Dinoflagellate cysts and environmental evolution of the Oligocene to Lower Miocene at site 1148, Odp...

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Dinoflagellate cysts and environmental evolution ofthe Oligocene to Lower Miocene at site 1148, OdpLeg 184, South China SeaShaozhi Mao a , Jie Li a , Xiaodan Qin a , Guoxuan Wu b & Rex Harland ca China University of Geosciences (Beijing) , Beijing , 100083 , Chinab Tongji University , Shanghai , 200092 , Chinac 50 Long Acre, Bingham , Nottingham , NG13 8AH , United Kingdom E-mail:Published online: 24 Aug 2010.

To cite this article: Shaozhi Mao , Jie Li , Xiaodan Qin , Guoxuan Wu & Rex Harland (2007) Dinoflagellate cysts andenvironmental evolution of the Oligocene to Lower Miocene at site 1148, Odp Leg 184, South China Sea, Palynology, 31:1,37-52

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DINOFLAGELLATE CYSTS AND ENVIRONMENTALEVOLUTION OF THE OLIGOCENE TO LOWER MIOCENEAT SITE 1148, ODP LEG 184, SOUTH CHINA SEA

SHAOZHI MAOJIE LIXIAODAN QINChina University of Geosciences (Beijing)Beijing 100083China

GUOXUAN WUTongji UniversityShanghai 200092China

REX HARLAND50 Long AcreBinghamNottingham NG13 8AHUnited Kingdome-mail: [email protected]

Abstract

The Oligocene to Lower Miocene of Site 1148, Ocean Drilling Program (ODP) Leg 184 was investigated palynologically to exploreenvironmental change within the newly formed rifted South China Sea. The basin first developed 32.8 Ma ago during an initial riftingphase, and before sea floor spreading. Palynomorph Assemblage A contains abundant coastal and neritic dinoflagellate cysts (forexample, Lingulodinium and Spiniferites) and a small number of oceanic Impagidinium species, together with abundant pollen, spores,and terrigenous phytoplankton. Offshore transportation induced by basement subsidence played an important role in the makeup of thisassemblage. Paleoenvironments during the earliest Oligocene include shallow shelf, shelf/slope boundary, and mid slope regimes. Thelatter is indicated by the intermittent and rare occurrences of Impagidinium. Later, in the Early Oligocene to earliest Late Oligocene,there was a deepening of the basin with increasing influence of lower slope environments, indicated by increasing abundances ofImpagidinium. A barren zone corresponding to a period of sea floor spreading during the latest Oligocene to the earliest Mioceneeffectively separates assemblages A and B. The Early Miocene environment deepened to a lower slope (>1500 m) regime, indicatedby Assemblage B with consistent Impagidinium. This regime was relatively stable with much less terrigenous input, indicated by therare occurrence of pollen and spores, and the absence of terrigenous phytoplankton.

Key words: dinoflagellate cysts; paleoenvironments; Oligocene; Miocene; basin development; South China Sea; ODP Leg 184.

INTRODUCTION

The South China Sea is a marginal sea that evolvedduring the Paleogene along the Eastern Pacific Oceanmargin, surrounded by the Indo-China Peninsula, the Phil-ippines, and Malaysia. Site 1148 is located on the lower-most continental slope of the northern South China Sea (N18° 50.17'; E 116° 33.94'), and is the deepest site of OceanDrilling Program (ODP) Leg 184 at 3294 m (Text-Figure1). Leg 184 recovered a deep-sea record spanning more

than 32 Ma, which documents the geological history of theSouth China Sea. The section studied here spans the lowerpart (850.10 to 376.97 mcd [meters composite depth]) ofthe cored section and is dated as Oligocene to Early Mi-ocene based on dinoflagellate cysts, foraminifers, andnannofossils (Shipboard Scientific Party, 2000; Wang,Zhao et al., 2003; Mao et al., 2004).

Dinoflagellates are mainly photic zone phytoplanktonwhose ecological preferences are governed primarily byirradiance, nutrient availability, and turbulence (Smayda

Palynology 31 (2007): 37-52© 2007 by AASP Foundation ISSN 0191-6122

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38 PALYNOLOGY, VOLUME 31 - 2007

23'

22<

21'

20'

19C

18'

17' no* no

115°E 116° 117° 118° 119° 120°

Text-Figure 1. Location map of ODP Site 1148, modified from the Initial Report of ODP Leg 184.

and Reynolds, 2003). However it is more usual to referthem to such parameters as distance from shore, the envi-ronment of deposition, and water depth in paleoenviron-mental reconstructions. These site-specific abiotic param-eters may be reconstructed accurately, based on their pre-servable cyst record, if the cysts settled directly through thewater column in which they lived without any lateral or postmortem movements. This, however, is not usually the case,and it is often difficult to interpret the record when manyprocesses have operated as the cysts settled through thewater column, and were incorporated into the fossil record.One of the most effective factors in changing the cystrecord is downslope reworking; this obviously operated atSite 1148. Fortunately the environmental evolution of theSouth China Sea has been documented and synthesized ina series of publications (Shipboard Scientific Party, 2000;Wang, Zhao et al., 2003; Wang, Jian et al., 2003; Li et al.,

2003; Table 1). This allows direct comparison of thepublished basin evolution model with the palynologicaldata herein.

A deep gulf developed in the northern South China Sea,with narrow steep slopes, extending east-west ca. 32.8 Maago during the initial rifting stage. The sediment fill of 60g/cm2/ka includes turbidites, and was generated by intensetectonic activity. During the late Oligocene (28.5-23.8 Ma)this unstable tectonic environment continued, as indicatedby the presence of slumped sediments with convolute bed-ding and small normal microfaults. The maximum tectonicmovement was during the latest Oligocene to Early Miocene(25-23 Ma), with the sediment source moving from thesouthwest to the north (Text-Figure 2). During the EarlyMiocene, the South China Sea became tectonically stable,deepened and broadened (Wang, Zhao et al., 2003; Wang,Jian et al., 2003; Li et al., 2003; Table 1; Text-Figure 2).

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S. Mao, J. Li, X. Qin, G. Wu, and R. Harland: Dinoflagellate cysts at site 1148, ODP Leg 184, South China Sea 39

Table 1. The evolutionary history of the South China Sea based on Wang, Zhao et al. (2003), Wang,Jian et al. (2003), and Li et al. (2003). Note that the time and depth columns are not to scale.

Epoch

Mio

cene

Olig

ocen

e

Ear

lyL

ate

| E

arly

Age (Ma)

16

23.8

28.5

30

32.8

Depth(mcd)330

460

488

600

859

Sea Floor Spreading

Continuous spreading

Spreading, the axismoved southward

Spreading, the axis tothe north

No distinct spreading

Environment

Deep lower slope(> 1500 m)

Deep lower slope(about 1500 m)

Mid-upper slope(< 1500 m)

Tectonic Activity

Relatively quiet,accumulation andspreading ratesdecreased

Unstable, withmaximum tectonicmovement thatresulted insedimentation beinginterrupted fourtimes

Less active,accumulation ratedecreased

Rapid accumula-tion, intensetectonic activity

Basin Character ofSouth China Sea

Widened; the southernand northern marginsmoved apart

A narrow deep gulf,oriented west-eastformed

A narrow and deepgulf with steepslopes developed

SourceRegion

NorthernProvenance

SouthernProvenance

?

Lithologic Unit

rv-v

VI

VII

Dino. CystAssemblages

B

Barren zone

A2

Al

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Although seven lithological units, VII to I in ascendingorder, were recognized at Site 1148 (Shipboard ScientificParty, 2000), only VII to IV were analyzed herein. Unit VII(859.45^494.22 mcd) is an intensely bioturbated grayisholive-green clay and Unit VI (494.92^57.22 mcd) is agreenish gray clay. Both these units contain mass flows,slumping and faulted intervals. Unit V (457.22-412.22mcd) is a deep-water hemipelagite, composed of greenishgray clay and Unit IV (412.22-360.22 mcd) is a brownishclay-rich mixed sediment with intervals and patches ofreduced green ooze, with minor greenish gray clay interca-lations and intense bioturbation. A comprehensive descrip-tion of these sediments was given in Shipboard ScientificParty (2000).

The samples investigated are listed in Table 2. Each driedsample (10-20 g) was processed using standard procedures(Wood et al., 1996) at the Key Laboratory of MarineGeology at the Ministry of National Education, TongjiUniversity, China. Oxidation was omitted to avoid damageto delicate dinoflagellate cysts, and heavy liquid concentra-tion techniques were avoided because of the relativelysmall amounts of residue remaining after acid maceration.A Nitex sieve of 7 \im mesh, coupled with brief ultrasonicvibration (a few seconds to less than one minute), was usedto remove small organic particles. Exotic Lycopodiumspores in tablet form were added before acid maceration toenable quantitative analysis. All the slides are curated in the

Key Laboratory of Marine Geology at the Ministry ofNational Education, Tongji University, China.

One or two slides were studied for each sample exceptwhere palynomorph numbers were below 100. The numberof dinoflagellate cysts, and other types of palynomorphs,per gram of sediment (A) was calculated using the formulaA = CxN/200. Here, C is the total number of dinoflagellatecysts recorded per 200 exotic Lycopodium spores; N is thenumber of Lycopodium spores per gram, calculated fromthe given number of Lycopodium spores added in thesample, divided by the weight of the sample. The relativeabundances (%) of selected dinoflagellate cyst taxa/taxongroups were calculated from the counts divided by the totalnumber of dinoflagellate cysts (C) (Table 3). This methodwas also used to calculate the relative abundance of pollenand spores (against dinoflagellate cysts), and bisaccatepollen (against asaccate pollen and spores). Where C fordinoflagellate cysts is < 100 (mainly for the Early Miocenesamples), the calculation of the relative abundances forselected taxa/taxon groups (and for pollen and spores andbisaccate pollen) is omitted. Although the counts andcalculations are not provided here, they are available fromthe senior author on request.

The methodology of Brinkhuis (1994), following thepioneering work of Wrenn and Kokinos (1986), was usedfor the environmental interpretation with some modifica-tions (Pross, 2001 and Sluijs et al., 2005). Most of the eco-groups were based on the distribution patterns of moderntaxa (Wall etal., 1977; Harland, 1983; 1988; Edwards and

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40 PALYNOLOGY, VOLUME 31 — 2007

Table 2. The abundance of dinoflagellate cysts, pollen-spores and other palynomorphs per gram of sediment,together with the relative abundance of dinoflagellate cysts versus pollen-spores.

Samples with < 100 dinoflagellate cysts are asterisked.

Leg

184

184

184

184

184

184

184

184

184

184

184

184

184

184

184

184

184

184

184

184

184

184

184

184

184

184

184

184

184

184

3

11481148

1148

11481148

1148

1148

1148

1148

1148

1148

1148

1148

1148

1148

1148

1148

1148

1148

1148

1148

1148

1148

1148

1148

1148

1148

1148

1148

1148

Hol

e

A

A

A

A

A

A

A

A

A

A

A

A

A

A

A

A

A

A

A

A

A

A

A

A

A

A

A

A

A

A

Cor

e

40

40

40

41

41

41

42

42

42

42

42

43

43

44

44

44

44

44

45

45

45

45

46

46

46

46

47

47

47

47

Typ

e

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

Sec

tion

1*

3*

6*

3*

4*

7*

1*

2*

4*

5*

CC*

2*

6*

1*

2*

4*

6*

CC*

2*

4*

5*

7*

1*

3*

5*

CC*

1*

3*

4*

CC*

Dep

th (

mbs

f)364.75

367.75

372.25

377.45

378.95

383.45

384.15

385.65

388.65

390.15

393.46

395.25

401.25

403.45

404.95

407.95

410.95

412.9

414.65

417.65

419.15

422.15

422.75

425.75

428.75

431.67

432.45

435.45

436.95

441.93

Dep

th (

mcd

)

376.97

379.97

384.47

389.67

391.17

395.67

396.37

397.87

400.87

402.37

405.68

407.47

413.47

415.67

417.17

420.17

423.17

425.12

426.87

429.87

431.37

434.37

434.97

437.97

440.97

443.89

444.67

447.67

449.17

454.15

Din

o. c

ysts

/g.

sedi

men

t

15

16

27

12

15

39

260

18

5

6

10

85

17

65

36

104

78

69

135

45

92

384

105

98

176

54

81

572

231

23

Pol

len/

g. s

edim

ent

0

16

11

6

10

13

6

36

0

6

10

3

0

82

18

89

26

38

94

22

42

184

49

43

64

18

98

283

312

8

Mic

rofo

ram

s/g.

sed

imen

t

0

0

0

0

0

0

3

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

3

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

Ter

r, p

hyto

plan

kton

/g s

edi.

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

Rel

ativ

e ab

unda

nce

ofdi

nofl

agel

lat c

ysts

%

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Table 2 (continued. The abundance of dinoflagellate cysts, pollen-spores and other palynomorphs per gram of sediment,together with the relative abundance of dinoflagellate cysts versus pollen-spores.


Leg

184

184

184

184

184

184

184

184

184

184

184

184

184

184

184

184

184

184

184

184

184

184

184

184

184

184

184

184

184

184

Site

1148

1148

1148

1148

1148

1148

1148

1148

1148

11481148

1148

1148

1148

1148

1148

1148

1148

1148

1148

1148

1148

1148

1148

1148

1148

1148

1148

1148

1148

Hol

e

A

A

A

A

A

A

A

A

A

A

A

A

A

A

A

A

A

A

A

A

A

A

A

A

A

A

A

A

A

A

Cor

e

48

48

48

49

49

52

53

54

54

55

56

56

57

57

57

57

57

57

57

58

58

58

58

59

59

59

60

61

62

62

Typ

e

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

Sect

ion

2*

4*

5*

2*

4*

CC

CC

1

CC*

11*

CC*

123456*

CC

12*

3CC

2*

4*

5CC*

CC

14

Dep

th (

mbs

f)443.55

446.55

448.05

453.15

456.15

473.1

478.38

482.7

483.5

487.55

492.55

494.02

501.95

503.45

504.95

506.45

507.95

509.45

509.73

511.55

512.65

514.15

516.34

522.75

525.75

527.25

531.36

541.49

550.15

554.65

Dep

th (

mcd

)

455.77

458.77

460.27

465.39

468.37

485.32

490.6

494.92

495.72

499.77

504.77

506.24

514.17

515.67

517.17

518.67

520.17

521.67

521.95

523.77

524.87

526.37

528.56

534.97

537.97

534.97

543.58

553.71

562.37

566.87

Din

o. c

ysts

/g. s

edim

ent

162

27

23

10

11

1529

1159

1016

327

504

811

292

728

636

1248

624

571

484

1160

655

480

1037

1738

477

687

642

579

1221

1140

3735

Pol

len/

g. s

edim

ent

424

60

8

0

6

1295

2077

3746

2180

1998

3375

1672

1424

1574

2756

1509

1855

2628

1272

2101

2217

1776

1696

3220

1704

2464

2897

2615

3723

1514

Mic

rofo

ram

s/g.

sed

imen

t

0

0

0

0

0

257

114

230

224

106

276

42

158

167

171

75

177

91

154

58

231

200

35

20

348

218

99

276

106

50

Ter

r, p

hyto

plan

kton

/g s

edi.

0

0

0

0

0

0

49

0

0

27

0

24

0

0

8

0

6

0

0

6

0

0

0

7

0

6

7

0

0

0

Rel

ativ

e ab

unda

nce

ofdi

nofl

agel

lat c

ysts

%

54

33

21

13

20

19

15

34

29

31

29

24

16

48

24

18

37

51

13

29

21

17

32

23

71

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Leg

184

184

184

184

184

184

184

184

184

184

184

184

184

184

184

184

184

184

184

184

184

184

184

184

184

184

184

184

184

184

Site

1148

1148

114811481148

1148

11481148

1148

1148

1148

1148

1148

1148114811481148

114811481148

1148

1148

1148

11481148

11481148

1148

1148

1148

Hol

e

A

A

A

A

A

A

A

A

A

A

A

A

A

A

A

A

A

A

A

A

A

A

A

A

A

A

A

A

B

B

Cor

e

63

63

64

64

65

65

66

66

66

67

67

68

68

69

70

70

71

71

72

72

73

73

74

74

75

75

76

76

39

40

Typ

e

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

Sec

tion

1*

5

1

3

1

CC

1

3

6

3

7

5*

CC

5

1

5

2

5

2

5

2

5

2

6*

37

3*

6

4

1

Dep

th (

mbs

f)559.75

565.45

569.35

572.35

579.05

581.35

588.65

591.65

596.15

601.25

607.25

612.39

617.4

623.45

627.05

633.05

638.25

642.75

647.95

652.45

657.65

662.15

667.25

673.25

677.9

683.25

688.05

692.34

704.55

709.75

Dep

th (m

cd)

571.97

577.67

581.57

584.57

591.27

593.57

600.87

603.87

608.37

613.47

619.57

624.61

629.62

635.67

639.27

645.27

650.47

654.97

660.17

664.67

669.87

674.37

679.47

685.47

690.12

695.47

700.27

704.56

716.77

716

Din

o. c

ysts

/g. s

edim

ent

677

1246

1031

1471

994

707

2193

1004

1096

969

1146

760

2324

2866

2271

832

941

3140

2071

873

1213

2544

1696

565

749

848

1370

1501

1855

1288

Pol

len/

g. s

edim

ent

767

2253

1026

1450

1113

1526

2193

2092

2544

1868

2355

1838

2279

2092

2475

3352

5851

5333

4012

1322

3500

4367

4647

2904

6011

6601

7535

2798

3507

2691

Mic

rofo

ram

s/g.

sed

imen

t

24

148

57

68

99

64

442

332

530

252

400

336

406

452

545

345

695

579

522

224

697

763

373

127

364

333

571

85

212

351

Ter

r, p

hyto

plan

kton

/g s

edi.

8

0

0

0

0

0

18

0

0

0

0

9

0

0

8

0

8

8

0

0

0

0

8

0

0

0

16

8

9

57

Rel

ativ

e ab

unda

nce

ofdi

nofl

agel

lat c

ysts

%

47

36

50

50

47

32

50

32

30

34

33

29

50

58

48

20

14

37

34

40

26

37

27

16

11

11

15

35

35

32

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ded

by [

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Leg

184

184

184

184

184

184

184

184

184

184

184

184

184

184

184

184

184

184

184

184

184

Site

1148

1148

1148

1148

1148

1148

1148

1148

1148

1148

1148

1148

1148

1148

1148

1148

1148

1148

1148

1148

1148

Hol

e

B

B

B

B

B

B

B

B

B

B

B

B

B

B

B

B

B

B

B

B

B

Cor

e

40

41

41

42

42

43

43

44

44

45

45

46

47

47

48

49

50

52

53

55

56

Typ

e

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

Sect

ion

4

1

4

1

5*

2*

52

5*

3

5

3

1

4

2

1

1

1

1

1

1

Dep

th (

mbs

f)714.25

719.35

723.72

728.95

734.97

740.05

744.55

749.77

754.27

760.55

763.55

770.15

775.45

779.95

786.55

794.75

804.35

814.95

819.55

834.25

843.85

Dep

th (

mcd

)

720.5

725.6

729.97

735.2

741.22

746.3

750.8

756.02

760.52

766.8

769.8

776.4

781.7

786.2

792.8

801

810.6

821.2

825.8

840.5

850.1

Din

o. c

ysts

/g. s

edim

ent

1704

2182

1473

1670

943

827

963

1511

1013

2279

1643

5529

1758

1626

6771

4665

48571

6927

2205

1590

1243

Pol

len/

g. s

edim

ent

2128

2456

3381

1868

3975

2268

2783

3760

3864

2266

2518

3262

2544

5343

2040

1373

6236

1543

806

878

742

Mic

rofo

ram

s/g.

sed

imen

t

269

292

562

239

700

233

636

1493

621

93

225

196

380

509

174

324

237

495

325

333

125

Ter

r, p

hyto

plan

kton

/g s

edi.

8

9

11

13

32

11

0

18

24

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

13

0

0

10

Rel

ativ

e ab

unda

nce

ofdi

nofl

agel

lat

cyst

s %

44

47

30

47

19

27

26

29

21

50

39

63

37

23

71

77

89

82

73

64

63

Andrle, 1992), and information from studies on the distri-butions of some extinct taxa (Downie et al., 1971; Bujaket al., 1980; Kothe, 1990). Four groups of ecologicallyimportant and morphologically related taxa were identi-fied for environmental interpretation: (1) the " Spiniferites" -group, mainly Spiniferites ramosus types but alsoSpiniferites pseudofurcatus; (2) the " Operculodinium" -group, including Operculodinium centrocarpum,Operculodinium microtriainum, and Operculodinium

tiara; (3) Homotryblium spp., mainly Homotrybliumaculeatum and Homotryblium plectilum; and (4)Deflandrea spp., mainly Deflandrea arcuata, Deflandreagranulata, and Deflandrea phosphoritica. There are fivemodifications for this study. These are: (1) the omissionof Deflandrea spp. because of the general absence of thisgenus, and the dominance of gonyaulacacean choratecysts in these assemblages; (2) the expansion of theOperculodinium-group to include Impletosphaeridium

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Table 3. The relative abundance of selected palynomorph groups.Sa

mpl

e

A-52X-CC

A-53X-CC

A-54X-1

A-54X-CC*

A-55X-1

A-56X-1*

A-56X-CC*

A-57X-1

A-57X-2

A-57X-3

A-57X-4

A-57X-5

A-57X-6*

A-57X-CC

A-58X-1

A-58X-2*

A-58X-3

A-58X-CC

A-59X-2*

A-59X-4*

A-59X-5

A-60X-CC*

A-61X-CC

A-62X-1

A-62X-4

A-63X-1*

A-63X-5

A-64X-1

A-64X-3

Dep

th (

mcd

)

485.32

490.6

494.92

495.72

499.77

504.77

506.24

514.17

515.67

517.17

518.67

520.17

521.67

521.95

523.77

524.87

526.37

528.56

534.97

537.97

534.97

543.58

553.71

562.37

566.87

571.97

577.67

581.57

584.57

Hom

otry

bliu

m

Gro

up %

17

1.5

10

21

21.5

12

13

18

19

14.5

5

7

27

35

12

7

16.5

76

6

9

6

17

4

36.5

77

21

49

17

37

Cle

isto

spha

erid

ium

G

roup

%15

14

10

41

23.5

9

13

2

22

11.5

8

26

13

3.5

16

20

36

1.5

8

24

11

16

38

15

2

23

11

10

2

Spin

iferi

tes

Gro

up %

20

8

21

13

16.5

24

21

36.5

24.5

25.5

5

6

12

5

25

32

14

6

18

23

29

21

6

7.5

7

9

12

40.5

24

Ope

rcul

odin

ium

G

roup

%

8

2.5

5

2

8

3.5

3

20

14

25

21

9.5

8

2

4

8

6

1.5

13

13

5

11

6

10

4

3.5

5.5

9

5

Impa

gidi

nium

G

roup

%

4

1.5

2

3

3

2

8

8

3

7

6

13.5

5

4

4

4

3

0.5

5

5

3

1

3.5

3.5

1

6

2.5

5

5

Nem

atos

phae

rops

is

%

0

0.5

0

0

0.5

9

1.5

5

2.5

0

0

1.5

0

0.5

0

2

0

0

0

0.5

0

1

<0.5

1

0

0

0

0

0

Bis

acca

te p

olle

n %

84

77

70

70.5

75

70

81

76

69

79

73

77

75

79

64

78.5

74.5

71

73

79

53

73

62

78

74.5

64

68.5

83

81.5

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Table 3 (continued). The relative abundance of selected palynomoiph groups.

Sam

ple

A-65X-1

A-65X-CC

A-66X-1

A-66X-3

A-66X-6

A-67X-3

A-67X-7

A-68X-5*

A-68X-CC

A-69X-5

A-70X-1

A-70X-5

A-71X-2

A-71X-5

A-72X-2

A-72X-5

A-73X-2

A-73X-5

A-74X-2

A-74X-6*

A-75X-3

A-75X-7

A-76X-3*

A-76X-6

B-39X-4

B-40X-1

B-40X-4

B-41X-1

B-41X-4

Dep

th (m

cd)

591.27

593.57

600.87

603.87

608.37

613.47

619.57

624.61

629.62

635.67

639.27

645.27

650.47

654.97

660.17

664.67

669.87

674.37

679.47

685.47

690.12

695.47

700.27

704.56

716.77

716

720.5

725.6

729.97

Hom

otry

bliu

m

Gro

up %

16

22

19

7

10

5

18

8

11

15

6

13

13

15

29

0

1

0

1

3

0.5

2

2

8

4

1

4

1

1

Cle

isto

spha

erid

ium

G

roup

%14.5

28

30

41

17

29

27

59

9

51.5

34

39

27

54

31

67

49

38

45

23

18

13

22

57

41

32

39

48

35

Spin

iferi

tes

Gro

up %

30

31

26.5

30

29

46

21

16

15

25

12

12.5

27

10

12

18

19

13

13

18

27

22

6

3

7

14

5

15

34.5

Ope

rcul

odin

ium

G

roup

%

6

5

1

0

4

2

2

1

3

6

6

3.5

7

2

4

5.5

4

1

11

4

10

1

18

2

1

6

11

2

3

Impa

gidi

nium

G

roup

%

3.5

4.5

2

3

1.5

3

2

4

4.5

<0.5

1

0.5

3

0

0

3

3.5

<0.5

2

1

1

<0.5

1

0

0

0

1

0

1

Nem

atos

phae

rops

is

%

0.5

1

0

0

0

0

1

0

<0.5

<0.5

0

0

0

<0.5

0.5

<0.5

0

<0.5

0

0

0

0

1

0

0

0.5

0.5

0.5

0.5

Bis

acca

te p

olle

n %

62

76

71.5

69

41

73.5

55

71.5

62

79

67

84

70

62

52

63

34

37

51

70

59

51

41

72.5

49

59

38

22

20

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Table 3. The relative abundance of selected palynomorph groups.

"o.

Sam

B-42X-1

B-42X-5*

B-43X-2*

B-43X-5

B-44X-2

B-44X-5*

B-45X-3

B-45X-5

B-46X-3

B-47X-1

B-47X-4

B-48X-2

B-49X-1

B-50X-1

B-52X-1

B-53X-1

B-55X-1

B-56X-1

(mcd

)

•5

Dep

i

735.2

741.22

746.3

750.8

756.02

760.52

766.8

769.8

776.4

781.7

786.2

792.8

801

810.6

821.2

825.8

840.5

850.1

o.3

Gro

Str

ybliu

oS

2

3

1

8

1

0.5

0.5

2

6

0.5

1

2

0.5

0.5

5

2

1

1

roup

%

O

dium

|

Cle

i.43

22

46

26

24

24

58

40

51

26

28

83

15

97.5

72

62

47.5

72

2?

irou

pw

rite

sSp

in

14.5

15

18

21

23

27

18

22

4.5

22

26

9

2

0.5

3

8

13

2.5

D-

rou

O

S.a

ulod

in,

*

4

21

4.5

6

9

7

8

11

5

16

1

2.5

2

0.5

2

4

5.5

1

o.

Gro

i

c

idin

iwIm

pc

<0.5

1

0

1

1

<0.5

0.5

0

0

0

0

<0.5

0

0

0

0

<0.5

0

opsi

s

-s:

11

<0.5

1

1

0

2

1

0

0

0

0

<0.5

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

2?s

.—i

:ate

po

uO

Bis

a

50

25

62

33

19

48

57

24

62

33

39

67

50

61

48

44

57

57

which, according to Kothe (1990), has similar environ-mental preferences; (3) the inclusion of Polysphaeridiumzoharyi in the Homotryblium group on the basis of theirclose ecological and morphological relationships (Wall etal., 1977; Williams and Bujak, 1977); (4) the addition ofa "Cleistosphaeridium " group (the former Systematophoraof Eaton et al., 2001) including Cleistosphaeridiumancyreum, Cleistosphaeridium diversispinosum,Cleistosphaeridium placacantha, and Hystrichokolpomaspp.; and (5) the addition of the pelagic "Impagidinium "group (i.e. species of Impagidinium and Nematosphaer-opsis) because of their ecological importance in distin-

guishing the neritic/oceanic boundary. Text-Figure 3 de-picts the simplified distribution of these groups/taxa, andother types of palynomorphs; it was adapted from Brinkhuis(1994).

RESULTS AND INTERPRETATIONS

The analyses indicate two distinct assemblages sepa-rated by a transitional, virtually barren, interval between485.32 and 460.27 mcd (Text-Figure 4). The lower Assem-blage A (Early Oligocene to earliest Late Oligocene; samplesfrom 850.10 to 485.32 mcd), consists of moderate to

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S. Mao, J. Li, X. Qin, G. Wu, and R. Harland: Dinofiagellate cysts at site 1148, ODP Leg 184, South China Sea 47

30°N-100°E 110°E 120°E 100°E 110°E

20°N-

10°N-

• ShalloH Volcan

30°N-

20°N-

10°N-

0 -

120°Ei

:25MaYYYYY:::YY::::./End Oligbcerie; X .' ^

... Provenance>Jf:

-c> •*>•

Text-Figure 2. Distribution of land and sea in southeast Asia at 30 Ma (left) and 25 Ma (right), modified from Li et al. (2003).

abundant dinofiagellate cysts, and abundant pollen-sporesand other palynomorphs. The abundance of dinofiagellatecysts is mostly >500 cysts per gram of sediment, whereasthat of pollen-spores is mostly >1000. Foraminiferal lin-

ings occur throughout; Micrhystridium and Tasmanitesoccur frequently but only in trace amounts, andBotryococcus, Concentricystis and Pediastrum of terrig-enous origin occur sporadically (Text-Figure 4).

Homotryblium GroupOperculodinium GroupCleistosphaeridium GroupSpiniferites GroupImpagidinium GroupNematosphaeropsis GroupPrasinophyte algaeSpores/a-saccate pollenForaminifera liningsBisaccate pollen

Shelf

Inner neritic (0-80 m)

Restricted marine- lagoonal

barriers(carbonatebuild-ups)

Outer neritic (80-100 m)

Shelf-fore slope

Oceanic (> 100-4000 m)

slope abyssal

Text-Figure 3. Simplified distributions of some groups of dinofiagellate cysts and other palynomorphs, adapted from Brinkhuis(1994) and integrating data from Wall et al. (1977), Harland (1983), Rochon et al. (1999), and Vink et al. (2000).

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The character of Assemblage A, with its dominance ofneritic palynomorphs mixed with minor oceanic forms isenigmatic. Representatives of the restricted marine-la-goonal Homotryblium group are between 1-77% of theassemblage; the inner neritic to upper slope Operculodiniumgroup, between 1-21%; and the Spiniferites group from 0.5to 34.5%. Other inner shelf representatives such asCordosphaeridium and Lingulodinium occur almost con-tinuously as common components. The oceanicImpagidinium group occurs sparsely (0 to 13.5%), as doesthe outer neritic-slope representative Nematosphaeropsisspp. (0-9%). In addition, the relative abundance of di-noflagellate cysts is generally lower than pollen and sporeswith bisaccate pollen dominating the assemblage in themajority of samples (Text-Figures 4 ,5 , Tables 2,3).

Assemblage A is divided into lower and upper parts at685.47 mcd on the basis of the Impagidinium group. Thisoccurs intermittently in small numbers (0-1%) (Text-Figure 5) in the lower part of the assemblage, but continu-ously and with increasing relative abundance in the upperpart of the assemblage (1-13.5%). The Cleistosphaeridiumgroup decreases slightly in the upper part, whereas theHomotryblium group increases from 1-8% (average2%) inthe lower part to 1-77% (average 17%) in the upper part.

The brackish water, estuarine orlagoonal Wetzeliella group(Downie et al., 1971; Costa and Downie, 1976; K6the,1990) occurs up to 36% at 490.6 mcd, and there is anabundance (97%) of Hystrichokolpoma rigaudiae{Cleistosphaeridium group) at 810.60 mcd. The relativeabundance of dinoflagellate cysts in the upper part isusually lower than that of pollen and spores, with bisaccatepollen increasing to 50-80% (Text-Figure 5).

The upper dinoflagellate cyst assemblage B (Early Mi-ocene , between 460.27 and 376.97 mcd) is characterized byrelatively sparse organic matter. Only two samples yieldedmoderate dinoflagellate cyst and pollen-spore assemblages.The abundance of dinoflagellate cysts in Assemblage B isgenerally low at 10-98 cysts per gram of sediment, withpollen and spores ranging from 0 to 98 grains per gram ofsediment. Foraminiferal linings and acritarchs are rare,while, Botryococcus, Concentricystis and Pediastrumproved absent (Text-Figure 4, Table 4). However theImpagidinium group is present in almost every productivesample, and the Homotryblium group (represented byPolysphaeridium zoharyi) is common (Table 4).

Dinoflagellate cyst assemblages A and B coincide withthe two main evolutionary stages of the South China Sea(Table 1). Furthermore, the two parts of Assemblage A

400 "

500-

600-

700

800-(mcd)

80000 800 1600 0 20 40 60 0 40 80

468.37B

— 485.32-Barren Zone

A2

— 685.47 —

Al

Text-Figure 4. Abundance of dinoflagellate cysts, pollen-spores, and other types of palynomorphs (number per gram of sediment),and relative abundance of dinoflagellate cysts against pollen-spores. These parameters were not calculated for samples above485.32 mcd because of poor recovery. In the left hand column, the abundance of dinoflagellate cysts at the interval marked by anasterisk (*) is 48,571 cysts per gram of sediment.

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correspond approximately to the earliest Oligocene (32.8-30 Ma), and the late Early Oligocene (30-28.5 Ma), i.e.the two developmental phases of the South China Sea(Table 1).

Despite the fact that dinoflagellate cyst assemblages areallochthonous, Wall et al. (1977, p. 139) stated thatImpagidinium and Nematosphaeropsis need only accountfor 1-2% of the assemblage to represent the neritic/oceanicboundary. Except for a few specimens of Chatangiella,reworked from the Upper Cretaceous, most Assemblage Adinoflagellate cysts are a mixture of contemporary coastal/neritic forms. However Dale (1996, p. 1260) cautioned thatmany cysts in deep-sea sediments may represent longdistance down-slope transportation from the continentalmargin. Evidence for slumping and turbidite depositionwas noted by Shipboard Scientific Party (2000).

The small numbers of the Impagidinium group, mixedwith common coastal and neritic forms such as theCleistosphaeridium, Operculodinium and Spiniferitesgroups, demonstrates that offshore transportation probablyplayed a major role in the formation of Assemblage A. Thisis in contrast to the concomitant deep-sea assemblages ofEarly Oligocene to Early Miocene age from the CoteD'lvoire-Ghana transform margin, where transportationcaused by oceanic boundary current systems played an

important role (Oboh-Ikuenobe et al., 1999). These assem-blages were dominated by dinoflagellate cysts with rarepollen and spores; amorphogen is the dominant kerogenmaceral. Common features of Assemblage A and deep seaassemblages from the C6te D'lvoire-Ghana transformmargin are the mixtures of inner neritic, outer neritic andoceanic forms, and the dominance of neritic dinoflagellatecysts over oceanic forms. Assemblage A is interpreted asbeing consistent with the Early Oligocene South China Searepresenting a narrow, deep gulf with relatively steepslopes, enduring intense tectonic activity (Table 1). Site1148 was perhaps close to land, hinterland and shelf,resulting in rich coastal and shelf dinoflagellate cysts,abundant pollen-spores and other terrigenous palynomor-phs being transported downslope into the deep gulf.

The lower part of Assemblage A may indicate thatenvironments during the Early Oligocene fluctuated be-tween a neritic/oceanic boundary and a mid-upper sloperegime, whereas the upper part indicates a deeper lowerslope setting (Table 1). Individual population breakoutsof one or two species may represent a particular uniqueenvironmental event, but further speculation is unwar-ranted given the sample resolution and recovery. Thehigher proportions of brackish water, estuarine or la-goonal dinoflagellate cysts in the uppermost part of As-

o\o o\oo\o

o\o

o\oo\o

o\o

0 20 40 60 80 0 40 80 0 1020304050 0 5 10152025 0 4 8 12 16 0 2 4 6 8 10 0 40 80

500-

600-

700-

800-

i , i , l , l , i i i , , l , l , l , i

A2

Al

Olig

ocen

e

Text-Figure 5. Relative abundance of five eco-groups, Nematosphaeropsis, and other palynomorphs and of bisaccate pollenagainst a-saccate pollen and spores (see Table 3 for data).

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Table 4. The presence (+) of four dinoflagellate cyst eco-groups in microfields/200 Lycopodium spores for the

Miocene samples.

Cor

e

40

40

40

41

41

41

42

42

42

42

42

43

43

44

44

44

44

44

45

45

45

45

46

46

46

46

47

47

47

47

48

48

48

49

Typ

e

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

Sec

tion

1

3

6

3

4

7

1

2

4

5

CC

2

6

1

2

4

6

CC

2

4

5

7

1

3

5

CC

1

3

4

CC

2

4

5

4

Dep

th (

mbs

f)

364.75

367.75

372.25

377.45

378.95

383.45

384.15

385.65

388.65

390.15

393.46

395.25

401.25

403.45

404.95

407.95

410.95

412.9

414.65

417.65

419.15

422.15

422.75

425.75

428.75

431.67

432.45

435.45

436.95

441.93

443.55

446.55

448.05

456.15

Dep

th (

mcd

)

376.97

379.97

384.47

389.67

391.17

395.67

396.37

397.87

400.87

402.37

405.68

407.47

413.47

415.67

417.17

420.17

423.17

425.12

426.87

429.87

431.37

434.37

434.97

437.97

440.97

443.89

444.67

447.67

449.17

454.15

455.77

458.77

460.27

468.37

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semblages A is consistent with intense tectonic-inducedmass transportation from the shelf. This is supported byepisodic gravitational sediment redeposition in this inter-val. The barren zone (between 485.32 and 460.27 mcd),with almost no palynomorph recovery, corresponds to theOligocene to the earliest Early Miocene when unstableenvironments caused by maximum tectonic movementdeveloped.

Assemblage B supports the development of Early Mi-ocene deeper and relatively quiet environments (>1500 m),indicated by sparse organic matter with almost no palyno-morphs (Table 1). The absence of acritarchs, foraminiferallinings, and freshwater phytoplankton supports this inter-pretation.

CONCLUSIONS

This study of Site 1148 is consistent with the environ-mental evolution of the South China Sea (Wang, Zhao et al.,2003; Wang, Jian et al., 2003; Li, et al., 2003; Table 1).Initially there was a deep-water environment into whichdownslope neritic and terrigenous source materials weretransported ca. 32.8 Ma ago, before the onset of sea floorspreading. The recognition of deep-water environmentsbased upon palynomorph content is a departure from themethod of Brinkhuis (1994). During the Early Oligocenethe environments included the neritic/oceanic boundaryand mid slope and, during the Early Oligocene, lower slopeenvironments. The maximum tectonic activity of the latestOligocene to the earliest Miocene resulted in the depositionof an essentially barren zone, and during the Early Miocenedeposition was in a relatively stable deep lower slopesetting.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The authors dedicate this paper to the memory of John H.Wrenn, a pioneer in applying the ecology of moderndinoflagellate cysts to the fossil record. We thank theShipboard Scientific party of ODP Leg 184 for samplingthe cores, and Dr. John V. Firth (ODP curator) for obtainingadditional samples .Sincere thanks go to Drs. Henk Brinkhuis(University of Utrecht), Stefan Piasecki (Geological Sur-vey of Denmark and Greenland), and Graham L. Williams(Geological Survey of Canada, Atlantic) for helpful discus-sions, the examination of some important taxa, and theprovision of literature. The referees, Drs. James Eldrett,Joyce Lucas-Clark and Jamie Powell, are thanked for theirhelpful comments and constructive criticisms. This paperis a part of "The marine records of the East Asian Paleo-Monsoon" (Number 49999560), fully supported by theNational Natural Science Foundation of China.

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