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DiscoveringabrandidentityforNorwegianFashionThecaseofNorwegianFashionInstitute
BenedicteVibergMhre Counsellor:ToreKristensen
DepartmentofMarketing January28th2010Cand.Soc
Managementof STU(w/spacesandtables):137.669Creative Business Processes (CBP) 60,51 pages
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Executive Summary
ThisthesisseekstoexploretheNorwegianFashionindustryanditslackofbrandidentity.
NorwegianFashionInstitute(NMINorskMoteInstitutt)openedinFebruary2009andhas
asoneoftheirmaingoalstopromoteNorwegianFashioninNorwayandabroad.Norwegian
FashionisnotasinternationallyknownasourScandinavianneighboursfashionandthus
NMIhasanimportantjobaheadofthem.AccordingtoPerAageSivertsen,HeadofDesign
for FIN Fashion, this isaperfecttimeto strengthenNorwegianFashionasfashionis very
muchinfocusintheScandinaviancountriesanditisimportanttoexploitthatopportunity
whenitispresent.
AsNMI isstillat the infant stage, thereare somestrategicactionsI feelareimportantto
take in the near future inorderto fulfil their goals. The recommendations are basedon
findingsfrombrandmanagementtheory,strategicmanagementtheory,fashiontheoryas
wellasfindingsfromsurveysconductedforthisreport.
NorwegianFashionInstituteshould:
- SupportandaidresearchonNorwegianfashiondesignasitprovidesafoundationforfurtherevolvementofNorwegianfashion
- MaptheNorwegianFashionFieldtoidentifyallinstitutionalactors- PromotethebuildingofafashionclusterinOslo,astacitknowledgeiskeyincreative
industries
- ConductanextensiveindustryresearchincludingSWOTanalysis,PortersFiveForces,identifying the various actors, characteristics, similarities anddifferences between
brands
- AidOsloFashionWeekinattractinginternationalbuyerstothefashionweek- GetmoreexposureaboutNorwegianFashioninNorwegianfashionmagazines
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TABLEOFCONTENTS
1.INTRODUCTION 6
1.2REPORTBACKGROUND 71.3RESEARCHFIELDANDRESEARCHQUESTION 81.4REPORTSTRUCTURE 9
2.0METHODOLOGY 11
2.1RESEARCHOBJECTIVES 112.2STAKEHOLDERS 112.3DATA 112.3.1THEORETICALAPPROACH 122.3.2.EMPIRICALAPPROACH 132.4CONTRIBUTIONS 142.5DELIMITATIONS 142.6SOURCECRITIQUE 16
3.0THECREATIVEINDUSTRIESORTHECULTURALINDUSTRIES? 17
3.1FIVEPOLARITIES 183.1.1ARTISTICVALUESVERSUSMASSENTERTAINMENT 193.1.2PRODUCTDIFFERENTIATIONVERSUSMARKETINNOVATION 193.1.3DEMANDANALYSISVERSUSMARKETCONSTRUCTION 203.1.4VERTICALINTEGRATIONVERSUSFLEXIBLESPECIALIZATION 203.1.5INDIVIDUALINSPIRATIONVERSUSCREATIVESYSTEMS 213.2CLUSTERS 21
3.2.1THEIMPORTANCEOFCLUSTERSINTHECULTURALINDUSTRIES 243.3INTERNSHIPS 243.4ANAREAOVERSEENFASHION 25
4.0FASHION 26
4.1HISTORY 264.2WHATISFASHION? 274.3HOWDOPEOPLEUSEFASHION? 28
4.4THEFASHIONSYSTEM 284.4.1THEMEDIA 29
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4.5SEGMENTATION 304.6THEINDUSTRYCHALLENGES 31
5.0NORWEGIANFASHION 35
5.1HISTORY 355.1.1PERIOD1,17901860 365.1.2PERIOD2,18601900 365.1.3PERIOD3,19001950 365.2THEMAJORMILESTONESINNORWEGIANCONTEMPORARYFASHION 375.3TENDENCIESINNORWEGIANFASHIONTODAY 395.3.1TRADITIONSANDHISTORY 395.3.2INNOVATIONANDSUSTAINABILITY 405.3.3WEATHER/CLIMATE 415.3.4PLACEBRANDING 415.4ORGANIZATIONALFORM 415.5IMPORTANTINSTITUTIONSSUPPORTINGNORWEGIANFASHION 425.4.1NORWEGIANFASHIONINSTITUTE 425.4.2NORSKFORM 445.4.3INNOVATIONNORWAY 455.4.4TEKSTILFORUM 45
6.0WHATISABRAND? 46
6.1THEEVOLUTIONOFBRANDING 466.2BRANDINGTODAY 476.3BRANDIDENTITY 486.4FASHIONANDNATIONALIDENTITY 50
7.0ANALYSIS 53
7.1INTERNATIONALSURVEY 537.1.1NORWEGIANBRANDS 537.1.2ACTORSINNORWEGIANFASHION
547.1.3CHARACTERISTICS 547.2NORWEGIANSURVEY 557.2.1NORWEGIANBRANDS 557.2.2ACTORSINNORWEGIANFASHION 557.2.3RECOGNIZINGNORWEGIANBRANDS 567.2.4CHARACTERISTICS 567.3COMPARINGTHESTUDIES 57
8.0HOWTOMAKENORWEGIANFASHIONANACCEPTEDBRAND 59
8.1CONSTRUCTINGANIDENTITY IFINDINGTHERELEVANTDNAPARTICLES 59
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8.1.2CONSTRUCTINGANIDENTITYIIBACKGROUNDFORIDENTITY 628.1.3THEIMPORTANCEOFHAVINGANIDENTITY 638.1.4CLUSTERS 638.1.5POSITIONING 648.1.5BUILDINGATTRACTIVENESS 66
9.0STRATEGICRECOMMENDATIONS 68
10.0CONCLUSION 70
11.0PERSPECTIVES 73
12.0BIBLIOGRAPHY 74
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DiscoveringabrandidentityforNorwegianfashion
1.Introduction
"Fashion is not something that exists in dresses only. Fashion is in the sky, in the street,
fashionhastodowithideas,thewaywelive,whatishappening.CocoChanel
Fashionhasbeenanimportantpartofpeopleslivesforalongtime.Thiscanbeseeninthe
abundanceoffashionmagazinesandfashionblogs,tvseriesonfashionandfashiondesign,
ingeneraltheimmensesizeofthefashionindustryanditspower.Fashionhasalsobecome
animportanttoolofcommunication,bothforthebrandsandforoneself.Whatyouwear
exposesyoutotheworldthewayyouwanttobeportrayed.Hencefashionispersonaland
verypowerful.Onecandresstofitintoagroup,dresstoportraypowerordresstoshowyou
donotcare.
TheFashionindustryhasexistedforhundredsofyearsandhasgrownintoabilliondollar
industry. There are fourmain fashion clusters in theworld:Paris, London,New Yorkand
Milan(somemayevenincludea fifth:Tokyo).Thesecitiesaresomeofthemostimportant
placesinthefashionworld,astheyarrangeaFashionWeekwerethetopdesignersofthe
worldpresentstheirnewestlines.Inrecentyears,othercountrieshaveseentheimportance
ofhavingthesefashionweeksasawayofexposingthecountrysdesigners,andNorwayis
noexception. 2004was the birth ofOslo FashionWeekand ithas grown tobecome an
importantplatformfordesigners,buyersandotherpeoplewithaninterestinwhatisgoing
on in the Norwegian Fashion Scene. However, Norwegian Fashion is relatively small
internationally,andsomekeypeopleintheindustryproposeitisduetothefactthatthere
isnoclearidentityonNorwegianFashion.HeadofDesigninFINFashion,PerAageSivertsen
statesthatthereisastrongneedforNorwegianFashiontoidentifywhoandwhattheyare
inordertobecomeaninternationalplayerintheFashionWorld(Skjrvold,2009).
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1.2Reportbackground
Choosingatopicforamasterthesisisnotaneasymatter.Itshouldideallybesomethingofgenuineinterestanditshouldfillagapinresearchprovidenewinformation.
In2008,KarunNordgrd,KarinFensgrdandSivMarinaFlKarlsenwerechosentoconduct
a researchonthe Norwegian fashion field. They spenttwo yearmapping the Norwegian
marketandinterviewingvariousactorsontheirperceptionsontheindustry.Theyendedup
witha conclusionwith fourdistinctactions the government should take in order tohelp
businesses in the Norwegian fashion industry. Firstly, the respondents stated that they
needed financial support for marketing, export and production, and felt that the
Governmentshouldtakemoreaction.Oneexampleofthiswasthegovernmentarranging
various events in the Embassies around the world as they are a great platform for
promotion.Secondly, the VAT, customsduties and other typesof taxes are too highand
need tobe decreased. In addition to this, therewas a suggestion ofmaking iteasier to
produceecologicalclothingbyreducingtheVAT.Thirdly,therespondentsalsofelttherewas
aneedfortheGovernmenttogivefinancialsupporttotheestablishmentofacoordinating
organizationforNorwegianFashion.Theyfelttheindustryneededamorejointsettinganda
placewheretheentitiescouldfindpossiblecollaborations.Lastly,thereisaneedtogoaway
fromtheexistingsupportarrangement,whichtreatsdesignwithintheregionalpolitics,and
insteadincludeitwithintradepolitics.
This researchwas the firstof its kindand it showedhow important it is to increase the
researchonthisfield,as ithasgreateconomicpotential.Theresearchwasthe foundation
forcreatinganorganizationworkingtojointheNorwegianFashionindustry,andpromote
Norwegianfashionhomeandabroad.Myinitialthoughtsuponreadingthisreportwashow
this could bethe firstof its kind inthe year2009?Fashion isan important partofmany
peopleslifeandhasturnedintoabilliondollarindustrywhyisNorwaysuchasmallactor
inthatindustry?
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BasedontherecommendationsfromMotepilot,TheNorwegianFashionInstituteofficially
opened in February 2009 and reading about the organization brought especially one
question to mind: What really is Norwegian Fashion? I soon figured I had very little
knowledgeaboutthevariousaspectsofthefashionindustryinmyowncountryandthusitbecameclearthatthiscouldbeasuitablefocusforthemasterthesis.NorwegianFashion
Institute(NMINorskMoteInstitutt)hasanextensivejobaheadofthem,toachievetheir
goalofpromotingNorwegianFashionnationallyandinternationally.However,beforethey
can startpromoting, it ismy firmbelief that the first stepNMI should take is finding an
identityforNorwegianFashion.Withouthavingaclearidentity,itisveryhardtoposition
and further market a brand. In fact, Michel Van Tongeren states, displaying your true
identityisyourstrength(Tongeren,2008).
The timing is also right for NMI and their work topromoteNorwegian Fashion. Head of
DesigninFINFashion,PerAageSivertsen,feelsthattheNorwegianFashionIndustryshould
exploitthefocusthatisonthefashionindustryintheScandinaviancountries.Inanarticlein
D2, a magazine under the Norwegian newspaper Dagens Nringsliv, Sivertsen states
thereisalargeinterestforScandinaviandesignthesedays.Wehaveastrongmusicscene
and good designers. The only thing mission now is for Norway to become a stronger
contenderinthefashionindustry(Skjrvold,2009)
1.3Researchfieldandresearchquestion
TheCulturalIndustriesmaybeanewterminNorway,butithasexistedforalongtimeand
hasbeenanimportantpartofmanycountriesnationaleconomy.Itprovidesaninputtothe
industry diversity, creates jobs and can contribute greatly to the national economy. As
mentioned above, theCultural industry isstill atthe infant stage inNorway comparedto
other nations like UK, France and even a small and comparable country like Denmark.
Norwaydoesproducemanyculturalproducts,butwholetermculturalindustryhasnot
yetgainedasafefootholdinNorway.Thisisalsotrueforthefashionindustry.Fashionisstill
averysmallandyoungbusinessfieldinNorwayandthepromotionofNorwegianfashion,
bothnationallyandinternationally,hasnotbeenasgoodasintheneighbouringcountriesDenmarkandSweden.However,asmentionedbefore,inFebruary2009,NorwegianFashion
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Institute (NFI) openedand their goal is tomakeNorwegian fashion into a respectedand
desiredbrand.
NFI states that they have four main tasks that will help build and structure the fashionindustry in Norway; (1) being the united organization for Norwegian fashion, (2) being a
centreforcompetency,(3)makingajointmove,and(4)organizinganddisclosingeffortsfor
developmentwithintrade(NorwegianFashionInstitute,2009).ThetasksNFIstatesastheir
maintasksaregreatlyimportantinthepromotionofNorwegianfashion,butbeforedoingall
this,IproposethatthereisaneedforNFItogathervaluableinformationinordertoidentify
aclearcutbrandidentityforNorwegianfashion.ThiswillmakeiteasierfortheNorwegian
actorsinvolvedtoworktogetherasthereisacleardefinition,itwillalsobeeasierforlocal
andinternationalcustomerstorecognizeandidentifyNorwegianfashion.Onthisnote,Iwill
presentmyresearchquestion:
HowcanNorwegianFashionInstitute(NFI)createabrandidentityforNorwegianfashion
andinturnformastrategyforpromotion?
In order to answer this research question I have stated some subquestions that I find
relevant:
- WhatcanbegainedbyabrandidentityforNorwegianFashion?- WhichstrategiesshouldNFIfocusoninordertocreateanidentity?- Isitimportanttolookbackinhistoryinordertomoveforward?- WhichcharacteristicsinNorwegianfashionbrandstodaycanhelpcreateanidentity?
1.4ReportStructure
Chapter 2 concerns themethodological choicesmade in order to find ananswer to the
researchquestion.Thechapterpresentstheresearchobjectiveofthethesis,therelevant
stakeholders, theoretical and empirical data chosen, research contributions and lastly
delimitations.Chapter3 starts bydefining the Cultural Industries in order to identify the
appropriatecharacteristicsandtheoriesforthethesis.Itendswithsheddingsomelightonan area of the Cultural Industries that has been less explored than other parts of the
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industry:theFashionIndustry.Furthermore,Chapter4presentstheFashionIndustry,abrief
historyandsomeoftheimportantelementsoftheindustry.Chapter5narrowsdownthe
scopeandpresentstheNorwegianFashionindustrywithitshistory,milestones,tendencies
andimportantinstitutions.Chapter6explainsthetheoryofbranding,withastrongfocusonbrand identity. In the last part of the chapter the combination of national identity and
fashion is described. InChapter 7 an analysis of the surveys conducted for this thesis is
presentedanddiscussed.Chapter8summarizessomeofthepossiblestepstotakeinorder
tomakeNorwegianFashionintoanacceptedbrandand Chapter9presentsthestrategic
recommendations for Norwegian Fashion Institute to achieve their goal of promoting
Norwegian Fashion nationally and internationally. Chapter 10 gives some concluding
remarksonthethesisandChapter11concernssomeperspectivesthatwerenotincludedin
thethesis,butcouldbeinterestingtofurtherresearch.
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2.0Methodology
Thischapterconcernsthemethodologicalchoicesmade,whichmakesuptheresearch
design.Theresearchdesignhasbeenchoseninordertounderstandtherelationship
betweentheresearchquestion,theresearchobjectiveandthedata.
2.1ResearchObjectives
ThisthesisseekstoinvestigatetheNorwegianFashionIndustry,asitisanindustrythathas
notbeenresearchedsufficiently.Thus,thethesistakesanexplorativeapproach.Norwegian
FashionInstituteisthemostrecentactorintheyoungindustry,andhasbeenmade
responsibleforstimulatingandpositioningNorwegianFashioninNorwayandabroad.But
beforetakingonsuchanimportanttask,itismyfirmbeliefthatNorwegianFashionInstitute
needstocreateanidentityforNorwegianFashionandthisthesisaimstomakea
contributiontothiscreationaswellaspresentsomestrategicrecommendationsonhow
NorwegianFashionInstitutecanmakeastrategyplanforpromotingNorwegianFashion.
2.2Stakeholders
Astakeholdercanbereferredtoasthepersons,groupsororganizationsthatcaneffector
haveastakeintheproject.InthiscasethemainstakeholdersareCopenhagenBusiness
School,NorwegianFashionInstitute,theactorsintheNorwegianFashionIndustryandthe
writer.Thevariousstakeholdersmay,andprobablywill,viewtheproblemdealtwithinthe
thesisdifferentlyastheyhavedifferentbackgroundsandinterests.
2.3Data
The process of collecting data has been long and vast.My initial knowledge about the
fashion industrywas aboveaverageasI had attendedan elective inFashionandLuxury
Industries atCBS.Therewas anabundanceof texts in ourcurriculumand thus Ididnot
foreseeanydifficultiesfindingrelevantinformationabouttheNorwegianFashionindustry.
Thetruthturnedout tobetheopposite.Therewerepracticallynoscientificarticlesonthe
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subjectexceptforonereport,consequentlylargepartsofthethesishasbeeninspiredfrom
thatreport.
2.3.1Theoreticalapproach
ThethesismakesuseofvarioustheoreticalcontributionsrelatedtotheFashionindustry,the
cultural industries, branding, strategy and so on. Several academic articles, newspaper
articles,booksandreportsmake upthetheoretical foundation ofthethesis andstrongly
contributetofindingananswertotheresearchquestion.
One report in particularhas proved tobeofvital importance andwas infactwheretheinspirationforthethesisoriginated.MotepilotbyKarunNordgaard,KarinFensgrdandSiv
Marina Fl, is a report exploring Norwegian fashion as an industry, providing valuable
informationofthefashionindustry,whichinturncanresultinabetterknowledgeabout
Norwegianfashionsfutureandgrowth.
TogetanunderstandingofwhatNorwegianfashionisandhasbeen,Ifeltitwasimperative
toresearchthehistory.However, thiswas alsoeasiersaid thandone.There isvery little
historicalinformation,embarrassinglylittleinfact,aboutthehistoryofNorwegianfashion.It
cametoshowthatmostoftheliteratureonNorwegianfashionavailablewasstudiesonthe
bunad (the national dress) and native dresses, where the focus revolved around the
clothes themselves and their shapes. Nevertheless, there was one leaflet that provided
somehistoricalaspectsoffashioninNorwayfrom1790until1914:Hvorkommermoten
fra?FraideologitilmoteIperioden17901914byBirgittaRamnefalk.Thisleaflethas
beenthemainsourceofinformationonthehistoricalaspectofNorwegianFashion.
AstheFashionindustryisapartoftheCulturalindustries,thereisaneedtoapplysomeof
therelevanttheorieshereunder.HereLampel,LantandShamsiesfivepolaritieshavebeen
used. It is a theory based upon the five polar opposites that define the field of action
organizationsinCulturalindustriestake.
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Brandingmakesupanimportantpartofthethesis.Varioustheorieswereusedtoanalyze
theNorwegianFashionindustryinordertosuggesttheinitialstepsinfindinganidentityfor
Norwegian Fashion. This thesis has takenuseoftwo theories in particular, DavidAakers
Brand Identity System andNoel KapferersBrand Identity Prism. The reason for choosingtheseparticulartheorieswastheirfocusonidentity.
InordertocontributetotheformationofastrategyofpromotionforNorwegianFashion,
varioustheorieswithinthefieldofstrategyandmanagementwereexamined(i.e.:Porters
FiveForces).Intheend,however,aSWOTanalysiswaschosen,asitisanexcellenttoolfora
strategic planning process.Furthermore, inordertoget the best results fromthe SWOT
analysis,aPESTLEanalysisshouldbecarriedout.ThishasnotbeendoneinthisthesisasI
feel it should be done by a person withmore knowledge and understanding about the
industry.
2.3.2.Empiricalapproach
In order to test my initial thoughts on Norwegian fashion and its exposure, both on a
nationalandan international level,twoshortsurveysweremade;oneforNorwegiansand
oneforforeigners.Thecontentofthesurveysaremostlythesame,exceptforonequestion
intheNorwegiansurvey,wheretheyareaskedtoidentifyNorwegianbrandsfromalistof
10brandswithvariousnationalities.Eventhoughthenumberofparticipantswasrelatively
low,itprovedthefactthatNorwegianfashionisverylittleknown.Thesurveysalsohadan
important question about characteristics of the Norwegian fashion. This question was
included in order to test whether or not the answers matched the findings from my
research.Theparticipantsweregivenalistof10characteristicsandwereaskedto choose
theonestheyfeltrepresentedNorwegianfashion.
Another researchhas also been conducted,wherea number ofNorwegian brandswere
studied.Theirhistory,theirdesignfocusandtheircharacteristicswereidentifiedinorderto
provideinformationforthesearchofanidentityforNorwegianfashion.Thebrandsstudied
wereMoodsofNorway,Arne&Carlos,FINFashion,LeilaHafziandFamIrvoll(seeappendix
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1).Thereasonforchoosingthesebrandsinparticularisbasedontheirsuccess,potential
andtheirbackground.
Thereasonforchoosingacombinationofbothprimaryandsecondarydataistocollectasubstantialamountofinformationabouttheresearchproblemandinturnbeableto
answertheresearchquestioninarespectablemanner.Itisofvitalimportancetouse
existingrelevantreportsandstudiesinordertogetfamiliarwiththehistoryandstatusquo
ofNorway.Anotherreasonforchoosingtoconductthetwosurveyswastomakesurethat
theresultsIhadfoundfrommyresearchcouldalsobefoundbyanyoneelsedoingasimilar
research.
2.4Contributions
This thesis may contribute in a number of ways to the various stakeholders mentioned
earlier.Tomyknowledge,thereisnosimilarreportonthelackofanidentityforNorwegian
FashionInstitute.Ibelievethatthisproblemissomethingthatshouldbedealtwithassoon
as possible byNMI in order tomaximize the potential that exists inNorwegian Fashion.
Thus,thereportcanbeausefultoolforNMIintheirworkonbuildingandstrengtheningthe
NorwegianFashionInstitute.
Furthermore, as there is very little knowledge and information available about the
Norwegian Fashion Industry, historically, economically and sociologically, this thesis may
hopefullycontributetotheinterestoffurtherresearchingtheindustryandinturnmakeus
moreeducatedonthesubject.
2.5Delimitations
Ihavechosentonarrowdownthescopeandlimitmyself toonlyonepartof thecultural
industry;thefashionindustry.Thereasonforthisisitiswheremyinterestliesanditisone
partoftheculturalindustryinNorwaythatistheleastdeveloped.
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Thefashionindustryisacomplexindustrywithmanydifferentsegments,andthisthesishas
afocusonpremiumbrandandprtporter.Thereasonforthisfocusisthefactthatthe
garmentsinquestionhadtohavesomesortofexclusivitytothem,butstillbeattainable.Ifa
focushadbeenonfastfashion,itcouldbearguedthatitwasnotaculturalindustry,asthefocusliesmostlywithineconomics.Moreover, ifthe focus had beenonHaute Couture it
mayhavebeendifficulttorelatetothegarments,asthereisonlyaselectedfewthatcan
affordandactuallypurchasegarmentsfromthatsegment.Itcanofcoursebearguedthat
HauteCoutureisthesegmentthatclearlyisapartoftheculturalindustryastheclothesare
createdinordertocommunicateandcreatemeaning.
Brandingisawiderangingsubjectandtherearemanytheoriestochoosefrom.Thisthesis
hastakenuseoftwotheoriesinparticular,DavidAakers BrandIdentitySystemandNoel
KapferersBrandIdentityPrism.Themodelswerechosenbecauseoftheirfocusonidentity,
asthisalsowasthefocusofthethesis.
The reason for choosing togoas far back as1790 in the presentation of the Norwegian
fashionhistory,isthatthiswastheendoftheFrenchRevolutionandthestartofthetime
whenthemiddleclasstookovertheeconomicandpoliticalleadership.Thisshiftofpower
wouldentailmany challenges for the next 150 yearsand this alsohas aneffect onhow
peopleweredressed.Thehistoricalperspectiveendsinthe1950sandthereasonforthisis
thatthiswasthetimewhenfashioninNorwaystartedtobemoreuptodatewiththerestof
theworld.Thecommunicationgotbetter,fashionmagazinesgrewinimportanceandthe
fashion cyclesbecame shorter. Themost importanthappenings in contemporary fashion
(fromthe1950sandupuntiltoday)arepresentedasmilestones.
Lastly,andmostimportantly,thethesishashadafocusaroundwhatNMIcandowithinthe
first couple of years, as this is a crucial phase. Thus, some the theories and strategies
presented may seem simple, but they are concerned around gathering information and
knowledgeabouttheindustryandthisisofvitalimportancetotheindustrysfuture.
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2.6SourceCritique
DespitethegrowingliteraturewithintheCulturalindustries,therehasbeenverylittle
developmentontheresearchoftheFashionindustry.Thus,theresearchareaprovedan
interestingchallenge,especiallyinrelationtotheNorwegianFashionindustry.Largepartsof
theinformationontheindustryanditshistoryarebasedonahandfulofpublished
materials.ThereportMotepilothasbeenakeysourceofinformationintermsofthe
industryandRamnefalksHvorkommermotenfra?intermsofhistoricalliterature.This
canbesomewhatcritiqued,asitmaynotgiveafairpicturesinceitisonlybasedoncertain
literature.However,asthereisverylimitedliteraturetogetaholdof,Ichosetobasemy
thesisontheliteratureIcouldfind.
Thesurveysconductedinthisthesishavetoofewrespondentstopresentlegitimate
conclusionsvalidforNorwegianFashionInstitute.Nevertheless,theresultsdoestellusthat
therespondentshaveverylimitedknowledgeonNorwegianFashionandthatcanbeusedto
triggerNMItodiscoverwhetherthisistrueornot.
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3.0TheCreativeIndustriesorTheCulturalIndustries?
The Creative industries and The Cultural industries are these terms referring to the
same industry? There are many opinions around these terms and there are different
definitionstothetwo.TheCreativeindustryisdescribedbyRichardE.Caves(2002)tobe
industries in which the product or service contains a substantial element of artistic or
creative endeavour (p. vii). He includes book and magazine publishing, the visual arts
(painting and sculpture), the performing arts (theatre, opera, concerts, dance), sound
recordings,cinemaandTVfilms,fashionand,lastly,toysandgamesinthisindustry.Some
mayarguethatthetermCreativeindustry isinappropriateasoneneedstobecreativein
all sorts of industries to plan, produce and/or service in order to sustain a competitive
advantage.TheCulturalindustry,ontheotherhand,hasadifferentdefinition.Accordingto
Hesmondhalgh (2007) it includesthose institutions (mainlyprofitmakingcompanies, but
alsostateorganizationsandnonprofitorganizations)thataremostdirectlyinvolvedinthe
production of social meaning. So, nearly all definitions of the Cultural industries would
includetelevision(cableandsatellitetoo),radio,thecinema,newspaper,magazineandbook
publishing, themusic recordingandpublishing industries,advertisingandperformingarts.
Theseareallactivitiestheprimaryaimofwhichistocommunicatetoanaudience,tocreate
texts(p.12).Hesmondhalghproposesthatallculturalartefactsaretext,astheyareopento
interpretation.Manyproductsmayinvolvedesignandmarketinginputs(suchasacar),but
their primary goal is not meaning. Thus, a text, he suggests, is a question of balance
betweenitsfunctionalandcommunicativeaspects(p.12).Theauthordoesnot,however,
includefashionasapartof thecultural industries.Hecallsita borderlinecaseasit isa
hybridofaculturalindustryandaconsumergood(p.12).Iwouldnotrefertofashionasa
borderlinecase, butasbeingapartof theculturalindustries. Itis aconsumergood,asa
personneedclothingtokeepwarm,buttheconsumptionofclothesgoessomuchfurther
thanthatneed.Consumersbuyclothesinordertocreateanidentityforthemselves,and
theseclothescreateawordlessmeansofcommunicationtoidentifywhichsocialgroupone
belongs.Thereisalsoasymbolicvalueoffashionanditissohighthatitkeepspeoplebuying
evenwhentheydonothaveaneed(Tran,2008).Thedesignercreatesthegarmentsforan
audience inorder tocommunicate, and itwouldbe an insult to the designer tosay that
his/herdesign is not produced in order to createmeaning.JohnGallianos creations, for
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examples,arenotcreatedasaconsumergoodasitisinfactunwearable.Itiscreatedasan
artisticexpressionandaculturalartefacttosociety.
The thesis in hand refers to the industry in question as the Cultural industry, using
Hesmondhalghsdefinition,however,upgradingfashionfrombeingaborderlinecaseasto
beingapartoftheindustry.
ThenextsectionswillexploresomeinterestingfeaturesabouttheCulturalindustriesand
howitdifferentiatesitselffromotherindustries.
3.1Fivepolarities
CulturalgoodsareexperientialgoodsandtheCulturalindustryishighlyunpredictable.Two
filmmakerscanmaketwoseparatemoviesusingthesameactors,thesameequipmentand
evenbebasedonthesametheme,butwhichfilmisgoingtosucceedisveryunpredictable.
Inadditionto this,whetherornotamovie isofgoodquality isahighlypersonalopinion,
while inother industriesquality is based onspecificproductattributes. Lampel, Lantand
Shamsie(2000)agreewhentheysay; opinionsaboutqualitycandivergesostronglythat
producersfindithardtofigureoutwhysomeproductsdowellwhileothersdonot.Thisisnot
only the case before consumers make their purchase decisions, but also afterwards.
Ultimately,understandingwhyproductssucceedorfailisforeverintherealmofeducated
conjecture(p.264).Moreover,organizationscancreatesomestrategiesinordertomakean
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attemptatcontrollingthesuccessoftheproduct,butthereareseveralfactorsstrategists
need to take intoconsiderations. After studying the cultural industries, Lampel, Lant and
Shamsiefoundthatthereisfivepolaroppositesthatdefinethefieldofactionorganizations
take.
3.1.1ArtisticValuesversusMassEntertainment
Anartistmayexperienceagreatdilemmawhencreating.Theartisthasastrongneedtostay
true to the artistic value of the cultural product, but he/she must also consider the
entertainment value, as it is through this entertainment value that cultural products are
acceptedand supported by theaudience. This dilemma isa constantone in the culturalindustriesastheindustrystrivestoremainloyaltotheartisticvalues,buttheyneedtodeal
withmarket economics in order tosurvive.Manyartists feeltheysell out if theysolely
focus on the value of mass entertainment. Thus, the question remains: which of these
imperativesshoulddrivedecisionmaking?Shouldtheartdominatethemassentertainment
orshouldthefocusbetheotherwayaroundwithprofitasfirstpriority?Intheend,neither
of the two can prevail without destroying the identity of the organization and thus,
coexistenceistheonlyanswer(Lampel,Lant,&Shamsie,2000).Buthowthisisexecutedis
stillachallenge.
3.1.2ProductDifferentiationversusMarketInnovation
There is a constant search for novelty in the Cultural industries (Lampel et al.,
2000).However,even though theconsumers expectnovelty inthepurchasedgoods, they
alsoexpectthisnoveltytobesomewhatfamiliarandaccessibleandthisposesachallenge
for the artists. Should they seek the novelty thatdifferentiatesproducts withoutmaking
themfundamentallydifferentfromothersinthesamecategory,orthecontrary:seekthe
kindofnoveltythatpursuesinnovationbeyondexistinglimits?Thelastformofinnovationis
alargerisk,butcanatthesametimebreaknewgroundsandmayexpandorfundamentally
changethemarket(Lampeletal.,2000).Thisinnovationcouldbeintermsofnewfabrics,
technology,proceduresandsoon.
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3.1.3DemandAnalysisversusMarketConstruction
Many industries base their decisions on carefully conducted market analysis before
launching new products. However, in the cultural industries there is an ongoing debate
concerningwhytheculturalproductsarecreated.Ontheonehand,therearethosewho
stronglyfeelthatwhattheconsumerswantisexclusivelyshapedbytheimaginationofthe
producers and on the other hand, there are those who only see cultural goods as an
expressionofconsumersneedsanddesires.AnandandPeterson(2000)foundintheirstudy
of the recorded music industry that there may be large risks involved in making the
assumptionthataculturalproductisnodifferentthanothergoodandthatoneshouldfocus
ondemandanalysis. Theyshowhow achange in theway that the industrycollectedand
analyzedinformationonconsumerpurchasingpatterns(usingtheBillboardHot100chart)
produced a dramatic shift in the interpretation of market structure. Something thatwas
perceivedasanobjectivepictureofthemarketturnedouttobeanobjectofthemethods
theindustryusedtoconstructthatpictureinthefirstplace.Itisonceagainfindingabalance
thatseemstobethekey.
3.1.4VerticalIntegrationversusFlexibleSpecialization
The ageold business question to make or buy also exists in the cultural industries.
Organizationsoftenlookforprofitby tryingtohavegreatercontroloverboththecreation
andthedeliveryoftheproduct,andthishasledtoanintegrationofallaspectsofthevalue
chain under one single corporate umbrella (Lampel et al., 2000). This integration is not
always the best solution, as it may inhibit the artist by reducing the creative freedom
becauseintegratedfirmstendtopushforgreatercoordination.Hence,thereisaneedfor
balancebetweenintegrationandspecialization.Specializationenablesthefirmto focuson
theactivitiesthatarebestsuitedtheirroleinthecreationanddistributionoftheproduct,
andoutsourcetherest.
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3.1.5IndividualInspirationversusCreativeSystems
Whatisthetruesourceofcreativevalue?Isittheindividualorisitthesystem?Ifitistheindividual who is the true source, organizations must use many resources in finding,
developing and keeping these talents. If, however, it is the other way around, with the
systemasthetruesource,organizationsmustfocusondevelopingstructures,processesand
culturesthatproducesuccessfulculturalproducts(Lampeletal.,2000).Focusingononecan
insomecasesbeverysuccessful,butgenerallythereisaneedtocombinebothinorderto
succeed.
Allthesefivepolaritiesareimportantaspectsoftheculturalindustryandgreattoolsinthe
constructionofastrategy.
3.2Clusters
AccordingtoMichaelPorter,thedefinitionofaclusteris ageographicallyproximategroup
of interconnected companies and associated institutions in a particular field, linked by
commonalitiesandcomplementaritiesandthisdefinitionhasbeenwidelyused,asitpoints
out two important features; the fact that the companies are a part of a geographically
proximategroup,andthattheyare interconnected(Porter,2000).Inadditiontothisoften
useddefinition,Porterhascreatedamodelthatexplainsthedifferentelementsinacluster.
Itisamodelmadeasatoolforfindinganationscompetitiveadvantage,butitcanalsobea
usefultooltounderstandingacluster.(seefigure1.).
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Figure1.
Geographicalclusteringofrelatedindustries/firms Competitiverivalryand
Intensifiesinteractionswithinthecompetitivediamond knowledgespilloverswithin
theclusterstimulateinnovative
activity
Therearemanyimportantcharacteristicsofacluster,asitisacomplexwayofbusiness.The
first characteristic, close proximity, is themostfundamentalpartof clustertheory. Being
located close to each other has many advantages such as closer relationships and
communication tocustomers, suppliers aswell ascompetitors,which in turn can lead tofuture joint ventures, lowered cost of transportation, a large concentration of future
employers and employees, etc (Porter, 2000). This is also something to be found in the
fashion industry, as there are five Fashion Capitals: Paris, New York, London,Milan and
Rome. An advantage of being located in close proximity brings us to the second
characteristic;havingfacetofacecontact.Facetofacecontactpermits adebtandspeed
offeedbackthatisimpossibleinotherformsofcommunication(Breschi&Malerba,2005).
Furthermore,facetofacecontactoccursonseverallevelsatthesametime,andthiskindof
Firm rivalry
and strategy
Demand
conditions
Factor input
conditions
Related and
supporting
industries
Clustering
enchances
innovation
Innovation
enhances
productivity
Investment
upgrading
High productivity raises competitive advantage of
cluster, enables high wages and employment,
which in turn attract skilled and educated labour
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multidimensionalcommunicationcanbeconsideredasfundamentalforthediffusionoftacit
knowledge(Breschi&Malerba,2005).Thisdiffusioncreatesa knowledgespillover among
themembers,whichmostlikelyenablesthemtostandstrongerthantheywouldalone.The
termknowledgespilloverreferstotheexchangeofideasamongmembersofthecluster,andhasbeenmentionedasoneofthekeyreasonsforinnovativefirmstocluster.Buttobe
abletobeapartofsuchcluster,trustisofvitalimportance(Breschi&Malerba,2005).Itis
important as in tacit knowledge, there usually is a high degree of uncertainty. The
uncertaintycomesfromthefactthatthereisapossibilitythatthepartnerinvolvedmaybea
freeriderorwantingtomanipulatetheothersinvolved.But,asthereisacloseproximity
andahighdegreeofconstantfacetofacecontactinclusters,makingabadnameforone
selfwillmost likely notbebeneficial, asbad news tend to travel fast.Themembers are
encouragednottoactinanopportunisticmanner,astherelationshipswithinclustersare
basedonmutualtrustandrespectandreflectlongterminterest.
All these characteristics are important factors in a philosophy unique to the network
industrycalledsocialsolidarity,anditisonlymadepossiblebecauseofthefactthatthe
networksareunderpinnedbysocialandculturallinks(Swann,Prevezer,&Stout,1998).The
memberfirmsoftheclustersachievethesamekindofeconomiesofscaleinunison,asthe
largeinternationalcompaniesdo,atthesametimeasbusinessnetworksstimulatemutual
learningandinnovationcooperation,andmakepossiblemoreflexibleproduction (Isaksen,
2004).
Moreover,clustersconsistsofmorethanjustcharacteristicsandaccordingtoPorter,thelist
of other elements in a cluster is long. It consists of, beyond single firms, suppliers of
specialized inputs, providers of specialized infrastructure, customers, companies in
industries related by skills, technology or common inputs. Many clusters include
governmentalandotherinstitutionssuchasuniversities,standardssettingagencies,think
tanks, vocational training providers, and trade associations that provide specialized
training,education, information,research,andtechnicalsupport.Finally,foreignfirmscan
beandareapartofclusters,butonlyiftheymakepermanentinvestmentsinasignificant
localpresence(Porter,2000).
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3.2.1TheImportanceofClustersintheCulturalIndustries
Clusters have become an important part of the Cultural Industries. For example, in the
fashion industrytherearefourmaincities namedthe fourFashionClustersof theworld;
Paris,London,NewYorkandMilan.Thisiswherethegreaterpartofthemajordesignersand
fashionhousesaresituatedandisamagnetforallactorswithintheindustry(buyers,fashion
journalists,gatekeepersandsoon).Thereareofcourseclustersinotherkindsof industries
as well, but they seem to have become a vital part of the Cultural Industries formany
reasons.Oneofthereasonsisgroupingtogethermanydifferentactors,withmanydifferent
areasofexpertisecanmakethe processof creating acomplexproducteasier, faster and
cheaper.
Anotherimportantreasonforclusteringistheconstantflowofideasandinspirationonecan
achievebybeinga partofthecluster.Themembersof the industryusuallyhavespecific
qualitiesandknowledgewhichhavebeenachievedbydoing,notreading,andthusifone
wantstolearnorimproveonesknowhow,beingapartofaclusterisvital.Thisbringsusto
aninterestingelementoftheCulturalIndustriestheuseofinterns.
3.3Internships
Thereisanabundanceofpeoplewhowoulddoanythingfortheopportunityofhavingan
internshipintheCulturalIndustriesandthisisprobablybecauseofthefactthatmuchofthe
knowhow in the industry canonly be learned bydoingand by finishing an internship,a
person has shown what he or she can do, created an important network and is better
equipped to handle the harsh reality of the Cultural Industries. Being an intern under acertainname,mayinsomeindustriessecureyouajobfortherestofyourcareer,asthat
knowledgeyoulearnedfromthatinternshipisofsuchahighqualitythatyouwillbeanasset
toanyone.
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3.4AnareaoverseenFashion
Even though there has beenan increase in researchwithin the Cultural industries inthe
recentyears,oneindustryseemstohavegonemissing:thefashionindustry.Thereismore
tofashionthanjustfashionshowsandshopping,andthereexistsaneconomicalpotential
forvariousstakeholders.
Thefashionindustrytodayisnothingliketheoldgarmentindustry,andistodaylookedupon
asadesignindustrywithgreatpotentialonvariouslevels.Theindustryhascomealongway
andhasadapteditselftowardsglobalization,focusingmoreonimport/export.Nevertheless,
thereisalsoapotentialforlocaldesignerstosurviveonasmall,butloyalcustomerbase,as
individualcreativityandpersonalstylehasincreasedinimportance.Forfashionistasandthe
opinion leaders, likebloggers etc, it is importantnot tobemainstream, but insteadfind
exclusiveanduniqueclothestocreatethatimportantpersonalstyle.Thetermfashionista
referstoapersondevotedtofashionclothing,particularlyuniqueorhighfashion.Itisthe
consumersincreasedfocusonindividualisticfashion,aswellastherecentwayoflookingat
fashionasaestheticdesignandnotjustgarments,thatcreatestheeconomicalpotentialfor
theindustry.
Beforetheeconomicalpotentialcanberealized,itisimportanttoboosttheresearchwithin
thisfield,asitprovidesamorequalifiedview.BothDenmarkandSwedenunderstandsthe
potentialinresearchingfashiondesignandhaveestablishedtwoimportantinstitutionsto
increasetheknowledgewithinfashiondesignaswellasexploitingthepotential.InDenmark
aninterdisciplinaryplatformforfashionresearchhasbeenfounded,calledMOKOandtheir
aimistogather,generateandcommunicateknowledgewithinthefieldof fashionthrough
research,conferences,mediaandweb1.InSweden,thereisamasterdegreeprogrammein
AestheticalDisciplineswith a specialization in fashion studies.These research institutions
areimportantinordertoidentifyandincreasethecultural,businessandsalespotential
thatexistsinfashiondesign.Norwaylacksasimilarinstitution.
1 http://www.dkds.dk/forskning/projekter/moko
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4.0Fashion
Thissectionspresentsfashionasanindustry.Itgivesahistoricalaspectaswellasdiscussing
what fashionis andwhy people use fashion. ItalsoexplainstheFashionSystem,waysof
segmentingfashionandsomeofthechallengesintheindustry.
4.1History
Eventhoughthetheoryandresearchoffashionisquiteyoung,theindustryisnot.Thestart
offashioncanactuallybetracedbacktotheMiddleAges,asitwasthestartofmerchant
capitalismandtheriseoflargercities.Andthereisonecityinparticularthatbecame,and
stillis,thecapitoloffashionParis.ItwasLouisXIVandhisfinanceministerJeanBaptiste
ColbertwhoinitiatedthedevelopmentofParisasthecapitoloffashionandluxury,asthey
createdeconomicpoliciesthatencouragedcommerceaswellastheestablishmentofluxury
boutiquesinthecity(Parmal,2006).AnditwasinParisthebirthofhautecouturetookplace
anditsfatherwasCharlesFredericWorth.HeestablishedtheChambresyndicaledelahaute
couture parisienne in 1868,making fashionanattractivecommodity.Worth invented the
topdownsystemwheretheprototypesofclotheswereshownexclusivelytorichclients,and famous French designers soon imitatedthis systemand itwas thesecouturiers that
dictatedfashiontrendstotheworld,makingitaneliteorientedsystem.Hautecouturewas
reservedfortheupperclass,butasthelowerclassesalsohadadesiretobefashionableand
belonging to the exclusive upper class, the clothes were imitated. Thorstein Veblen
introducedatheorycalledtrickledowntheorytoexplainthisphenomenon.
Inlateryears,fashionhasalsomovedfromaClassfashion,towardsaConsumerfashion,
orinotherwords;fashionhasgonefrombeingdictatedbytheindustry,tobecomingmore
consumer driven. This new trend erupted as a consequence of the postwar economic
prosperity,wheremoreclassesofsocietyexperiencedanincreaseincapital,creatingnew
segmentsinfashion.Thischangecreatedademandformoremassproducedandreadyto
wearclothing,aswellasintroducingnewrulesandcyclesinfashion.Thisbecameapparent
as the youth subculture of the 1960s challenged the power of couture, which in turn
changedthe industry.Theyouthfashionexperienceda rapid increase in power, andas a
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consequenceof this theold trickledowneffectof fashion,hadbeen replaced by styles
bubblingupthefashionchain.
4.2Whatisfashion?
Fashionasaconceptmaybenewtomany,thereforethissectionwillstartofwithdefining
what fashion isand presenting the variousdynamics relatedto the concept. Fashionhas
becomean importanttoolofcommunication,openforinterpretationforvariouspeoplein
varioussituations.Oneoftendressessimilartoagrouponewishestobeapartofandthis
processcanbedeliberateaswellasunintentional.Sprolesagreesinhisdefinitionoffashion
as:awayofbehaviourthatistemporarilyadoptedbeadiscernibleproportionofmembers
ofasocialgroup,becausethatchosenbehaviorisperceivedtobesociallyappropriateforthe
timeandsituation. Thisdefinition ischosen forthisthesis,as fashion isbehaviouraland
grouporiented(Sproles,quotedin(McIntyre&Miller,1992).
Beforecontinuing explainingfashion it is importanttodistinguish thedifferencebetween
theclothingindustryandthefashionindustry.Intheclothingindustrytheendproductisthe
actualgarment.Conversely,inthefashionindustrytheactualgarmentisonlyoneofmany
elementsthatwillcontributetothevalueoftheproductfortheendconsumer.Fashionis
thusmoreofaculturalproductwithastrongsymbolicreference.
Fashion isalsoa collectiveunderstanding. For something tobecome fashion ithas tobe
consideredasfashionbyseveralpeople(Kawamura,2005).Thisisalsooneofthereasonsas
towhythefashionindustrytendstoclusterinonecity theproximitybetweentheactors
becomessmaller,whichinturnmakesiteasiertoagreeonwhatthenextbigthingis.The
fashionlifecycleisquiteshortandtense,thusitneedsefficiency.
Fashionmeanschange(Tran,2008)andthefashionlifecycleisshort.Trendscancome
andgoandthenreturnagain.Asamatteroffact,theonlyconstantinfashionischange
andthisisoneofthereasonsthisindustryisahardonetosurvivein.Thereisacontinuous
searchforthenextbigthingandfashioncompaniesmustalwaysbeinvougeinordertobefashionable.
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4.3Howdopeopleusefashion?
Fashionhappenstobearelevantandpowerfulforceinourlife(Agins,1999).Itisusedinordertoportrayonesidentitytotheworld,inordertobelongtoacertaingroup,inorderto
expressmeaningandmakestatements,andsoon.Hence,fashiontakesonmanyroles.
Herbert Blumer proposes that fashion is an important form of collective behaviour. He
believesthatfashionisexpressiveaspeoplearelookingforanovelexperience,haveadesire
for distinction as well as an urge to conform (Blumer, 2003). Lastly, he suggests that
fashionisimportantespeciallyinprovidingameansfortheexpressionofdevelopingtastes
anddisposition;thisfeatureestablishesitasaformofexpressivebehaviour(p.126).Itis
hardtodisagree.Fashioniswithoutadoubtexpressiveastheconsumptionofclothinginthe
worldisfarpastthebasicneedofkeepingwarm.Peoplebuyclothestheyfindnicetolookat
andthatportraysthemselvesthewaytheywanttobeportrayed.Onecanofcourseargue
thattherearepeoplewhoonlybuyclothesinordertostaywarmanddonotcareabouthow
theylookbutisthatnotalsoexpressingyourthoughtsandidentity?
4.4Thefashionsystem
TherearemanyelementsinunderstandingfashionandRolandBarthesunderstoodthatone
hastomaptheelementsinordertounderstandthewhole.In1967BarthespublishedThe
Fashion System where he presented his theory, with an emphasis on one important
concept: system. There have been many other scholars who have presented different
theories on the fashion system, but this one ischosen, as it is the original and themost
suitable for this thesis. Nevertheless, according to Websters dictionary, a system is a
regularlyinteractingorinterdependentgroupofitemsformingaunifiedwhole2.Asystem
usuallyconsistsofthreecommoncharacteristics:structure,behaviourandinterconnectivity
all equally important. The structure refers to the fixed rules in the system, while the
behaviourreferstocertainnormsandbehaviouralpatternsthatareconsideredappropriate
andlastly,interconnectivityreferstotherelationshipthevariouspartsofthesystemhaveto
2
http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/system
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eachother.Allinall,nosingleelementinanetworkshouldberegardedasthecauseof
fashion;notthedresstasteofindividualsorgroups;notthespecificformsassumedbydress;
not the claims made for a garment by its promoters. System, therefore, is a way of
conceivingofhumanexistenceassomethinginwhichastructuredcollectivebeingprecedes,
andprovidesthe foundation for, individual being,andthis has steadilybecomea central
organizing principle ofWestern thought (Carter, 2003). This isalso very relevant to the
fashion industry, as it is the collectivewhole thatmakes itpossible for a single actor to
operate.
ReturningtoBarthesandthefashionsystem,heproposedthreestagesofwhichagarment
journeysthroughinthefashionsystem.Thefirststagehecallstherealgarmentandthis is
the production stage. The second stage he calls the represented garment which
correspondstothedistributionandthelaststage,theusedgarmentcorrespondstothe
consumption. In other words, a beautiful dress is made by a famous fashion designer,
presentedinvariousfashionmagazinesaswellaswornbyspecificpeoplepickedouttobe
trendsetters,thenmadeavailableincertainstoresforthepublictobuy.Thedressisapart
ofasystemofinterrelatedelements,whichinturnformsawhole.
4.4.1Themedia
The fashion system consists ofmany different elements, but one is very important. The
media. Themedia has a range of important functions and here two will be highlighted;
communicatorandgatekeeper.Themediasroleascommunicatoriscommunicatingtothe
publicwhatisfashionable,whatnextseasonsbigitemswillbe,whichcelebrityisthemost
trendy,etc.Thismasscommunicationtothepublicmayturnusintoahomogeneousmass,
asweallfollowthesametrends.However,thisiswhatfashionisacollectiveprocess.
Themediacanalsohaveanimportantroleasagatekeeper.Blumer(1939)statedthatthe
reason why a whole industry can agree on what is fashionable is that a certain people
involvedhaveauniqueknowledgeofwhattheenduserswantinadditiontobeingapartof
aspecificmilieu.Kawamura(2005)proposetherearetwotypesofgatekeepers.Thefirst
typeconsistsofpeoplewhoconsiderthemselvesasarbitersofgoodtasteandthesearethe
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fashiondesignerswhotakepartintheseasonalfashionshowsin themainfashionclusters
around the world. The second type consists of fashion journalists, marketers, publicists,
advertisersthemedia.Thesegatekeepersaretheonesthatdiffusetothepublicwhatisin
vouge.Thephenomenonofgatekeepersisnotonlyreservedforthefashionindustry,intheCulturalindustryingeneralthereareacertainfewwhodecideswhoorwhatwillbecome
successful(Caves,2000).
4.5Segmentation
Therearevariouswaysofsegmentingfashionand inthefollowingsectiontwoapproaches
developedbyJrgensen&Hansen(2005)willbepresented.Inthefirstsegmentationthere
arefourdistinctcategories;
Fashionbrands
Thiscategoryiswherethemostaccessiblefashionis,thehighstreet.Herethegarmentsare
inthelowestpricerangeandthestoresaremostoftenrepresentedinmanymarketsaround
theworld.Massproductionisthehallmark.ExamplesofFashionbrandsareH&M,Zara,Top
Shop,etc.
PremiumFashionbrands
Thegarmentsinthiscategoryareabitmoreexpensivethantheprevious.Theyareonthe
edgebetweenmassandexclusivity,andtheycompetebothwiththecategoriesbelowand
abovethemselves.Thesebrandsareusuallyalsospreadaroundtheworld.Examplesare;
Levis,Diesel,Espirit,TheGap,etc.
Premiumbrands/HighEndbrands/MassLuxurybrands
Thesebrandsarequitespecialastheytrytoadaptluxurytomassmarketrules.Theyare
also represented around theworld, but are very selectivewhen itcomestodistribution.
Examples:Armani,HugoBoss,PoloRalphLauren,D&G,etc.
Luxurybrands/Prestigebrands
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Thegarmentsaremadebythefinestmaterialsandhavethehighestlevelofcraftsmanship
andthusareinthehighestpricerange.Theyonlyhaveafew,exclusivestoresaroundthe
worldandtheyarecharacterizedbyextravagance.LouisVouitton,ChanelandCartierare
examplesofthese.
Thesecondwayofsegmentingfashionisbasedontheretailpriceofadressandherethere
arefivecategories.Thefirstisthelowestpricerangewheretheretailpriceofadresswould
beunderDKK300.Thiscategorycanbecharacterizedas budget.Adressfallsinthemid
rangecategoryifthedresscostsbetweenDKK300750.Apremiumbranddresshasaprice
rangeofDKK7502500.Thenexttwocategoriesmaybefamiliarnamesinfashion: Prt
PorterandHauteCouture.PrtPorteriswhenadresscostsoverDKK2500,whiletheterm
HauteCouturecanbeusedonlybyfirmsthatmeetcertainwelldefinedstandardsandarea
memberoftheexclusiveChambresyndicaledelahautecouture.
4.6TheIndustryChallenges
Aslikeanyotherindustry,therearesomegeneralchallengesinthefashionindustryandin
thissectionsomeofthesehavebeenidentified.
As the fashion industry isapart of the Cultural industries, they share someofthe same
problems. As mentioned, Lampel et al (2000) proposed a set of five polarities that
organizationsinthisindustrymaycomeacross.Thesepolaritiesexemplifytheambiguityand
dynamism in the industry and there are especially two that are relevant for the fashion
industry.Thefirstoneis artisticvalue versusmassentertainment.Intermsofthefashion
industry,thesetwopolaritiescanbeunderstoodasfashiondesign(ex:LeilaHafsi,Arne&
Carlos)versusmassproduction(BikBok,LeneV).Whenreferringtofashiondesignasartistic
value,itisnotsaythatmassproductiondoesnotincludecreativity,butthatitisnotwhatis
the focus of the business. As amatter of fact, one could say that themore an item is
produced, the more it looses it artistic value. Exclusivity is key. Nevertheless, as an
organisationneedstoconsidermarketeconomicsaswellasstayingtruetoitsartisticvalue,
thisisacontinuingproblemwithinthecreativeindustries.
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The second polarity is the problem of new versus familiar. In the creative industries
especially there is a continuing need for something new, and the fashion industry is no
exception.Adesignermustalwayspresentnewideas,reinventoneselfandtryto findthe
nextititem.However,adesignercannotchangetoomuchasthepublicmayhavecertainexpectations for the new clothes to resemble the old orat least have the qualities that
designerisknownfor.Thus,designerscaneasilyputthemselvesinan ironcage,whichcan
behardtoescapefrom.Thedesignermaywanttobreakcompletelywiththeoldstyleand
goinadifferentdirection,butthemarkethascertainexpectationsandoneshouldalways
considerthemarket.Thisisalsooneofthedifficultiesinthefashionindustry;shouldone
focusondemandanalysiswhendesigningorshouldoneconstructthemarket?Lampel et
al(2000)saidthefollowingonthischallenge:Thereisalongstandingdisputeinthecultural
industriesbetweenthosewhoseeculturalgoodsasanexpressionofconsumersneedsand
desires,andthosewho argue thatwhatconsumerswant is almost entirelyshapedbythe
imagination and creativity of the producers. The debate corresponds to fundamentally
differentviewsofwhysomeculturalgoodsbecomesuccessfulwhileothersdonot(p.266).
One can easily see this in the fashion industry as in some cases the inspiration of the
designerscomefromundergroundcultureswhohavecreatedtheirownuniquestyle,while
otherdesignersdesigncompletelyfromtheirownimagination.
Findinganinvestorisalwayshardastheyusuallyhavecertainrequirementsthathavetobe
fulfilledinordertobeeligibleforinvestment.Thefashionindustryisanindustryinconstant
movementanditmaybehardtopredictsuccess.AsurveymadeontheNorwegianfashion
industry discovered that 43% of the designers asked stated that they need help with
financingthebusiness,anditismostlyinproductionthehelpisneeded(38%)(Nordgrd,
Fensgrd,&Karlsen,February2008).
Copyright isawellknownwordwithin the creative industries, but it ishard toachievea
copyrightinthefashionindustryasfashionandmarketdemandschangesoquickly.Thisis
another reasonwhy the designers need tobeproducing constantly, alwayscreating new
fashion.
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Organizations inthe fashion industrymayexperience strong pressures toconformto the
proceduresandstandardssetbytheindustry.Thispressuretoconformcanbereferredtoas
isomorphicpressure,entitiesbecomingsimilartoeachother.Theconceptof isomorphism
wasfirstdescribedbyHawley(1968,p.334)andheproposedunitssubjectedtothesame
environmental conditions, or to environmental conditions as mediated by a given unit,
acquireasimilarformoforganization.Today,wecanidentifytwotypesofisomorphism,
competitiveandinstitutional,howeverthefocuswillbeoninstitutionalisomorphism.There
arethreemechanismstriggeringinstitutionalisomorphicchange:(1)coerciveisomorphism;
(2)mimeticisomorphismand(3)normativeisomorphism(DiMaggio,P.andW.W.Powell,
1991).Itisimportanttounderstandthatthemechanismscaneasilybeintegrated.
Coerciveisomorphismstemsfromformalaswellasinformalpressuresputforthbyother
organizations within the relevant industries, upon which the specific organization is
dependent. Itmay also result fromcultural expectations in the societywithin which the
organizationsoperate.Suchpressuresmaybefeltasforce,aspersuasion,orasinvitationsto
joinin collusion(DiMaggio,P.andW.W.Powell,1991)(p.67).Someorganizationalchanges
areaconsequenceofagovernmentalmandate.Agoodexampleofthisistheschoolsystem.
A country has certain state standards they have to follow in each subject and thus the
schoolsmainstreampupilsandhiretheteachersthatfitwithandfollowthesestandards.
Mimeticisomorphism,ontheotherhand,doesnotoriginatefromcoerciveauthority.Inthis
view, it is argued that organization mimic each other as a result of uncertainty. The
organizationexperiencinguncertaintycancomefromverydifferentbackgroundandhave
verydifferentreasonsforuncertainty,suchaswhenorganizationaltechnologiesarepoorly
understood, when goals are ambiguous or when the environment creates symbolic
uncertainty(DiMaggio,P.andW.W.Powell,1991)(p.69).Mimicrycanalsobediffusedasa
result of employeetransferor turnover, new innovationson themarket,using the same
consultancy firms or simply a lack of variation to choose from (DiMaggio, P. and W.W.
Powell, 1991). When mimicking other organizations, it is the organizations that are
perceivedtobemorelegitimateandsuccessfulthanthemimickingorganizationthatworks
asabenchmark.
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Thelastofthethreemechanismsisnormativeisomorphism.Itstemsfrom
professionalization and quoting from the works of DiMaggio & Powell
(1991),professionalization in thiscontext canbeunderstood as thecollective struggleof
membersofanoccupationtodefinetheconditionsandmethodsoftheirwork,tocontrolthe production of producers andto establish a cognitivebase and legitimation for their
occupational autonomy (p.70). There are two aspects of professionalization that are
importantsourcesofisomorphism.Thefirstistheformaleducationandtherequirements
following the education. The second concerns the expansion ofprofessional networks as
wellasprofessionalandtradeassociations,resultinginnewmodelsbeingdiffusedrapidly
(DiMaggio,P.andW.W.Powell,1991).
The isomorphic pressure brings us to the last challenge within the fashion industry: the
questforlegitimacy.Theworldoffashionislargeanditcanbedifficulttoachievestatusand
respect from the market, as well as from the gatekeepers, the experts and the fellow
designers.A fashiondesignerneedslegitimacyformanyreasons:topromotethebrand,to
communicatewith the industry, to increase revenue, and soon.Even though there is a
strong demand for continually reinventing oneself in the fashion industry, it also exist a
strong pressure of incorporating someset standards andprocedureswithin the industry.
MeyerandRowan(1991)statesthatorganizationsaredrivento incorporatethepractices
and procedures defined by prevailing rationalized concepts of organizational work and
institutionalized in society. Organizations that do so increase their legitimacy and their
survival prospects, independent of the immediate efficacy of the acquired practices and
procedures(p.41).
It can be difficult todealwith isomorphic pressures, as itmay seem like a safe strategy
conformingtothestandards.However,inthefashionindustryitisyourdistinctivenessthat
thatmakesyouunique.
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5.0NorwegianFashion
Thissectionwillpresentthehistory,thegeneraltendenciesandsomeoftheinstitutionsof
theNorwegianFashionIndustry.
5.1History
Manypeoplehavesaiditbefore,butitisstillhighlyrelevant:Onemustknowthepastto
understandthe future.Thus, inorder tounderstand contemporary fashion,onemust go
back in timeand see how ithas evolved during the past centuries and seewhat effects
fashion has had on society.Norway has not beena countrywell knownfor beinga first
moverwhenitcomestofashion.Onthecontrary,Norwayisseenbysomeasbeingtheleast
trendy country inScandinavia, or at least the least developed countrywhen it comes to
fashion.Itisthereforeimportanttonarrowdownthescopeandfocusontheevolutionof
Norwegianfashion, inordertobetterequippedforthefuture.Thissectionwillexplorethe
fashioninNorwayfromthelate1700uptothe1950s.Thesectionwillbedividedintothree
parts representing three different periods.Period 1 will dealwith fashion from the 1790
untilmid1800,aperiodwheretheendoftheFrenchRevolutionhadagreatimpactonmanydifferentlevelsofsociety.In Period2,fromthe1860stoearly1900s,thereweremany
changesinfashionandsomeofthesewillbepresented.Thelastsection, Period3,presents
fashionfrom1900upuntilthe1950s.Thereasonforchoosingtogoasfarbackas1790is
thatthiswastheendoftheFrenchRevolutionandthestartofthetimewhenthemiddle
classtookovertheeconomicandpoliticalleadership.Thisshiftofpowerwouldentailmany
challengesforthenext150yearsandthisalsohasaneffectonhowpeopleweredressed
andwhattheidealswere.Thehistoricalperspectiveendsinthe1950sandthereasonfor
thisisthatthiswasthetimewhenfashioninNorwaystartedtobemoreuptodatewiththe
restoftheworld.Thecommunicationgotbetter,fashionmagazinesgrewinimportanceand
thefashioncyclesbecameshorter.Themajormilestonesafterthistimeismentionedinthe
sectionThemajormilestonesinNorwegiancontemporaryfashion.
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5.1.1Period1,17901860
Inthelast18thcentury,thetimeofEnlightenment,reasonandrationalismwasstrong.The
middle class took the power from the nobility, and people rebelled against traditional
authorities such as the church and state. Themiddle class swore to themotto liberty,
equality,brotherhoodandtheultimatecitizenwasaneffectivecitizen.Therewereclear
distinctionsbetweenamanandawoman,asthetwowereseenaspolaropposites.Theman
represented reason, responsibility and firmness, in opposition to the woman who
representednature,freedomandwarmth.Thiscanbeseeninthewaytheydressed,asthe
idealexpressionforawomanwasdresseswithempirewaistinlightfabrics,representing
natureandnudeness,andflatshoes,representingfreedom(Ramnefalk,2004).
TheRomanticismreplacedtheEnlightenment,puttingfeelings,fantasyandcultureinfocus.
Thecorsetwasreintroducedandtheidealdresshadlacingallthewayuptothearmpits,a
largeunderskirt and sleeves so tight itwas impossible to lift the arms to the head. The
womenwereactuallymorehinderedbythewaytheydressedthantheyhadbeeninmany
years(Ramnefalk,2004).
5.1.2Period2,18601900
TheindustrializationinNorwayblossomedafter1860.Thismeantmanynewjobsaswellas
greatpossibilitiesforexportandasaresultofthis,manymenemigratedtoothercountries.
Thisinturnresultedinasurplusofwomen,whichmayhavebeenthereasonofthecreation
ofthefirstWomensRightsassociation in1884andwhy thewomans role in societywas
discussed.Intheyears18681890therewasagreatunrestintermsofthewomansrole,
andthisseemedtoreflectinthefashionofthedayasitwasveryunstableandhadrapid
changes(Ramnefalk,2004).
5.1.3Period3,19001950
Itwasaftertheturnofthecenturythatthewaywomendressedreallychanged.Womens
roleinsocietychanged,makingthewomanmoreinterestingandrespectedaswellasbeing
moreawareofthemselvesandtheiropportunities(Ramnefalk,2004).Manywomenwanted
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toworkoutsidethehometoprovideforthemselvesandthisbroughtaboutachangeinthe
waytheydressed.TheywentfromlookinglikeanS,withthechestpushedforwardand
the backpushed backwards, to removing the corsets in1910and insteadembracing the
naturalfemalebody.As travellingabroadbecameeasier,peoplebroughtbackfashionableitemssuchasturbans,kimonosandeasternEuropeanembroideriesandintroducedthesein
theNorwegianfashion.
Itseemsasthoughallthesechangesinspiredwomentomakechangesandbemorefreeand
anexampleofthisiswhenwomenaround1910startedbicyclingandinordertomakethis
easier,wearingpantstomanymenandsomewomensdismay. Inthesecondpartof the
1920s fashiontook a long stepwhenwomen startedwearingkneelengthskirts and the
ideal was young girls without curves. However, this was again replaced by the more
curvaceoussilhouettesofthe1940sand1950s.Duringthistime,thefashioncyclesbecame
shorterandimprovedcommunicationmadeiteasiertogetinspirationfromabroad.
Thechangesinfashionpresentedabove,weregenerallyaresultofchangesinsocietyand
thusfashionworksasamirrorofsociety.Researchingthewaypeopledresscanprovidea
uniqueknowledgeonmanylevels.
5.2ThemajormilestonesinNorwegiancontemporaryfashion
Norwegianfashionhasgrownrapidlythepasthalfdecadeandthissectionpresentssomeof
themajormilestones.
1958WilliamJensen
William Jensen was the first registered Norwegian designer who started designing for
specificclients.
1977PerSpook
OnecouldstatethatmuchbeganwhenthegreatestNorwegiandesignerintheyears1977
1995hadhisownhautecouturemaisoninParis.Hewasoneofaselectedfewwhocould
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labeltheirgarmentshautecouture,asthistermwasreservedformembersoftheexclusive
ChambreSyndicaledelaConfectionetdelaCouturepourDamesetFillettes.
1990EsmodopensinOslo
It was the designer NilsChristian IhlenHansenwho established the renowned school of
fashiondesigninOsloin1990.Thiswillenableprospectivedesignerstolearnmoreabout
theindustryandthecraftoffashiondesign.
2000DesignStreet
DesignStreetwaslaunchedasameetingplaceforNorwegianfashion.Anotherreasonfor
startingDesignStreetwastocreateaplacewhereNorwegianfashioncouldbeexposedand
presentedbothlocallyandinternationally.
2004OsloFashionWeek
PlVassbotten,aformermodel,launchesOsloFashionWeek(OFW)topromoteNorwegian
fashionandintegrateitontheinternationalscene.Today,OFWisarrangedtwiceayear,in
FebruaryandAugust.Duringthefashionweek,variousprizesarehandedouttopeoplewho
havedoneanextraordinaryjobincontributingtothesuccessofNorwegiandesigners.
2008Motepilot
ThefirststudymadeonNorwegianfashiondesigniscompleted.ItiscalledMotepilotand
isastudyoffashionasanindustry,andsincetherehasbeennopriorresearchinthisfieldit
isregardedasapilotstudyandshouldpreferablyworkasabasisforfurtherresearch.
2009NorwegianFashionInstitute
With a desire to build up Norwegian fashion to a strong and competitive industry, the
governmental body Innovation Norway founded Norwegian Fashion Institute (NFI). Their
missionistostimulateandpositionNorwegianfashiondesigninNorwayandabroad 3and
tobeameetingplacefornetworkinginthefashionindustry.
3 www.norwegianfashioninstitute.no
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5.3TendenciesinNorwegianfashiontoday
Animportantpartofresearchingfashionistotakeacloserlookattheconnectionbetweenfashionandnational identity.Danishdesignhasconnections to thebohemian look,while
Swedishfashionismoreorientedaroundgraphicsandboldpatterns.Butwhatcharacterizes
Norwegian fashion? As of today, there is no real collective Norwegian fashionidentity.
Nevertheless,therearesometendenciesamongthevariousdesigners,whichcan leadthe
direction to a joint identity, and these will be explored in the following section. The
importanceoftheconnectionbetweenfashionandidentitywillbeelaboratedonlaterinthe
thesis.ThetendenciesarebasedonapersonalstudyofseveralNorwegianfashionbrands,
andarethusindividual.
5.3.1Traditionsandhistory
Norwayisanoldcountrywithanarrayofhistoryandvarioustraditionsinnumerousfields,
andNorwegiansaregenerallyproudoftheirheritage.Thiscanbeseeninthepopularityin
thenationaldress,the bunad.Thebunadisbasedontheold folkedraktandwasusedin
Norway up until the 1800s. This was a garment that was local and unique to a certain
village,andwasusedbothaseverydayclothingaswellasformoresocialgatherings.The
bunad,asitisknowntoday,gotitsformaround1900andwasbasedonmodelsbyHulda
GarborgandKlaraSemb.
Source:www.norskflid.no
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Tomanythisgarmentmayseemextremelyoldfashionandnotverytrendy,butNorwegians
donotagree.Asamatteroffact,thesaleofbunadhasincreasedduringthepast20years.A
goodexampleofhowpopularthebunadiscanbefoundinthetotalsalesofbunadinayear.In1998NorwegianspurchasedbunadforNOK700millions4.
KnittinghasalwaysbeenimportantinNorway,probablyduetothecoldweatherandeasy
accesstowool.OneknittedgarmentthatisverypopularistheSeterdalsgenserorLusekofte.
Thissweather/jacketcanbetracedbacktothestartofthe20 thcenturyandmanyviewthis
asbeing the best garment tocharacterizeNorwegians, andmanyNorwegiansagree. The
largest gossip magazine in Norway, Se og Hr, gives every international celebrity they
interviewaLusekoftetogivethemaninsighttothecountryandtopromoteNorway.
5.3.2InnovationandSustainability
Norway,asanyothernationtoday,isconcernedwithsustainabilityandhasevenintroduced
itinthefashionindustry.TheNorwegianhighendbrandFINfocusesonecoluxuryandwas
been quite successful. The Wall Street Journal wrote an article about NICE, the Nordic
Initiative Clean & Ethical, calling them groundbreaking and predicts a bright future for
Scandinavian sustainabledesign. FIN is a very innovative brand andhas actuallymade a
dressentirelyoutofmilkproteins.
4
www. http://www.norskflid.no
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5.3.3Weather/Climate
Norwayisacountrywithmanydifferentkindsofweather,andweliketotalkaboutit.There
isanoldNorwegianmottowhichisheavilyused:Detfinnesikkedrligvr,baredrlige
klrwhichmeansthatthereisnosuchthingaspoorweather,onlypoorclothing.Having
sucharangeofweathercreatesaneedforsuitableclothing.Oneofthemostwellknown
brandsinNorway,HellyHansen,canbetracedbacktotheendofthe19thcenturywhen
HellyJuelHansenandhiswifemadevariousclothingfromcoarselinensoakedinlinseedoil.
Today,HellyHansenisalargeproviderofhighquality,technicalouterweargarments.Itisa
verypopularbrandthatMoodsofNorwayhavehadadesigncollaborationwith.
5.3.4Placebranding
EventhoughNorwayisnotknownforbeingafashionnationworldwide,manyNorwegian
designerschoosetoassociatethemselveswithNorwayintheirbrandname,i.e.Moodsof
Norway,NorwegianTwist,IlsofNorway,etc.).Thisisagoodindicationthatthedesigners
areproudoftheirheritageandwanttoshowtheworldsomeofwhatNorwaycanoffer.One
ofthebestknownexamplesofthisisMoodsofNorwaywhoconcentratealldesignsaround
Norwegianhistoryandtraditions.
Norwayisknownforitsrangeofweatherandthustheneedforqualityouterwear,andthe
ItalianbrandNapapirjiknewthiswellwhentheychosetoputtheNorwegianflagintheir
logo.SimonAnholtexplainsthis:theassociationsofqualityorappropriatenessarepowerful
enoughattributestomakeitworthwhileforamanufacturertoclaimafictitiousprovenance
ifitappearstolendmorecredibilitythantheirrealprovenance (Anholt,1998)(p.369).He
callsthisacuckoobrandandtheyaresurprisinglycommonandhavebeenaroundformany
years.
5.4Organizationalform
TheNorwegianFashionindustrytodayisnotoptimalwhenitcomestoorganizationalform.
Itisasortofnetworkorganization,wherethenetworkdoesnotfunctionproperly.However,NorwegianFashionInstitutewasopenedinhopesofbecomingagatheringinstitutioninthe
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Norwegian Fashion industry and hence facilitating networking. Another challenge is the
geographicalpositioningoftheactorsintheindustry.InnovationNorway(InnovasjonNorge)
encouragesdesigners,informoffinancialsupport,tosituatetheirbusinessintheregions,to
avoidcentralizationinthemajorcities.OneofthemainconclusionsfromtheindustryreportMotepilot was that this decentralization is quite unfortunate, as clustering can be an
importanttoolintheCulturalIndustries.EspeciallyinNorway,asitisasmallactoronthe
internationalarenaitisevenmoreimportanttobeclosetoeachother,bothphysicallyand
mentally,andthisisbestachievedwhentheactorsaresituatedwithincloseproximity.
5.5ImportantinstitutionssupportingNorwegianFashion
Thefollowingsectionwillpresentsomeofthemostimportantinstitutionssupportingand
working with Norwegian Fashion. The reason for highlighting the institutions is to draw
attentionto thefactthattherearemanydifferentorganizationsthatcanworktogetherto
buildNorwegianFashionandpushittothenextlevel.Alltheinformationaboutthevarious
institutionsistakenfromtheirhomepagesandfreelytranslatedfromNorwegian.
5.4.1NorwegianFashionInstitute
Norwegian Fashion Institute (NFI) was officially openedwhen the Norwegianminister of
TradeandIndustrySylviaBrustadcuttheribbonFebruary11th2009.Itwasthegovernment,
underthemanagementofthegovernmentalbodyInnovationNorway,whohavemadeNFI
possible,astheywillcontributewitheconomicalsupportforthefirstthreeyears.
NFIsetsouttostimulateandpositionNorwegianfashiondesigninNorwayandabroad 5
and the institute is based on a basic set of value: quality, renewal, cooperation and
diversity.NFIhasonemorecornerstone,whichistopromoteethicalfashionandbusiness.
Moreover,therearemanypeoplewhowillbenefitfromNFIsworkastheywishtocreate
cooperationsbetweenimportanteducationalinstitutionsandorganizations,brandowners,
producers andother relevantprofessional creativeplayers.There are69membersat the
5 www.norwegianfashioninstitute.no
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moment (as of September 1st 2009), which is quite good as it has only been official for
around8months.
The institute have created four main tasks thatwill help build and structure the fashionindustryinNorway:
1. TheunifiedorganizationforNorwegianfashion- NFIhopestheinstitutewillbecomeameetingplacefornetworking,strategic
debatesandagreementsoncooperations
- Relevantindustryinformationshallbemadepublic- The institutewillwork togetherwith similar institutions inother countries,
NorwegianEmbassies,relatedbusinessesorindustries,investorsandfinancial
institutions
2. ACentreforcompetency- Theinstitutewillorganizecooperationswithrelevantactorsintheindustry- These cooperations will include various happenings from seminars to
guidance in supervising and forecasting trends as well as knowledge
improvement
- NFIwilltakeinitiativeinFoUprojectsandPhDpositions- NFI will be an instigator in promoting the history of fashion design as
inspirationandafoundationforfurtherdevelopment
3. Makingajointmove- The institution will act as an agent for Norwegian Fashion and organize
promotion and other forms of marketing, i.e. by participating in foreign
events
- Developan internetportalforpromotingNorwegianFashion,fashionshowsandeventsaswellascooperationswithsimilarforeignorganizations
- NFIwillfacilitateforworkingtogethertodevelopandrevisean- AnnouncementonthepositioningandbrandingofNorwegianfashion
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4. Organizinganddisclosingeffortsfordevelopmentwithintrade- The institute shall take care of, communicate and organize development
initiativeswithintradeincollaborationwithinitiativesfromthegovernment
5.4.2NorskForm
NorskFormwasestablishedbytheministryofCulture in 1992and isan informationand
projectinstitutionforNorwegiandesignandarchitecture.Throughexhibitions,publications,
awards, competitions, press and much more, Norsk Form does an important job for
promotingNorwegiandesignandarchitecture. Additionally,Norsk Form is theNorwegianMinistryofForeignAffairsadvisorandtheadministrativeorganizationforthearchitectural
anddesignfields.
AccordingtoNorskFormshomepage,theirmissionisto:
1. Increasetheunderstandingforarchitectureanddesign2. Work towardsqualityandinnovation inthedevelopmentofour surroundings and
products
3. Strengthentheprofessionalcooperationacrossindustryborders,conveyknowledgeand give advise to the public, industryexperts, the different industries, the
governmentandeducationalinstitutions
Oneofthemostimportantfunctionisthedistributionoftravelandtransportsubsidiesfor
professional Norwegian architects and designers who are set to attend, weather it is
speaking or exhibiting their collection, important international arenas where they can
represent and promote Norway. Another important activity internationally is providing
advise for ministries, foreign posts and embassies when they wish to organize visits or
profiling arrangements concerning Norway. Furthermore, Norsk Form also plays an
importantroleinassistingtheinternationalpresswithinformationandphotographswithin
thedesignandarchitecturalfields.AlltheseactivitiesareawayofpromotingNorwayboth
asaqualitydesignandarchitecturalnation,butalsoasatouristnation.
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5.4.3InnovationNorway
The governmental body Innovation Norway (Innovasjon Norge) promotes nationwide
industrial development profitable to both the business economy and Norways national
economy,andhelpsrelease thepotentialof differentdistricts and regionsbycontributing
towardsinnovation,internationalisationandpromotion6. InnovationNorwayhasofficesin
allthecountiesinNorwayaswellasin30countriesallaroundtheworld,andemploysover
700people.
The organization assists the Norwegian industry, but has particular focus on helping
entrepreneurs and aiding small and mediumsized companies whom have ambitions and
potentialforgrowth.AccordingtoareportfromNorwayExports(2008),InnovationNorway
can offer (1) funding provided as loans, guarantees and equity capital programmes, (2)
advisory and expertise development measures, (3) national and international network
buildingandtechnologytransferand(4)marketingofNorwegianindustryandNorwayasa
touristdestination.
5.4.4TekstilForum
Tekstil Forum is an industrypublication about fashion, environment and wellbeing. They
providetheindustrywithstatisticsandtrendsfromaroundtheworld,fashionandbeauty
news andmuch more. They state they have an overview of the Norwegianmarket, the
suppliersandtheprofitabilityintheindustry,importandthesalesprogress.
Asyoucansee,severalinstitutionsworkingwithNorwegianFashionhavebeenidentified
andtheycanbeimportantplayersinstrengtheningNorwegianFashionnationallyand
internationally.TherearehowevermoreplayersintheNorwegianFashionFieldanda
mappingofthesecouldbebeneficial.
6 http://www.innovasjonnorge.no/system/Global-toppmeny/English/
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6.0Whatisabrand?
6.1Theevolutionofbranding
Thewordbrandingstems from its literalmeaning to brand. It refers to the brandingof
animals,whichattheoutsetwasdonetomarkwhichanimalbelongedtowhichfarmer.This
markingturnedouttobecomeamarkofquality,asanimalsfromparticularfarmerswere
better and thus became popular and more desirable than the lot. There has been a
remarkable development of brands since that time, and fourmain stages can be found
(Roper&Parker,2006). In table 1 this evolution ispresented, but only threeof the four
stagesareincludedasthelaststage(brandasasset)isnotnecessarilyastagethatwould
berecognizableexternaltoindividualcompanies.
(S.Roper&C.Parker,2006)
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BrandingasIdentification
Originally, brandingwas a tool usedtolinkaproductorservice to its owner, inorder to
ensurethatconsumerswouldrecognizetheproduct.
BrandingasDifferentiation
The start of massproduction, distribution and communication prolonged the need for
identification in the new unexplored marketplaces. In addition to this, there became a
strongneedfordifferentiationasthereweremanyactorsinthesenewmarketstryingto
succeed. The communication of differentiation was usually functional or rational (size,
packaging, quality, etc). Nevertheless,these factors were not economically rational and
thosechargedwithforecastingorunderstandingdemandfortheseproductscouldnolonger
relyoneconomictheorytoexplainthebehaviourofcostumersandpredictthebehaviourof
brands (Roper & Parker, 2006)(p.57). Consequently, the theory of marketing developed
furtherandfromthe1950sthestudyofbrandingbegan.
BrandingasPersonification
As time goes by and researchers begin to study brands, their importance are widely
recognized and they are no longer just a symbol they have now been ascribed a
personality.Thismakesiteasierforpeopletorelatetothebrandsandtomake(hopefully)
longlastingrelationships.
BrandasAsset
Branding has its roots ineconomictheory andwhat liesatthe core iswhat the brand is
worth.Companiescannowreporttheirbrandsonbalancesheetsandthishasincreasedthe
desireformeasurement.Todayonecanactuallyfindanannualtablelistingovertheworlds
mostvaluablebrands.Aakerexplainsthevalueofbrandsasbrandequityanditcomprised
ofbrandnameawareness,brandloyalty,perceivedqualityandbrandassociations.
6.2Brandingtoday
Therearemanydefinitionsonwhatabrandisinpresentdaybrandingtheory,buttherearetwo scholars who have published the two of the most significant and widely used
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definitions; David Aaker and Noel Kapferer. Aaker, together with a fellow scholar Biel,
proposeabrandisbasicallyanamethatreferstoproductofaparticularmanufacturerina
particular product category. A brand includes tangible or intrinsic qualities, such as
appearance,performancedata,packageandtheguaranteesorwarrantiesthatareattached
toit.Perhapsmoreimportantly,abrandinvolvesaspectsthattheconsumerattributestoit,
beyonditstangible features.Theseattributesmayincludeattitudes towards thecompany
thatproducestheproductortowardsthebranditself,beliefsaboutthebrandinrelationship
tosel