than his boss.
Revised:Revised: Their bosses are different. Hers is more reliable Their bosses are different. Hers is more reliable
than his.than his.
Awkward RepetitionAwkward Repetition
Avoid carelessly repeating a root or Avoid carelessly repeating a root or word baseword base..
Awkward: Awkward: I got the impression that his I got the impression that his
expression of sympathy was insincere.expression of sympathy was insincere. Revised: Revised:
I felt that his expression of sympathy I felt that his expression of sympathy was insincere.was insincere.
Awkward RepetitionAwkward Repetition
Eliminate careless Eliminate careless rhymesrhymes and other and other distracting repetition of sounds.distracting repetition of sounds.
Awkward: Awkward: The use of catalytic converters is just one The use of catalytic converters is just one
contribution to the solution of the problem contribution to the solution of the problem of air pollution.of air pollution.
Revised: Revised: The use of catalytic converters is just one The use of catalytic converters is just one
way to help reduce air pollution.way to help reduce air pollution.
Politics and the English Politics and the English Language (by George Orwell)Language (by George Orwell)
Written in 1946, yet his complaints Written in 1946, yet his complaints about Modern English still relevantabout Modern English still relevant
The errors and shortcuts that he The errors and shortcuts that he points out are those we have just points out are those we have just discusseddiscussed
Politics and the English Politics and the English LanguageLanguage
Questions writers should ask themselves:Questions writers should ask themselves: What am I trying to say?What am I trying to say? What words will express it?What words will express it? What image or idiom will make it clearer?What image or idiom will make it clearer? Is this image fresh enough to have an Is this image fresh enough to have an
effect?effect? Could I put it more shortly?Could I put it more shortly? Have I said anything that is avoidably ugly?Have I said anything that is avoidably ugly?
Politics and the English Politics and the English LanguageLanguage
Orwell wants us to ground our writing Orwell wants us to ground our writing in the concrete rather than in the in the concrete rather than in the abstract.abstract.
Be specific, not vague.Be specific, not vague. ChooseChoose rather than simply rather than simply acceptaccept the the
language that you use – come up with language that you use – come up with your own metaphors and turns of your own metaphors and turns of phrase rather than using ready-mades.phrase rather than using ready-mades.
Politics and the English Politics and the English LanguageLanguage
Rules writers should follow:Rules writers should follow: Never use a metaphor, simile, or Never use a metaphor, simile, or
other figure of speech which you are other figure of speech which you are used to seeing in print.used to seeing in print.
Never use a long word where a short Never use a long word where a short one will do.one will do.
If it is possible to cut a word out, If it is possible to cut a word out, always cut it out.always cut it out.
Politics and the English Politics and the English LanguageLanguage
(Rules cont’d)(Rules cont’d) Never use the passive voice where Never use the passive voice where
you can use the active.you can use the active. Never use a foreign phrase, a Never use a foreign phrase, a
scientific word, or a jargon word if you scientific word, or a jargon word if you can think of an everyday English can think of an everyday English equivalent.equivalent.
Break any of these rules sooner than Break any of these rules sooner than say anything outright barbarous.say anything outright barbarous.