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Letter from the Chair of the Disarmament and
International Security Committee
27 October 2013
Dear Delegates,
Let me be the first to welcome you to MUNUC XXVI! My name is Sam Shapiro, and I
will be your chair for the General Assembly, Disarmament and International Security
Committee. I am a junior at the University of Chicago, double majoring in Economics and
Philosophy. I was born in Memphis, Tennessee, but grew up in Middlebury, Connecticut. I am
an avid sports fan, especially of the Philadelphia Eagles and Swansea City. In addition to
MUNUC, I am active in my fraternity and the universitys undergraduate business community. I
spend much of my time listening to music; especially jam bands such as Phish and the Grateful
Dead. If not listening to music, I enjoy reading fiction and historical non-fiction, or watching
Wes Anderson movies.
I have been involved in Model United Nations for four years, but, living in Connecticut, I
attended Harvard Model United Nations rather than MUNUC as a delegate. I have a lot of
experience with small committees, but this will be my first attempt at running a General
Assembly. I think larger committees offer an extraordinary opportunity for depth of insight and
opinions that might not get presented in smaller committees, but it will be a great challenge to
ensure that each delegate becomes involved in the discussion. Each country is important to the
overall strategy adopted by DISEC, and so everyone will have a responsibility to themselves and
the committee at large to impact the topic meaningfully. Our topics this conference will be The
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Militarization of the Arctic and The Protection of Civilians in Warfare. These topics are
important to every member of the General Assembly, even if they may not appear to be at first. I
urge you to go deep into researching your countrys position while preparing for conference.
There is still a while yet to go until conference, and I do not expect you to be eating and
breathing DISEC from now until February (I was a delegate, I know how these things go), but I
encourage you, if interested, to take note of the news as it relates to DISEC. This committee is
focusing on important and timely topics--ones that could very well impact all of our futures. That
being said, MUNUC is intended to be a fun as well as enlightening experience, and despite my
inability to write a funny letter, I assure you that Im actually a pretty relaxed person in general,
and I will do my absolute best to make this MUNUC a great experience for all of you. Feel free
to contact me with any questions about the topic, the committee, MUNUC, or college in general.
Sincerely,
Sam Shapiro
Chair, DISEC
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Disarmament and Security Committee
History of the Committee
The Disarmament and Security Committee (DISEC) concerns itself primarily with issues
of global security and threats to peace. DISEC is often called the First Committee because it is
the first General Assembly committee to meet during each session of the United Nations (UN).
Each member nation of the UN is allowed a delegation (of no greater than five representatives)
in DISEC, and the body meets for a four to five week session every year beginning in October. 1
This year will mark the 68thmeeting of the first committee, and the UN in general.
The first committee has a very wide purview in that it is charged with dealing with every
threat to global peace within the Charter of the United Nations.2This charter charges the General
Assemblies with dealing with issues that might concern DISEC, including the general principles
of co-operation and security, including the principles governing disarmament.3The purpose of
the General Assemblies is to provide a forum for discussion and debate amongst all member
nations of the UN (under some circumstances, nonmembers), allowing for a diversity of opinion
that is hard to find in smaller decision making bodies such as the Security Council. However,
DISEC, like all other general assemblies, maintains an advisory role rather than one of direct
action. In fact, Article 10 of the United Nations charter limits the power of the general
assemblies, stating that their ultimate power is to make recommendations to the Members of the
United Nations or to the Security Council or to both.4
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%1Disarmament and Security: The First Committee General Assembly of the United Nations,2013,http://www.un.org/en/ga/first/.2Ibid.3UN Charter, Chapter IV: The General Assembly, 1945.4Ibid.
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As the first committee to meet with a direct imperative to deal with matters of global
security, DISEC has a very important role in the General Assembly. The other committees of the
General Assembly have varied concerns, some of which will have security implications.
However, these committees meet after DISEC and do not explicitly overlap with the matters of
global security and peace that are the main concerns of DISEC. Voting in DISEC is identical to
the other General Assemblies. Substantive decisions on international peace and security
(determined so by being declared as an Important Question), are passed by a two-thirds
majority where every nation gets exactly one vote. Minor decisions such as The determination
of additional categories and questions to be decided by a two-thirds majority, are made by a
simple majority of member nations.5
Despite its inability to pass treaties or laws that bind Member Nations, DISEC
nonetheless remains an integral part of the United Nations, as it serves as an invaluable measure
of global opinion and a fair forum for international debate. The resolutions, the main instrument
of legislation for DISEC, are carefully considered by the rest of the General Assembly and voted
on. The Security Council depends on DISEC for input on its decisions. Important action taken in
the past as a result of discussions in DISEC include the Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban Treaty
and the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons.6,7The Disarmament and Security
Council has a mandate to protect the peace and stability of the world through open discussion
and discourse, and has shown that this is an effective tool in the past. The role of DISEC and the
importance of this role are only set to grow as matters of international security become
increasingly difficult to understand and polarizing.
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%5UN Charter, Chapter IV: The General Assembly, 1945. 6Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty, 1996, http://www.un.org/documents/ga/res/50/ares50-245.htm.7Treaty on the Nonproliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT), 1968,http://www.un.org/disarmament/WMD/Nuclear/NPT.shtml.
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Topic Area A: The Militarization of the Arctic
Statement of the Problem
The Arctic region has multiple definitions to describe the area it occupies. One definition
uses the concept of latitude to mark the region as everything above the Arctic Circle (66
32N). An alternative definition uses temperature to assign the label of Arctic to any region on
Earth where the average temperature is below 10C (50F) in July. 8 In addition to the incredibly
low temperatures, the Arctic features unique cycles of sunlight in which the sun can be present
for 24 hours in a row in summer months, or disappear for days at a time in the winter.9The
Arctic is also home to the Northern Aurora (Aurora Borealis), a phenomenon in which solar
storms cause the Earths magnetosphere to glow brilliantly.10The Arctic one of the last places on
Earth to be explored, and one where relatively few people settle, most unwilling to brave the
harsh conditions year round. However, many nations have claims on the Arctic, and changing
conditions in this region could lead to territorial clashes. It is the role of DISEC to ensure that
these competing claims do not manifest in the widespread militarization of the region, a
development that would threaten world peace and security.
Before we can discuss possible military action, we must understand the rise of the threat
of militarization of the Artic. Sea ice is integral to a comprehensive discussion of the Arctic. Sea
ice, or frozen seawater, forms on open water through a complicated process of crystallization that
is contingent on formation in calm or choppy water. Roughly 7% of all open oceans contain sea
ice, the majority of which exists in the Arctic Region.11 As of June 2013, 11.58 million km2of
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%8What is the Arctic?, NSIDC, http://nsidc.org/cryosphere/arctic-meteorology/arctic.html9Midnight Sun and Polar Night, Lofoten, http://www.lofoten.info/article.php/?Id=399 10Arctic Phenomena, NSIDC, http://nsidc.org/cryosphere/arctic-meteorology/phenomena.html11How Does Sea Ice Form and Decay? Peter Wadhams, http://www.arctic.noaa.gov/essay_wadhams.html
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sea ice existed in the arctic region, most of it impassable.12This makes the Arctic unique in that
it is the only region where sea ice forms in large quantities. Furthermore, there is no Arctic
Continent or land mass as there exists in the Antarctic. This means that the only thing rendering
the Arctic impassible and its resources impossible to exploit is its sea ice. As this sea ice
continues to retreat more each year, Arctic nations are beginning to vie for control of the region
because of its potential for resources and navigation.13
The main impetus behind the possible militarization of the Arctic is the phenomenon
known as climate change. Climate change, colloquially known as global warming, is a theory,
which states that an increase in greenhouse gases (primarily carbon dioxide and methane),
released by human activity, is leading to a rise in global temperatures. Many scientists estimate
an increase of 1.4F over the past century and anywhere from 2 to 11.5F in the coming hundred
years.14In addition to (and as a result of) this rapid warming, climate change theorists predict an
increase in violent storms, droughts, flooding, and other adverse effects such as ocean
acidification. There is enough support for climate change theory and it is rapidly approaching a
scientific consensus, making the physics behind greenhouse gases widely understood. As the
atmospheric concentration of certain gases such as carbon dioxide and methane increases, more
of the suns energy (heat) that radiates from the earth is trapped in the atmosphere and is unable
to escape to space leading to an increase in the Earths average temperature.15The greenhouse
effect has taken a particularly large toll on the Arctic region, warming the northernmost area of
the planet at a considerably faster rate than the rest of the Earth.9
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%12NSIDC, Arctic Sea Ice News & Analysis http://nsidc.org/arcticseaicenews/.13Ibid.14EPA, Climate Change: Basic Information, http://www.epa.gov/climatechange/basics/.15EPA, Causes of Climate Change, http://www.epa.gov/climatechange/science/causes.html.9 IPCC, Climate Change Synthesis Report, http://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/ar4/syr/en/mains3-3-3.html.
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This warming affects the sea ice coverage of the Arctic, drastically altering the dynamics
of the Arctic that have typically prevented people from traveling through the region or exploiting
its resources.16 Almost all current scientific models of climate change include the complete
disappearance of Arctic sea ice in the future, but there is significant disagreement on when the
final block of ice will melt. Some models predict all the ice could be gone by 2030, while other
more conservative models predict a date closer to 2080. 17,18 What these models all share in
common the belief that the ice in the arctic region will eventually melt, making accessible an
extremely strategic area almost the size of the continental United States.
There are eight Arctic Nations that have laid claims to the land (and sea) within the
Arctic Circle: Canada, Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, Russia, Sweden, and the United
States of America. These nations all have a vested interest the changing conditions of the Arctic,
and tens of nations, including many far removed from the Arctic, have stated their interest in
exploring the region for resources or other purposes.19 It is exceedingly rare for new territory to
become available, and it is difficult to decide which nation should have the rights to any new
land, resources, or even sea territory that might become available. The melting of Arctic ice
provides the opportunity for a land grab of the kind that has not been seen in years. All eight
nations have taken some sort of actions in an attempt to regulate new territory in the Arctic, with
territorial claims being justified by anything from an extension of the continental shelf, or
shallow water extending outward from the continent, to a simple finders keepers mentality.20
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%16Pappas, Stephanie, When Will Arctic Ice Completely Disappear?, http://www.livescience.com/23362 -arctic-summer-ice-disappearance.html.17Ibid.18Gerdes, Rudger, Will the North Pole be Ice Free in Summer?,http://www.awi.de/en/news/background/climate_change/will_the_north_pole_be_ice_free_in_summer/19After Polar Ice Turns to Water, Dreams of Treasure Abound, Clifford Krauss,(http://www.nytimes.com/2005/10/10/science/10arctic.html?ref=thebigmelt.20Byers, Michael, Who Owns the Arctic? byers.typepad.com/arctic/.
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These attempts at regulation and negotiation will be covered in depth in the Past Actions section
of this guide.
A melting Arctic presents a contentious future because it offers abundant, but not
inexhaustible, opportunity. New shipping lines are the most immediate benefits of melting
impassable sea ice. Currently, traveling from Asia to the eastern coast of the United States is
both time-consuming and expensive. However, when the arctic sea ice melts, traveling through
the arctic could reduce travel time by as much as 30%.21
While all nations should be able to
benefit from these new shipping lanes equally, issues of maritime sovereignty and the safety of
ships operating in the region could become of notable international concern.
One of the most contested issues surrounding the Arctic in coming years will be the
natural resource uncovered by the melting sea ice. Because the area is impassable to all traffic,
and will be for some time, it is currently impossible to exploit the resources of the Arctic. The
most important of these resources are massive petroleum and natural gas reserves, estimated by
the United States Geological Survey to be 90 billion barrels of oil and 1,670 trillion cubic feet of
natural gas.22 To put that in perspective, the Arcticsnatural gas would supply the entire world
for more than 15 years (using 2010 consumption data).23This large reserve of natural resources
has prompted heated talks to determine the future of this newly volatile region, with major
international players such as China entering talks.
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%21Zabarenko, Deborah, Warmer Climate to Open new Arctic Shipping Routes by 2050: Study,http://www.reuters.com/article/2013/03/08/us-climate-arctic-shipping-idUSBRE92718420130308.22USGS, Oil and Natural Gas Assessed in Arctic, http://www.usgs.gov/newsroom/article.asp?ID=1980 .23WorldWatch, Global Natural Gas Consumption Regains Momentum, http://www.worldwatch.org/global-natural-gas-consumption-regains-momentum-0.
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A smaller consideration with the retreating Arctic ice is the possibility of discovering
newly habitable land. Climate models already suggest that areas of Greenland that were
previously unsuitable for human habitation may become viable with rising Arctic temperatures.24
While such territories will likely be covered under existing sovereignty law such as the Law of
the Sea, DISEC must remain vigilant and proactive to prevent possible disputes between nations
regarding newly habitable land.
The changing conditions in the Arctic will lead to new interactions between countries
with different vested interests. Currently maritime laws and international agreements are not
sufficient to ensure peace and stability in the region in the face of massive, conflicting national
interests. It will be up to DISEC to negotiate and craft new agreements that will allow for the
peaceful and beneficial use of the Arctic for all member nations, not only those that have
territorial claims. Without international agreement, disputes and conflicts could threaten the
Arctic and the economic bounty it offers the international community.
History of the Problem
The Arctic has a unique position in global history in that has remained relatively peaceful
in an incredibly tumultuous world. The deep Arctic has remained relatively unscathed
throughout a history of warfare, although conflicts have occurred in Arctic regions of countries
such as Norway and Russia. The farthest north any battle has taken place was a battle between
Nazi and British forces on the island of Spitsbergen, more than 500 miles south of the North
Pole.25
Despite the abundance of valuable natural resources, the deep Arctic has not been the
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%24Bradley, Michael, Svalbard: High Arctic Habitable, http://www.mountaingazette.com/mountain-notebook/dateline/svalbard-high-arctic-habitable/.25Sentry, Lone, British Task Force, Spitsbergen Operation,http://www.lonesentry.com/manuals/commandos/spitsbergen.html?title=Spitsbergen
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center of any conflicts of global scale, likely due to its harsh conditions and the difficulty of
travel.
The relative peace of the Arctic region makes it difficult to draw upon historical
examples of conflict, but contingency plans have been put in place. Both the United States and
Russia have significant military interest in the Arctic, as both nations maintain a sizeable fleet of
nuclear submarines in the Arctic, and likely have since the Cold War. 26 Similarly, many
international treaty organizations and military partnerships such as NATO, EUCOM, and
NORTHCOM maintain operational responsibility for the region, meaning that future military
operations in the region already have specific organizations responsible for their undertaking.
27
Finally, as a response to changing conditions, nations with interest in the Arctic region have
ramped up exploratory and even military operations, conducting training exercises and research
operations at the top of the world, perhaps as a show of force.28However, as the climate changes,
even this thin veneer of peace is likely to give way to greater conflict. The vast reserves of
natural gas and petroleum combined with more hospitable conditions and improved technology
make it a virtual certainty that the Arctic will be the location of increased international activity, if
not full-blown conflict. Due to the lack of illuminating examples from the Arctics past, it is
helpful to turn to other historical circumstances to determine possible results of this unique
situation.
The essence of the possible issue of Arctic militarization is a battle for resources. In
2011, the world used 870 million barrels of crude oil, with an average value of more than $100
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%26Carafano, James, EUCOM Should Lead U.S. Combatant Commands in Defense of National Interests in theArctic, http://www.heritage.org/research/reports/2011/03/eucom-should-lead-us-combatant-commands-in-defense-of-national-interests-in-the-arctic.27Ibid28Ibid
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per barrel.29,30 The market value of petroleum is high, and the demand is growing. Many
industrialized nations such as the United States and Western Europe are trying to reduce their
petroleum consumption, but the fact remains that it is an expensive and time intensive process.
Petroleum will be a valuable commodity for the foreseeable future . There has been some
headway in reducing the usage of petroleum, but this is usually achieved through increased usage
rates of natural gas.31 Coincidentally, the only natural resource that is more abundant in the
Arctic than petroleum is natural gas, with almost 1,670 trillion ft3of natural gas.32This ranks the
Arctic among the most valuable, yet untapped areas on the planet.
For a historical perspective on the sheer amount of undiscovered and unexploited
resources available in the Arctic, it is useful to examine the discovery and subsequent
colonization of the Americas. Before the arrival of the Europeans in the Americas, Native
Americans mainly subsistence farmed or hunted, rarely taking more than they needed to
survive.33 After the colonization of the Americas and the wholesale exploitation of natural
resources such as arable land and gold, the economic output of America rose from nearly
baseline levels to a productive and thriving economy exporting goods such as tobacco and
lumber.34This analogy, while far from perfect, has several direct analogs to the future melting of
the Arctic. First, the colonization represented an unprecedented new availability of natural
resources. Timber, land, gold, and other goods were available in quantities only dreamt of in
Europe, much as the energy reserves of the Arctic represent a massive increase in available
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%29Indexmundi, World Crude Oil Consumption By Year, http://www.indexmundi.com/energy.aspx.30US Energy Information Administration, Crude Oil Average Prices,http://www.eia.gov/todayinenergy/detail.cfm?id=4550.31US Energy Information Administration, Market Trends- Oil/Liquids,http://www.eia.gov/forecasts/aeo/MT_liquidfuels.cfm.32USGS, Oil and Natural Gas Assessed in Arctic, http://www.usgs.gov/newsroom/article.asp?ID=1980.33Encyclopedia of the Great Plains, Native American Agriculture,http://plainshumanities.unl.edu/encyclopedia/doc/egp.ag.052.xml.34Edwin J. Perkins, The Economy of Colonial America(2nd ed. 1988).
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global reserves. Also similarly to the Arctic, the colonization of the Americas had several
competing international powers vying for a share of the resources that would certainly make their
nations rich and powerful. The motives of profit, power, and competition between nations are
very similar in the two cases.
This is not to say the colonization of the Americas an unqualified economic success. The
colonizing countries of Europe were well aware of the vast economic resources at stake in the
Americas and were willing to create conflict and fight for the claims. The result was competing
land claims from Native Americans, English, French, Spanish, Portuguese, and Dutch citizens.
These competing claims were sometimes settled peaceably, but more than often led to bitter
conflict. These conflicts were about increasing the economic viability and thus power of the
home countries through exploitation of previously untapped resources. Without the watchful eye
of the United Nations or other governing body, the conflicts for North American resources killed
anywhere from 50-75 million Native Americans, while estimates for Europeans are impossible to
determine.35 The toll of death and destruction is one of the largest on record of the world and has
left an indelible mark on history. The conflicts sparked during this period have shaped the world
we live in today. The power of new, valuable resources to ignite conflict between self-interested
actors is tremendous. Each nation believed that the security of their nation both in the present
and the future was heavily dependent on the acquisition of newly found resources.
While the colonization of America shows the incredible capacity for violence and
destruction in the pursuit of natural resources, more recent disputes over scarce resources offer
insights as to how important natural resources remain as a catalyst for global action. One
particularly relevant example is rare earth metals. Rare earth metals are a good relation to
undiscovered resources because although they have been known for some time, their true value
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%35Taylor, Alan,American Colonies; Volume 1 (2002).
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as components in high-tech batteries has recently been discovered and made them extraordinarily
valuable.36 The rapid increase in the value of these metals has made those with the rights to
exploit them much richer, and their relative rarity had made them a very important commodity.
Because these metals are frequently used in energy efficient as well as weapons technologies,
they are seen as incredibly important to the future economic viability and military strategic
capability of many nations.37
The first global power to truly understand and beginning harnessing the power of rare
earth metals was China. Understanding the vast importance and value that these metals would
have in the future, China began an extensive program of buying overseas mines that were known
to be rich in the minerals, as well as developing massive mines within its own borders.38This
early jump has given China an estimated 95% share of these incredibly valuable resources.39
Wielding the enormous power of this monopoly, China proceeded to cut export quotas by 40%,
subsequently distorting the market. As a response, the United States, Brazil, Canada, Vietnam,
and Malawi began work on creating their own rare earth metal mines, although these are not
expected to be operational until 2018.40Whereas the discovery of new resources in the Americas
led to warfare and strife, the discovery of rare earth metals has led to rampant profiteering and
economic strong-arming.
While these two historical examples are imperfect analogs to the situation in the Arctic,
they do offer insight on how international powers react to new, essential resources being
introduced into a market. The response is always competitive; nations will do whatever they
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%36Tasman Metals Ltd, Principal Uses of Rare Earth Metals, http://www.tasmanmetals.com/s/PrincipalUses.asp. 37Ibid.38Nesbit, Jeff, Chinas Continuing Monopoly Over Rare Earth Metals, http://www.usnews.com/news/blogs/at-the-edge/2013/04/02/chinas-continuing-monopoly-over-rare-earth-minerals.39Ibid.40Ibid.
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think is necessary to secure new resources for themselves for an edge in the global power
struggle. Whether this competitive reaction is violent or economic depends on a variety of
factors, each of which must be considered carefully by DISEC as they prepare for the rapid
change of the Arctic.
Past Actions
While the predicted warming and subsequent warming of the Arctic region is
unprecedented, there have been many attempts to regulate the area and establish control over the
region. For as long as the Arctic has been known, its owner has been disputed. The United
Nations (UN) has taken several approaches to defining an owner, although no truly satisfactory
resolution has been achieved.
Before the United Nations existed, and since the 17thcentury, nations have held on to the
idea of free seas. First discussed by a Dutch Jurist named Hugo Grotius, the Free Seas
principle states that while countries control a small portion of the ocean that is directly adjacent
to their land territory, the open ocean was free from the control of any single nation. 41 A
following of this principle continued for some time, until nations wanted to extend their sea
rights. Harry Truman extended the United States controlled seas to the end of the continental
shelf.42This would later be adopted by the United Nations as legal maritime law.
The third United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) was the most
important attempt to address the issue of unclaimed ocean territory beyond sovereign waters (up
to twelve miles off the coast). This convention was third in a series of conventions on the
sovereignty of seas, and was also known as the Law of the Sea Convention or the Law of the Sea
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%41Hugo Grotius, The Freedom of the Seas (Latin and English version, Magoffin trans.)[1608].42Truman Proclamation on Policy of the United States with Respect to the Natural Resources of the Subsoil andSea Bed of the Continental Shelf http://www.cfr.org/world/truman-proclamation-policy-united-states-respect-natural-resources-subsoil-sea-bed-continental-shelf/p20650
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Treaty. The convention took place between 1973 and 1982 and produced a set of rules and
regulations that replaced earlier laws of the sea passed in 1958. 43
UNCLOS III established clearer definitions of different types of ocean waters, and more
rigid definitions as to what these different classifications meant. The continental shelf of a nation
was defined to be the extent of the continent as it juts outward into the ocean, or 200 nautical
miles, whichever is further. This distance cannot be greater than 400 nautical miles. Within the
area owned by a country, the nation has exclusive access to any minerals and non-living
resources on the seabed. Within the continental shelf area, the nation has the ability to exclude
others from these resources, but not living resources or resources not located directly on the
seafloor. A more exclusive area is known as the Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) and is rigidly
defined as 200 nautical miles from the coastline of a nation. Within the EEZ, the nation has all
the rights and privileges of a continental shelf zone, but also has exclusive control over living
resources such as fish stocks, as well as resources that may not be located on the seabed, such as
petroleum or natural gas. The concept of the EEZ was created to provide solutions to increasing
debates over petroleum and fish stocks.44
Unfortunately, while UNCLOS III provided extensive guidance about property rights
within a continental shelf, it did little to settle disputes in open ocean, or ocean more than 400
nautical miles away from coastlines. Due to the vast size of the Arctic and its relative distance
from coastlines, UNCLOS III does not include a sizeable portion of the Arctic. The nearest
settlement to the North Pole is in fact some 508 miles away from the Pole, and even that is not
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%43United Nations, United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea,http://www.un.org/Depts/los/convention_agreements/texts/unclos/closindx.htm.44Ibid
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settled permanently. Without an undisputed owner of this area, existing international agreements
would not properly apply to the Arctic region.45
To solve these disputes, the UN held another conference and initially decided that a new
commission, known as the International Seabed Authority (ISA), would oversee any minerals or
resources outside of any states territorial waters or EEZ. This commission would be responsible
for regulating these mineral or resource deposits and disbursing royalties. It has granted licenses
to several corporations to begin exploratory work, and no companies have begun commercial
exploitation of resources. More troubling is the fact that the United States has yet to ratify the
treaty, stating that the ISA is contrary to US economic and security objectives. This lack of
support has taken away legitimacy from the ISA. Even though the territory in the Arctic outside
of any countryscontinental shelf zone or EEZ should fall under the jurisdiction of the ISA, there
is no mechanism to ensure that countries, such as the United States, heed to the agencys rules.46
The regulatory system created by the United Nations is technically in place to determine
ownership or regulations for of all parts of the ocean. However, reluctance from the United
States and the fact that the body has not actually approved any disciplinary action may not be
sufficient for regulation of the open seas. Resource exploration thus far has been relatively tame.
As more important natural resources such as energy resources come into play, it is unlikely that
the jurisdiction of the ISA will be respected, leaving the Arctic as an unregulated area. It is up to
the United Nations, and specifically DISEC, to ensure that strong, enforceable, and agreed upon
rules are in place for the regulation of these valuable resources.
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%45Reynolds, Lindor,"Life is cold and hard and desolate at Alert, Nunavut",Guelph Mercury,Retrieved 16 March2010.46See Note 37
http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/thestar/access/445998211.html?dids=445998211:445998211&FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS:FT&type=current&date=Aug+31%2C+2000&author=Reynolds%2C+Lindor&pub=Daily+Mercury&desc=Life+is+cold+and+hard+and+desolate+at+Alert%2C+Nunavut&pqatl=googlehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guelph_Mercuryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guelph_Mercuryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guelph_Mercuryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guelph_Mercuryhttp://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/thestar/access/445998211.html?dids=445998211:445998211&FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS:FT&type=current&date=Aug+31%2C+2000&author=Reynolds%2C+Lindor&pub=Daily+Mercury&desc=Life+is+cold+and+hard+and+desolate+at+Alert%2C+Nunavut&pqatl=google8/10/2019 Disarmament and International Security Committee FINAL copy.pdf
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Possible Solutions
Presented with the issue of fierce international competition for Arctic resources and the
definite possibility of violence between nations, it is essential that the United Nations, and
DISEC in specific, take swift and appropriate preventative action. There exist several different
possible solutions for DISEC, varying in difficulty and effectiveness. It is ultimately up to the
committee to decide the most fruitful way to address these topics and how to best
One possible solution for the United Nations is to act as a mediator between nations as
they discuss possible agreements or even purchases of rights for mineral extraction in the Arctic.
This would place the United Nations and DISEC in the position of moderator and arbiter of
multiple deals between nations as they seek to settle territorial disputes. Such deals are not
unprecedented, even in this region. Norway and Russia were able to reach a deal over the
petroleum rich and disputed Barents Sea. 47The two nations have agreed to split the area more or
less evenly, with each using state-owned resource extraction companies in tandem to exploit the
petroleum and natural gas deposits.48Such an agreement happening on its own is unlikely, and it
might be up the United Nations to ensure that such accords are agreed upon. The United Nations
General Assembly has many member nations who depend on these resources and can apply
massive pressure to Arctic nations to solve these agreements peaceably and quickly, allowing for
resource extraction that will benefit all of mankind. However, the possibility exists of alienating
Arctic nations by trying to dictate how they should split their territory and how they should
negotiate with other nations, and such treaties would almost inevitably create winners and losers,
a difficult pill to swallow for many nations. Such a solution requires an incredibly delicate
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%47Russia and Norway Agree Deal Over Oil-Rich Barents Sea, BBC, http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-13686049.48Gibbs, Walter, Russia and Norway Reach Accord on Barents Sea, New York Timeshttp://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/28/world/europe/28norway.html?_r=0.
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democratic touch as well as firm negotiation from the entire world, no small feat. The benefits of
successfully solving the crises in the manner cannot be overstated, however, as the entire world
would benefit from an estimated 25% increase in the global supply of fossil fuels.49
Another solution to Arctic border disputes is the strengthening of maritime and
International Seabed Authority laws through the full force of the UN. This would involve, in
essence, another convening of the United Nations on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS IV), but this
time involving all DISEC nations. This solution has the benefit of historical precedent. This is
how the United Nations dealt with the issue in the past. However, the focus would have to be
solely on the Arctic. With this region in mind, ISA powers and definitions would have to be
extended such that the entire Arctic was peaceably and rigidly defined. This would prevent any
future disputes between nations by giving them a clear set of rules and an enforcing body. The
ISA would have to gain new powers and some enforcement mechanism in order to ensure that
nations like the United States are not able to flaunt the regulations of the ISA and continue
exploiting resources however they choose. This solution would be attractive in that it has the
legitimacy and power behind a United Nations operation and would likely solve the problem
completely. However, it would be very difficult to ensure completion because of the variety of
state interests involved, as well as the fact that DISEC possesses only the ability to make
suggestions, not to establish United Nations directives in its own right.
An unsatisfactory solution that DISEC can technically employ would be to maintain the
status quo. In this case, the International Seabed Authority would be responsible for dealing with
any Arctic minerals and resources that exist further out than each nations Exclusive Economic
Zone or Continental Shelf rights extend. This solution is attractive because it does not require
more regulations or intervention on the part of the United Nations. It gives approval and displays
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%49Ibid.
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faith in the previous conventions of the sea and puts the full faith of the United Nations in
previous UN decisions, showing consistency. The problem with this solution is that although the
system is technically in place, it is not widely respected and there are few measures to get
countries to comply with ISA regulations. The United States, along with many other major
international players, has yet to ratify the ISA, basically saying that it will refuse to abide by ISA
laws, which would undoubtedly cause other nations to do the same. In fact, many disputes have
begun to erupt between nations such as Canada and the United States, Canada and Demark, and
others over the letter of the law.50 Without a strong framework in place, it is possible, even
likely. that these conflicts will increase in intensity as the fight for resources becomes more
desperate in an increasingly resource starved world. This cannot be truly considered an option
for DISEC, as it would be a failure to adhere to its mandate.
Solutions must be crafted to prevent the Arctic from becoming another economic
warzone, especially given the stakes of fighting war in the modern era. It falls squarely upon the
shoulders of DISEC to determine creative, effective, and palatable solutions for all member
nations to resolve this issue. Whether the solution ends up being one of the above, a mix of the
three, or something completely different, a wide international consensus will be required, so
make sure to make your suggestions fair, useful, and realistic.
Bloc Positions
Argentina, Canada, Chile, China, Denmark, Finland, Germany, Iceland, Norway, Russia,
Sweden, United Kingdom, United States (13)
The countries in this bloc are heavily vested in the matter and would be impacted no
matter what action the committee chooses to take, or are allied with a country that believes so.
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%50McAlister, Terry, Rush for Arctic ResourcesProvokes Territorial Tussles,http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2011/jul/06/arctic-resources-territorial-dispute.
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They believe that the Arctic could be developed and have strongly considered proposals to
increase the amount of infrastructure, potentially militaristic ones. This bloc contains all the
members of the Arctic Council, an 8-member committee where they unanimously agree on a set
of principles when dealing with the Arctic.51While these countries may have territorial disputes
with one another, they mostly believe that they are capable of settling it themselves, and do not
need to discuss it openly in an international forum. This is amply demonstrated by the example
in the Statement of the Problem.
This bloc also contains the permanent observers to the Arctic Council who do not have
territory in the Arctic Circle but have demonstrated interest in the region. For example, China
has conducted more than five exploratory missions to the Arctic since 1999. 52 In addition,
Argentina and Chile also work in conjunction with members with this bloc in coordinating
efforts in the Antarctic; it is important that these countries work together and take their opinions
into consideration because a change in the Arctics status quo may potentially change the
Antarctics situation.
Croatia, Cyprus, Djibouti, Estonia, France, Greece, India, Italy, Japan, Kenya, The Republic of
Korea, Malaysia, Mauritius, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Pakistan, Panama, Poland,
Seychelles, Singapore, South Africa, Spain, Tanzania, Turkey (24)
This bloc contains the remainder of the countries who are permanent members on the
Arctic Council, countries that have participated in the Arctic Council on an ad-hoc basis, and
their major allies.53These countries rely heavily on their ports, which are on significant maritime
trading routes, as large contributors to their economy. They are primarily concerned with the
effect using the Arctic as a new trading route will have on their own economies. They will likely
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%51Member States, Arctic Council, http://www.arctic-council.org/index.php/en/about-us/member-states.52A Warmer Welcome, The Economist, http://www.economist.com/news/international/21578040-arctic-council-admits-its-first-permanent-asian-observers-warmer-welcome. May 18th, 2013. Accessed November 20, 2013.53Member States, Arctic Council.
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try to prevent militarization efforts in the Arctic because they are opposed to developing the
Arctic in general and would like to maintain the status quo vis a vis the current maritime trading
routes.
Afghanistan, Angola, Benin, Botswana, Burkina Faso, Burundi, Central African Republic,
Cameroon, Cape Verde, Chad, Congo, DR Congo, Comoros, Cuba, Equatorial Guinea,
Ethiopia, Gambia, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Korea (Democratic Peoples Republic), Lesotho,Liberia, Malawi, Mali, Mongolia, Nicaragua, Niger, Rwanda, Sierra Leone, Senegal, South
Sudan, Sudan, Swaziland, Uganda, Zambia, Zimbabwe (36)
The countries in this bloc are those that are not as economically developed and do not
have sustained industries in the mineral resources that the Arctic could potentially provide. These
states would be concerned if more developed countries controlled increased their natural
resource capacities and would be uncomfortable with all these larger economies having more and
more global power.54These countries would be against the idea of militarization, as they would
begin to fear the possible imperialistic tendencies of the more economically developed countries
that have made the Arctic a priority.
Bangladesh, Costa Rica, Fiji, Indonesia, Guatemala, Kiribati, Maldives, Myanmar, Panama,
Papua New Guinea, Philippines, Sri Lanka, Tuvalu, Viet Nam (15)
According to the Climate Change Vulnerability Index, most of the countries in this bloc
are most significantly affected by climate change or are in close proximity to countries that are. 55
These countries immediate priority would concern solving the short-term problems of the
Arctic. They believe that before they can even consider options on how to use the land they must
first combat the climate change issues plaguing the Arctic. These are the nations that have
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%54Patrick, Stewart M., Why Natural Resources Are a Curse on Developing Countries and How to Fix it, TheAtlantic, 30 April 2012, 31 November 2013, http://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2012/04/why-natural-resources-are-a-curse-on-developing-countries-and-how-to-fix-it/256508/.55Climate ChangeVulnerability Index 2013Maplecroft Global Risk Anaytics. Press Release.http://maplecroft.com/about/news/ccvi_2013.html. Accessed November 20, 2013.
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experienced firsthand the dire consequences of climate change and want the issue efficiently
dealt with before they can discuss anything long-term.
Antigua and Barbuda, Bahamas, Barbados, Dominica, Dominican Republic, Grenada, Haiti,
Jamaica, Malta, Marshall Islands, Micronesia, Nauru, Palau, Samoa, Sao Tome and Principe,Soloman Islands, St Lucia, St Vincent and the Grenadines, St Kitts and Nevis, Tonga, Trinidad
and Tobago, Vanuatu (23)
This bloc contains countries that are among the smallest in the world, and are all smaller
islands surrounded by large amounts of water. These countries are not self-sufficient and their
natural resources are quite limited, relying instead on other countries for this sort of aid. 56Since
they are islands, they are naturally quite concerned about the impact using the Arctic, as a trading
route will have on their own local economies, which for the most part they are still trying to fully
develop. 57 These countries might only be interested in militarization if it means that their
economic situations and prowess will improve.
Australia, Bahrain, Brazil, Brunei, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Ukraine,
United Arab Emirates, Yemen (13)
This bloc contains countries that currently possess significant natural resources and that
mining them is a noteworthy component of their local economies. Their primary concern would
be the economic impact of increased competition that surveying the Arctic for resources would
bring.58 These countries would also be against militarization because they would be wary of
increased military centers for the countries of the Arctic Circle.
Andorra, Armenia, Austria, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Belgium, Bulgaria, Bhutan, Bolivia, Bosnia and
Herzegovina, Czech Republic, Georgia, Hungary, Jordan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Laos,
Lebanon, Liechtenstein, Luxembourg, Moldova, Monaco, Montenegro, Nepal, Paraguay,
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%56Small Island Developing States, United Nations Sustainable Development Knowledge Platform, 21 November2013, http://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/index.php?menu=203.57Ibid.58Patrick, Stewart M., Why Natural Resources Are a Curse on Developing Countries and How to Fix it, TheAtlantic, 30 April 2012, 31 November 2013, http://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2012/04/why-natural-resources-are-a-curse-on-developing-countries-and-how-to-fix-it/256508/.
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Portugal, Romania, San Marino, Serbia, Slovakia, Slovenia, Switzerland, Syrian Arab Republic,
Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan (36)
These countries are primarily landlocked nations that would have a neutral stance
towards any significant change in how the Arctic is globally managed. They are most likely to
adopt a position that will allow the status quo to remain the way it currently does and would be
against any power that would change the balance of power in the world. However, the European
Union nations in this bloc that do not actively participate in the Arctic Council must balance their
allegiances to the other European nations alongside these beliefs.59
Angola, Albania, Algeria, Belize, Cambodia, Colombia, Cote dIvoire, Ecuador, Egypt, El
Salvador, Eritrea, Gabon, Ghana, Guyana, Honduras, Ireland, Latvia, Libya, Madagascar,Mauritania, Mexico, Morocco, Mozambique, Namibia, Nigeria, Somalia, Suriname, Togo,
Timor-Leste, Tunisia, Uruguay, Venezuela (33)
These are countries that have reliant on the ocean for their economies but will not be as
affected by the change in maritime trading routes as other countries would be. 60However, they
are unlikely to support any militarized action should the Arctic ice melt because these nations,
for the large part, will not support the idea of increasing the presence of weapons in shipping
routes. Not only this will affect their business, but also, for some nations, it would be directly
counterproductive to sustaining a conducive environment for creating a successful ocean-based
economy.
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%59International Ministerial Conference of Landlocked and Transit Developing Countries, Outcomes onLandlocked Developing Countries, 21 November 2013,http://www.un.org/en/development/devagenda/landlocked.shtml.60Ocean Reliance, Marine Traffic, 21 November 2013,http://www.marinetraffic.com/ais/details/ships/377339000.
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Topic Area B: The Protection of Civilians in Combat Zones
Statement of the Problem
There was a time when warfare was conducted entirely by professionals when battles
were confined to a field miles away from nearby towns. This brief period of military history is no
longer. Since the end of World War II, the most recent war that involved truly clear-cut
objectives and opposing standing armies, over 90% of wartime casualties have been unarmed
civilians.61When counting every soldier, guerrilla soldier, freedom fighter, insurgent, or other
armed participant in a conflict, nine unarmed civilians have died. In 1990, this figure stood at
5%.62It has become apparent that war in the 21stcentury is considerably more dangerous for the
average civilian than at any point in the last two hundred years. In the past, civilians died mainly
due to disease, starvation, and other indirect means.63 Today, civilians are more likely to die
from direct military action such as bombing or gunfire. 64 The problem that DISEC needs to
address is how this direct military action can be diverted away from civilians.
It is important to understand exactly what is meant by these statistics. Especially in
todays world where it may be difficult to understand what constitutes a soldier or an army,
concise definitions, or at least attempts at them, can be immensely difficult. In 1977, a Geneva
Convention treaty defined civilians negatively, as those who are not armed forces of a Party to a
conflict, armed forces in this case meaning combatants[who] have the right to directly
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%61Patterns in Conflict: Civilians are Now the Target, UNICEF, http://www.unicef.org/graca/patterns.htm.62Ibid.63World War II Death Statistics, Arsenal of Democracy,http://www.arsenalofdemocracy.org/images/WWIIlibrary/stats.pdf.64Shah, Anup, Small Arms- They Cause Nearly 90% of Civilian Casualties, Global Issues,http://www.globalissues.org/article/78/small-arms-they-cause-90-of-civilian-casualties.
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participate in hostilities.65 Furthermore, the Geneva Convention is careful and emphatic in
stating that if the civilian status of a person is in question, that person must be treated as a
civilian. These treaties designate anyone who is armed and fighting in a conflict as a non-
civilian. Using the definition of both civilian and non-civilian leaves no doubt that the 90%
civilian death rate cited earlier is truly the killing of unarmed people lending no military support.
There are many beliefs as to why this problem has become so dire in recent years. One likely
culprit is the fact that the nature of war has changed. Perhaps the most poignant example of this
in recent times is the advent of unmanned drone technology. Drones, remote operated aircraft,
allow governments to attack enemies from across the globe without having to risk their own
soldiers or even tell people that they are going to attack. This allows almost anyone in the world
to be attacked without knowing and without leaving his home or village and gives military
operations unprecedented range and strike times. The United States currently operates no less
than sixty drone bases in places such as the Seychelles and Ethiopia, allowing strikes to be
conducted around the world in short time frames.66 Drones and other long-range attack methods
operate on the element of surprise, striking their enemies unaware. In the past, combatants
(soldiers, military personnel, etc.) fought behind battle lines or were otherwise separated from
civilians, and so usually knew when they were going to be attacked or at least when they were in
danger of being attacked. This functioned as a crude kind of warning system, helping to cut
down on civilian deaths. With surprise drone strikes and long range attacks, this is no longer the
case and more and more enemies are attacked in their homes, inevitably causing death and
destruction to those surrounding them. By some estimates, 98% of those killed in drone strikes
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%65Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, Red Cross,http://www.icrc.org/ihl/INTRO/470..
66Ruder, Eric, Remote Control Warfare, http://www.globalresearch.ca/remote-control-warfare-some-sixty-us-drone-bases-around-the-world/5330325.
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are civilians, with evidence suggesting that the CIA sometimes strikes the same area twice,
deliberately killing mourners in an attempt to ensure their target was killed. 67This enormous
shift in the potential range and warning time of strikes has contributed to a marked increase in
civilian casualty ratios in war.
Perhaps more important than when war is fought in modern times is where. In so-
called traditional wars, such as the ones we think of with lines of riflemen firing at one
another, civilian casualty ratios were much lower than they are today.68This can be attributed
largely to the fact that, armies normally fought their battles away from population centers.69
With armies far away from cities and towns, the chance of a civilian getting caught in the
crossfire or in a shell explosion was drastically reduced. While actions aimed primarily at
civilians still occurred in these traditional wars, they normally took the place of sieges of
strategically important cities rather than targeted attacks on civilians.70This changed rapidly as
time progressed, however. World War II blurred the lines between attacking civilians and
military targets to the point of obscurity. In an attempt to destroy military production capacity
and to cow the population into submission, the United States and the other Allied powers
conducted ferocious bombing campaigns in both Germany and Japan. The firebombing of
Dresden, one of the most costly attacks in Germany, is estimated to have killed 25,000-
civilians.71 In Japan, the tolls climbed much higher. The combined death toll of the Tokyo
firebombing and nuclear attacks on Hiroshima and Nagasaki is somewhere above 300,000
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%67Predator Drone Strikes, Robert Taylor, PolicyMic, http://www.policymic.com/articles/16949/predator-drone-strikes-50-civilians-are-killed-for-every-1-terrorist-and-the-cia-only-wants-to-up-drone-warfare.68Ibid.69Heidler, David, Daily Lives of Civilians in Wartime Early America, 67.70Ibid.71Frederick Taylor, Der Spiegel, How Many Died in the Bombing of Dresden?,http://www.spiegel.de/international/germany/death-toll-debate-how-many-died-in-the-bombing-of-dresden-a-581992.html.
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civilian deaths, with countless more wounded and dying of radiation sickness.72,73The change of
the theater of war from a decided and isolated battlefield to the city was almost unprecedented in
the history of warfare, and compounded with technological prowess has allowed human life to be
taken on a massive scale.
The result of the changing tactics and location of warfare in recent times has led to a
fundamental point--as times have changed, the focus of warfare has shifted from the soldier to
the civilian. The civilian is now firmly within the crosshairs of the war machine, as war has
moved to his backyard, and he is unable to understand when or why he might become a target.
The result of this shift is seen clearly in statistics. The killing of civilians in war is defined as a
war crime, technically one that should be punishable.74No American was punished or even
formally tried for the bombing of Japan in the Second World War.75The fact that history is so
often written by the winners means it is difficult to understand exactly who is responsible for war
crimes, or if they even happened. Those who prevail in war, often using war crimes to
accomplish victory, are often immediately absolved of these very same crimes. For example, the
United States use of the nuclear bomb in WWII was a direct targeting of hundreds of thousands
of civilians, leaving a legacy of nuclear fallout and destruction. By any account, the action was a
war crime, and yet no Americans were tried.76Although the Geneva Conventions clearly define
and condemn war crimes, their enforcement to winners of wars is spotty at best.
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%72Coleman, Joseph, 1945 Tokyo Firebombing, Common Dreams,http://www.commondreams.org/headlines05/0310-08.htm.73Hiroshima and Nagasaki Death Toll, Children of the Atomic Bomb,http://www.aasc.ucla.edu/cab/200708230009.html74Maass, Peter, Willful Killing, Crimes of War, http://www.crimesofwar.org/a-z-guide/willful-killing/75Falk, Richard A.,"The Claimants of Hiroshima", February 1965.76Kohls, Gary, The Hiroshima Myth. Unaccountable War Crimes and the Lies of US Military History,http://www.globalresearch.ca/the-hiroshima-myth-unaccountable-war-crimes-and-the-lies-of-us-military-history/5344436
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Over the past decade, the world has seen many commissions of war crimes, and even
more accusations. The Middle East remains a hotspot for civilian violence, but the rest of the
world has been plunged into violence as well. The fact remains that the rising ratio of civilian to
military deaths seems to not be slowing, and is already intolerably high. As the United Nations
Disarmament and International Security Committee, it is firmly within your mission and
imperative to defend the civilians of international community from possible death at the hands of
war criminals. The issue will not be an easy one to resolve, and many have attempted it before,
but it cannot be allowed to persist. The people of the world must be protected.
History of the Problem
Civilians have always been threatened in warfare. Warfare has been conducted
throughout history for a wide variety of reasons: territorial conquest, religious conversion,
natural resources, greed, and confusion have all motivated war in the past and will no doubt do
so in the future. No matter the driving force behind war, its objectives will undoubtedly include
some action that will put civilian lives at risk or lead directly to their destruction. This can
include anything from express orders to kill a conquered population to the siege of cities. With
besieged cities, it can be difficult or prohibitively time consuming to attempt to distinguish
between soldiers and civilians. At any rate, cutting off supplies to a city, either through sieges,
sanctions, or blockades, affects civilians and soldiers at least proportionately, if not affecting the
civilians more.77The deaths of civilians while persistent throughout history, has grown orders of
magnitude direr in recent years.
Until recently, the distinction between soldiers and civilians has not been explicit. The
majority (there exist rare counterexamples) of armies were not professional until the mid to late
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%77The Siege of Leningrad, History Learning Site, http://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/siege_of_leningrad.htm.
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15th century.78 Prior to 1600, civilians would be called upon in times of need to defend their
country without formal training. The rise of professional armies created a distinction between
full-time soldiers and civilians. Whereas previously any civilian conceivably could be called into
military service at anytime through conscription (The Draft), once a professional standing
army was created, there was a clear distinction between those who were tasked to protect and
those who were being protected.
In these earliest wars, statistics are not an accurate descriptor as to how many civilians
were killed, but it can be useful to look at how wars were fought and draw assumptions from
there. Wars were largely fought for territorial dominance, which meant that a conquering army
had to occupy and hold territory, as well as possibly siege and/or destroy cities. For example, the
Mongol Hordes of the 12thand 13thcenturies were responsible for some of the largest territorial
conquests in history, a feat they accomplished by often destroying cities they came across. One
such city was Baghdad, which in 1258 was completely pillaged and destroyed by the Mongols,
resulting in the loss of 200,000 to 1,000,000 lives, presumably the majority of which were
civilians.79This type of wanton destruction was not uncommon during this period, as wars of
territorial conquest resulted in massive civilian loss of life due to invading armies destroying and
pillaging cities in an effort to suppress uprisings and make their hold on the land more secure.
As professional armies became more established and the line between civilian and soldier
became increasingly stark, military tactics began to change. While the majority of the conflicts
fought from the 14th to the 19th centuries still involved territorial conquest, the prevalence of
cities being sacked or destroyed completely with all of their inhabitants went down dramatically
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%78Beigent, Leigh R, The Temple and the Lodge, London, 1989, 100.
79The Mongol invasion and the Destruction of Baghdad, Lost Islamic History,http://lostislamichistory.com/mongols/.
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as occupying armies tended to rule occupied cities harshly without killing all occupants, such as
Napoleons occupation ofEgypt, in which great care was taken to appease the citizens rather
than slaughter them.80This has led many historians to estimate that almost 1,000,000 civilians
died during the French Empires invasion of Europe during the Napoleonic Wars, while
suggesting that about twice that many soldiers died. 81 While technological improvements
continued increasing the deadliness of warfare, the ratio of civilian deaths to soldier deaths
appeared to reach a maximum at about two soldier deaths for every one civilian. In wars
involving the modern conception of lines of rifleman firing upon one another, the average
civilian was able to escape warfare relatively easily, as battlefields were determined well in
advance and non-military personnel could evacuate, protecting themselves and their families. As
people became differentiated from soldiers in all aspects of life, they were able to distance
themselves from soldiers on the battlefield. It became increasingly easy to distinguish who was a
soldier and who wasn't. A soldier was available 12 months a year for paid military service. His
dress, his mannerisms, and most importantly, his duties during wartime were different. The
soldier was on the frontlines during the defense of his country while the majority of his
countrymen were able to stay behind. The line between soldier and civilian has never been more
defined throughout human history than it was in the early 20 thcentury, when only 1 civilian died
for every 19 soldiers killed.82
This peak of delineation between soldier and civilian has not yet been equaled, and
indeed the ratio of civilian to soldier deaths has been rising extraordinarily fast in the past 110
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%80Egypt History- French Occupation Period , Tour Egypt, http://www.touregypt.net/hfrench.htm.81Statistics of Wars, Oppressions, & Atrocities of the Nineteenth Century, Necrometrics,http://necrometrics.com/wars19c.htm.82Patterns in Conflict: Civilians are Now the Target, UNICEF, http://www.unicef.org/graca/patterns.htm.
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years. During the First World War, this ratio sat at about two civilians for every three soldiers. 83
There are many reasons for the elevated civilian death rate, the most significant of which was the
Spanish Influenza that ravaged Europe. On the contrary, the civilian death rate was lower than it
could have been because World War I involved trench warfare, and the static battlefronts
allowed civilians ample time to evacuate or avoid the most intense fighting. With World War I
came the advent of Total War, the idea that an entire nation focused all of its resources on a
war effort, mobilizing citizens and manufacturing capacity to provide for the military.
This shift of the role of civilians would have major impacts on their survival during war.
The effect became very pronounced in World War II, in which civilians became a viable military
target. Strategic bombing intended to destroy manufacturing or demoralize populations
necessarily (and often by design) destroyed entire cities, killing many of the inhabitants. In
previous wars, killing civilians would do little to the fighting effectiveness of the military-
civilians at home would perhaps be farming or sewing uniforms. In total war, however, the
civilians were just as valuable to the war effort as standing armies. Without a strong
manufacturing base from which to draw the massive resources needed to conduct truly modern
war, a state would quickly crumble. Combined with the fact that citizens had an increasingly
powerful voice in politics and morale could influence whether or not a nation could continue
war, civilians became an appetizing target for opposing armies. In World War II, the deadliest
conflict in human history, over fifty-five million people died, and for the first time in modern
war, more civilians died than soldiers, at a rate of about three civilian deaths for every two
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%83Clodfelter, Michael, Warfare and Armed Conflicts- A Statistical Reference to Casualty and Other Figures,Cambridge: London, 150.
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soldiers. 84 As civilians increasingly became a target for bombing campaigns, especially
firebombing and nuclear attack, the casualty ratios climbed
The smaller conflicts related to the Cold War, Korea and Vietnam, saw yet another
increase in civilian casualties. Lengthy occupations by American forces and bombing an on
unprecedented scale led to casualty ratios of approximately two civilians for every one soldier. 85,
86As opposition groups, such as the Viet Cong during the Vietnam War, made it difficult for
occupying soldiers to determine who was a combatant and who was a civilian, civilians were
inevitably involved in the fighting and thus died in greater numbers. 87Increased technological
advancement allowed bombers to level cities and villages with impunity, indiscriminately killing
civilians. An example is Operation Rolling Thunder, an American bombing campaign that
killed between 52,000 and 182,000 Vietnamese civilians. 88 Recent wars have often been
conducted asymmetrically, meaning that one party has a standing army while the other uses
guerilla warfare tactics or operates as a terrorist group, making it difficult to determine who
exactly is a combatant and who is a civilian. 89New technology such as cruise missiles,
unmanned drones, and smart bombs have allowed targeted bombing and destruction of
population centers without necessitating massive bombing campaigns and global wars. The
combination of fading lines between civilians and soldiers and increased ability to destroy targets
through remote bombing and other long-distance methods has created a civilian casualty ratio far
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%84
Civilian Casualties of World War, History Learning Site,http://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/civilian_casualties_of_world_war.htm.85Taylor, Robert, Predator Drone Strikes,, PolicyMic, http://www.policymic.com/articles/16949/predator-drone-strikes-50-civilians-are-killed-for-every-1-terrorist-and-the-cia-only-wants-to-up-drone-warfare.86Shenon, Philip, 20 Years After Victory,http://www.vietnam.ttu.edu/virtualarchive/items.php?item=2322414020.87Vietnam War Statistics, Statistic Brain http://www.statisticbrain.com/vietnam-war-statistics/.88Rummel, RJ, Statistics of Democide,, http://www.hawaii.edu/powerkills/SOD.CHAP4.HTM.89Buffaloe, David, Defining Asymmetric Warfare, http://www.ausa.org/SiteCollectionDocuments/ILW%20Web-ExclusivePubs/Land%20Warfare%20Papers/LWP_58.pdf.
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in excess of anything recorded in history, up to 19 civilians killed for every combatant in some
cases.90
Throughout history, civilians have suffered in warfare. The extent to which that suffering
is manifested through the killing of civilians is highly dependent on the method of conducting
war and the strength of the delineation between soldier and civilian. In recent history, both of
these factors have led to an unprecedented rise in civilian casualties. With war increasingly being
conducted asymmetrically and through remote killing rather than soldiers on the ground,
civilians have never been more at risk. It is the task of DISEC to understand these trends,
consider them heavily, and attempt solutions to mitigate their effect on the safety of civilians in
wartime.
Past Actions
The protection of civilians from the horrors of war is not a new concern for the
international community. Attempts have been made in the past to alleviate the suffering of non-
combat personnel in wartime, but it has become apparent that more must be done to safeguard
the most vulnerable during war.
The most visible action conducted by the United Nations often involves United Nations
troops (often called peacekeeping forces). United Nations peacekeeping forces constitute soldiers
from many different member nations, and are used to help nations transition from conflict to
peace.91United Nations peacekeeping forces have a strict objective, known as a mandate that
they are trying to accomplish.92
Peacekeeping forces have three major rules that they must abide
by: the nation that they enter must consent to peacekeeping forces being there, the peacekeepers
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%90Taylor, Robert, Predator Drone Strikes, PolicyMic, http://www.policymic.com/articles/16949/predator-drone-strikes-50-civilians-are-killed-for-every-1-terrorist-and-the-cia-only-wants-to-up-drone-warfare.91What is Peacekeeping?, United Nations, http://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/operations/peacekeeping.shtml.92Ibid.
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must remain impartial in any local conflicts, and finally peacekeeping forces are not authorized
to use force except for self defense or defense of their mandate. 93 The official functions of
peacekeeping forces include facilitating political processes, protecting civilians, assisting in the
disarmament of former combatants, protecting and promoting the rule of law, and restoring the
rule of law. Peacekeepers do not choose a side in conflicts, nor do they force warring factions to
make peace. They are inserted after conflicts in order to ensure that civilians are protected. There
are currently sixteen active United Nations peacekeeping operations, and sixty-eight over the
course of the program.
One of the most notable UN peacekeeping actions was the United Nations Operation in
the Congo (UNOC). In July of 1960, the Security Council mandated the peacekeeping forces
with overseeing the withdrawal of Belgian troops from the Congo and to maintain law and order.
The peacekeepers were authorized to use force, if necessary, to ensure that all Belgian troops
were removed from Congolese territory and also acted as a police force to ensure order was
maintained during the transition period. This mandate was eventually extended to include the
prevention of civil war and the removal of all foreign military agents from the Congo.94250
United Nations personnel died while serving in the Congo protecting civilians there. 95
Peacekeeping missions directly impact civilians by putting boots on the ground and so directly
impacting civilians day-to-day lives. Peacekeeping operations remain the most direct, visible
way for the United Nations to take action to prevent civilian casualties, however DISEC must
keep in mind that the body does not have the authority to mandate peacekeeping missions but
instead must petition the Security Council to do so.
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%93Ibid.94Republic of the Congo ONUC Mandate, United Nations,http://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/missions/past/onucM.htm.95Republic of the Congo ONUC Facts & Figures, United Nations,http://www.un.org/depts/DPKO/Missions/onucF.html.
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A more indirect but perhaps ultimately more successful way the United Nations has
addressed civilian casualties is to pass resolutions creating laws and/or regulations (it is
important to note here that DISEC does not have the ability to pass binding resolutions) that are
designed to either prevent the killing of civilians in warfare in the future, or to attempt to end the
killing of civilians in conflicts that are currently happening. The first type of resolution is more
rare; most UN member nations have ratified the Geneva Conventions, including the extension of
1977 that deals with the protection of civilians in warfare. However, it is not unheard of for the
United Nations to issue resolutions or declarations condemning the killing of civilians in warfare.
A recent example is UN SC/10913, a resolution announced by the United Nations Security
Council that places the majority of the responsibility for preventing civilian deaths on member
nations rather than the United Nations as a whole, although the resolution does call for member
states not directly involved in the conflict to take steps to reduce civilian deaths. The resolution
states that if state governments fail to prevent civilian casualties, the Security Council must
press the Government to fulfill its obligations, no small threat coming from a Security Council
composed of the most powerful nations on Earth.96These types of resolutions are more broadly
based, serving as reminders that the United Nations (and the international community as a
whole) condemns civilian casualties.
A more common policy tool of the United Nations is a direct mandate tailored to address
current conflicts and reduce or stop civilian deaths completely. These resolutions include threat
of military actions by members, establishments of no-fly zones, economic embargoes, etc.
designed to put pressure on regimes that are killing civilians and coerce them into obeying
international humanitarian law. One such example is a resolution adopted by the Security
Council on January 28, 2005, Resolution 1582. This resolution strongly condemned the killing of
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%96UN SC/10913, February 12, 2013, http://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2013/sc10913.doc.htm.
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civilians in the Gali district of Abkhazi.97In this resolution, the Security Council explicitly lists
the actions that it finds unacceptable and lists ways that they must be rectified. In this type of
document, the United Nations is not making a wide statement about civilian safety to be accepted
by everyone but is instead explicitly speaking to a certain party or parties and compelling them to
cease the killing of civilians. These resolutions are usually made by the Security Council but can
be heavily influenced by DISEC and other bodies of the United Nations.
The United Nations has completed many actions designed to prevent civilian casualties,
as this is one of the largest international issues and is a central part of the United Nations charter.
DISEC serves a vital role in these operations as a wide forum of opinion and as the primary
source of information and suggestion to the Security Council. While DISEC cannot codify
international law, it is an extremely influential voice in suggesting these laws. The actions of
DISEC on this issue will undoubtedly have a massive impact of the safety and security of
civilians world-wide for the foreseeable future.
Possible Solutions
Presented with the lingering issue of intolerably high civilian mortality rates in warfare
combined with disturbing trends about the future of these rates, it is essential that the United
Nations, and DISEC in particular, takes swift and appropriate corrective action. There exist
several different possible solutions for DISEC, varying in difficulty and effectiveness. It is
important to remember the limitations of the powers of the General Assembly--DISEC does not
have the ability to mandate United Nations Peacekeeping Forces, declare war, or impose
sanctions. The strength of DISEC lies in its tremendous ability to issue declarations and
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%97Security Council Resolution 1582, United Nations, http://www.securitycouncilreport.org/atf/cf/%7B65BFCF9B-6D27-4E9C-8CD3-CF6E4FF96FF9%7D/POCSRES%201582.pdf.
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resolutions that have the power to spur individual bodies (such as countries) and the United
Nations Security Council to substantive action.
The first action that DISEC can employ would be to suggest the creation of a dedicated
subcommittee to deal exclusively with the protection of civilians. This solution has some
potential but also some very serious flaws. The upside of this solution is that, if implemented,
would create a taskforce with the sole purpose of protecting civilians. If appropriately structured,
this committee could have enough influence and power to enact meaningful change in how
civilians are protected by the United Nations. In an organization that has so many different topics
and crises to deal with, the creation of a dedicated committee would help focus efforts. However,
the creation of a subcommittee in itself is not a solution. It is buck-passing in every sense of
the phrase; DISEC would be relying on others to take up its task of making the world a safer
place for civilians, while also creating more bureaucracy than existed previously. It is unlikely if
not impossible that the DISEC would give the subcommittee more expansive powers than it itself
possesses to deal with the issue, meaning that any action taken by the committee could have been
taken by DISEC more easily. Similarly, the creation of a subcommittee could waste resources
that could have been better-spent accomplishing objectives. Instead of creating a dedicated
subcommittee, it might be more prudent to commission research or consulting on the subject, but
that has the risk of being a Band-Aid solution rather than amore permanent one. (Also name
that other bodies area already concerned with this type of task and demonstrate how they deal
with it)
Another possible solution that could be adopted by DISEC involves advocating for more
direct resolutions to deal with specific conflicts that threaten the lives of civilians today.
Unfortunately, the situations vary across the board and require individual attention. The Middle
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East alone is host to a great many humanitarian crises, especially in Palestine, Iraq, Iran, and
Syria. The advantages of this solution are that direct, meaningful action will likely be taken if the
United Nations decides to heed the resolution passed by DISEC. The United Nations has a