EFFECTS OF LEADER-MEMBER EXCHANGE AND PUBLIC SERVICE
MOTIVATION ON JOB SATISFACTION AND ORGANIZATIONAL
COMMITMENT IN A PUBLIC WORKFORCE SAMPLE
by
Wesley A. Alford
A dissertation proposal presented to the Interdisciplinary PhD in Leadership program and the Graduate School of University of Central Arkansas in partial fulfillment of
the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy in
Leadership
Conway, Arkansas August 2014
TO THE OFFICE OF GRADUATE STUDIES:
The members of the Committee approve the dissertation of
Wesley Alford presented on June 26, 2014
_________________________________ Dr. Elson Bihm, Committee Chairperson
_________________________________ Dr. Patrick Carmack
_________________________________
Dr. Amy Hawkins
_________________________________ Dr. Rhonda McClellan
PERMISSION
Title Effects of Leader-Member Exchange and Public Service Motivation on Job Satisfaction and Organizational Commitment in a Public Workforce Sample
Department Interdisciplinary PhD in Leadership Degree Doctor of Philosophy
In presenting this dissertation in partial fulfillment of the requirements for graduate from the University of Central Arkansas, I agree that the Library of this University shall make it freely available for inspections. I further agree that permission for extensive copying for scholarly purposes may be granted by the professor who supervised my dissertation work, or, in the professor’s absence, by the Chair of the Department or the Dean of the Graduate School. It is understood that due recognition shall be given and the University of Central Arkansas in any scholarly use which may be made of any material in my dissertation.
________________________________ Wesley Alford July 15, 2014
©2014 Wesley Alford
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Acknowledgement
I would first like to thank my family and friends who have supported me in this endeavor. I also need to thank the great cohorts of students and the faculty of the PhD in Leadership program. You challenged me at every turn and I would not have it any other way. Thank you. Finally, I want to thank my wife, Leighanne. I could not have made it through this process without your love and support. You make me laugh every single day and I never want it to end!
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Abstract
This study investigated the combined effects of employee perceptions on the strength
of the relationship with his/her direct supervisor and the employee’s public service
motives on job satisfaction and organizational commitment. A survey measuring
leader-member exchange (LMX), public service motivation (PSM), job satisfaction,
and organizational commitment was distributed to a sample of employees of state
agencies. State agency employees were chosen for the sample because Perry and
Wise (1990) indicate those who seek employment with public organizations have
higher levels of PSM than those who work for public organizations.
Hypotheses about the combined effects of LMX and PSM on job satisfaction
and organizational commitment were tested using multiple regressions. A canonical
correlation and regression trees were used to further test the effects of LMX and the
PSM subscales of PSM Compassion, PSM Public Interest, and PSM self-sacrifice on
the outcome variables. Results indicate the LMX relationship reduced more variance
in job satisfaction and organizational commitment than the individual’s public service
motivation. These results suggest leaders in the public sector should emphasize
building strong working relationships with subordinates when attempting to keep
employees engaged and committed to public service organizations. Regressions run
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using LMX and the PSM subscales suggest PSM Public Interest reduces more
variance in job satisfaction and organizational commitment than the other subscales.
Results of the canonical correlation support the findings from the multiple regressions
while results from the regression trees suggest complex relationships between LMX
and the PSM subscales.
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Table of Contents
Acknowledgements ....................................................................................................... v
Abstract ....................................................................................................................... vii List of Tables ............................................................................................................... ix
List of Figures ............................................................................................................... x Chapter I Introduction ................................................................................................... 1
Chapter II Literature Review ........................................................................................ 8 Chapter III Methods .................................................................................................... 26
Chapter IV Results ...................................................................................................... 32 Chapter V Conclusions ............................................................................................... 52
References ................................................................................................................... 61 Appendix A Glossary of Major Terms ....................................................................... 73
Appendix B Institutional Review Board Expedited Application ............................... 74
Appendix C Survey Instrument as Seen by Participants ............................................ 82
Appendix D Variable Measurement Scales ................................................................ 93 !!
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List of Tables
Table 4.1 Descriptive Statistics for Variables ............................................................. 35 Table 4.2 Cronbach’s Alphas for Research Scales ..................................................... 36
Table 4.3 Summary of Spearman’s rho Correlations for All Variables ..................... 37 Table 4.4 Model Summary of Regression Analysis for Job Satisfaction
with LMX and PSM ....................................................................................... 38 Table 4.5 Model Summary of Forward Regression Analysis for Job
Satisfaction with LMX and PSM Subscales ................................................... 40 Table 4.6 Model Summary of Backward Regression Analysis for Job
Satisfaction with LMX and PSM Subscales ................................................... 41 Table 4.7 Model Summary of Regression Analysis for Organizational
Commitment with LMX and PSM .................................................................. 43 Table 4.8 Model Summary of Forward Regression Analysis for
Organizational Commitment with LMX and PSM Subscales ........................ 44 Table 4.9 Model Summary of Backward Regression Analysis for
Organizational Commitment with LMX and PSM Subscales ........................ 45 Table 4.10 Canonical Correlation ............................................................................... 47
Table 4.11 Independent Variable Importance for Job Satisfaction Regression Tree ................................................................................................................. 49
Table 4.12 Independent Variable Importance for Organizational Commitment Regression Tree .............................................................................................. 50!
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List of Figures
Figure 4.1 Regression Tree for Job Satisfaction ........................................................ 49 Figure 4.2 Regression Tree for Organizational Commitment ................................... 50
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Chapter I
Introduction
Statement of the Problem
In 2003, the Partnership for Public Service (PPS), a nonprofit organization
focused on revitalizing the federal workforce, and Deloitte, a large, international
consulting firm, began producing an annual report titled, “The Best Places to Work in the
Federal Government” (Partnership for Public Service, 2013). The aim of this report was
to develop a detailed view of job satisfaction and organizational commitment among
federal employees using data collected by the Office of Personnel Management’s Federal
Employee Viewpoint Survey. This survey reaches almost 700,000 employees in the
federal government and has provided valuable insight into the factors that contribute to
job satisfaction and commitment in this population. The report released at the end of
2012 revealed troubling statistics about both job satisfaction and commitment.
Analyses of the latest Federal Employee Viewpoint Survey indicated that job
satisfaction levels are at the lowest levels since 2003 when the Partnership for Public
Service first released its Best Places to Work list (Partnership for Public Service, 2013).
The 2012 job satisfaction scores were not only at their lowest levels recorded; they also
represented the largest one-year drop, from 64 out of 100 in 2011 to 60.8 in 2012. This
drop occurred while levels in the private sector remained constant at 70 out of 100
(Partnership for Public Service, 2013).
The PPS report indicates that effective leadership has been the most important
driver of employee satisfaction and commitment for the seventh year in a row
(Partnership for Public Service, 2013). The report defines effective leadership as “the
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extent to which employees believe leadership at all levels of the organization generates
motivation and commitment, encourages integrity, and manages people fairly, while also
promoting the professional development, creativity, and empowerment of employees”
(Partnership for Public Service, 2013, “Scores by Category: Effective Leadership,” para
1). Leadership is then broken down into four subcategories: empowerment, fairness,
senior leaders, and supervisors. The supervisor category measures how well immediate
supervisors allow employees to exercise their own leadership skills and how well
employees feel their supervisors help them develop and provide feedback on job
performance.
While the PPS report indicates that leadership is a driver of the drastic drop in job
satisfaction and organizational commitment scores, the reports do not indicate exactly
how these practices affect the scores. Adding to this problem, little academic research
has examined how leadership affects public sector employees. The PPS report findings
should resonate with public service motivation scholars, who for decades have been
investigating the relationship between organizational factors and employee motivation,
satisfaction, and commitment—factors that can be influenced by leaders. Moynihan and
Pandy (2007) found organizational characteristics, such as group culture, could be used
as levers to enhance or maintain levels of public service motivation (PSM) in public
sector employees. PSM is defined as “an individual’s predisposition to respond to
motives grounded primarily or uniquely in public institutions and organizations” (Perry
& Wise, 1990, p. 368) and has been positively correlated with job satisfaction (Brewer &
Selden, 1998; Cerase & Farinella, 2006; Crewson, 1997; Kim, 2005; Moynihan &
Pandey, 2007; Naff & Crum, 1999; Steijn, 2008; Taylor & Westover, 2011) and
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organizational commitment (Crewson, 1997; Moynihan & Pandy, 2007; Steijn, 2008;
Taylor, 2008). While Moynihan and Pandy (2007) did not investigate how leadership
and management practices affect levels of PSM, they, along with others (Belle, 2013;
Paarlberg & Lavigna, 2010; Perry & Hondeghem, 2008), call for more research on how
management practices affect PSM.
Some scholars have investigated how leadership practices can affect public
service employee motivation. Paarlberg and Lavigna (2010) proposed that
transformational leadership practices would have a positive impact on the public service
motivation of employees and encourage managers and executive leaders to incorporate
and promote management techniques into their work routines that build on the motives
that promote public service. Belle (2013) found organizational interventions could
enhance PSM levels of employees and calls for more research on management practices
that can be used to enhance PSM levels.
Other research has examined how social factors, such as relationships at work can
affect PSM. Park and Rainey (2007, as cited in Koehler & Rainey, 2008) posited that
external influences, such as positive and supportive comments, are effective at enhancing
intrinsic motivations such as public service motivation. Respondents indicated they felt
empowered when their managers engaged in supportive and encouraging behaviors, and
they expressed higher levels of PSM afterwards. These findings are consistent with
previous research by Perry and Porter (1982) who found professional relationships have a
large impact on employee performance and motivation (also see Kelley, 1999; Paarlberg,
2007; Vinzant, 1998). Emmet and Taher (1992) claimed public sector employees derive
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their work attitudes from social relations on the job and the extent to which their intrinsic
needs are met.
Research in PSM has indicated that professional relationships, especially the
relationship between a direct supervisor and an employee, are strongly correlated with
performance and motivation (Taylor & Westover, 2011; Westover & Taylor, 2010).
Leader-member exchange (LMX) theory examines this very relationship. According to
Graen and Uhl-Bien (1995), LMX is different from other leadership theories in that it
does not focus solely on the leader. Rather, it has a focus on the leader, the member, and
the relationship between the two.
Building on recent research by Taylor and Westover (2011) and Westover and
Taylor (2010) on the positive effects of supervisor-subordinate relations on PSM and
previous research indicating the separate positive effects of LMX and job satisfaction
(Graen, Novak, & Sommerkamp, 1982; Seers & Graen, 1984; Stepina, Perrewe, Hassel,
Harris, & Mayfield, 1991) and organizational commitment (Duchon, Green, & Taber,
1986; Green, Anderson, & Shivers, 1996; Kinicki & Vecchio, 1994; Liden & Maslyn,
1998; Major, Kozlowski, Chao, & Gardner, 1995; Nystrom, 1990; Schriesheim, Neider,
Scandura, & Tepper, 1992; Settoon, Bennet, & Liden, 1996; Wayne, Shore, & Liden,
1997) and PSM and job satisfaction (Brewer & Selden, 1999; Cerase & Farinella, 2006;
Kim, 2005; Naff & Crum, 1999; Steijn, 2008; Taylor & Westover, 2011) and
organizational commitment (Camilleri, 2006; Castaing, 2006; Cerase & Farinella, 2006;
Crewson, 1997), the proposed research will attempt to examine how these two constructs
might combine with one another to explain the outcome variables of job satisfaction and
organization commitment.
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Purpose of the Study
Research in both PSM and LMX have demonstrated that each construct is
strongly and positively correlated with both job satisfaction and organizational
commitment. What is lacking in the literature is an examination of how these two
constructs combine with one another when explaining these specific organizational
outcome variables.
PSM researchers have shown that work relations with managers do impact job
satisfaction and organizational commitment (Taylor & Westover, 2011; Westover &
Taylor, 2010) but these studies only used the single item, “In general, how would you
describe your relations at your workplace between management and employees,” to
measure the relationship between employee and manager. The present study will build
upon these findings by examining the same relationship but measuring it using an
instrument that has been indicated as the best measure for examining the leader-member
relationship (Gerstner & Day, 1997; Graen & Uhl-Bien, 1995) and viewing this
relationship through the lens of leader-member exchange.
Significance of the Study
The role of leadership in public service motivation research has been relatively
sparse. Only a few researchers (Moynihan & Pandey, 2007; Paarlberg & Lavigna, 2010)
have examined or proposed ways in which leadership practices can affect public service
motivation. There is also little research on the role of social relationships in PSM
(Emmet & Taher, 1992; Park & Rainey, 2007; Perry & Porter, 1982) and only recently
has there been research into how the relationship with the supervisor can combine with
PSM to explain positive outcomes (Taylor, 2008; Taylor & Westover, 2010; Westover &
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Taylor, 2011). This study will build upon the recent research on supervisor relationships
and PSM and give it a theoretical lens in leader-member exchange theory.
This study also holds practical importance in that the results can be used in
creating leadership development programs for public institutions. As the Partnership for
Public Service (2013) reports suggests, job satisfaction and organizational commitment
scores are continuing to drop as a result of poor leadership. LMX development
interventions have had positive results in increasing job satisfaction in employees (Graen,
Novak, & Sommerkamp, 1982; Scandura & Graen, 1984), and high-quality LMX
relationships consistently have a positive correlation with organizational commitment
(Duchon, Green, & Taber, 1986; Green, Anderson, & Shivers, 1996; Kinicki & Vecchio,
1994; Liden & Maslyn, 1998; Major, Kozlowski, Chao, & Gardner, 1995; Nystrom,
1990; Schriesheim, Neider, Scandura, & Tepper, 1992; Settoon, Bennet, & Liden, 1996;
Wayne, Shore, & Liden, 1997). If LMX and PSM are able to explain satisfaction and
commitment, then principles of LMX could be incorporated into the leadership
development curriculum to potentially address declining levels of satisfaction and
commitment in public employees, who, according to Perry and Wise (1990), will have
joined public institutions because of higher levels of PSM.
Hypotheses
The general hypotheses of the study are that LMX and PSM will combine to
explain a significant amount of variance in both employee job satisfaction and
organizational commitment. The general hypotheses are represented below and are
explained further in chapter two.
H1: LMX and PSM will both have positive relationships with job satisfaction.&
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H2: Both LMX and PSM will have positive relationships with organizational commitment
Plan of Study &
To address the general hypotheses that LMX and PSM will combine to explain
significant amounts of variance in job satisfaction and organizational commitment,
surveys were distributed to employees of state agencies to assess the employee’s
perception of the strength of relationship with his or her immediate supervisor, level of
public service motivation, level of job satisfaction, and organizational commitment.
Standard multiple regressions were used to analyze the data. Findings from the standard
multiple regressions led to further questions that were analyzed through forward and
backward multiple regressions, a canonical correlation, and regression trees.
Summary
Previous research in LMX and PSM have indicated positive associations with job
satisfaction and organizational commitment yet no study has examined how these two
explanatory variables might combine to explain the variance in the response variables.
The current study aims to test the idea that LMX and PSM will combine to reduce the
unexplained variance in both job satisfaction and organizational commitment.
The following chapters will provide an overview of the literature on LMX and
PSM and how they relate to job satisfaction and organizational commitment, the methods
used to test the hypotheses, and results of the analyses. The final chapter includes a
discussion of the results, implications for theory and practice, limitations of the study,
directions for future research, and a conclusion. A glossary of major terms for the study
is included in Appendix A.&
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Chapter II
Literature Review
The following sections will review literature on leader-member exchange theory,
public service motivation, job satisfaction, and organizational commitment. As there is a
vast amount of literature on each topic, only literature pertinent to this study will be
reviewed.
Leader-Member Exchange
Leader-member exchange (LMX) theory is different from most leadership
theories in that the focus is on the leader, the follower, and the relationship between the
two (Graen & Uhl-Bien, 1995). Graen and Uhl-Bien (1995) argue that many leadership
theories have historically focused on characteristics of the leaders or managers (i.e, trait
theories based on traits of leaders; contingency theories based on the style of the leader).
The emphasis of LMX on the relational aspect of the connection between leader and
follower is based in both role theory (Kahn, Wolfe, Quinn, Snoek, & Rosenthal, 1964)
and social exchange theory (Blau, 1964). Role theory suggests that members of an
organization complete their work through the behaviors that are expected of the
individual in that position. These are the “leader” and “member” roles in the relationship.
Blau’s (1964) conception of social exchange theory consisted of both the economic and
social exchanges that occur in a relationship.
Leader-member exchange theory began as an examination of vertical dyad
linkages (VDL), the use of an average leadership style directed at subordinates by leaders
or direct supervisors (Dansereau, Graen, & Haga, 1975). The theory evolved as
researchers began to notice that leaders do not use the same leadership style with all
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subordinates as was suggested by the Ohio State and Michigan studies (Graen & Uhl-
Bien, 1995). Rather, leaders developed individualized relationships with each
subordinate. As research examining VDL validated the existence of differentiated
relationships (Cashman, Dansereau, Graen, & Haga, 1975; Graen & Cashman, 1975;
Graen, Cashman, Ginsburg, & Schiemann, 1977, Rosse & Kraut, 1983; Vecchio, 1982),
researchers began to develop the theory of LMX as a way to examine the characteristics
of the differentiated relationships leaders have with subordinates (Graen & Uhl-Bien,
1995).
Further examination of the relationships between leaders and followers revealed
some subordinates reported higher quality exchanges with the leader while others
reported lower quality exchanges. Higher levels of mutual trust, respect, and obligation
between the leader and the follower characterized relationships rated as high quality.
Subordinates with higher quality exchanges with their leader typically go beyond what is
called for in their job descriptions and are referred to as being in the in-group (Zalesny &
Graen, 1987). Studies of in-group follower characteristics revealed these individuals had
similar decision-making styles as their leaders (Graen, 1989) and were high in growth-
need strength, or the need to grow and develop on a personal level through meeting
psychological or nonmaterial needs (Graen, Novak, & Sommerkamp, 1982; Graen,
Scandura, & Graen, 1986; Scandura & Graen, 1984).
Through Blau’s (1964) social exchange theory, members of the in-group are
receiving economic gains in the form of promotions and salary (Wakabayashi & Graen,
1984), or what is stipulated in the job description and contract with the organization,
while also creating social gains in the form of trust and respect (Zalensy & Graen, 1987).
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What distinguishes economic gains from the social gains is the idea that the benefits of
social exchanges are unstipulated (Blau, 1964). The leader is not obligated to trust and
respect the subordinate. Rather, those benefits are earned through the work the
subordinate produces and the relationship that develops between the leader and the
follower.
The relationships between subordinates and leaders with low-quality exchanges
are typified by lower trust, respect, and obligation. The subordinates with these types of
exchanges do not tend to stray from their job descriptions and are referred to as the out-
group (Zalesny & Graen, 1987). Members of the out-group are involved in economic
exchanges with the leader but may receive fewer social exchanges.
LMX researchers furthered the theory by examining how high quality and low
quality exchanges related to a number of organizational outcomes (Graen & Uhl-Bien,
1995). Studies in this realm of LMX research investigated the connection between the
differentiated relationships between leader and follower and organizational variables such
as organizational citizenship behavior (Scandura, Graen, & Novak, 1986), performance
(Graen, Novak, & Sommerkamp, 1982; Graen, Scandura, & Graen, 1986; Scandura &
Graen, 1984), job satisfaction (Graen, Novak, & Sommerkamp, 1982; Seers & Graen,
1984; Stepina, Perrewe, Hassel, Harris, & Mayfield, 1991), and organizational
commitment (Duchon, Green, & Taber, 1986; Green, Anderson, & Shivers, 1996;
Kinicki & Vecchio, 1994; Liden & Maslyn, 1998; Major, Kozlowski, Chao, & Gardner,
1995; Nystrom, 1990; Schriesheim, Neider, Scandura, & Tepper, 1992; Settoon, Bennet,
& Liden, 1996; Wayne, Shore, & Liden, 1997).
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LMX research involving job satisfaction and organizational commitment are most
pertinent to this study and previous research on these topics are presented later in the
paper.
Public Service Motivation
Leading into the 1990s, political leaders were searching for a way to revitalize the
public service ethic in the United States (Perry & Wise, 1990). There was growing
support behind the public choice movement that was based on the idea that people were
motivated to work based on their own self-interests. Moving forward with this idea,
organizational leaders designed reward systems to meet and take advantage of the self-
interests of their employees. Organizations began to rely on the use of monetary rewards
to motivate their employees. This idea was also accepted by government institutions
when designing the reward systems for civil servants without taking into account the idea
that civil servants might be motivated by factors other than money.
Perry (2000) believed there were shortcomings in the prevailing theories of
motivation. The most notable shortcomings were the focus on individualistic bases of
motivation theories, the prevalence of ambiguous goals in public service, and the failure
of motivation theories to specify the behaviors to which it applies. Shamir (1991)
pointed out rational-choice theories of motivation view individuals as rational
maximizers that only seek short-term, maximum gains. This view completely disregards
any prosocial or altruistic behaviors that might motivate some individuals. These views
also do not take into account motivations that lead to behaviors that go beyond the self-
interests of individuals and focus on the collective.
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Perry and Wise (1990) posited those working in the public sector were not only
motivated by self-interests and money. They supposed there were other motivational
bases working within individuals that led them to public service and that current
motivation theories did not incorporate these ideas. They described this new idea as
public service motivation and defined it as “an individual’s predisposition to respond to
motives grounded primarily or uniquely in public institutions and organizations” (p. 368).
Initial research on PSM focused on the three original hypotheses proposed by
Perry and Wise (1990) and on effectively building the construct of PSM. Research on the
first hypothesis, that high PSM individuals would seek employment in public institutions,
often referred to as the attraction-selection frame (Perry & Wise, 1990), produced general
support for the idea (Lewis & Frank, 2002; Steijn, 2008; Vandenabeele, 2008).
The second hypothesis stated that PSM would be positively related to job
performance in public organizations (Perry & Wise, 1990). This hypothesis was based
on two assumptions. The first was founded on the ideas of Turner and Lawrence (1965)
that stated individuals can be intrinsically motivated by their jobs if they find their work
to be meaningful. Perry and Wise (1990) believed individuals with high PSM would be
motivated by their work because the significance of the tasks being performed in their
jobs would provide them an opportunity to satisfy their motives. The second premise of
the hypothesis was related to organizational commitment. Perry and Wise (1990)
suggested that those who are highly committed to an organization would also be more
likely to be highly motivated to perform well in their jobs.
Research on this hypothesis has been generally supported. Alonso and Lewis
(2001) were able to show a positive impact of PSM on performance when using job
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performance ratings and grade. Naff and Crum (1999) were also able to show a positive
relationship using self-reported performance appraisals. While these studies have
focused on the individual level of analysis, others (Francois, 2000; LeGrand, 2003)
examined this from the institutional level and found similar results.
The final hypothesis involved rewarding PSM individuals (Perry & Wise, 1990).
Perry and Wise (1990) contended that organizational rewards should be based on the
types of motivation present in an organization’s employees. The researchers
hypothesized that those individuals who are “motivated primarily by rational choice are
likely to find utilitarian incentives most effective. Organizations whose members are
motivated by normative and affective considerations must rely more heavily on
normative and affectual incentives” (Perry & Wise, pg. 371). They posit that
organizational leaders who do not correctly match rewards with motivations are not likely
to see employees perform at their maximum capabilities or effectiveness.
Subsequent research on this hypothesis has provided empirical support for this
proposition although much of the research has focused on how public employees place
value on financial rewards relative to employees in the private sector. Crewson (1997)
found that although employees in both the private and public sector place importance on
high pay, public sector employees rate intrinsic rewards as more valuable than do their
private sector counterparts. These findings are consistent with the original hypothesis
that high PSM employees are less reliant on utilitarian incentives even if the results did
not indicate that financial rewards were not any less important to those working in the
public sector.
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Frey and Jegen (2001) examined monetary rewards through an economic theory
known as motivation crowding theory. Crowding theory posits that monetary rewards
crowd out and undermine intrinsic motivation in individuals. External interventions,
such as bonuses, crowd out intrinsic motivation if the individual views the reward as
something controlling. If the individual perceived the reward as supportive, then the
reward will crowd in intrinsic motivation. Based on these findings, Francois and
Vlasspopulos (2008) suggested non-monetary rewards are more useful in public
organizations than monetary rewards.
Although there is research providing general support for this proposition, Perry,
Hondeghem, and Wise (2010) suggested further studies be conducted on the topic. They
suggested future research investigate how a balance of utilitarian and non-monetary
rewards affect motivations. They went on to state that research involving multiple
motives would inform this proposition as well.
Job Satisfaction
Locke (1976) defined job satisfaction as the “pleasurable or positive emotional
state resulting from the appraisal of one’s job or job experiences” (p. 1300), and it is one
of the most studied concepts in industrial/organizational psychology (Judge, Parker,
Colbert, Heller, & Ilies, 2001). The concept of job satisfaction has its origins in Taylor’s
scientific management theory that began to examine the attitudes associated with work
and in the Hawthorne Studies of the 1920s that demonstrated the role of workers and
their attitudes and perceptions of work situations (Locke, 1976).
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Locke (1976) identified three causal models of job satisfaction. These models
attempt to specify the variables that cause and combine to form job satisfaction. The
three models are expectancies, needs, and values.
The expectancy model is related to what the work environment offers, what the
individual expects, and what he or she is able to attain. This can be illustrated with the
attraction-selection hypothesis of public service motivation. Perry and Wise (1990)
hypothesized that individuals with high PSM would seek employment in public
organizations. The high-PSM individual expects that working in the public organization
will help satisfy their need to serve the public. The extent to which that individual has
high or low job satisfaction is determined by how well the work in the organization meets
the expectation of the high-PSM individual that the work fulfills their need to serve the
public.
The needs model of job satisfaction is closely related to the previous example of
the high-PSM individual. The needs model is based on the idea that the individual will
have high or low job satisfaction depending on whether or not the psychological and
physical needs of the individual are being met (Locke, 1976). The attraction-selection
example above works here as well because the level of job satisfaction is dependent upon
how well the work meets the psychological need of the individual to serve the public.
The final causal model of job satisfaction is the values model. The values model
is very similar to the needs model except for the fundamental difference between the
concepts of needs and values. Locke (1976) used Rand’s (1964) definition of value to
distinguish it from a need. He stated that values are something that an individual seeks to
attain, whether consciously or unconsciously. This differs from needs in that needs are
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innate whereas an individual’s values are learned or acquired over time. The overall
model of job satisfaction is the same. If an individual values high pay and the
organization for which he or she works is able to meet that value, then the individual is
expected to have high job satisfaction. If the organization cannot meet this value, then
job satisfaction is expected to be low.
From Locke’s (1976) value model came the job satisfaction interactive antecedent
model commonly referred to as the value-precept theory (Judge, et al., 2001). This
theory posits that an individual’s values are what determine satisfaction on the job. If an
individual places high value on a particular aspect of the job and that aspect goes
unfulfilled, then the individual would not be satisfied with that job facet. This model
could be important when examining job satisfaction and a construct such as PSM where
so much emphasis is placed on fulfilling psychological motives that are related to
personal values.
PSM and job satisfaction. Job satisfaction is considered a strong correlate of
PSM in the public sector, mainly because this type of employment is able to satisfy the
needs and wants of employees by serving the public interest and contributing to society
(Pandey & Stazyk, 2008; Perry & Wise, 1990).
The first major research to indicate a relationship between PSM and job
satisfaction was Brewer and Selden’s (1998) investigation of whistle-blowers in the
federal government. The researchers claimed whistle-blowers acted in ways that were
consistent with the theory of public service motivation and that these individuals reported
higher levels of job satisfaction than did their colleagues who were inactive by-standers.
Naff and Crum (1999) provided supporting evidence of this relationship when using a
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sample of nearly 10,000 responses to the 1996 Merit Principles Survey, which included
six questions taken from Perry’s (1996) PSM instrument, completed by federal
employees. Their findings indicated that employees who reported higher levels of PSM
also reported significantly higher levels of job satisfaction. The positive correlation of
PSM and job satisfaction has also been reported in Korean samples (Kim, 2005), Italian
samples (Cerase & Farinella, 2006), and Dutch samples (Steijn, 2008).
Taylor and Westover (2011) also found a positive correlation between PSM and
job satisfaction. However, they found that PSM’s impact on job satisfaction levels was
small when compared with workplace attitudes and work relations between individuals
and their coworkers and their supervisors or managers. Taylor (2008) and Westover and
Taylor (2010) found similar results regarding the relationship between PSM, job
satisfaction, and work relations in international samples. These findings are particularly
important to this study because they indicate that relationships at work, both with
coworkers and superiors, play a role in the correlation between PSM and job satisfaction.
However, all of these studies only measured work relationships with the single
instrument item, “In general, how would you describe your relations at your workplace
between management and employees,” instead of using a multiple-item measure of the
quality of the relationship.
LMX and job satisfaction. LMX is generally considered a strong correlate with
job satisfaction (Gertsner & Day, 1997). Graen, Novak, and Sommerkamp (1982) were
some of the earliest researchers to examine the relationship between LMX relationships
and job satisfaction. They conducted a longitudinal study in which subordinate job
satisfaction was measured at multiple intervals while their immediate supervisors
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received training on how to develop higher quality relationships with their subordinates.
The results of the study indicated that the subordinates of leaders who received the LMX
interventions reported higher overall job satisfaction scores than those subordinates
whose leaders did not receive the trainings. Scandura and Graen (1984) found similar
results when investigating the effects of initial quality of LMX relationships. They found
that after supervisors received LMX development interventions, the subordinates who
initially had low-quality LMX relationships with their supervisors showed greater gains
in job satisfaction than subordinates who initially had high-quality relationships. These
studies suggest that leadership development programs designed to develop high-quality
relationships with subordinates can have positive effects on job satisfaction for
subordinates.
Satisfaction with supervision is a subscale of overall job satisfaction that is also of
interest to LMX researchers. Stepina, Perrewe, Hassell, Harris, and Mayfield (1991)
found that while characteristics of the job explained unique variance in internal
motivation, social satisfaction, growth satisfaction, and overall satisfaction, the LMX
relationship was able to explain unique variance in satisfaction with supervision.
Vecchio and Gobdel (1984) found similar results but they also found something distinct
about overall job satisfaction. Instead of focusing solely on in- and out-groups, Vecchio
and Gobdel included a middle-group in their study. The results showed that the middle-
group was relatively more satisfied with their jobs than were those considered to be in the
in- or out-groups. These results highlighted the need for LMX research to re-think the
polar in- and out-groups and instead think of LMX relationships as a continuum and to
consider the role that negotiating latitude plays in LMX relationships.
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Organizational Commitment
For years, researchers have struggled to settle on a standard definition of
organizational commitment. The difficulty on setting a standard definition lies in the
complex and multifaceted nature of the construct (Meyer, Smith, & Allen, 1993). Neale
and Northcraft (1991) defined organizational commitment as “the relative strength of an
individual’s identification with and involvement in an organization” (p. 290). Meyer,
Allen, and Smith (1993) offered a similar, yet slightly different, definition of
organizational commitment. They defined it as a “psychological state that (a)
characterizes the employee’s relationship with the organization and (b) has implications
for the decision to continue or discontinue membership in the organization” (p. 539).
Both definitions involve an examination of the relationship the employee has with the
organization, but Meyer, Allen, and Smith’s (1993) definition takes the idea further by
also including the likelihood that the employee will stay with or leave the organization.
While the differences between the definitions are subtle, the impact on the
generalizability of the study can be great. This is why Meyer, Allen, and Smith (1993)
claim that researchers need to clearly state the forms of commitment being examined in
any particular study. For the purposes of this study, Meyer, Smith, and Allen’s (1993)
definition of organizational commitment and Meyer and Allen’s (1991) three-component
model of organizational commitment will be used to examine how LMX relationships
and level of PSM contribute to organizational commitment.
The three-component model of organizational commitment (Meyer & Allen,
1991) is composed of affective commitment, continuance commitment, and normative
commitment. Affective commitment is the desire component of the model. This idea
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corresponds to the thought that employees have some kind of emotional attachment to the
values and goals associated with a particular organization (Buchanan, 1974; Kanter,
1968; Mowday, Steers, & Porter, 1979). This is similar to the attraction-selection
hypothesis posited by Perry and Wise (1990) in their initial development of the construct
of PSM. They postulated that high PSM individuals would seek employment with public
organizations because they identify with the values and goals of the institution. Whether
or not the individual stays with the organization may depend on if their motives are being
fulfilled through their affective commitment to the organization. This leads to the second
component of commitment, continuance commitment.
Continuance commitment is the need component of the model (Meyer & Allen,
1991). The need component brings cost into the commitment equation. What will the
individual lose if he or she decides to leave the organization? If the individual leaves this
organization, will he or she also lose his or her pension or seniority? Commitment
researchers refer to these as “side bets” (Becker, 1960) that an individual may or may not
lose when considering if he or she should leave the organization. In terms of PSM,
individuals may lose their ability to fulfill their need to serve the public, or a particular
population of the public, if they choose to leave a public institution. If this high PSM
individual believes he or she may not be able to fulfill this need at another organization,
then he or she may choose to continue working for the current organization.
The final component of Meyer and Allen’s (1991) model is normative
commitment. Normative commitment is the idea that an individual feels obligated to stay
with an organization, possibly because of an “internalized moral obligation” (Meyer &
Allen, 1991, p. 67). Meyer and Allen (1991) stated that normative commitment is less
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common than the other two types of commitment but that it is still a valuable approach to
studying the construct. Liou and Nyan (1994), however, found that affective and
continuance commitment were most important when studying public employee
commitment.
PSM and organizational commitment. The first study to empirically test the
relationship between PSM and organizational commitment was conducted by Crewson
(1997). He found that federal employees who had a higher preference for service
benefits or rewards, an attribute associated with PSM, had greater organizational
commitment than those who preferred more economic or extrinsic rewards. While the
results of the study were encouraging, the study was limited by the use of secondary data
and the relationship between PSM and organizational commitment required further
investigation.
Much of the research on the relationship between PSM and organizational
commitment since Crewson’s (1997) initial study has been conducted using international
samples. Camilleri (2006) examined the relationship between the two variables using a
structural equation model with a sample of Maltese public servants. His model illustrated
that PSM is reinforced and strengthened by organizational commitment. This model also
revealed that affective commitment had a direct effect on all dimensions of PSM. Cerase
and Farinella (2006) found that both affective and continuance commitment were
positively correlated with PSM in an Italian sample. However, they found that the
relationship between affective commitment and PSM was much stronger than that of
continuance commitment and affective commitment was significant across all dimensions
of PSM. Castaing (2006), using a sample of French civil servants, also found that
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affective commitment was the most important form of organizational commitment when
examining PSM.
LMX and organizational commitment. Research has consistently supported the
positive relationship between LMX and organizational commitment (Duchon, Green, &
Taber, 1986; Green, Anderson, & Shivers, 1996; Kinicki & Vecchio, 1994; Liden &
Maslyn, 1998; Major, Kozlowski, Chao, & Gardner, 1995; Nystrom, 1990; Schriesheim,
Neider, Scandura, & Tepper, 1992; Settoon, Bennet, & Liden, 1996; Wayne, Shore, &
Liden, 1997).
Nystrom (1990) provided a good examination of the relationship between LMX
and organizational commitment. His study developed because previous LMX research
tended to focus only on the relationship between LMX and job satisfaction in samples
largely consisting of university and government employees. Nystrom (1990) investigated
the relationship between organizational commitment and LMX in the private sector while
controlling for four situational variables that might affect the relationship. The four
situational variables he controlled for were the number of years the person had been in
the current job, the respondents’ seniority in the organization, job level or organizational
rank, and the size of the organization. After controlling for the situational variables,
Nystrom (1990) found that the LMX relationships between middle and upper managers in
private firms had a strong positive relationship with organizational commitment.
Moving beyond the simple correlation between LMX and organizational
commitment, researchers have attempted to find nuances in the relationship between the
two variables by using mediating variables. Green, Anderson and Shivers (1996) found
an indirect effect of LMX on organizational commitment through the mediating variable
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of satisfaction with work relations, a composite of coworker satisfaction and supervisor
satisfaction. Others have assessed the quality of LMX relationships as a mediating
variable between perceived organizational support, or the exchanges between an
employee and the organization, and organizational commitment in structural equation
models (Settoon, Bennett, & Liden, 1996; Wayne, Shore, & Liden, 1997). Both studies
found that the models using LMX relationships as mediators did not significantly differ
from the proposed models that did not use LMX relationships as a mediating variable
when attempting to reduce the variance in organizational commitment. These studies
serve as illustrations of the complexities inherent in the relationship between LMX and
organizational commitment.
Purpose of the Study
As previously stated, research in both LMX and PSM has indicated strong
correlations of both constructs with job satisfaction and organizational commitment.
However, to the knowledge of the author, no previous study has examined LMX and
PSM together and how they might combine to explain individual and organizational
variables. Recent studies (Taylor & Westover, 2011; Westover & Taylor, 2010) have
investigated how relationships with superiors and public service motivation link to help
explain response variables such as job satisfaction, but they have not had a theoretical
lens through which to interpret results. The purpose of this study is to examine how, or
if, LMX and PSM combine to explain the response variables and to use LMX as a
theoretical lens through which to interpret the results.
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Hypotheses
Based on the literature review, six hypotheses were developed. The following
section presents the hypotheses and brief justifications for the hypotheses.
LMX, PSM, and job satisfaction. Previous research in LMX (Gerstner & Day,
1997; Graen, Novak, & Sommerkamp, 1982; Scandura & Graen, 1984; Seers & Graen,
1984; Vechio & Gobdel, 1984) and PSM (Brewer & Selden, 1999; Cerase & Farinella,
2006; Kim, 2005; Naff & Crum, 1999; Steijn, 2008; Taylor & Westover, 2011) has
resulted in strong, positive correlations of each construct with job satisfaction. Therefore,
it is hypothesized that both constructs will be positively correlated with job satisfaction.
H1: LMX and PSM will both have positive relationships with job satisfaction.
H1a: Strength of LMX relationship will have a positive relationship with job satisfaction. The higher the quality of the LMX relationship, the higher the level of job satisfaction.
H1b: Level of PSM will have a positive relationship with job satisfaction. The higher an individual’s PSM, the higher the level of job satisfaction.
Also, due to previous findings that both constructs exhibit strong positive
relationships with job satisfaction and findings in PSM literature that relationships at
work can influence job satisfaction (Taylor, 2008; Taylor & Westover, 2011; Westover &
Talyor, 2010), it is believed that level of PSM and strength of LMX relationships will
combine with one another and explain variance within the construct of job satisfaction.
H1c: Strength of LMX relationship and level of PSM will have a synergistic effect in explaining job satisfaction.
LMX, PSM, and organizational commitment. Research in LMX (Duchon,
Green, & Taber, 1986; Green, Anderson, & Shivers, 1996; Kinicki & Vecchio, 1994;
Liden & Maslyn, 1998; Major, Kozlowski, Chao, & Gardner, 1995; Nystrom, 1990;
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Schriesheim, Neider, Scandura, & Tepper, 1992; Settoon, Bennet, & Liden, 1996;
Wayne, Shore, & Liden, 1997) and PSM (Camilleri, 2006; Castaing, 2006; Cerase &
Farinella, 2006; Crewson, 1997) has consistently demonstrated a positive relationship
with organizational commitment. It is hypothesized that similar relationships will exist
within this sample.
H2: Both LMX and PSM will have positive relationships with organizational commitment.
H2a: Strength of LMX relationship will have a positive relationship with organizational commitment. The higher the quality of the LMX relationship, the higher the level of organizational commitment.
H2b: Level of PSM will have a positive relationship with organizational commitment. The higher an individual’s PSM, the higher the level of organizational commitment.
Due to recent findings in PSM literature that relationships at work affect levels of
organizational commitment (Taylor, 2008), it is predicted that PSM and LMX will
combine with one another to explain organizational commitment.
H2c: Strength of LMX relationship and level of PSM will have a synergistic effect in explaining organizational commitment
Summary
Based on previous research in LMX and PSM indicating strong positive
relationships with job satisfaction and organizational commitment, it is hypothesized that
both explanatory variables will have strong positive correlations with the response
variables. It is also expected that the two explanatory variables will combine to reduce
the unexplained variance in the response variables.
The next chapter describes the participants, the procedures used in the study, and
the measures used to construct the survey instrument.
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Chapter III
Methods
Overview
This chapter discusses the pilot study, methods, and procedures used to assess the
relationships between the explanatory variables, LMX and PSM, and the response
variables, job satisfaction and organizational commitment. In addition, this section also
discusses the reliability and validity of the instruments used to measure the variables.
Pilot Study
A pilot study was conducted prior to the full study. The purpose of the pilot study
was to assess the average amount of time it took to complete the survey. This was done
so that the researcher could accurately inform participants of the full study how much
time they could expect to spend on the survey. Responses from the pilot study were also
used to perform test runs of the statistical analyses used in the full study. Results of the
analyses on the pilot study data were similar to the results of the full study. Participants
for the pilot study were 59 graduate students and faculty members at a mid-sized
university.
Participants
Participants for the full study were employees of state agencies. A total of 130
useable responses were obtained from a pool of 353 state employees. The average age of
participants was 49.39 years. Of those who responded to the survey, 90 were female
(69%) and 40 were male (31%). The majority of respondents identified themselves as
Caucasian (83%) and African-American (11%). The remaining 6% identified as
American Indian (4%), Asian (1%), Hispanic (1%), and Pacific Islander (1%). The
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sample appears to be well educated with 48% reporting a master’s (29%), professional
(10%), or doctoral (9%) degree. Twenty eight percent report having a bachelor’s degree
while 6% report having an associate’s degree, 11% have some college credits but no
degree awarded, and 4% report having a high school diploma.
Institutional Review Board
The Institutional Review Board (IRB) for the Protection of Human Subjects at the
University of Central Arkansas approved all methods and procedures for this study. The
IRB application and consent form are included in Appendix A.
Procedures
The sample participants for this study were individuals employed by state
government offices. The researcher made contacts at the state agencies through
professors, colleagues, and other acquaintances. An overview of the study, procedures,
and survey instrument were emailed to agency contacts before they agreed to participate
in the study. The email was worded:
The link provided below will direct you to an anonymous research survey. This data is being collected by a doctoral student at the University of Central Arkansas as part of his dissertation. All survey responses are collected by survey software and are available to the researcher only. Data from the survey will be aggregated so that no respondent can be identified. Your participation in this study is voluntary. The survey takes an average of 10 minutes to complete. If the agency decided to participate, then the researcher obtained a letter of agreement
stating that the agency would disseminate the survey to employees via the agency’s email
system. Once the letter of agreement was obtained, the researcher sent the survey link
and a brief message stating the purpose of the survey to the contact at the agency so that
the link could be distributed to agency employees.
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The survey instrument was distributed to 353 employees at five state agencies of a
southeastern state and one state department in a southwestern state. The survey
instrument was constructed in Qualtrics Survey Software and a link to the survey was
emailed to the contact person at the state agencies and departments that had agreed to
participate in the study. The contacts at the state agencies then disseminated the surveys
to employees via the agency’s internal email system. Employees of the agencies agreed
to take part in the study by completing the survey or they could opt out by not completing
the survey. All survey responses were collected and stored under password protection in
Qualtrics Survey Software.
Measures
The survey instrument for the study consisted of four different scales used to
measure the four variables in the study, LMX, PSM, job satisfaction, and organizational
commitment. The four scales and nine demographic questions were combined to create
the survey. The survey as it appeared to participants is in Appendix B. The four scales
are described below. See Appendix C to view the individual questions that make up each
scale.
LMX. There is a controversy in LMX research in the area of measurement
(Shriesheim, Castro, Zhou, & Yammarino, 2001). Different researchers tend to use
different scales to measure the construct. Some of the disagreement among scales is
attributed to the lack of a clear construct definition (Shriesheim, Castro, Zhou, &
Yammarino, 2001). Graen and Uhl-Bien (1995) and Gerstner and Day (1997) suggest
using the LMX-7 instrument because it is the most widely used LMX scale. Previous
studies have reported coefficient alpha internal consistency reliabilities of .86 (Scandura
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& Schriesheim, 1994), .87 (Schriesheim & Cogliser, 2009), and .90 (Wenderow, 2006)
for the LMX-7 scale. Based upon the reliability scores and frequent use of the LMX-7
scales, it is determined that this scale is appropriate for measuring the LMX construct.
There is also an on-going discussion among LMX researchers about the
importance of identifying the correct level of analysis for studies examining LMX
relationships (Shriesheim, Castro, & Cogliser, 1999; Shriesheim, Castro, Zhou, &
Yammarino, 2001). These researchers argue that most LMX research has not truly
examined dyadic relationships but have rather examined LMX at the individual level of
analysis because most studies have only evaluated the relationship from either the
leader’s perspective or the member’s perspective of the relationship. Schriesheim,
Castro, and Cogliser, (1999) stated, “All future LMX research should first specify the
level(s) of analysis at which effects are expected to occur” (p. 102). As PSM is a
construct that occurs at the individual level (Perry & Wise, 1990) and the focus of this
research was to examine how, or if, levels of PSM and the quality of the LMX
relationship, as perceived by the member, combine to affect job satisfaction and
organizational commitment, which are internal psychological variables, then the
individual level of analysis for LMX was appropriate.
Examining LMX at the individual level means that only subordinates were asked
to complete the survey instrument instead of both the leader and the subordinate. Each
participant responded to items on the LMX-7 instrument with a 5-point Likert scale
assessing the quality of their relationship with their current direct supervisor. Scores
from each respondent are summed to reflect an overall LMX score. Scores on this scale
can range from a low of seven to a high of 35.
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Public Service Motivation. Public service motivation was measured using the
scale developed by Perry (1996). The scale consists of 21 items representing three of the
four dimensions that make up the construct of PSM. One dimension, attraction to public
policy, was removed from the scale because previous research has indicated that this
dimension represents self-interest and is less value and mission specific (Alonso &
Lewis, 2001; Wright & Pandey, 2008). The scale has a coefficient alpha of .90 (Perry,
1996). The three subscales used in this study are PSM Compassion PSM Public Interest,
and PSM Self-Sacrifice. Participants rated their agreement with survey items on a 5-
point Likert scale ranging from “strongly disagree” to “strongly agree.” Each respondent
will have an overall PSM score that is the sum of scores from each of the three
dimensions of the PSM scale (PSM Total = sum of PSM Compassion + sum of PSM
Public Interest + sum of PSM Self-Sacrifice). PSM scores could range from a low of 21
to a high of 105. PSM Compassion scores could range from eight to 40. Scores of PSM
Public Interest could range from five to 25 and PSM Self-Sacrifice scores could range
from eight to 40
Job Satisfaction. Job satisfaction was measured with a five-item scale from
Judge, Bono, and Locke (2000) that is a reliable scale (internal consistencies at .80 or
higher) adapted from the larger 18-item job satisfaction measure by Brayfield and Rothe
(1951). This measure utilizes a 5-point Likert scale ranging from “strongly disagree” to
“strongly agree.” Scores from each respondent are summed to reflect an overall job
satisfaction score. Job satisfaction scores can range from a low of five to a high of 25.
Organizational Commitment. Organizational commitment was measured using
the affective commitment scale developed for Allen and Meyer’s (1990) three-component
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model consisting of affective commitment, continuance commitment, and normative
commitment. Continuance and normative commitment were not examined in this study
due to previous research indicating the importance of affective commitment in public
employees (Liou & Nyhan, 1994). Allen and Meyer (1990) report a coefficient alpha of
.87 for the affective commitment scale. Dunham, Grube, and Castaneda (1994) found
consistent support for the scale across numerous studies. However, one item from the
scale was dropped due to poor factor loadings (Dunham, Grube, & Castaneda, 1994).
The final scale consists of 7 items ranked on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from
“strongly disagree” to “strongly agree.” Scores from each respondent are summed to
reflect an overall organizational commitment score. Organizational commitment scores
can range from a low of seven to a high of 35.
Summary
This chapter provided an overview of the participants and procedures used to
obtain data for the project. The chapter also discussed the scales used to measure the
explanatory and response variables and why the specific scales were chosen. The
following chapter will discuss the statistical methods used to analyze the data and reports
the results of the analyses.
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Chapter IV
Results
Overview
This chapter begins with a discussion of the statistical methods used to analyze
the data and then describes the rate of returned surveys from the sample population. The
following sections report the demographics of the sample, descriptive statistics, and
results of analyses used to test the hypotheses. The chapter ends with a summary of the
results.
Data Analysis
Once data were collected, they were entered into SPSS version 22 for analysis.
Variables measured by more than one item were tested for internal reliability using
Cronbach’s Alpha and then transformed into a single score for each variable (e.g., PSM
Total and LMX Total). The analyses used to examine the data were Spearman
correlations, forward and backward multiple regressions, canonical correlations, and
classification and regression trees.
Correlations between the variables were tested using Spearman’s rho.
Spearman’s rho tests were utilized due to the use of ordinal scales to measure the
constructs. The combined effects of LMX and PSM on job satisfaction and
organizational commitment were tested using standard multiple regressions. Multiple
regression is a statistical test used to explain the reduction in variance of a quantitatively
measured response variable based on the values of two or more explanatory variables
(Meyers, Gamst, & Guarino, 2006).
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Due to the findings of the standard multiple regressions between LMX, PSM, and
the response variables of job satisfaction and organizational commitment, subsequent
analyses were run using scores on the subscales of PSM instead of a total PSM score.
These analyses were exploratory and were run to examine if any of the three PSM
subscales (compassion, public interest, and self-sacrifice) appeared to play larger roles in
explaining the response variables. Forward and backward regressions, a canonical
correlation, and regression trees were performed to test the models.
In a forward regression, explanatory variables, in this case LMX and the PSM
subscales, are entered to the equation one at a time based on which variable will add the
most explanatory power to the model (Meyers, Gamst, & Guarino, 2006). A backward
regression differs from a forward regression in that all explanatory variables are added to
the model and then nonsignificant explanatory variables are removed at each step
(Meyers, Gamst, & Guarino, 2006).
A canonical correlation is a statistical technique used to “assess the relationship
between two continuously measured variables” (Meyers, Gamst, & Guarino, 2006, p.
193). In a canonical correlation, as opposed to a multiple regression, all of the
explanatory variables are combined to create a new, weighted synthetic explanatory
variate. Two or more response variables can also be combined into a weighted response
variate. Meyers, Gamst, and Guarino (2006) state that using the linear combinations of
canonical correlation variates is an advantage because it allows the researcher to discover
relationships that might not be uncovered in a single-variable design.
For the purposes of this study, the explanatory variables of LMX and all three
PSM subscales were combined to create the explanatory variate. The response variables
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of job satisfaction and organizational commitment were combined into a single response
variate. The results of the canonical correlation should closely reflect the results of the
forward and backward multiple regressions in terms of the weights of each explanatory
variable.
Regression trees were also used to test the relationships between LMX, PSM
subscales, and the outcome variables. Regressions trees are a non-linear statistical
analysis that repeatedly separates individual scores into binary groups that are
progressively more homogenous based on the outcome variable (Breiman, Friedman,
Olshen, & Stone, 1984). Using the natural regression criterion, the “best split at a node is
that split on the x variables which most successfully separate the high response values
from the low ones (Brieman, Friedman, Olshen, & Stone, 1984, p. 231). Essentially, the
most influential explanatory variable is used to separate the node into high and low
groups of the response variable until it reaches a terminal node.
Survey Results
Return Rate
Surveys were distributed to employees of the state agencies that agreed to
disseminate the survey. A total of five agencies and one state department agreed to
disseminate the survey, which resulted in a sample population of 353 state employees.
Of the 353 surveys distributed, 132 were returned. Of the returned surveys, 90 were
100% complete, 40 were 90% complete, and two did not respond to any questions.
Removing the two returned surveys that did not respond to any questions left a total of
130 usable surveys. This yields a return rate of 36.8%.
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Descriptive Statistics
Descriptive statistics were run for each variable used in the study. Means,
standard deviations, minimums, and maximums are represented in Table 4.1.
Table 4.1 Descriptive Statistics for Variables
Variable Mean Std. Dev. Min. Max.
LMX 26.21 6.45 7.00 35.00 PSM (Total) 75.32 9.53 43.00 101.00 PSM Comp. 27.96 4.52 13.00 39.00 PSM PI 18.07 2.92 9.00 25.00 PSM SS 29.29 4.08 18.00 38.00 Job Satisfaction 18.70 4.05 6.00 25.00 Org. Commitment 24.36 5.37 7.00 35.00 N = 130
Results of Reliability Tests
In order to test the survey scales for reliability, tests for Cronbach’s Alphas were
performed. A reliability coefficient of .70 or higher is generally regarded as sufficient.
All scales used in the survey achieved levels of .70 or higher (see Table 4.2)
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Table 4.2 Cronbach’s Alphas for Research Scales
Scale Coefficient
LMX-7 .93 PSM (Total) .87 PSM Comp. .73 PSM PI .77 PSM SS .82 Job Satisfaction .86 Org. Commitment .89
Tests of the Hypotheses
Hypotheses 1a, 1b, 2a, and 2b
H1a: Strength of LMX relationship will have a positive relationship with job satisfaction. The higher the quality of the LMX relationship, the higher the level of job satisfaction. H1b: Level of PSM will have a positive relationship with job satisfaction. The higher an individual’s PSM, the higher the level of job satisfaction H2a: Strength of LMX relationship will have a positive relationship with organizational commitment. The higher the quality of the LMX relationship, the higher the level of organizational commitment.
H2b: Level of PSM will have a positive relationship with organizational commitment. The higher an individual’s PSM, the higher the level of organizational commitment.
Spearman correlations were utilized to test the hypotheses of how LMX and PSM
related to the work outcomes of job satisfaction and organizational commitment.
Correlations between all variables, including PSM subscales, are available in Table 4.3.
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The first hypothesis (H1a) predicted LMX would have a positive relationship with
job satisfaction. The results indicate that LMX is positively and significantly correlated
with job satisfaction (rs[130] = .56, p < .01). However, the second hypothesis (H1b), that
PSM would also have a positive relationship with job satisfaction, was not significant
(rs[130] = .10, p > .05).
Spearman correlations were also used to examine the correlations of LMX, PSM,
and organizational commitment. Results of H2a, predicting a positive relationship
between LMX and organizational commitment, indicate a significant positive relationship
between the two variables (rs [130] = .45, p < .01). The hypothesis, H2b, predicting a
positive relationship between PSM and organizational commitment indicated the
direction of the relationship was correct; however, the relationship was not significant (rs
[130] = .16, p > .05).
Table 4.3 Summary of Spearman’s rho Correlations for All Variables
&Measure 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1. LMX --- .12 .16 -.01 .11 .56** .45** 2. PSM .12 --- .84** .77** .82** .10 .16 3. PSM SS .16 .84** --- .56** .51** .05 .14 4. PSM PI -.01 .77** .56** --- .47** .10 .16 5. PSM Comp .11 .82** .51** .47** --- .11 .08 6. Job Satisfaction .56** .10 .05 .10 .11 --- .62**
7. Org. Comm. .45** .16 .14 .16 .08 .62** ---
**p < .01
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Hypothesis 1c
H1c: Strength of LMX relationship and level of PSM will have a synergistic effect in explaining job satisfaction.
Standard multiple regressions were run to test the synergistic effects of LMX and
PSM on the outcome variable of job satisfaction. Pre-regression diagnostics did not
indicate a significant correlation between LMX and PSM (rs = .12, p < .18).
The first set of regressions tested the synergistic effects of the explanatory
variables on job satisfaction, hypothesis H1c. The first test was a standard multiple
regression. The results indicate LMX, b = .39, t(129) = 9.13, p < .01, significantly
reduced the unexplained variance in job satisfaction while PSM, b = .03, t(129) = 1.01, p
< .31, did not significantly reduce the variance in scores on the job satisfaction survey.
The two explanatory variables described a significant portion of the variance in job
satisfaction, R2 = .40, F(2,130) = 43.56, p < .001 (see Table 4.4).
Table 4.4 Model Summary of Regression Analysis for Job Satisfaction with LMX and PSM
Model SS df MS F
Regression 860.81 2 430.40 43.56* Residual 1254.87 127 9.88 Total 2115.68 129
*p < .001 Multiple Regression for Job Satisfaction with LMX and PSM
Predictor B SE B Beta t LMX .39 .04 .63 9.13* PSM .03 .03 .07 1.01
*p < .01
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Due to the finding that the total PSM score was not a significant predictor of job
satisfaction, subsequent regressions were run using scores on the subscales of PSM
instead of a total PSM score. These regressions were run to determine if any of the three
PSM subscales (compassion, public interest, and self-sacrifice) could significantly predict
job satisfaction scores. Forward and backward regressions were performed to test the
model.
Forward and backward regressions use slightly different criteria when adding and
removing variables. When a forward regression adds a variable, the variable must
significantly predict variance in the dependent variable at an alpha level of .05 or less.
The criterion to remove a variable in a backward regression is less stringent. For a
variable to be removed in a backward regression, the alpha level must be equal to or less
than .10 (Meyers, Gamst, & Guarino, 2006).
The forward regression only entered the variables of LMX and PSM Public
Interest into the equation and produced a significant result, R2 = .42, F(2,130) = 46.75, p
< .001 (see Table 4.5). The other two subscales, PSM Self-Sacrifice and PSM
Compassion were not entered into the model because they did not account for a
significant portion of the residual variance of job satisfaction. Checks for
multicollinearity did not reveal a masking effect of PSM Public Interest on either of the
other two subscales.
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Table 4.5 Model Summary of Forward Regression Analysis for Job Satisfaction with LMX and PSM Subscales
Model 1 SS df MS F
Regression 850.69 1 850.69 86.08*
Residual 1264.99 128 9.88 Total 2115.68 129
Model 2 SS df MS F
Regression 897.69 2 448.55 46.75*
Residual 1218.57 127 9.60 Total 2115.68 129
*p < .001 Forward Multiple Regression for Job Satisfaction with LMX and PSM Subscales
Model 1 Predictor B SE B Beta t
LMX .40 .04 .63 9.28**
Model 2 Predictor B SE B Beta t
LMX .40 .04 .64 9.46**
PSM PI .21 .09 .15 2.20*
**p < .001 *p < .05
The backward regression entered all variables into the equation and then removed
the PSM Compassion subscale, leaving the variables of LMX, PSM Public Interest, and
PSM Self-Sacrifice to explain the variance in job satisfaction. The results of the
regression were slightly higher than the standard and forward regressions, R2 = .44,
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F(2,130) = 32.84, p < .001 (see Table 4.6). The increase in explained variance is due to
the inclusion of the third subscale in this model. The third subscale was included because
the criterion for inclusion or removal was raised from an alpha level of .05 to an alpha
level of .10 in the backward regression models.
Table 4.6 Model Summary of Backward Regression Analysis for Job Satisfaction with LMX and PSM Subscales
Model 1 SS df MS F
Regression 928.51 4 232.13 24.44*
Residual 1187.17 125 9.50 Total 2115.68 129
Model 2 SS df MS F
Regression 928.33 3 309.44 32.84**
Residual 1187.35 126 9.42 Total 2115.68 129
**p < .001
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Table 4.6 (continued) Backward Multiple Regression for Job Satisfaction with LMX and PSM Subscales
Model 1 Predictor B SE B Beta t
LMX .41 .04 .66 9.60**
PSM Comp. .01 .07 .01 .14 PSM PI .34 .12 .25 2.74*
PSM SS -.16 .09 -.16 -1.79
Model 2 Predictor B SE B Beta t
LMX .41 .04 .66 9.71** PSM PI .34 .12 .25 2.87*
PSM SS -.16 .09 -.16 -1.82
**p < .001 *p < .01
Hypothesis 2c
H2c: Strength of LMX relationship and level of PSM will have a synergistic effect in explaining organizational commitment This set of regressions tested the effects of LMX and PSM on organizational
commitment. The standard multiple regression indicated LMX, b = .42, t(129) = 6.80, p
< .01, and PSM, b = .09, t(129) = 2.14, p < .05, both significantly explained
organizational commitment (see Table 4.7). The two explanatory variables also
accounted for a significant portion of the variance of organizational commitment scores,
R2 = .29, F(2,130) = 27.08, p < .001.
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Table 4.7 Model Summary of Regression Analysis for Organizational Commitment with LMX and PSM
Model SS df MS F
Regression 1114.15 2 557.07 27.08*
Residual 2612.34 127 20.57 Total 3726.48 129
*p < .001 Multiple Regression for Organizational Commitment with LMX and PSM
Predictor B SE B Beta t LMX .42 .06 .51 6.80**
PSM .09 .04 .16 2.14*
**p < .01 *p < .05
Again, further regressions were run to explore the importance of the PSM
subscales in explaining organizational commitment. The forward regression only entered
LMX and PSM Public Interest into the model. The two variables explained a significant
amount of the variance in organizational commitment, R2 = .32, F(2, 130) = 29.93, p <
.001 (see Table 4.8). Checks for multicollinearity reveal there was no masking effect on
the PSM Compassion or PSM Self-Sacrifice by the PSM Public Interest subscale.
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Table 4.8 Model Summary of Forward Regression Analysis for Organizational Commitment with LMX and PSM Subscales
Model 1 SS df MS F
Regression 1019.85 1 1019.85 48.23*
Residual 2706.64 128 21.15 Total 3726.48 129
Model 2 SS df MS F
Regression 1193.77 2 596.89 29.93*
Residual 2532.71 127 19.94 Total 3726.48
*p < .001 Forward Multiple Regression for Organizational Commitment with LMX and PSM Subscales
Model 1 Predictor B SE B Beta t
LMX .44 .06 .52 6.95**
Model 2 Predictor B SE B Beta t
LMX .44 .06 .53 7.21**
PSM PI .39 .14 .22 2.95*
**p < .001 *p < .01
The backward regression again used higher criteria for the removal of variables
from the model. The forward model used an alpha criterion of .05 while the backward
model used a criterion of .10 for the removal of a variable. However, the model still
removed the explanatory variables PSM Compassion and PSM Self-Sacrifice, leaving
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only LMX and PSM Public Interest in the model. The backward model produced the
same results as the forward model, R2 = .32, F(2, 130) = 29.93, p < .001 (see Table 4.9),
and explained a significant amount of variance in organizational commitment.
Table 4.9 Model Summary of Backward Regression Analysis for Organizational Commitment with LMX and PSM Subscales
Model 1 SS df MS F
Regression 1197.32 4 299.33 14.79*
Residual 2529.17 125 20.23 Total 3726.48 129
*p < .001
Model 2 SS df MS F
Regression 1197.30 3 399.10 19.88*
Residual 2529.18 126 20.07 Total 3726.48 129
*p < .001
Model 3 SS df MS F
Regression 1193.78 2 596.89 29.93*
Residual 2532.71 127 19.94 Total 3726.48 129
*p < .001
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Table 4.9 (continued) Backward Multiple Regression for Organizational Commitment with LMX and PSM Subscales
Model 1 Predictor B SE B Beta t
LMX .44 .06 .53 7.09***
PSM Comp. -.003 .10 -.003 -.03 PSM PI .45 .18 .24 2.46*
PSM SS -.05 .13 -.04 -.40
Model 2 Predictor B SE B Beta t
LMX .44 .06 .53 7.16*** PSM PI .44 .18 .24 2.54*
PSM SS -.05 .13 -.04 -.42
Model 3 Predictor B SE B Beta t
LMX .44 .06 .53 7.21***
PSM PI .40 .14 .22 2.95**
***p < .001 **p < .01 *p < .05
Canonical Correlation Results
The canonical correlation was run between the synthetic explantory variate
composed of LMX and the three PSM subscales and the synthetic response variate made
up of job satisfaction and organizational commitment. The analysis produced two
functions with squared canonical correlations (Rc2) of .460 and .024 respectively. The
Wilk’s criterion indicates the full model was significant, λ= .527, F(8, 248) = 11.71,
p<.001. The Wilk’s λ statistic represents the unexplained variance in the dependent
variable, therefore, 1-λ yields the full model effect size as an r2 metric. The two
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canonical functions of this model yielded an r2 type effect size of .473, which means the
model explained 47.3% of the variance shared by the variable sets.
The dimension reduction analysis allows for the testing of the hierarchical
arrangement of functions for statistical significance. As previously stated, the whole
model was significant. However, the second function, which is the only function tested
in isolation, was not statistically significant, F(3,125) = 1.04, p = .378.
Table 4.10 represents the canonical function coefficients, the structure
coefficients, the squared structure coefficients, and the communalities for the function
across each variable. The canonical correlation coefficients indicate that LMX is the
primary variable contributing to function 1 while the PSM subscales play a secondary
role. This idea is corroborated by the squared structure coefficients. However, the PSM
subscales are primarily responsible for function 2 with LMX playing a smaller role.
Table 4.10 Canonical Correlation
Function 1 Function 2
Variable Coef rs rs2 (%) Coef rs rs
2 (%) h2 (%)
LMX -.981 -.952 .906 .188 .116 .016 .922 PSMComp -.011 -.213 .045 .100 -.420 .176 .221 PSMSS .201 -.154 .023 -.832 -.949 .901 .924 PSMPI -.386 -.245 .060 -.296 -.780 .608 .668 JobSat -.771 -.976 .952 1.128 .220 .048 1.000 OrgComm -.301 -.826 .682 -1.332 -.564 .318 1.000
The sign of the structure coefficient of the work outcome variate is the same as
the explanatory variables in function 1 with the exception of PSM Self-Sacrifice. The
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difference in sign of PSM Self-Sacrifice and the outcome variables indicates a negative
relationship with the response variables.
Regression Tree Results
Regression trees were run on both job satisfaction and organizational commitment
with LMX and all PSM subscales as the explanatory variables. Both regression trees
were grown with the CRT method and minimum parent nodes of 100 cases and minimum
child nodes of 10 cases. The trees were run with 10 cross-validations as suggested by
Breiman, Friedman, Olshen, and Stone (1984).
The regression tree for job satisfaction consisted of five nodes, three of which
were terminal nodes (see Figure 4.1). The measure of variable importance indicates
LMX is the most important variable in creating node splits and PSM Compassion is the
second most important variable (see Table 4.11).
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Figure 4.1 Regression Tree for Job Satisfaction
Table 4.11 Explanatory Variable Importance for Job Satisfaction Regression Tree
Variable Importance Normalized Importance
LMX 5.84 100% PSM Comp .489 8.40% PSM SS .020 0.30% PSM PI .000 0.00%
The regression tree for organizational commitment consisted of five nodes, three
of which were terminal nodes (see Figure 4.2). The measure of variable importance
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indicates LMX is the most important variable in creating node splits while PSM
Compassion is the second most important variable (see Table 4.12).
Figure 4.2 Regression Tree for Organizational Commitment
Table 4.12 Explanatory Variable Importance for Organizational Commitment Regression Tree
Variable Importance Normalized Importance
LMX 7.54 100% PSM Comp 2.34 31.00%
Summary
Spearman’s rho correlations indicate all of the explanatory variables are positively
correlated with the outcome variables of job satisfaction and organizational commitment.
Results of the multiple regressions and canonical correlations indicate that LMX provides
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a better reduction in variance in both job satisfaction and organizational commitment.
However, the regressions with the PSM subscales reveal PSM Public Interest reduces
more variance in job satisfaction and is approaching significance in the canonical
correlation. The same is true of PSM Public Interest in explaining organizational
commitment through multiple regressions and a canonical correlation. Interestingly, a
regression tree analysis showed PSM Compassion to be the second most important
variable behind LMX in causing splits between high and low scores on both job
satisfaction and organizational commitment. The differences in results of the regression
trees from the multiple regressions and canonical correlation could be due to the non-
linear nature of the regression trees versus the linear nature of the multiple regressions
and canonical correlation. These differences suggest the relationship between the PSM
subscales and LMX perceptions is complex. Future studies should further investigate
how these ideas combine to explain work outcomes.
The results of these analyses suggest employee perceptions of the strength of
relationship in the subordinate-supervisor dyad is more influential than the individuals
motivation to serve the public in reducing the variance found in job satisfaction and
organizational commitment. However, it appears that some facets of the individual’s
public service motives can be important factors in explaining these outcome variables.
The next chapter will review and discuss the findings of the results presented in
this chapter.
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Chapter V
Conclusions
Overview
This chapter is divided into five sections. The first section reviews and discusses
the findings of the study and how they support or do not support the hypotheses. The
next section discusses the major implications of the findings. The third section addresses
the limitations of the study while the fourth section provides future directions of study
based on the results. The chapter closes with conclusions gained from the study.
Review and Discussion of Findings
The correlations between LMX and job satisfaction and organizational
commitment revealed significant positive relationships between the variables. These
findings support hypotheses 1a and 2a and are consistent with previous research (Duchon,
Green, & Taber, 1986; Graen, Novak, & Sommerkamp, 1982; Gerstner & Day, 1997;
Green, Anderson, & Shivers, 1996; Kinicki & Vecchio, 1994; Liden & Maslyn, 1998;
Major, Kozlowski, Chao, & Gardner, 1995; Nystrom, 1990; Scandura & Graen, 1984;
Schriesheim, Neider, Scandura, & Tepper, 1992; Seers & Graen, 1984; Settoon, Bennet,
& Liden, 1996; Vechio & Gobdel, 1984; Wayne, Shore, & Liden, 1997).
Correlations between total PSM and the outcome variables of job satisfaction and
organization commitment were positive in direction but not significant. Correlations
between the PSM subscales and the outcome variables also proved to be insignificant.
These results are not consistent with previous research (Brewer & Selden, 1999; Cerase
& Farinella, 2006; Kim, 2005; Naff & Crum, 1999; Steijn, 2008; Taylor & Westover,
2011) and the findings do not support hypotheses 1b and 2b. The lack of significant
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findings may be due to the small sample size or the fact that the study consisted of a self-
selecting sample. The sample for this study also differed from previous samples in that it
was not a federal employee sample (Brewer & Selden, 1998; Naff & Crum, 1999), it was
not using archival data from a mandatory survey (Brewer & Selden, 1998; Naff & Crum,
1999; Taylor & Westover, 2011), it was not an international sample (Cerase & Farinella,
2006; Kim, 2005; Steijn, 2008), and it measured the constructs using more than a single
question (Taylor & Westover, 2011). The differences in the sample from this study
versus previous studies could be a reason why no significant findings were found.
Multiple regressions were used to test the synergistic effects of LMX and PSM on
job satisfaction and organizational commitment, hypotheses 1c and 2c. A standard
multiple regression run between the two explanatory variables and job satisfaction
reduced a significant amount of the variance; however, the results indicate that LMX was
the only significant explanatory variable in the model. This result suggests the strength
of the perceived relationship one has with his or her direct supervisor is better at reducing
the unexplained variance in job satisfaction than is one’s public service motivations.
These results partially support hypothesis 1c and the findings of Taylor and
Westover (2011) and Westover and Taylor (2010). Their work found that work relations
with management and PSM both significantly reduced the variance in job satisfaction
whereas the current study only found the relationship with the direct supervisor to be a
significant explanatory variable. These differences might be due to the fact that the
previous research only used single measurement items to measure both relationship with
management and job satisfaction while the current study utilized multi-item scales for
each construct. Also, the single item used to measure the relationship with management
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was more of a measure of satisfaction with management rather than an assessment of the
perceived strength of the relationship between leader and member. The use of multiple
items to assess the constructs in this study may have provided more robust examples of
PSM and LMX.
Forward and backward regressions using the subscales of PSM, instead of the
total PSM score, were also run to determine if any of the subscales carried more weight
in the regression. Results of the regressions indicate that LMX still reduced the most
amount of unexplained variance in job satisfaction and that PSM Public Interest was a
significant explanatory variable in both the forward and backward models. PSM Self-
Sacrifice was included in the backward regression though it was not significant in the
model. These findings seem to suggest that while the individual’s perceived relationship
with his or her leader is the strongest factor in explaining job satisfaction, the second
strongest factor is the individual’s willingness and desire to serve those in their
community. The fact that PSM Self-Sacrifice was included in the model proposes
respondents are willing to give up some things that would benefit them personally, such
as personal achievement or pay, but not at statistically significant levels.
A standard regression of LMX and PSM significantly explained the variance in
organizational commitment. The results imply LMX and PSM are both significant
explanatory variables with LMX reducing the most variance between the two. These
findings support hypothesis 2c. These results are similar to the findings of Taylor (2008)
that work relationships, or in this case, perceived work relationships, with management
and PSM affect levels of organizational commitment. Forward and backward regressions
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with the PSM subscales again indicate the significance of the PSM Public Interest
subscale over the other subscales of PSM Compassion and PSM Self-Sacrifice.
A canonical correlation was utilized to examine the significance of LMX and the
PSM subscales on the outcome variables of job satisfaction and organizational
commitment. The results again show LMX as the primary variable contributing to both
job satisfaction and organizational commitment. The results of the canonical correlation
show PSM Public Interest as the most influential PSM subscale in the analyses. These
results are consistent with the results of the forward and backward multiple regressions.
The regression tree analyses also highlight the importance of LMX over all PSM
measures in reducing the variance in job satisfaction and organizational commitment.
LMX was the explanatory variable that separated all nodes into high and low groups.
Surprisingly, in terms of variable importance, PSM Public Interest was ranked last in
importance when explaining job satisfaction and did not even register when it came to
explaining organizational commitment. In both cases, PSM Compassion was ranked
second to LMX. These findings differ from the multiple regressions and the canonical
correlation and could be due to the linear nature of the previous tests and the non-linear
nature of regression trees. The differences found in the linear and non-linear analyses
indicate the relationship between LMX and the PSM subscales is complex and is
deserves more attention.
Implications
The findings of this study imply that a subordinate’s perceived relationship with
his or her immediate supervisor is far better at reducing the variance in job satisfaction
and organizational commitment than is the employee’s desire to serve the public good.
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These findings indicate that while high levels of PSM may be a reason for an individual
to seek employment with a public organization, as Perry and Wise (1990) suggested, the
motivation to serve the public may not keep that individual satisfied with his or her job or
committed to the organization. Rather, organizations might strive to develop high-quality
relationships between leaders and members to keep employees satisfied with their jobs
and committed to the organization.
Theoretically, these findings begin to answer the questions of how leadership
affects public service motivation. Moynihan and Pandey (2007b) report the removal of
red tape, the empowerment of employees, and clarified goals are organizational factors
that affect the individual’s level of PSM. However, these are all factors that can be
accomplished through the LMX relationship. By having a high-quality relationship with
one’s supervisor and discussing job problems and needs (LMX-7 question #2, see
Appendix C) and knowing where one stands with his or her supervisor (LMX-7 question
#1), red tape and other barriers impeding work processes can be removed or addressed
and role expectations and goals can be clarified. Therefore, these become more factors of
leadership and less of organizational factors. These issues can be addressed at the
individual or work unit level instead of the organizational level.
Leader-member exchange can also address the issue of rewarding individuals with
public service motivations. Perry and Wise (1990) initially hypothesized that
organizational leaders would need to match incentives with the individual’s motivations.
Employees with affective and normative motivations would not necessarily be content
with only monetary rewards. Crewson (1997) found that those with high PSM did place
a larger emphasis on intrinsic rewards but they still valued utilitarian rewards. Graen and
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Uhl-Bien (1995) claim LMX can address both utilitarian and intrinsic rewards through
the transactional and transformational aspects of the theory. The transactional aspect of
LMX includes the social exchanges required to build the relationship and the material
exchanges that include compensation for the work performed. These exchanges, in
particular the material exchanges, fulfill the monetary rewards valued by those with high
PSM. Through successful social exchanges, though, high quality relationships between
leader and member can develop. Graen and Uhl-Bien (1995) posit these high-quality
relationships are transformational in that they get the member to go beyond their self-
interests and place emphasis on larger interests such as the work group or organization.
For an individual with high PSM, the larger interest may be the population or cause for
which they are working. These high-quality, transformative LMX relationships may help
fulfill the affective or normative motives of a high PSM individual. This idea is in line
with the proposition made by Paarlberg and Lavigna (2010) that transformational
leadership practices can “harness the power of employee’s public service motivations” (p.
716).
In terms of practical implications, these ideas suggest public sector organizations
might invest time and effort in leadership development programs that instruct new and
current leaders on practices that build the mutual trust, respect, and obligation, as Graen,
Novak, and Sommerkamp (1982) were able to do, that are the foundations of high LMX
dyads (Graen & Uhl-Bien, 1995). Doing so could result in employees who are satisfied
with their jobs and committed to the work of the organization.
Limitations of the Study
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Limitations of the study include the small sample size and the fact that
participants could choose whether or not they wanted to participate in the study. A larger
sample might have better represented the population of individuals working for state
agencies across all construct measures and demographics.
Participants also had the option of taking the survey or not taking the survey.
This could mean that only those who felt they had strong or weak working relationships
with their immediate supervisors or were extremely high or low on PSM, job satisfaction,
or organizational commitment completed the survey. Those who did not feel strongly
either way may have opted not to take the survey.
Future Directions
Due to a small sample size, future studies may want to repeat this study with a
larger sample. The small sample size was mostly due to a lack of cooperation from larger
state agencies and time constraints forced the researcher to move forward with the
smaller sample. Future researchers should work well in advance to obtain permission
from agencies to distribute the survey instrument to employees. Also, due to the
exploratory nature of this study, no multiple comparisons were run. Future studies will
need to run these analyses.
Future studies should attempt to obtain a larger spread of LMX scores in order to
determine if PSM plays a larger role in explaining job satisfaction and organizational
commitment when LMX relationships are low versus high. Gerstner and Day (1997)
state that high LMX relationships are strongly correlated with higher overall satisfaction,
organizational commitment, and, in general, adds to an overall positive work experience
among members of the LMX dyad. However, if the strength of relationship between
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supervisor and subordinate is low and the overall work experience is unpleasant, it may
be the case that the individual’s desire to serve the public good becomes the driving force
behind satisfaction, commitment, and other organizational outcomes.
Future research should also examine if the strength of the LMX relationship
affects levels of PSM. It may be the case that high LMX relationships lower PSM levels
because members in a high LMX dyad are receiving better work assignments and the
work itself becomes the motivating factor in the job. However, high LMX dyads may
increase PSM levels because of the frequent contact with supervisors and the mutual
trust, obligation, and respect inherent in the high LMX dyad. The high quality exchanges
characteristic of the high LMX dyad allows the leader to convey how the member’s work
is affecting the population being served and this could motivate the individual even more.
Future research will also need to expand beyond the member’s perceived strength
of the LMX relationship and explore how, and if, a relationship exists between the true
LMX dyad and other work relationships, such as those with coworkers, and public
service motivation. Taylor and Westover (2011) and Westover and Taylor (2010)
touched on work relationships with coworkers but future studies may need to go beyond
simple regressions with work relationships and begin examining if informal social
networks within the organization have a relationship with public service motives. Social
network analysis (Borgatti, Everett, & Johnson, 2013) would be an appropriate method
for studying if ideas such as network centrality and cliques within a network have a
relationship with PSM.
Conclusions
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As Partnership for Public Service (2013) reports continue to reveal strong and
sustained declines in job satisfaction and organizational commitment in the public
workforce, public organizations will need to find interventions that can address these
issues. The findings of this study advocate for a strong focus on leadership development
interventions that strive to build mutual trust, respect, and obligation between leaders and
their direct reports to address the drastic declines in job satisfaction and organizational
commitment.
Public service motivation scholars tend to focus on how organizational factors,
such as organizational policies and reward programs, affect an individual’s motivation
without taking interpersonal interactions into account. The findings of this study reveal
how important those interactions are when attempting to keep employees satisfied and
committed to their jobs and organizations and suggest a new line of inquiry for public
service motivation scholars.
&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&
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Appendix A
Glossary of Major Terms
Leader-Member Exchange: a relationship based theory of leadership with an emphasis on the leader, the follower, and the relationship between the two. Public Service Motivation: an individual’s predisposition to respond to motives grounded primarily or uniquely in public institutions and organizations Job Satisfaction: pleasurable or positive emotional state resulting from the appraisal of one’s job or job experiences Organizational Commitment: psychological state that (a) characterizes the employee’s relationship with the organization and (b) has implications for the decision to continue or discontinue membership in the organization Affective Organizational Commitment: component of organizational commitment in which employees have some kind of emotional attachment to the values and goals associated with a particular organization
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Appendix B
Institutional Review Board Expedited Application
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Appendix C
Survey Instrument as Seen by Participants
University of Central Arkansas Informed Consent Cover Letter You are being asked to participate in a research study. Before you give your consent to volunteer, it is important that you read the following information to be sure you understand what you will be asked to do. Investigators The investigator for this project is Wesley A. Alford of the PhD in Leadership program at the University of Central Arkansas. Mr. Alford’s research advisor is Dr. Elson Bihm. Mr. Alford can be reached at 501-852-0912or at [email protected]. His office is located in Mashburn 235 on the campus of the University of Central Arkansas. Dr. Bihm can be reached at 501-450-5417 or at [email protected]. His office is located in Mashburn 215 on the campus of the University of Central Arkansas. Purpose of the Research This study is designed to investigate how individual motivations and professional relationships affect job attitudes. Procedures As a public employee, you are eligible to voluntarily participate in this research. If you volunteer to participate in this study, you will be asked to complete a brief survey. Your participation will take approximately 10 minutes to complete the survey. Potential Risks or Discomforts There are no foreseeable risks associated with the study. Potential Benefits of the Research This research could indicate how individual motivations and professional relationships affect job attitudes. Confidentiality and Data Storage Identifying information will not be used in the final report so the individuals will not be able to be identified. All records will be stored and locked for up to five years in the Leadership Program Director's office (Mashburn 235). Any electronic data will also be kept under password protection and deleted after five years.
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Participation and Withdrawal Your participation in this research study is voluntary. You may refuse to participate or stop participation at anytime without penalty. To stop simply stop answering the questions. Questions about the Research If you have any questions about the research, you may contact Mr. Wesley Alford at 501-852-0912 or at [email protected]. This research project has been reviewed and approved by the Institutional Review Board for the Protection of Human Subjects at the University of Central Arkansas. If you have any questions about your rights as a research participant, please contact the Research Compliance Office at 501-450-3451 or [email protected]. I have read the information provided above. I understand that by returning a completed survey I am agreeing to participate in this research study. KEEP THIS INFORMED CONSENT COVER LETTER FOR YOUR RECORDS. Age Sex ! Female ! Male Race ! African American ! American Indian ! Asian ! Caucasian ! Hispanic ! Pacific Islander ! Other ____________________
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Annual income (individual income, not family income) ! Below $30,000 ! $30,000 - $39,999 ! $40,000 - $49,999 ! $50,000 - $59,999 ! $60,000 - $69,999 ! $70,000 - $79,999 ! $80,000 - $89,999 ! $90,000 - $99,999 ! $100,000 - $109,999 ! $110, 000 - $119,999 ! $120,000 - $129,999 ! $130,000 - $139,999 ! $140, 000 - $149,999 ! $150,000 or more Job title Highest level of education ! High School diploma ! some college, no degree ! Associate's degree ! Bachelor's degree ! Master's degree ! Professional degree ! Doctoral Degree ! Other ____________________ Number of years in current position Number of years at current organization Number of years working with current immediate supervisor Do you know where you stand with your immediate supervisor...do you usually know how satisfied your supervisor is with what you do? ! Rarely ! Occasionally ! Sometimes ! Fairly often ! Very Often
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How well does your immediate supervisor understand your job problems and needs? ! Not a bit ! A little ! A fair amount ! Quite a bit ! A great deal How well does your immediate supervisor recognize your potential? ! Not at all ! A little ! Moderately ! Mostly ! Fully Regardless of how much formal authority your immediate supervisor has built into his or her position, what are the chances that your supervisor would use his or her power to help you solve problems in your work? ! None ! Small ! Moderate ! High ! Very High Regardless of the amount of formal authority your immediate supervisor has, what are the chances that he or she would "bail you out" at his or her expense? ! None ! Small ! Moderate ! High ! Very High I have enough confidence in my immediate supervisor that I would defend and justify his or her decision if he or she were not present to do so. ! Strongly Disagree ! Disagree ! Neutral ! Agree ! Strongly Agree
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How would you characterize your working relationship with your immediate supervisor? ! Extremely Ineffective ! Worse Than Average ! Average ! Better Than Average ! Extremely Effective I am rarely motivated by the plight of the underprivileged ! Strongly Agree ! Agree ! Neither Agree nor Disagree ! Disagree ! Strongly Disagree Most social programs are too vital to do without ! Strongly Agree ! Agree ! Neither Agree nor Disagree ! Disagree ! Strongly Disagree It is difficult for me to contain my feelings when I see people in distress ! Strongly Agree ! Agree ! Neither Agree nor Disagree ! Disagree ! Strongly Disagree To me, patriotism includes seeing to the welfare of others ! Strongly Agree ! Agree ! Neither Agree nor Disagree ! Disagree ! Strongly Disagree I seldom think about the welfare of people whom I do not know personally. ! Strongly Agree ! Agree ! Neither Agree nor Disagree ! Disagree ! Strongly Disagree
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I am often reminded by daily events about how dependent we are on one another. ! Strongly Agree ! Agree ! Neither Agree nor Disagree ! Disagree ! Strongly Disagree I have little compassion for people in need who are unwilling to take the first step to help themselves. ! Strongly Agree ! Agree ! Neither Agree nor Disagree ! Disagree ! Strongly Disagree There are few public programs that I wholeheartedly support ! Strongly Agree ! Agree ! Neither Agree nor Disagree ! Disagree ! Strongly Disagree Making a difference in society means more to me than personal achievements. ! Strongly Agree ! Agree ! Neither Agree nor Disagree ! Disagree ! Strongly Disagree I believe in putting duty before myself. ! Strongly Agree ! Agree ! Neither Agree nor Disagree ! Disagree ! Strongly Disagree
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Doing well financially is definitely more important to me than doing good deeds. ! Strongly Agree ! Agree ! Neither Agree nor Disagree ! Disagree ! Strongly Disagree Much of what I do is for a cause bigger than myself. ! Strongly Agree ! Agree ! Neither Agree nor Disagree ! Disagree ! Strongly Disagree Serving citizens would give me a good feeling even if no one paid me for it. ! Strongly Agree ! Agree ! Neither Agree nor Disagree ! Disagree ! Strongly Disagree I feel people should give back to society more than they get from it. ! Strongly Agree ! Agree ! Neither Agree nor Disagree ! Disagree ! Strongly Disagree I am one of those rare people who would risk personal loss to help someone else. ! Strongly Agree ! Agree ! Neither Agree nor Disagree ! Disagree ! Strongly Disagree I am prepared to make enormous sacrifices for the good of society. ! Strongly Agree ! Agree ! Neither Agree nor Disagree ! Disagree ! Strongly Disagree
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It is hard for me to get intensely interested in what is going on in my community. ! Strongly Agree ! Agree ! Neither Agree nor Disagree ! Disagree ! Strongly Disagree I unselfishly contribute to my community. ! Strongly Agree ! Agree ! Neither Agree nor Disagree ! Disagree ! Strongly Disagree Meaningful public service is very important to me. ! Strongly Agree ! Agree ! Neither Agree nor Disagree ! Disagree ! Strongly Disagree I would prefer seeing public officials do what is best for the whole community even if it harmed my interests. ! Strongly Agree ! Agree ! Neither Agree nor Disagree ! Disagree ! Strongly Disagree I consider public service my civic duty. ! Strongly Agree ! Agree ! Neither Agree nor Disagree ! Disagree ! Strongly Disagree
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I feel satisfied with my present job. ! Strongly Agree ! Agree ! Neither Agree nor Disagree ! Disagree ! Strongly Disagree Most days I am enthusiastic about my work. ! Strongly Agree ! Agree ! Neither Agree nor Disagree ! Disagree ! Strongly Disagree Each day at work feels like it will never end. ! Strongly Agree ! Agree ! Neither Agree nor Disagree ! Disagree ! Strongly Disagree I find real enjoyment in my work. ! Strongly Agree ! Agree ! Neither Agree nor Disagree ! Disagree ! Strongly Disagree I consider my job to be unpleasant. ! Strongly Agree ! Agree ! Neither Agree nor Disagree ! Disagree ! Strongly Disagree I would be very happy to spend the rest of my career with this organization. ! Strongly Agree ! Agree ! Neither Agree nor Disagree ! Disagree ! Strongly Disagree
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I enjoy discussing my organization with people outside of it. ! Strongly Agree ! Agree ! Neither Agree nor Disagree ! Disagree ! Strongly Disagree I really feel as if this organization's problems are my own. ! Strongly Agree ! Agree ! Neither Agree nor Disagree ! Disagree ! Strongly Disagree I do not feel like "part of the family" at my organization. ! Strongly Agree ! Agree ! Neither Agree nor Disagree ! Disagree ! Strongly Disagree I do not feel emotionally attached to this organization. ! Strongly Agree ! Agree ! Neither Agree nor Disagree ! Disagree ! Strongly Disagree This organization has a great deal of personal meaning for me. ! Strongly Agree ! Agree ! Neither Agree nor Disagree ! Disagree ! Strongly Disagree I feel a strong sense of belonging to my organization. ! Strongly Agree ! Agree ! Neither Agree nor Disagree ! Disagree ! Strongly Disagree
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Debriefing Thank you for completing the survey. This research study is designed to investigate how supervisor-subordinate working relationships and a desire to serve affect the job attitudes of job satisfaction and organizational commitment of employees. Thank you again for your participation in this study. If you have any questions about the research, please contact Wesley A. Alford at [email protected].
EFFECTS&OF&LEADER,MEMBER&EXCHANGE&&&
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Appendix D
Variable Measurement Scales
LMX$7&(Graen&&&Uhl,Bien,&1995)&&
1) Do&you&know&where&you&stand&with&your&leader…do&you&usually&know&how&satisfied&your&leader&is&with&what&you&do?&
&Rarely&& Occasionally& & Sometimes& & Fairly&Often& &&&&Very&Often&&&&&&&1& & & 2& & &&&&&&&&&&3&& &&&&&&&&&& &&&&&&&&&4& &&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&5&&
2) How&well&does&your&leader&understand&your&job&problems&and&needs?&&Not&a&Bit& A&Little& &A&Fair&Amount& &&&Quite&A&Bit& & A&Great&Deal&&&&&&&&&&1& & &&&&&&&2& & &&&&&&&&&&&&&3& & &&&&&&&&&&&4&& &&&&&&&&&& &&&&&&&&&&5&&
3) How&well&does&your&leader&recognize&your&potential?&&Not&At&All& &&&&&&&A&Little& &&&&&&&&&&&&&&&Moderately& &&&Mostly& Fully&&&&&&&&&&1& & &&&&&&&&&&&&2& & &&&&&&&&&&&3&& &&&&&&&4& && &&&5&&
4) Regardless&of&how&much&formal&authority&your&leader&has&built&into&his&or&her&position,&what&are&the&chances&that&your&leader&would&use&his&or&her&power&to&help&you&solve&problems&in&your&work?&
&None& & Small& & Moderate& & High& & Very&High&&&&&&1& & &&&&&2& & &&&&&&&&&3& & & &&&&&4& & &&&&&&&&&5&&
5) Again,®ardless&of&the&amount&of&formal&authority&your&leader&has,&what&are&the&chances&that&he&or&she&would&“bail&you&out”&at&his&or&her&expense?&
&None& & Small& & Moderate& & High&& & Very&High&&&&&&1& & &&&&&2& & &&&&&&&&&3& & & &&&&4& & &&&&&&&&&5&&
6) I&have&enough&confidence&in&my&leader&that&I&would&defend&and&justify&his&or&her&decision&if&he&or&she&were¬&present&to&do&so.&
&Strongly&Disagree& & Disagree& Neutral& Agree& &&&&&&&&Strongly&Agree&& &&&1& & & &&&&&&&&2& & &&&&&&&3& & &&&&&4& & &&&&&&&&5&&
7) How&would&you&characterize&your&working&relationship&with&your&leader?&&Extremely& Worse&Than& & Average& Better&Than& & Extremely&Ineffective& &&&&&Average& & & & &&&&&Average& & &Effective& &&&&&&&&&&&1&&&&&&&&&&&&& &&&&&&&&&&2&& &&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&3& & &&&&&&&&&&&4&& &&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&5&
EFFECTS&OF&LEADER,MEMBER&EXCHANGE&&&
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&PSM$(Perry,&1996)&(5&point&Likert,&Agree&to&Disagree)&&PSM$Compassion$1)&I&am&rarely&motivated&by&the&plight&of&the&underprivileged&(Reverse)&&
&&&&1& & 2& & 3& & 4& & 5&Agree& & & & & & & &&&&&&&Disagree& &
&&2)&Most&social&programs&are&too&vital&to&do&without&&
&&&&1& & 2& & 3& & 4& & 5&Agree& & & & & & & &&&&&&&Disagree& &
&&3)&It&is&difficult&for&me&to&contain&my&feelings&when&I&see&people&in&distress&&
&&&&1& & 2& & 3& & 4& & 5&Agree& & & & & & & &&&&&&&Disagree& &
&&4)&To&me,&patriotism&includes&seeing&to&the&welfare&of&others.&&&&&& &1& & 2& & 3& & 4& & 5&&&&&&&&&&&Agree& & & & & & & &&&&&&&Disagree& &&&5)&I&seldom&think&about&the&welfare&of&people&whom&I&don’t&know&personally.&(Reverse)&&&& &&&1& & 2& & 3& & 4& & 5&
Agree& & & & & & & &&&&&&&Disagree& &&&6)&I&am&often&reminded&by&daily&events&about&how&dependent&we&are&on&one&another.&&&& &&&1& & 2& & 3& & 4& & 5&
Agree& & & & & & & &&&&&&&Disagree& &&&7)&I&have&little&compassion&for&people&in&need&who&are&unwilling&to&take&the&first&&&&&step&to&help&themselves&(Reverse)&&
EFFECTS&OF&LEADER,MEMBER&EXCHANGE&&&
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&& &&&1& & 2& & 3& & 4& & 5&Agree& & & & & & & &&&&&&&Disagree& &
&&&&8)&There&are&few&public&programs&that&I&wholeheartedly&support&(Reverse)&&
&&&&1& & 2& & 3& & 4& & 5&Agree& & & & & & & &&&&&&&Disagree& &
&&PSM$Self3Sacrifice&1)&Making&a&difference&in&society&means&more&to&me&than&personal&achievements.&&&&&&& 1& & 2& & 3& & 4& & 5&&&&&&&&&&Agree& & & & & & & &&&&&&&Disagree& &&&2)&I&believe&in&putting&duty&before&self.&&
&&&&1& & 2& & 3& & 4& & 5&Agree& & & & & & & &&&&&&&Disagree& &
&&3)&Doing&well&financially&is&definitely&more&important&to&me&than&doing&good&deeds.&&(Reverse)&&
&&&&1& & 2& & 3& & 4& & 5&Agree& & & & & & & &&&&&&&Disagree& &
&&4)&Much&of&what&I&do&is&for&a&cause&bigger&than&myself.&&&& &&&1& & 2& & 3& & 4& & 5&
Agree& & & & & & & &&&&&&&Disagree& &&&5)&Serving&citizens&would&give&me&a&good&feeling&even&if&no&one&paid&me&for&it.&&&& &&&1& & 2& & 3& & 4& & 5&
Agree& & & & & & & &&&&&&&Disagree& &&&6)&I&feel&people&should&give&back&to&society&more&than&they&get&from&it.&
EFFECTS&OF&LEADER,MEMBER&EXCHANGE&&&
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&&&&&1& & 2& & 3& & 4& & 5&Agree& & & & & & & &&&&&&&Disagree& &
&&&&7)&I&am&one&of&those&rare&people&who&would&risk&personal&loss&to&help&someone&else.&&&& &&&1& & 2& & 3& & 4& & 5&
Agree& & & & & & & &&&&&&&Disagree& &&&8)&I&am&prepared&to&make&enormous&sacrifices&for&the&good&of&society.&&
&&&&1& & 2& & 3& & 4& & 5&Agree& & & & & & & &&&&&&&Disagree& &
&&Commitment$to$Public$Interest$&1)&It&is&hard&for&me&to&get&intensely&interested&in&what&is&going&on&in&my&community&(Reverse)&&&& &&&1& & 2& & 3& & 4& & 5&
Agree& & & & & & & &&&&&&&Disagree& &&&2)&I&unselfishly&contribute&to&my&community.&&
&&&&1& & 2& & 3& & 4& & 5&Agree& & & & & & & &&&&&&&Disagree& &
&&3)&Meaningful&public&service&is&very&important&to&me.&&&&& &&1& & 2& & 3& & 4& & 5&&&&&&&&&&&&Agree& & & & & & & &&&&&&&Disagree& &&&4)&I&would&prefer&seeing&public&officials&do&what&is&best&for&the&whole&community&even&if&it&harmed&my&interests.&&&&& &&1& & 2& & 3& & 4& & 5&&&&&&&&&&&&Agree& & & & & & & &&&&&&&Disagree& &
EFFECTS&OF&LEADER,MEMBER&EXCHANGE&&&
96&
&&5)&I&consider&public&service&my&civic&duty.&&
&&&&1& & 2& & 3& & 4& & 5&Agree& & & & & & & &&&&&&&Disagree& &
$Job$Satisfaction$(Judge,&Bono,&&&Locke,&2000)&&
1) I&feel&satisfied&with&my&present&job&&
&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&1& &&&&&&&&&&&2&&&&& 3& &&&& 4& &&&&&& 5& &&&&&& & &Strongly&Disagree& & & & & &&Strongly&Agree&&&
2) Most&Days&I&am&enthusiastic&about&my&work&&&&&&&&&&&&1&&&&&&&&&&&&& & 2& &&&3& && &&4& &&&&&& 5& &&&&&& & &Strongly&Disagree& & & & && &Strongly&Agree&&&&
3) Each&day&at&work&seems&like&it&will&never&end&(Reverse&Score)&&&&&&&&&&&1& &&&&&&&&&&&& & 2& &&& 3& &&&4& &&&&&& 5& &&&&&& & &Strongly&Disagree& & & & && &Strongly&Agree&&&
4) I&find&real&enjoyment&in&my&work&&&&&&&&1& &&&&&&&&&&& & &2& &&&&&&&&&&&&3& &&&4& &&&&&&&&&&5&&&&&&& & &Strongly&Disagree& & & & & &Strongly&Agree&&&
5) I&consider&my&job&to&be&unpleasant&(Reverse&Score)&&&&&&&&1& &&&&&&&&&&& & &2& &&&&&&&&&&&&3& &&&4& &&&&&&&&&&&5&&&&&&&& & &Strongly&Disagree& & & & & &Strongly&Agree&&&&&Organizational$Commitment$(Allen&&&Meyer,&1990)&&Affective$Commitment$$
1) I&would&be&very&happy&to&spend&the&rest&of&my&career&with&this&organization&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&1& & 2& & 3& & 4& & 5&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&Agree& & & & & & &&&&&&&& &&&&&&&Disagree&&
EFFECTS&OF&LEADER,MEMBER&EXCHANGE&&&
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2) I&enjoy&discussing&my&organization&with&people&outside&of&it&&
&&&1& & 2& & 3& & 4& & 5&&&&&&&&&&&&&Agree& & & & & & & &&&&&&&Disagree&&
3) I&really&feel&as&if&this&organization’s&problems&are&my&own&&
&&&&1& & 2& & 3& & 4& & 5&Agree& & & & & & & &&&&&&&Disagree&
&4) I&do¬&feel&like&“part&of&the&family”&at&my&organization&(Reverse)&
&&&&&1& & 2& & 3& & 4& & 5&Agree& & & & & & & &&&&&&&Disagree&
&5) I&do¬&feel&“emotionally&attached”&to&this&organization&(Reverse)&
&&&&&1& & 2& & 3& & 4& & 5&Agree& & & & & & & &&&&&&&Disagree&
&6) This&organization&has&a&great&deal&of&personal&meaning&for&me&
&&&&&1& & 2& & 3& & 4& & 5&Agree& & & & & & & &&&&&&&Disagree&
&7) I&feel&a&strong&sense&of&belonging&to&my&organization&
&&&&&1& & 2& & 3& & 4& & 5&Agree& & & & & & & &&&&&&&Disagree&
&