Ferrium C64Ferrium C64 (AMS 6509) is a new high strength, high surface hardness, good fracture toughness carburizable steel that also has high temperature resistance, corrosion resistance and hardenability. C64 steel is a higher performance upgrade from 9310, Pyrowear 53, EN36A, EN36B, EN36C and 8620. It can achieve a surface hardness of 62-64 Rockwell C (HRC) via vacuum carburization.C64 steel is double vacuum melted (i.e., vacuum induction melted and then vacuum arc remelted or "VIM/VAR") so that it is very clean, which helps it have a much greater fatigue strength.ApplicationsOne leading application for C64 steel is as an upgrade from Pyrowear 53 steel in demanding Bell Helicopter transmission gear boxes. Under an Army-funded FARDS program, Bell has produced and is testing in 2013-14 a demonstrator gear box. Benefits include greater temperature resistance, pitting resistance and corrosion resistance.Other applications can include racing transmission gears, gears with integral bearing races, integrally-geared driveshafts, bearings, actuators, and other power transmission components where durability, compactness, weight savings, high temperature resistance or high surface fatigue resistance is valued.If you need even greater strength and fracture toughness in a carburizing-grade steel, see Ferrium C61.BenefitsBenefits of using C64 steel vs. alloys such as 9310/EN36, Pyrowear Alloy 53 ("X53"), or 8620 for power transmission applications can include: Smaller, lighter-weight gears (including gears with integral bearing races), or greater throughput or durability, including improving existing gears by replacing current materials with C64 steel. Gears and gearboxes using C64 steel can often handle approximately 15% higher loads than comparable designs using traditional materials, or be reduced in size and weight by comparable amounts, due in part to C64 steel's excellent surface contact fatigue resistance and bending fatigue resistance. Conventional gear steels such as 9310 or 8620 cannot typically achieve 62-64 Rockwell C Hardness case hardness with a fatigue-resistant microstructure. The combination of high surface hardness and excellent gear fatigue properties also makes C64 steel an attractive new option for gears that incorporate integral bearing races (e.g. planetary gears in epicyclical transmissions). Smaller, lighter-weight driveshafts, or greater throughput or durability, including improving existing driveshafts by replacing current materials with C64 steel. Integrally-geared driveshafts using C64 steel can often handle approximately 20-25% higher loads than comparable driveshafts using traditional materials, or be reduced in size and weight by comparable amounts. C64 steels core UTS of 229 ksi is a ~31% increase vs. 9310, for example. Reduced manufacturing times and costs, with increased flexibility and control. C64 steel was designed to resist grain growth even at high temperatures, have high hardenability, and use vacuum carburizing with a direct low pressure gas quench, to thus: maintain good properties in large, thick-sectioned components (even with vacuum carburizing); reduce final machining/finishing costs by eliminating intergranular oxide formation and reducing quench distortion; eliminate the time, expense, equipment and non-uniformity of the traditional after-carburizing oil quench hardening step; and permit dial-in control of carburized case hardness profiles. AGMA technical paper 11FTM27 provides a detailed comparison of costs and time (see below). Superior high temperature operability and survivability such as in oil-out emergency conditions or high-temperature environments. The 925F tempering temperature of C64 steel is 400-600F higher than most incumbent alloys, yielding superior thermal stability and allowing gearboxes to run hotter (thus reducing cooling system weight, size, drag, etc.). Greater corrosion resistance. Under a Navy-funded project, QuesTek has shown C64 steel's corrosion resistance to be greater than that of both 9310 and Pyrowear 53.BronzeBronze is an alloy consisting primarily of copper, usually with tin as the main additive. It is hard and tough, and it was so significant in antiquity that the Bronze Age was named after the metal. Because historical pieces were often made of brasses (copper and zinc) and bronzes with different compositions, modern museum and scholarly descriptions of older objects increasingly use the more inclusive term "copper alloy" instead.[1] Historically the term latten was used for such alloys.The word bronze (173040) is borrowed from French bronze (1511), itself borrowed from Italian bronzo "bell metal, brass" (13th century) (transcribed in Medieval Latin as bronzium), from either:PropertiesTypically bronze only oxidizes superficially; once a copper oxide (eventually becoming copper carbonate) layer is formed, the underlying metal is protected from further corrosion. However, if copper chlorides are formed, a corrosion-mode called "bronze disease" will eventually completely destroy it.[17] Copper-based alloys have lower melting points than steel or iron, and are more readily produced from their constituent metals. They are generally about 10 percent heavier than steel, although alloys using aluminium or silicon may be slightly less dense.

Bronzes are softer and weaker than steelbronze springs, for example, are less stiff (and so store less energy) for the same bulk. Bronze resists corrosion (especially seawater corrosion) and metal fatigue more than steel and is a better conductor of heat and electricity than most steels. The cost of copper-base alloys is generally higher than that of steels but lower than that of nickel-base alloys.Copper and its alloys have a huge variety of uses that reflect their versatile physical, mechanical, and chemical properties. Some common examples are the high electrical conductivity of pure copper, the low-friction properties of bearing bronze (bronze which has a high lead content 6-8%), the resonant qualities of bell bronze (20% tin, 80% copper), and the resistance to corrosion by sea water of several bronze alloys.The melting point of bronze varies depending on the ratio of the alloy components and is about 950C (1,742F). Bronze may be nonmagnetic, but certain alloys containing iron or nickel may have magnetic properties.Belt (mechanical)

A pair of vee-belts

flat belt

Flat belt drive in the machine shop at the Hagley MuseumA belt is a loop of flexible material used to mechanically link two or more rotating shafts, most often parallel. Belts may be used as a source of motion, to transmit power efficiently, or to track relative movement. Belts are looped over pulleys and may have a twist between the pulleys, and the shafts need not be parallel. In a two pulley system, the belt can either drive the pulleys normally in one direction (the same if on parallel shafts), or the belt may be crossed, so that the direction of the driven shaft is reversed (the opposite direction to the driver if on parallel shafts). As a source of motion, a conveyor belt is one application where the belt is adapted to continuously carry a load between two points.Standards for useThe open belt drive has parallel shafts rotating in the same direction, whereas the cross-belt drive also bears parallel shafts but rotate in opposite direction. The former is far more common, and the latter not appropriate for timing and standard V-belts unless there is a twist between each pulley so that the pulleys only contact the same belt surface. Nonparallel shafts can be connected if the belt's center line is aligned with the center plane of the pulley. Industrial belts are usually reinforced rubber but sometimes leather types, non-leather non-reinforced belts, can only be used in light applications.The pitch line is the line between the inner and outer surfaces that is neither subject to tension (like the outer surface) nor compression (like the inner). It is midway through the surfaces in film and flat belts and dependent on cross-sectional shape and size in timing and V-belts. Calculating pitch diameter is an engineering task and is beyond the scope of this article. The angular speed is inversely proportional to size, so the larger the one wheel, the less angular velocity, and vice versa. Actual pulley speeds tend to be 0.51% less than generally calculated because of belt slip and stretch. In timing belts, the inverse ratio teeth of the belt contributes to the exact measurement. The speed of the belt is:Speed = Circumference based on pitch diameter angular speed in rpm

Advantages/DisadvantagesAdvantages:

Small amount of installation work Low maintainance High reliability In some applications, shock and sound absurption Transmission of power over long distances

Disadvantages: Limited power transmission. If very large ratios ofspeed reduction are required in the drive, gearreducers are desirable because they can typicallyaccomplish large reductions in a rather smallpackage.

Direct-shift gearboxThis article is about the Volkswagen Group dual-clutch transmissions. For dual-clutch transmissions in general, see Dual-clutch transmission.

Part-cutaway view of the Volkswagen Group 6-speed Direct-Shift Gearbox. The concentric multi-plate clutches have been sectioned, along with the mechatronics module. This also shows the additional power take-off for distributing torque to the rear axle for four-wheel drive applications. - View this image with annotations

Schematic diagram of a dual clutch transmission

Dual-clutch gearbox:M: MotorA: Primary driveB: Double ClutchC: shaftD: main shaft, even gearsE: main shaft, odd gearsF: OutputA direct-shift gearbox commonly abbreviated to DSG, is an electronically controlled dual-clutch multiple-shaft manual gearbox, in a transaxle design without a conventional clutch pedal, and with full automatic, or semi-manual control. The first actual dual-clutch transmissions derived from Porsche in-house development for 962 racing cars in the 1980s.In simple terms, a DSG is two separate manual gearboxes (and clutches), contained within one housing, and working as one unit. It was designed by BorgWarner,[4] and was initially licensed to the Volkswagen Group, with support by IAV GmbH.[citation needed] By using two independent clutches,[2][5] a DSG can achieve faster shift times,[2][5] and eliminates the torque converter of a conventional epicyclic automatic transmission.[2]

Advantages Better fuel economy[2][6] (up to 15% improvement) than conventional planetary geared automatic transmission (due to lower parasitic losses from oil churning)[5] and for some models with manual transmissions;[2] No loss of torque transmission from the engine to the driving wheels during gear shifts;[2][4][5] Short up-shift time of 8milliseconds when shifting to a gear the alternate gear shaft has preselected;[3][4] Smooth gear-shift operations;[4][5] Consistent down-shift time of 600milliseconds, regardless of throttle or operational mode;[4]Disadvantages Achieving no acceleration or hill climbing, while avoiding engine speeds higher than a certain limit (e.g. 3000 or 4000 RPM), is difficult since it requires avoiding triggering the kick-down-switch. Avoiding triggering the kick-down-switch requires a good feel of the throttle pedal, but use of full throttle can still be achieved with a little sensitivity as the kick-down button is only activated beyond the normal full opening of the accelerator pedal.[citation needed] Marginally worse overall mechanical efficiency compared to a conventional manual transmission, especially on wet-clutch variants (due to electronics and hydraulic systems);[5] Expensive specialist transmission fluids/lubricants with dedicated additives are required, which need regular changes;[14][15] Relatively expensive to manufacture,[citation needed] and therefore increases new vehicle purchase price; Relatively lengthy shift time when shifting to a gear ratio which the transmission ECU did not anticipate (around 1100ms, depending on the situation);[4][20] Torque handling capability constraints perceive a limit on after-market engine tuning modifications (though many tuners and users have now greatly exceeded the official torque limits.[citation needed]); Later variants have been fitted to more powerful cars, such as the 300bhp/350Nm VW R36 and the 272 bp/350 Nm Audi TTS. Heavier than a comparable Getrag conventional manual transmission (75kg (165lb) vs. 47.5kg (105lb));

Magnesium alloy

Figure 1: Number of scientific articles with terms AZ91 or AZ31 in the abstract.Magnesium alloys are mixtures of magnesium with other metals (called an alloy), often aluminium, zinc, manganese, silicon, copper, rare earths and zirconium. Magnesium is the lightest structural metal. Magnesium alloys have a hexagonal lattice structure, which affects the fundamental properties of these alloys. Plastic deformation of the hexagonal lattice is more complicated than in cubic latticed metals like aluminium, copper and steel. Therefore magnesium alloys are typically used as cast alloys, but research of wrought alloys has been more extensive since 2003. Cast magnesium alloys are used for many components of modern cars, and magnesium block engines have been used in some high-performance vehicles; die-cast magnesium is also used for camera bodies and components in lenses.Practically all the commercial magnesium alloys manufactured in the United States contain aluminium (3 to 13 per cent) and manganese (0.1 to 0.4 per cent). Many also contain zinc (0.5 to 3 per cent) and some are hardenable by heat treatment. All the alloys may be used for more than one product form, but alloys AZ63 and AZ92 are most used for sand castings, AZ91 for die castings, and AZ92 for most used for permanent mold castings (AZ63 and A10 are sometimes used). For forgings, AZ61 is most used, with M1 employed where low strength is required and AZ80 for highest strength. For extrusions, a wide range of shapes, bars, and tubes is made from M1 alloy where its low strength suffices or where welding to M1 castings is planned. Alloys AZ31, AZ61, and AZ80 are employed for extrusions in the order named, where their increase in strength justifies their increased cost.[1][full citation needed]Magnox (alloy), whose name is an abbreviation for 'magnesium non-oxidising', is 99% magnesium and 1% aluminium, and used in the cladding of fuel rods in some nuclear power stations.Magnesium alloys are referred to by short codes (defined in ASTM B275) that denote the approximate chemical composition by weight. For example, AS41 has 4% aluminium and 1% silicon; AZ81 is 7.5% aluminium and 0.7% zinc. If aluminium is present, manganese is almost always also there at about 0.2% by weight to improve grain structure; if aluminium and manganese are absent, zirconium is usually present at about 0.8% for the same purpose.

Advantage :The main advantage of having magnesium in alloys is its strength. Magnesium has a strength to weight ratio that is similar to aluminum. It is often used when you want to cast a thick nonload-baring part but want it to be fairly light.

Comparative and effective use of new Mg alloysNew light materials are effectively nowadays inserted in world strategies of automotive industry since the environment necessities for pollution and reduction of fuel consumption. Therefore the industry takes part of the risk of development of such alloys but, in fact, some of this has been made at academic level. It's possible to enumerate some aspects of the necessities and characteristics concerning those alloys: low costs, insulation (sound and thermal), impact safety, deformation strength, recyclability and guaranty (to aging as example). All those aspects are linked with the increasing of new automobile models and reflect in production programs more and more complexes.Different joining techniques were applied to magnesium wrought semi-finished products, in order to promote their introduction on aeronautical structures. Airbus has performed some first tests to join magnesium sheets by friction stir welding. In general the alloy AZ31B (Mg-3.0%Al-0.3%Mn) is quite easily weldable by different processes. Using laser beam welding an AZ61 (Mg-5.9%Al-0.5%Zn-0.2%Mn) filler wire is advantageous for the mechanical properties to weld this alloy.Another influence in research for new technologies of materials and light alloys relies on the shortening of models life. New materials and alloys are usually more expensive than commercial materials, so there is direct needs of investment in reduce the costs of production and development of such alloys allowing the utilization in large scale in the automobile production processes.The increase in the potential application of magnesium profiles is strongly dependent on the question of whether established forming processes for aluminum and steel can be changed to magnesium and its alloys. Broad-spectrum applications of magnesium alloys in the automotive industry are casting products.Despite the fact that the introduction of light alloys and new technology light alloys is a tendency not changeable, the utilization effective today still is more applicable to competition or sportive cars and motorcycles, due to the high costs previously mentioned. However if compared along the existence of automobile the employment of light alloys rise exponentially from the earliest up to the latest commercial model. The influence of 1970's in the development of such technologies is notable comparing with the few kilograms used in the first automobiles.Recently the weightiness of light alloys, for example, in an automobile is near 90 kg in Europe, 120 Kg in United States and 42 kg in Brazil, but increasing year-to-year. Nearly 90% or more from the weight relies on aluminum alloys, but there is a rapidly increase in the magnesium and a slightly in titanium alloys in the total amount used. All those factors contribute to new researches and development of this class of materials for structural and mechanical applications in automotive industry.Traditionally the main usage for magnesium and magnesium alloys has been for aluminum alloying, high pressure die casting and steel desulphurization. Over the last 10 years the demand for magnesium and its alloys has grown at an average rate close to 5% per year. The die casting industry which expanded at a rate of over 10% per year was mainly responsible for this steady growth of the whole industry. This remarkable growth was possible because of the stable and relatively inexpensive supply of magnesium from China. This low costs supply has changed at the end of 2007 and early 2008. During that period the base price of magnesium has tripled. In this article present and future opportunity in supply and demand of magnesium and magnesium alloys are examined. Special attention will be given to the growth potential of magnesium alloys for components which will be driven most likely by environmental regulations from governments (Closset, 2008)As the lightest structural materials, magnesium alloys are well suited for the car industry and also good fuel economy is essential. The selection of a new alloy for a vehicle component should be based on technical requirements and targeted cost. In reality, this selection process is complicated and depends very much on the relative weight given to a specific property, which is part of the combined desired properties and final targeted cost. This task becomes even more complicated if alternative material systems such as aluminum alloys are considered for the same applications.Several new magnesium alloys have been developed recently for high temperature applications to obtain an optimal combination of die castability, creep resistance, mechanical properties, corrosion performance, and affordability. Most of the new alloys can only partially meet the required performance and cost. The ZE41 alloy (gravity-casting applications) has moderate strength and creep resistance combined with good castability. Although this alloy exhibits poor corrosion resistance, it is still preferred for certain applications.Although the most commonly used magnesium die-casting alloys are of the AZ and AM series, improved elevated-temperature performance is required (gearbox housing, intake manifolds, oil pans, transfer cases, crankcases, oil pump housing). Insufficient creep strength of alloys can causes poor bearing-housing contact, leading to oil leaks and increased noise and vibration.The use of magnesium alloy casting in the automobile industry expands at an impressive rate in this decade, which can manage with the energy and environment problems. Alloy AZ91 (Mg-9Al-0.8Zn-0.2Mn) is the most favored magnesium alloy, being used in approximately 90% of all magnesium cast products (Guangyina et al., 2000).There are two patented magnesium alloys (Dead Sea Magnesium Ltd, 2012): Mg-Al-Ca-Sr based alloy (MRI 153M) and Mg-Al-Ca-Sr-Sn based alloy (MRI 230D). The MRI 153M is a beryllium-free, creep-resistant alloy capable of long operation at temperatures up to 150C under high stresses (substantially superior to those of commercial alloys). The MRI 230D is a die-casting alloy developed for use in automotive engine blocks operating at temperatures up to 190C. The alloy has excellent creep resistance combined with good castability, high strength, and superior corrosion behavior. The results obtained show that MRI 230D and A380 exhibit similar tensile creep behavior at 150175C under stress of 70 MPa (Aghion, 2003).Concerning the whole aeronautic industry, due to the fact that weight reduction is a very important objective for strengthening the competitiveness, several alternatives to obtain weight reduction has to be investigated (welded or bonded airframes; use of metal laminates; structural plastics; fiber reinforced composites).The non-metallic materials application in selected areas is not conceivable due to restricted properties under low or elevated temperatures, missing electrical conductivity or low damage acceptance. Fiber reinforced plastics are a relatively lavish material only used for primary structure applications with highest demands.The family of magnesium alloys and especially magnesium wrought materials can be an excellent alternative because of their low density, good mechanical properties, moderate cost and metallic character (in respect of manufacturing, repair, maintenance compared to composites).In the past decade a lot of research activities and development projects have been carried out working on magnesium cast materials mainly for transport applications. There were only very few activities on magnesium wrought products like sheets, extrusions or forged parts. The alloy spectrum of magnesium wrought alloys is still very restricted.Aeronautic requirements and applications of wrought products have been evaluated only in a few projects. Increasing the research on magnesium wrought alloys will promote a new class of metallic materials for aeronautical applications to win the competition against plastics and fiber reinforced plastics. Therefore, the variety of offered metallic materials will be enlarged, not only for aircrafts, but also for space, military and satellites applications.To reach this objective magnesium has to deliver meaningfully higher weight specific mechanical properties compared to aluminum. The aims for aluminum replacement can be divided into two different steps in respect of time scale and risk.A replacement of medium strength 5XXX aluminum alloys for cockpit and cabin applications and another possible replacement of medium to high strength 2XXX aluminum alloys for secondary structure or non-pressurized fuselage applications.Forming and joining technologies require development, simulation and validation for the innovative material and technologies commonly used within aeronautic industry. Recently Hombergsmeier presented the requirements of new alloys concerning property temperature systems and structural