Dissertation - Geology of the Coniston area

Geological SciencesUniversity of LeedsLeedsUnited KingdomLS2 1HE

SOEE3073: INDEPENDENT MAPPING PROJECT

Geology of the Coniston area

Student: Joe Rogers - 200697491

Supervisor: Dr Crispin Little

January 22nd 2015

Word Count:8249

ii

Joe Rogers 200697491 University of Leeds

Student ID

iii

Submission of work accompanied by this form indicatesyour compliance with the following statement:

I am aware that the University defines plagiarism as presenting someone else’s work, in whole or in part, as your own.

I promise that in the attached submission I have not presented anyone else’s work, in whole or in part, as my own and I have not colluded with others in the preparation of this work. Where I have taken advantage of the work of others, including group work, I have given full acknowledgement and include the names of all group members on this cover sheet. I have read and understood the University’s published rules on plagiarism and also any more detailed rules specified at School or module level. I know that if I commit plagiarism I can be expelled from the University and that it is my responsibility to be aware of the University’s regulations on plagiarism. I re-confirm my consent to the University copying and distributing any or all of my work in any form and using third parties (who may be based outside the EU/EEA) to monitor breaches of regulations, to verify whether my work contains plagiarised material, and for quality assurance purposes. I confirm that I have declared all mitigating circumstances that may be relevant to the assessment of this piece of work and that I wish to have taken into account. I am also aware of the penalties imposed for the late submission of coursework (at a rate of 5 marks per day that work is late).

Is this work late? Yes No

Do you have an extension? Yes No

Is this group work? Yes No


Abstract

The mapping area covers a 10km2 area to the west of Torver and Coniston. The northern

section is made up of ~2km pyro/volcanoclastic deposits uncomfortably overlaying ~2km of

sedimentary rocks. Deposition of the volcanics came from arc-volcanism, producing explosive

pyroclastic flows, volcanic bombs and ash fall deposits. This is due to the closure of the Iapetus

Ocean between the Mid-Late Ordovician. This was followed by a period of sedimentation,

commencing in the Late Ordovician through to the End Silurian (~450-420Ma). It began by filling

the accommodation space created by migrating fore-arc basin. Marine transgression into the basin

provided the marine conditions for sediments to be reworked, fauna to thrive and density

currents to flow. Thermal contraction of the Lake District batholith produced extensive fault

systems. Terrane docking during the Caledonian orogeny (~490-390Ma) as Avalonia collided with

Laurentia created the regional structure. Cleavage propagated in both the volcanics and

sediments, overprinting existing fabric. This too produced the major fold through the district, the

Westmoorland Monocline. Late Devensian glaciation and lesser glacial periods beforehand eroded

the topography to present day geomorphology. This left behind an abundance of glacial till, which

was added to by further superficial deposits in the Holocene.

School of Earth & EnvironmentCOVER SHEET FOR ASSESSED WORKAll coursework submitted to the office MUST have a cover sheet stapled to the front.

If there are no staples, use a paperclip or a treasury tag.ENSURE YOU PUT YOUR WORK INTO THE CORRECT BOX.

Module Code

Module Name

Module Leader

Declaration

_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

SOEE _ _ _ _

Deadline Date

Date Submitted

Degree Programme

Put your full name in the box. DO NOT FOLD OR FASTEN DOWN THE CORNER! Office staff will staple this down for anonymity before

passing it to staff once they have made a record of your submission. If you fasten it down yourself, this record will not be made.

Full Name

iv


Table of Contents

1. Introduction.............................................................................................................................................. 1

2. Methodology.............................................................................................................................................. 3

3. Mappable Units......................................................................................................................................... 4

3.1. Back Quarry Formation-------------------------------------------------------------------------------4

3.2. Bursting Stone Formation----------------------------------------------------------------------------5

3.3. Twin Crags Formation---------------------------------------------------------------------------------6

3.4. Booth How Formation---------------------------------------------------------------------------------7

3.5. Timley Formation--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------8

3.6. Three Gills Formation---------------------------------------------------------------------------------9

3.7. Tranearth Formation--------------------------------------------------------------------------------11

3.8. New Intake Formation-------------------------------------------------------------------------------11

3.9. Wide Close Formation--------------------------------------------------------------------------------13

3.10. Bleathwaite Formation----------------------------------------------------------------------------15

4. Structure.................................................................................................................................................. 18

4.1. Stereonet Data-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------18

4.1. Faulting-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------22

4.2. Folding--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------23

5. Quaternary Geology............................................................................................................................. 25

5.1. Superficial Deposits-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------25

5.2. Glaciation-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------25

5.3. Applied Geology---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------27

6. Discussion ............................................................................................................................................... 29

7. Conclusion............................................................................................................................................... 34

Bibliography................................................................................................................................................ 35

Appendices.................................................................................................................................................. 41

1


1.

Introduction

The Lake District National Park is a mountainous region located in Cumbria, North West England

(figure 1.1). The geology and landscape was shaped by the closure of the Iapetus palaeo-ocean,

which existed from end Neoproterozoic to early Paleozoic times (600-400 Ma). Then it was situated

in the southern hemisphere between the palaeocontinents of Laurentia, Baltica and Avalonia.

Eventual ocean closure came about from the Acadian, Taconic and, most influentially, the

Caledonian orogenies.

During the Ordovician (460 Ma), the Laurentian continental plate which held Laurentia began

subducting beneath Avalonia, creating arc volcanism from Eastern Ireland through to Belgium

(Pharaoh et al., 2009). As a consequence large amounts of explosive volcanism caused pyroclastic

and magma flows in sub-aerial, sub-marine and lacustrine settings (Branney, 1988). As the Iapetus

oceanic crust continued to subduct, magmatism continued, producing up to 8 km of deposits (Ortega

et al., 2010). Calderas formed, and some (like the Scafell Caldera) were important in producing

depositional environments for pyroclastics (Millward, 2004). Finally, a large granite body was

emplaced under the Scafell and Haweswater calderas (Branney & Soper, 1988). These volcanics

comprise the Borrowdale Volcanic Group, approximately 450Ma in age.

Immense mass created by crustal thickening associated with the evolution of a mountain belt

from the Taconic Orogeny, caused lithospheric flexure and thus created accommodation space. This

also forced the eastern edge of Laurentia to fold gradually downward and be heavily faulted as it

collided with the island arc. Over time the basin deepened due to thermal contraction from the

cooling of the batholith feeding the arc volcanism. This isostatic decrease is shown in the

biostratigraphy. These marine conditions engulfed the foreland basin, migrating southward across

the Lake District during the final stages in the closure of the Iapetus Ocean (Kneller, 1991; Hughes et

al., 1993). This basin was filled between ~450 – 400Ma, creating the Windermere Supergroup.

In more recent geological time, ice ages that spread to latitudes which would have covered the

Lake District region in glacial ice have carved away at the landscape leaving behind characteristic

geomorphology. The harder volcanic rock is left proud; the softer sedimentary eroded and flattened.

This will then have been reworked by fluvial processes leaving behind many streams and bogs as a

consequence. Today, humans have utilized the geology in the extensive Coniston copper mines.

2


Figure 1.1. Location of the field area relative to the United Kingdom (Google Inc., 2014).

3


2.

Methodology

The aims of the mapping project were to produce a geologic map of a region 12km West of

Coniston, North-West England, thus determining a geological history of the area. During a period of

42 days from the 25th May - 5th July 2014, research was undertaken over a 10km2 study area by using

mapping skills acquired from previous field training exercises. Geological mapping with filed

equipment helped identify observations, followed by justified personal interpretation. This can then

be discussed with published literature.

In order to successfully map the area, the lithologies which comprise such must first be

determined. To do so, analysis of hand specimen samples showing variation in colour, grain size and

shape, mineralogy, texture, as well as many other diagnostic features (which will be highlighted in

the detailed descriptions) indicative to a rock type will help distinguish between. On a broader scale,

outcrop colour, size and shape, primary features, exposure and weathering pattern will provide

more information to what it may be. Mappable units are classified using this method. The names are

presented in section 3. and used in the map; cross-section and stratigraphic column (see Appendix).

The field mapping was undertaken on Ordinance Survey base maps produced using Digimap, an

EDINA supplied service (2014). Different mapping techniques were used where appropriate. Where

outcrop is abundant, exposure mapping can be this was predominantly used through the volcanic

members. Most commonly, traverse mapping was adopted where rock exposures are heavily

restricted to areas such as streams. This method was implemented across the sediment formations

where boggy areas, vegetation and superficial deposits cover a majority of bedrock exposure. In

these areas of poor exposure, other methods such as topographic and vegetation mapping are

implemented to hypothesise where a contact probably lies.

Once the area had been mapped, notebook information and data coupled with field slip maps

were taken away to produce this report and a fair copy map of the Coniston area. ArcGIS software

(Esri, 2013) was used when producing the map, CorelDRAW (Corel Corporation, 2011) for diagrams

and the VisibleGeology app (MATLAB, 2014) for structural readings.

4


3.

Mappable Units

3.1.

Back Quarry Formation

The outcrop seen at grid reference NC: 3277 4981 was a

10m x 15m block. The average size for this unit is

unmeasurable, but exceptionally large. There is a possible

outcrop pattern, jagged and broken – almost cleaved. At

outcrop scale, the colour is weathered grey. Beds are 10s of

cm in scale.

Hand specimen colour is a light green with medium grained sized crystals ~0.5-2mm, phaneritic.

The whole rock is porphyritic. These crystals act as a groundmass which supports the lithic

fragments. The groundmass is made up of quartz, feldspar and amphibole. The fragments are <6cm

making them lapilli. The phenocrysts are made of orthoclase feldspar. The lithic fragments are

smaller in this unit than that of the Booth How Formation. It is also lighter in colour, distinguishing

between the two.

The primary minerals of the Back Quarry Formation are plagioclase feldspar and quartz. The

crystal component is mainly plagioclase. Accessory minerals are orthoclase feldspar and amphibole.

The orthoclase is restricted to sparse phenocrysts. From this mineral assemblage and proportions,

the rock has been interpreted as being igneous and dacitic. Tephra fragments in the rock are

remnants of a volcanic eruption and as the size of these particles are between 2-64mm in diameter,

it is classified as lapilli. The high silica content hints at explosive volcanism. Fiamme are only locally

abundant enough to give a eustatic texture, but most are flattened or sheared which occurs when

the rock was deposited conditions were sufficiently hot enough to weld the tephra together. The

consolidated volcanic ash from eruption makes it a tuff. The eustatic texture suggests that the rock is

extrusive, with the fiamme advocating a pyroclastic flow deposit.

From this information, the rock is translated as a dacitic lapilli-tuff. The environment of

deposition is portrayed as an explosive volcanic eruption, leading to a pyroclastic flow into a sub-

Figure 3.1. Hand Specimen of Back Quarry Formation.

5

Figure 3.2. Hand Specimen of Back Quarry Formation.


aerial setting. According to published literature this is known as the Lag Bank Formation, formally the

Lag Bank Tuffs of Mitchell (1956b) interpreted as an ignimbrite.

3.2

Bursting Stone Formation

The outcrop seen at grid reference NC: 3277 4976

was of a 3m x 3m standing proud from the landscape.

The average size for this unit is unmeasurable, but

exceptionally large. There is no pattern of outcrop – it

protrudes out commonly. At outcrop scale, the colour is

weathered grey. Beds are 10s of cm in scale. The contact

is conformable with the Back Quarry Formation (3.1)

and seen contacts can be mapped in the quarried areas

which have exposed the contact.

Hand specimen colour is a light green with medium sand to silt sized grains. The grains are a

mixture of subrounded and angular. It is moderately sorted, with very tight packing giving low

porosity. The mineralogy of the rock is made up of reworked grains from the volcanics, Quartz,

amphibole, feldspar, lithic and pyroclastic fragments. An abundance of sedimentary structures are

seen, particularly at the contact with the Booth How Formation. Some of these consist of

dropstones, antidunes, flame structures where it has injected into the sediment above as well as

other soft sediment deformation.

Figure 3.3. Sedimentary log through the Bursting Stone Formation at NC: 3276 4969.

6


There are no rocks in the mapping area which would be defined as metamorphic; however there

is evidence of metamorphism in certain aspects of the field. When looking at the Bursting Stone

Formation in thin section, the mineral chlorite can be identified from its weak green pleochroism

and low relief. It is likely that this mineral is present other of the volcanic rock members, as they too

have that green tinge likely to be causes by chlorite.

The primary minerals of the Bursting Stone Formation are plagioclase and quartz. Accessory

minerals are probably orthoclase and some amphibole, however it is difficult to ascertain as erosion

has worn away the minerals leaving only the hardest behind. From this mineral assemblage and

proportions, the rock has been interpreted as being sedimentary and volcaniclastic. The abundance

and varying sedimentary structures such as dropstone features and soft sediment deformation

suggest that deposition occurred in an aqueous environment. This is further justified by the size and

shape of the clasts, which appear to have been reworked by fluid action.

From this information, the rock is translated as a volcanoclastic sandstone. The environment of

deposition is portrayed as sub-aqueously deposited volcanic sediment, reworked from existing

pyroclastic rocks. According to published literature this is known as the Seathwaite Fell Formation,

formally the Seathwaite Fell Tuffs of Oliver (1961) interpreted as a volcaniclastic sandstone and

siltstone, with intercalations of pyroclastic lithofacies and penecontemporaneous sills (Millward et

al., 2000).

3.3

Twin Crag Formation

Figure 3.31. Thin section in PPL of Bursting Stone Formation showing chlorite.

Chlorite altered from Amphibole

7

Figure 3.4. Hand Specimen of the Twin Crag Formation.

Figure 3.5. Hand Specimen of the Booth How Formation.


The outcrop seen at grid reference NC: 3283 4981 was

~25m x 25m standing proud from the landscape. The

average size outcrop for this unit cannot be measured as

rather than being many small outcrops it is one large

exposed crag. The pattern of outcrop is just the shape of the

crag. At outcrop scale, the colour is weathered light

green/grey. There are no individual beds, instead columnar

jointing. This unit is intrudes the Bursting Stone Formation

and the contact is inferred as none of the latter units

outcrop is in close vicinity.

The light colour of the rock proposes an abundance of plagioclase, with the green tinge

potentially coming from amphibole (seen in other local igneous rocks). The hardness of the rock

suggests high quartz content. This mineralogy is consistent of an intermediate igneous rock. There is

columnar jointing - shallow intrusion, cooled quickly. This is further justified by the aphanitic texture

as it is so fine grained, making it a subvolcanic rock. This is interpreted as an andesite due to the

intermediate composition and proximity to the surface. It is more likely to be a sill than a dyke, as it

is only exposed in one layer of the stratigraphy.

From this information, the rock is translated as an andesitic sill. The environment of deposition is

portrayed as an igneous intrusion fed from a magma chamber. According to publish literature this is

part of an extensive Borrowdale Sill Suite (Millward et al., 2000).

3.4

Booth How Formation

The outcrop seen at grid reference NC: 3283 4971 was a

4m x 2m block. The average size for this unit is

unmeasurable, but exceptionally large. There is no pattern

of outcrop – it protrudes out commonly. At outcrop scale,

the colour is weathered grey. Beds are 10s of cm in scale.

The contact is conformable with the Bursting Stone (3.2)

and seen contacts can be mapped along the boundary in

higher topography but inferred in the low lying bog areas.

8


Hand specimen colour is a deep green-grey with fine grained sized crystals ~0.5-2mm, phaneritic.

The whole rock is porphyritic. These crystals act as a groundmass which supports lithic fragments

and phenocryst fragments. The groundmass is made up of quartz, feldspar and amphibole. The

fragments are <6cm making them lapilli. The phenocrysts are made of orthoclase feldspar. There are

pyroclastic fragments all ~2mm, made up of fiamme.

The primary minerals of the Booth How Formation are orthoclase feldspar and quartz. The crystal

component is mainly orthoclase. Accessory minerals are plagioclase feldspar and amphibole. The

orthoclase composes various large phenocrysts. From this mineral assemblage and proportions, the

rock has been interpreted as being igneous and rhyolitic. Tephra fragments in the rock are remnants

of a volcanic eruption and as the size of these particles are between 2-64mm in diameter, it is

classified as lapilli. The very high silica content hints at explosive volcanism. Fiamme are only locally

abundant enough to give a eustatic texture but are more difficult to identify than in the Back Quarry

Formation due to the darker nature of the rock. The consolidated volcanic ash from eruption makes

it a tuff. The eustatic texture suggests that the rock is extrusive, with the fiamme advocating a

pyroclastic flow deposit. Flames of sand are injected into the base of the unit. This indicates that the

underlying sediments had not been lithified before the emplacement of pyroclastic rocks (Millward

et al., 2000).

From this information, the rock is translated as a rhyolitic lapilli-tuff. The environment of

deposition is portrayed as an explosive volcanic eruption, leading to a pyroclastic flow into a sub-

aerial and sub-aqueous setting. According to published literature this is known as the Lincomb Tarns

Formation (Oliver, 1954), previously referred to as ‘felsic and basic tuffs’ (Hartley, 1925) interpreted

as a dacitic lapilli-tuff.

3.5

Timley Formation

The outcrop seen at grid reference NC: 3284 4971 was of a 5m x

3m block weathered out Timley Knott about 1.5m. This is roughly

the average size outcrop for this unit. The pattern of outcrop is

pitted ridges running with strike downdip. At outcrop scale, the

colour is brown. Beds are ~ 20cm. The contact is unconformable

with the Booth How (3.4) and many seen contacts can be mapped

due to the close proximity of individual outcrops. Figure 3.6. Hand Specimen of the Timley Formation.

9

Figure 3.7. Hand Specimen of the Three Gills Formation.


Hand specimen colour is matt grey in some beds but dirty brown in others. It is interbedded, with

the grey beds clastic rock with a silt grain size. The dirty brown beds contain carbonates. Grains are

subangular with low sphericity. It is poorly sorted, with tight packing giving it low porosity. The

mineralogy of the rock is composed of quartz, feldspar and other rock and lithic fragments, with the

carbonate fragments making up the rest. No sedimentary structures are seen.

The pitted weathering pattern in some layers suggests limestone erosion. The dominate grain size

in others is silt making it a siltstone. Crinoid columnals and disarticulated brachiopods suggest a

marine environment. The overall carbonate content hints a carbonate platform – shallow marine,

warm conditions. The interbedded layers show times of organic life separated by clastic input.

From this information, the rock is translated as an interbedded limestone and siltstone. The

environment of deposition is portrayed as an equatorial, shallow marine, shelf environment.

According to published literature this is known as the Kirkley Bank Formation (Scott & Kneller, 1990),

interpreted as a calcareous siltstone and mudstone.

3.6

Three Gills Formation

The outcrop seen at grid reference NC: 3277 4962 was of a

10m x 3m block weathered out of the hillside along Torver

Beck by about 0.5m. The average size for this unit cannot be

determined as outcrop size varies greatly. The pattern of

outcrop is generally mounds weathered out of the landscape.

At outcrop scale, the colour is light grey. Beds are ~ 15cm. The

contact is conformable with the Timley Formation (3.5)

although at no point could be mapped as seen, so this is

inferred from the patterns seen previously of facies change

and structural data. Bedding is shown by calcareous covering.

Nodules of pyrite are present in middle of the unit.

Hand specimen colour is matt grey, clastic rock with silt-mud grain size. These grains very small,

but those that can be seen are subangular with medium sphericity. It is moderately sorted, with

relatively tight packing giving it low porosity. There are plentiful fossils within the rock, in particular

brachiopod fauna. Fossils seen are; Plaesiomys, Orthid and Strophomenida Brachiopod (see figures

10


3.61-3.63) and a potential tentaculite (see figure 3.64). No sedimentary structures are seen due to

bioturbation.

The average grain size throughout the rock is silt making it a siltstone. The lack of bioturbation

suggests an anoxic, deep marine setting. The abundance of fossils shows a period of thriving fauna.

From this information, the rock is translated as a homogenous siltstone. The environment of

deposition is portrayed as a shallow marine environment, deepening with time to more anoxic deep

marine. According to published literature this is known as three separate units: the Ashgill, Skelgill

and Browgill Formations (Marr, 1892; Marr & Nicholson, 1888) interpreted as (calcareous) siltstone

and mudstone. For the benefit of the mapping exercise, these units were lumped into one due to the

severe lack of exposure between the separate formations, despite seeing evidence for all three in

isolated areas.

Figure 3.63. Sketch of Strophomenida brachiopod fossil.

Figure 3.64. Sketch of Tentaculite fossil.

Figure 3.61. Sketch of Plaesiomys brachiopod fossil.

Figure 3.62. Sketch of Orthhid brachiopod fossil.

11


3.7

Tranearth Formation

The outcrop seen at grid reference NC: 3281 4959 was of a 7m

x 1.5m block weathered out of the hillside by about 1m. The

average size for this unit is difficult to determine, as general

weathered outcrops are ~8m x 1m x 1m, however much of the

exposure can be seen in the quarried areas. The pattern of

outcrop is that most of the area this unit covers is covered in

quaternary deposits, but exposure is seen where streams cut

through the landscape. At outcrop scale, the colour is light grey.

Beds are ~ 30cm. The contact is conformable with the Three Gills

Formation (3.6) although at no point could be mapped as seen, so this is inferred from the patterns

seen previously of facies change and structural data.

Hand specimen colour is blue-grey, clastic rock with grain size variations from a fine sand to silt.

In some areas it is very fine grained, like clay. These grains are subangular with low sphericity. It is

poorly sorted, with tight packing giving it low porosity. There are no fossils within the rock. There are

an abundance of sedimentary structures in this unit, such as millimetre scale planar laminations,

cross bedding, asymmetrical ripples, herringbone cross stratification, load casts, convolute bedding

and antidunes.

The average grain size throughout the rock is silt making it a siltstone. The layers of coarser grains

show laminations. These laminations are possible low-density turbidity currents. The lack of

bioturbation suggests an anoxic, deep marine setting.

From this information, the rock is translated as a laminated siltstone. The environment of

deposition is portrayed as a deep, shelf environment with sediment input from minor turbidity

currents. According to published literature this is known as the Brathay Formation (Kneller, 1990a)

interpreted as graptolitic laminated siltstone. Although literature discusses graptolite fauna

extensively, particularly monograptus parultimus, none were witnessed in the study area despite

significant excavation.

3.8

New Intake Formation

Figure 3.8. Hand Specimen of the Tranearth Formation.

12

Figure 3.9. Hand Specimen of the New Intake Formation.


The outcrop seen at grid reference NC: 3286 4962 was of

a 12m x 2.5m block standing proud by about 2m from the

ground. This is the average size and shape for most of the

outcrops seen in this unit. This has the most consistent, very

regular outcrop pattern of proud - but smoothed - sandstone

ridges parallel to strike, all dipping down topography. There

is a large amount of exposure, the most out of the rock units

in the mapping area running through Long Haws, New Intake and Little Arrow intake down to Torver

Beck. After this, the trend continues but on a smaller scale. At outcrop scale, the colour is light

brown. Beds fine upwards: ranging in size from 10cm to 2m. The contact is conformable with the

Tranearth Formation (3.7) although at no point could be mapped as seen, so this is inferred from the

patterns seen previously of facies change and structural data.

Hand specimen colour is blue-grey, clastic rock with grain size variations from a medium sand to

silt. In some areas it is very fine grained, like clay. These grains are subangular with low sphericity. It

is poorly sorted, with tight packing giving it low porosity. The mineralogy of the rock is composed of

Quartz, Feldspar and other rock and lithic fragments. The modal percentage of each component is

30% Lithics, 50% Quartz, 10% Feldspar and 10% unidentifiable rock fragments. There are no fossils

within the rock. There are an abundance of sedimentary structures in this unit, such as millimetre

scale planar laminations, cross bedding, asymmetrical ripples, herringbone cross stratification, load

casts, convolute bedding and antidunes.

Using a QFL diagram shows that this rock is a litharenite. The environment of deposition is shown

by a sedimentary log taken at NC: 3285, 4960 shows the different layers of the Bouma sequence

seen in this unit. It shows the Bouma layers A-B-C. A represents a high energy environment. This is

shown by the graded bedding. B displays the upper flow regime, hence the tool marks. C shows the

lower flow regime .This is seen due to the presence of climbing ripples. Soft sediment deformation in

the form of slump and dish and pillar structures hint that dewatering was occurred on a steep slope

with fast sedimentation rates.

The environment of deposition is portrayed as a turbidity current at its proximal stage. According to

published literature this is known as the Birk Riggs Formation (Kneller, 1990a) interpreted as

sandstone, siltstone and mudstone turbidites.

13


3.9

Wide Close Formation

Figure 3.10. QFL diagram showing the position of the New Intake Formation.

Figure 3.11. Sedimentary log through the New Intake Formation at NC: 3285 4960.

14

Figure 3.12. Hand Specimen of the Wide Close Formation.


The outcrop seen at grid reference NC: 3289 4958

was of a 6m x 1m block weathered out of the hillside

by about 1m. The average size and shape of this unit

is very small, many too small to be mapped at 3m x

1m x 1m. The shape is weathered and heavily

vegetated due to it protruding out of the landscape.

The outcrop pattern is scarce, with exposure limited.

However there are valleys in the mapping area

which the outcrop can be seen in the valley sides, for

example, at NC 3281 4952 the unit is exposed all along. Bedding and cleavage is difficult to measure

due to the poor nature of the outcrop. This pattern follows the strike of the valleys. Outcrop colour

is a heavily weathered grey and beds are ~15cm in size. The contact is conformable with the New

Intake Formation (3.8), but not seen. It is at its clearest in the valley areas where one side is New

Intake whereas the other is Wide Close and this follows the structural readings for both units. The

unit is almost identical to the Tranearth Formation (3.7) but can be distinguished between by the

size and abundance of planar laminations which is greater in the latter. No other units are of this

colour with laminations.

Hand specimen colour is tarnished grey, clastic rock with silt grain size. These grains are

subangular with low sphericity. It is poorly sorted, with tight packing giving it low porosity. There are

no fossils seen within the rock, clearly no bioturbation. Sedimentary structures are seen, mainly

millimetre scale planar laminations being the distinctive feature in this unit as well as the kinked

cleavage.

The average grain size throughout the rock is silt making it a siltstone. The layers of coarser grains

show laminations. These laminations are possible low-density turbidity currents. The lack of

bioturbation suggests an anoxic, deep marine setting. Kinked bands suggest sandstone-shale

sequences, similar to cyclic sequences seen in the turbidite sequences, siltstone beds are banded

across the landscape then where there are spaces between outcrops down dip, this could be where

the mud layers have eroded away.

From this information, the rock is translated as a laminated siltstone. The environment of

deposition is portrayed as a deep, shelf environment with sediment input from minor turbidity

currents. According to published literature this is known as the Wray Castle Formation (Kneller,

1990b) interpreted as laminated siltstone, with subordinate thin graded beds of mudstone, siltstone

and, rarely, fine-grained sandstone. Similarly to the Brathay Formation, literature discusses

15

Figure 3.13. Hand Specimen of the Bleathwaite Formation.


graptolite fauna – this is crucial in determining the relative ages and thus differentiating between the

units.

3.10

Bleathwaite Formation

The outcrop as seen at grid reference NC: 3290 4954

was of a 10m x 2m block standing proud by about 1.5m

from the ground. This is the average size and shape for

most of the outcrops seen in this unit. There is a regular

outcrop pattern of proud - but smoothed - sandstone

ridges parallel to strike, all dipping down topography. At

outcrop scale, the colour is dark brown. Beds range in

size from 20cm to >1m. The contact is conformable with

the Wide Close Formation 3.9) although at no point could be mapped as seen, so this is inferred

from the patterns seen previously of facies change and structural data. The unit is very similar to that

of the New Intake Formation (3.7) but can be distinguished by the smaller grain size. All other units

are different in colour and therefore easy to tell apart.

Hand specimen colour is metallic grey, clastic rock with grain size variations from a fine sand to

silt. In some areas it is very fine grained, like clay. These grains are subangular with low sphericity. It

is poorly sorted, with tight packing giving it low porosity. The mineralogy of the rock is composed of

quartz, feldspar, and other rock and lithic fragments. There are no fossils within the rock. Few

sedimentary structures are seen, but millimetre scale planar laminations, groove marks and what

could be ripple marks at the base of some beds are present.

Using a QFL diagram shows that this rock is a sublitharenite. The environment of deposition is

shown by a sedimentary log taken at NC: 3294 4955 shows the different layers of the Bouma

sequence seen in this unit. It shows the Bouma layers A-B.

From this information, the rock is translated as a turbidite sequence. The environment of

deposition is portrayed as a high density turbidity current at its proximal stage. According to

published literature this is known as the Gawthwaite Formation (Lawrence et al., 1986) interpreted

as thin to medium bedded sandstone with many intercalated thin beds of graded siltstone and

mudstone.

16


Figure 3.14. QFL diagram showing the position of the Bleathwaite Formation.

17


Figure 3.15. Sedimentary log through the Bleathwaite Formation at NC: 3294 4955.

Figure 3.16. Ripple marks at NC: 3289, 4964, looking 140° determining paleocurrent direction in the New Intake Formation.

Figure 3.17. Rose diagram showing reconstructed paleocurrent direction (~163°).

18


4.

Structure

The Lower Palaeozoic rocks of the Lake District record the Early Palaeozoic history of the

northern margin of Eastern Avalonia. This microcontinent rifted from Gondwana and drifted north

from the high southerly latitudes during the Ordovician and early Silurian (about 60°S to 30°S;

Torsvik & Trench, 1991). Structures now preserved in the region record events at the continental

margin during that migration (Millward et al., 2000).

Stereonet Data

Figure 4.1. Stereonet showing the principal bedding direction of the Back Quarry Formation: 056/55 SE.

Figure 4.2. Stereonet showing the principal bedding direction of the Bursting Stone Formation: 052/63 SE.

19


Figure 4.4. Stereonet showing the principal bedding direction of the Timley Formation: 042/45 SE.

Figure 4.3. Stereonet showing the principal bedding direction of the Booth How Formation: 050/46 SE.

20


Figure 4.7. Stereonet showing the principal bedding direction of the New Intake Formation: 049/45 SE.

Figure 4.6. Stereonet showing the principal bedding direction of the Tranearth Formation: 041/41 SE.

Figure 4.5. Stereonet showing the principal bedding direction of the Three Gills Formation: 043/44 SE.

21


Figure 4.10. Stereonet showing the relationship between principal bedding direction of each of the volcanic formations, and the 3-D projection into the earth to show real dip.

Figure 4.9. Stereonet showing the principal bedding direction of the Bleathwaite Formation: 055/54 SE.

Figure 4.8. Stereonet showing the principal bedding direction of the Wide Close Formation: 051/51 SE.

22


Above are stereonets showing bedding from both the volcanic and sediment formations. All beds

(excluding intrusions) are dipping approximately south-east. The volcanic members are difficult to

measure, as good bedding is sparse. Measurable bedding is mainly located on the boundary

between the contacts. The sediment units on the other hand are abundant in good bedding surfaces.

Cleavage is clear in both the volcanic and sediment formations. Although not enough data was

acquired to create average stereonets, it is noted that a majority of the beds cleave in a south-east

direction; however the cleavage is that steep that it is occasionally difficult to determine which

direction exactly. Consequently, some of the volcanic units measure a north-westerly cleavage,

despite this a majority follow the trend of the sediments a dip south-east.

4.2

Faulting

The complex fault pattern of the Lake District has a polyphase evolution involving reactivation of

some volcanotectonic faults, Acadian deformation and later, Late Palaeozoic extensional tectonism

(Millward et al., 2000).

The faults in the northern part of the mapping area are a consequence of the thermal contraction

of the Lake District batholith (Branney & Soper, 1988). Most of these measured the study area

downthrow to the west - corresponding with the location of the batholith. In the north-east part of

the mapping area there is an extensive section of faulting. These faults run through from the

Bursting Stone Formation, down stratigraphy before ending in the Three Gills Formation. These

faults run directly through gullies carved by streams, which hint at a point of weakness. The average

strike of these faults was ~325°. The throw on the faults averages at 50m, leaving the stratigraphy -

particularly in the Timley Formation - severely distorted. Some appear to have formed conjugate

faults, for example at NC: 3285 4971. Others have joined into other faults to make a complex fault

web. Some faults in this area then continue on up stratigraphy into the largest fault mapped in the

area, first seen at NC 3280 4978. This fault runs at ~25° through a large proportion of rock units,

seen from the Bursting Stone Formation down into the Three Gills Formation. Further up dip, at NC:

3276 4972 another fault runs parallel along the same strike as before, like a sister fault.

Figure 4.11. Stereonet showing the relationship between principal bedding direction of each of the sediment formations, and the 3-D projection into the earth to show real dip.

23


The density of faults over the mapping area varies, with the large proportion situated in the

northern section around the volcanic units, whereas in the sedimentary faulting is far sparser. It is

only seen in some areas dotted across the unit boundaries.

The fault system appears to be normal, with some oblique motion which is to be expected as real

faults do not coincide exactly to models created in the classroom.

It is difficult to infer relative movement on the faults in certain parts of the mapping area, as

there is significant erosion in both the siltstone dominated beds such as the Three Gills and Wide

Close Formations, as well as the limestone interbedded Timley Formation.

Quartz veins, which are identifiable by their white colour with strong vitreous lustre, coupled

with the ability to scratch a hand lens - are seen in areas of structural extension. This fluid fill

occupies accommodated space, particularly in areas of faulting. For example, at NC: 3285 4972,

quartz veins are abundant within 5-10m of a mapped fault, lying parallel to the fold axis.

Literature states the presence of the ‘Park Gill Thrust’. A thrust fault which gently ramps down-

sequence, lying close to the Coniston Group (Millward et al., 2000). Despite this, in the field no

evidence was seen of such fault. Some quartz veins were witnessed but not enough to justify a fault.

This is not surprising, as it is stated that this thrust rarely produces any stratigraphical offset.

4.3

Folding

Although no folds were seen intra-unit, there is evidence for large

scale folding across a regional scale. Within the Bursting Stone

formation, there are evidence of minor folds (see figure 4.12.) These

folds show vergence, suggesting that the unit is located on the south-

east facing limb of a fold. The limbs of the minor fold are parasitic (see

figure 4.13.), short wavelength folds formed within a larger wavelength

fold structure - normally associated with differences in bed thickness. Figure 4.31. Photograph of minor fold verging NW at NC:3264 4951, looking 176°.

24


Figure 4.32. Sketch of a parasitic minor fold at NC: 3272 4976. This shows a vergence direction to the NW.

25


5.

Quaternary Geology

5.1

Superficial Deposits

Superficial deposits have too been mapped along with bedrock geology. These unconsolidated

sediments overlay significant proportions of the study area.

Till is widely distributed over the mapping area. It is

extremely poorly sorted and contains some very large clasts,

which can be traced to other units in the mapping area. It

makes up a majority of the bogs found in the central area,

where the steep mountainous north has a break in slope

before flattening out. Peat is only found in one area at NC:

3284 4966 in the boggy flat central region. The lack of

exposure limits an approximation of peat land coverage; this

outcrop is 10m x 0.5m. Alluvium forms present day

floodplains around the extensive network of rivers,

particularly in the low lying areas of Torver beck NC: 3280

4942.

5.2

Glaciation

Figure 5.1. Photograph of exposed section of glacial till, note the unsorted randomly sized clasts at NC:3285 4978, looking 354°.

26


Over time the Lake District has been heavily glaciated in various Ice Ages producing a

characteristic geomorphology of wide U-shaped valleys, steep ridges with England’s highest

mountain and deepest and longest lakes.

Evidence for glaciation in the mapping area can be seen in glacial striations,

NC: 3285 4960 (see figure 5.2). This gives a direction of ice travel, where glacier

movement carves into the unit below by dragging rock fragments using them as

a cutting tool. From the striations seen, the general ice movement has been

calculated at 212°.

Glaciation is also visible from rouche moutonnée, present at NR: 3287 4963

(see figure 5.3). The passage of glacial ice over underlying bedrock can result in

ripple like asymmetrical erosional formations. Like a ripple, abrasion on the

stoss (up-dip) side of the rock and plucking on the lee (down-dip) gives rise to its

geomorphology. All the sides and edges have been smoothed and eroded in the

direction that the glacier passed over it. From the rouche moutonnée seen, the

general ice movement has been calculated at 231°.

More signs of glacial activity are shown by the presence of

glacial erratics (see figure 5.4). These pieces of rock differ in

type to that mapped at the site they are situated on. They

have been transported most probably by glacier flow - and

deposited away from their source. They are found in various

locations across the mapping area, all down-dip from the steep

topography seen on the northern horizon. The location of the

boulder cannot determine ice movement as it has just been

deposited without a trail, although it does help give a sense

of where it may have come from by picturing it relative to

the terrain up-dip.

Figure 5.4. Photograph of glacial erratic with possible source and flow direction in background at NC: 3275 4957, looking 303°.

Figure 5.3. Photograph of rouche moutonnée.

Figure 5.2. Photograph of straiations.

27


This leads onto how the topography of the study area helps to predict how the landscape was

sculpted by ice movement. By looking at the mapping area as a whole and then by studying the

landforms the progression of ice can be determined.

Looking at figure 5.6 of the entire area, it is noticeable that in the north there is a high

mountainous zone, with each peak separated by U-shaped valleys. Centrally there is flat terrain

before reaching large rolling hills in the south. A view of the north from the low lying central region

is shown in figure 5.5.

5.3

Figure 5.5. Photograph of updip topography. Glacial cirque with headwall shows the geomorphology left by previous glaciation at NC:3274 4958, looking 311°.

Figure 5.6. Satellite image of the eastern mapping area – it shows the steep glaciated topography in the background down into the smooth low lying foreland (Google Inc., 2014).

Figure 5.5. Photograph looking 311° from NC: 3274 4958 of the steep northern topography from low lying ground in the south.

28


Applied Geology

There is ample evidence of economic geological activity in the study area. Disused quarries are

scattered across the map in many of the units - both volcanic and sediment. The largest of which is

Bursting Stone Quarry located at NC: 3279 4973. Green, fine-grained slate of the Bursting Stone

Formation is quarried along its cleavage. Slate was formed across wide areas of the Coniston district

during the Acadian orogeny, when an intense cleavage was imposed on many of the rocks (Millward

et al., 2000). Other slates of blue-grey colour are found within the Windermere Supergroup units

(see figure 5.7. for quarry locations). Even and regular cleavage occurs in the fine grained and

lithologically uniform sediments and is quarried at: NC: 3269 4955 and NC: 3272 4958 in the Three

Gills Formation; NC: 3289 4969; NC: 3279 4960 and NR: 3280 4961 in the Tranearth Formation; NC:

3283 4952 in the Wide Close Formation; NC: 3293 4955 in the Bleathwaite Formation.

Old mining equipment such as cables and tracks are found along the eastern footpath to the

summit of The Old Man. There is also a cave further along this path leading into the northern side at

NC: 3275 4980, which is likely to be attributed to the former Coniston copper mines . Other minerals

were too extracted by various companies over the years; the primary minerals found at Coniston

are: arsenopyrite; chalcopyrite; iron pyrites; malachite; tennantite and tetrahedrite (Mineexplorer,

2011).

Figure 5.7. Location a prominent slate quarries and metalliferous mining in the Ambleside district (Millward et al., 2000).

29


6.

Discussion

The Lake District lies immediately south of the line of closure of the Iapetus Ocean. In Ordovician

times, this separated the continents of Laurentia to the north from Avalonia-Gondwana to the south.

This closure (seen in figure 6.1) started the formation of the lithologies and structure of the mapping

area by, firstly, subducting oceanic crust forming a major volcanic province of arc volcanism.

Regional uplift from a deep oceanic to subaerial environment took place prior to building of the first

volcanoes. Uplift may have been the inevitable consequence of the generation of large volumes of

magma that preceded volcanism at the continental margin (Cooper & Hughes, 1993).

Figure 6.1. Schematic of the closure of the Iapetus Ocean over time with the relative positions of each continent (Stone, 2012).

30


This volcanic arc erupted magma of intermediate/felsic composition creating the Borrowdale

Volcanic Group (Mitchell, 1956). This is shown in the mapping area by mineralogy of the volcanic

members. Large orthoclase phenocrysts are common in both the tuff units (Back Quarry & Booth

How Formations). This magmatism was explosive (Branney, 1991). Proof in the field comes from the

presence of fiamme, which occur in in pyroclastic fall deposits and ignimbrites. These make up ¾ of

the volcanic units in the mapping area.

The volcanic arc was situated in a back-arc basin (see figure 6.2), the Duddon Basin. It formed

from the backward motion of the subduction zone relative to the motion of the plate which is being

subducted. As the subduction zone and its associated trench pulled backward, the overriding plate

stretched, thinning the crust which is manifest in the back-arc basin. This subsided area filled with

water, becoming a lacustrine environment. This is shown in the study area volcanics by the

structures seen. In particular the Bursting Stone Formation, which acts as a sediment, contains a vast

number of sedimentary structures. More so, at the boundary between the Bursting Stone Formation

and the Booth How Formation, the contact has too undergone soft sediment deformation. The

overlying unit has sunk into the former, leaving flame like structures protruding in. A log (figure 3.3.)

through the Booth How Formation proves a subaqueous pyroclastic flow deposit, which is further

strengthened by dropstone features.

In the late Ordovician, decreasing volcanic activity due to thermal cooling of the Lake District

Batholith (Branney & Soper, 1988) created (or increased) an extensive fault system (see figure 6.3).

This fault system is found within the northern section of the mapping area at ~NC: 3280 4970. It

begins in the volcanic members, working through the stratigraphy into the sediment formations.

Figure 6.2. Cross-section through atypical of arc system (Dickenson, 2006).

31


Subsidence associated with eruptions in the Duddon Basin produced a widespread basin in which

fluvial and lacustrine sedimentation dominated. Contemporaneous volcanic activity continued in a

reduced form, with the influx of eruption-generated gravity flows, and beds of ash fall tuff (Millward

et al., 2000). This is shown in the mapping area by the Back Quarry & Booth How Formations which

are both tuffs, with the final unit, the Bursting Stone Formation, being a volcaniclastic sediment was

deposited and reworked in a marine environment.

Sills of basaltic andesite and andesite were emplaced into the unconsolidated, wet sediments and

some of the sills may have broken surface to become extrusive locally (Millward et al., 2000). These

sills are exposed in the study are at Stubthwaite and Colt Crag, NC: 3282 4980. This is within the

Bursting Stone Formation – a unit that originally deposited was reworked marine sediment, proving

a strong correlation.

The final products of the volcanic episode are not preserved, probably because emplacement of

laccolithic elements of the Lake District Batholith gave rise to greater uplift in the west of the district

resulting in erosion to form the south-westward overstepping relationship seen at the

unconformable base of the overlying Windermere Supergroup (Millward et al., 2000). The

discordant relationships at the unconformity are inferred as a marine transgression across a

subsiding, subaerial volcanic field (Branney & Soper 1988).

The Windermere basin was formed by the evolving Iapetus Ocean system. Prior to its formation,

the Southern Uplands accretionary prism, flanking the edge of the Laurentian continent, was

advancing towards Avalonia. The load of the mountains formed during this collision weighed down

the Avalonian plate, causing the development of accommodation space from lithospheric flexure

(see figure 6.4). As magmatism waned, thermal contraction too allowed marine conditions to

become established across the eroded and thermally subsiding volcanic pile (Millward et al., 2000). A

Figure 6.4. Schematic of fore-arc basin formation (Decelles & Giles, 1996).

32


marked increase in subsidence and the corresponding increase in sedimentation rate is associated

with the foreland basin migrating southward across the Lake District during the final stages of the

closure of the Iapetus Ocean (Kneller, 1991; King, 1992).

With late Ordovician cessation of volcanism and deformation of the Acadian Orogeny, (Soper et

al., 1987) came deposition within the Windermere Basin. Sedimentation began in the Caradoc, ~455

Ma and lasted until the Pridoli, ~ 419 Ma, terminated by erosion. The rate of sediment accumulation

accelerated with time due to the increasing proximity of the Avalon mountain belt. This

sedimentation formed the Windermere Supergroup, a sequence of folded and cleaved,

predominantly marine sedimentary rocks, which unconformably overlies the Borrowdale Volcanic

Group (Millward et al. 2000). In the initial shallow waters, carbonate facies developed creating the

Dent Group (a subgroup of the Windermere Supergroup). This primary carbonate facies is

represented in the study area by the Timley Formation. This was followed by deepening water

deposits represented by the Stockdale group, a series of mud and siltstones, which display a

sedimentation rate high enough to preserve annual variation. This variation is seen in the

laminations of the Tranearth, New Intake and Wide Close Formations. Finally, a series of sediment

gravity currents flowed into the basin swamping the siltstones beneath. This created a series of

sandy turbidites known as the Coniston Group. The turbidite sequence is just seen in the mapping

area at the southern edge as the youngest unit, the Bleathwaite Formation.

The variation in graptolite fauna is pragmatic in distinguishing between separate units within the

Dent and Stockdale groups. The abundance of different species can be used to split rock units into

graptolite zones. However, it the field area no graptolite fossils were recovered – only a large array

of brachiopods.

About two million years ago, the Lake District was a mountain massif broken by river valleys

radiating outwards from the centre. A period of climatic oscillations led to a series of ice ages during

which the ice flowed out from the central core, following the river valleys, deepening and widening

them, and depositing streamlined till and other depositional features on the lower land (Royal

Geographical Society, 2014) (see figure 6.5 for ice movement direction). The last glacial period in

Britain and Ireland was the Devensian glaciation; ~110,000 - 12,000 years ago (Clayton, 2006). This

shaped the glacial geomorphology and features glaciation features such as striations and U-shaped

valleys seen in the field area.

33


The dominant deposit resulting from the Late Devensian glaciation is till, now forming extensive,

featureless spreads (British Geological Survey, 1998; Chapter 12). These spreads are mapped

extensively as superficial deposits covering the sediment members in the study area.

The mapping area lies on a south-facing monocline, the Westmorland Monocline, the steep limb

of which incorporates the north-western margin of the Windermere Supergroup (Kneller & Bell,

1993). The Bannisdale Syncline is the major, asymmetric synclinorial structure that bounds the

monocline on its south-east side (Millward et al., 2000). Evidence for the Bannisdale Syncline comes

from minor folds in volcanic members at NC: 3263 4956 and NC: 3275 4975. They display a north-

westerly vergence showing that the mapping area is situated on the southern limb of the syncline

(see figure 6.6). Cleavage too developed in the Early Devonian (Soper et al., 1987). Cleavage is

steeply inclined, trending 060° to 070° (Millward et al., 2000), witnessed in the mapping area with an

average of 74°.

Figure 6.6. Cross-section through Ambleside district showing the location of the mapping area relative to regional structure (Treagus, 1992).

Figure 6.5. Movement of ice in the Ambleside district. Calculated ice direction is shown by arrow (222°), similar to literature direction (Millward et al., 2000).

34


7.

Conclusion

The bedrock geology of the Coniston mapping area is dominated by two distinct lithological

groups. The northern area is primarily made up of volcanic formations of both ignimbrite and

volcaniclastic rocks. The latter is intruded by other igneous provinces in the far north-east. The

southern area is comprised of sediment members ranging from mudstone to sandstone, with the

presence of turbidite sequences in the extreme south. The two groups are separated by an angular

unconformity below the Booth How Formation.

The volcanic group was deposited in a mixture of sub-aqueous, sub-aerial and lacustrine

environments as pyroclastic flow and ash fall deposits, with some reworked into volcaniclastics

before being deformed to a shallow dip. The sediment formations were initially deposited in a

shallow marine, shelf environment as calcareous siltstone before marine transgression and

regression led to variations in depth of marine depositional environments, varying from mudstone,

siltstone to sandstone. High-density, sediment laden currents flowing down dip into deep marine

abyssal settings resulted in the turbidite sequences. Sedimentation is continuous; however the

fluctuating rate of clastic influx from source affects what and how much can be deposited in these

environments.

Regional deformation occurred in two separate phases. The initial developed post deposition of

the volcanic group.

The major fault system which trends NW/SE was created either due to thermal contraction of the

cooling Lake District Batholith, continuing fore-arc subduction or plate collision of the Acadian

Orogeny. The direction of motion of the faults is an oblique-slip movement.

The geomorphology of the area was shaped by preceding glacial events, but predominantly by

the late Devensian ice age. It has shaped the landscape into characteristic ‘U’-shaped valleys with

associated cirques and hanging valleys.

The superficial geology of the mapping area covers a majority of the sediment group and

significant parts of the volcanic in lower topography areas. Glacial till, a remnant of previous

glaciation, is stricken over the low lying sediments in the southern areas and covers the

volcaniclastics in the west. Localised peat and alluvium at river banks is too seen.

35


Bibliography

Allen, P.M. & Cooper, D.C. (1986) “The stratigraphy and composition of the Latterbarrow and

Redmain sandstones, Lake District, England”. Geological Journal. 21: 59-76.

Branney, M.J. & Soper, N.J. (1988) “Ordovician Volcano-Tectonics in the English Lake District”.

Journal of the Geological Society. 145(3): 367-376.

Branney, M.J. (1991) “Eruption and depositional facies of the Whorneyside Tuff Formation, English

Lake District: an exponentially large-magnitude phreatoplinian eruption”. Geological Society of

America Bulletin. 103: 886-897.

Clayton, L.; Attig, J.W.; Mickelson, D.M.; Johnson, M.D.; Syverson, K.M. (2006) “Glaciation of

Wisconsin”. Wisconsin Geological and Natural History Survey Educational Series. 36: 4.

Cooper, A.H. & Hughes, R.A. (1993) Discussion of Millward, D. & Molyneux, S.G. (1992) “Field and

biostratigraphic evidence for an unconformity at the base of the Eycott Volcanic Group in the English

Lake District”. Geological Magazine. 130: 271-272.

DeCelles, P.G. & Giles, K.A. (1996) “Foreland Basin Systems”. Basin Research. S(2): 105-123.

Dickenson, W. (2006) “Phanerozoic palinspastic reconstructions of Great Basin geotectonics

(Nevada-Utah, USA). Geosphere. 9: 1884-1396.

Hartley, J.J. (1925) “The succession and structure of the Borrowdale Volcanic Series as developed in

the area lying between the lakes of Grasmere, Windermere and Coniston”. Proceedings of the

Geologists’ Association. 36: 203-226.

King, L.M. (1992) “A basin study of the early Palaeozoic Windermere Group, NW England”.

Unpublished PhD thesis. University of Cambridge.

Kneller, B.C. (1990a) “The Wenlock rocks of Sheet 38 (Ambleside)”. British Geological Survey

Technical Report. WA/90/64.

36


Kneller, B.C. (1990b) “The Ludlow rocks of Sheet 38 (Ambleside)”. British Geological Survey

Technical Report. WA/90/62.

Kneller, B.C. (1991) “A foreland basin on the southern margin of Iapetus”. Journal of the Geological

Society of London. 148: 207-210.

Kneller, B.C. & Bell, A.M. (1993) “An Acadian mountain front in the English Lake District: the

Westmorland Monocline”. Geological Magazine. 130: 203-213.

Lawrence, D.J.D.; Webb, B.C.; Young, B. & White, D.E. (1986) “The geology of the late Ordovician

and Silurian rocks (Windermere Group) in the area around Kentmere and Crook”. Report of the

British Geological Survey. 18, No. 5.

Marr, J.E. (1982) “On the Wenlock and Ludlow Strata of the Lake District”. Geological Magazine. 9:

534-541.

Marr, J.E. & Nicholson, H.A. (1988) “The Stockdale Shales”. Quarterly Journal of the Geological

Society. 44: 654-732.

Millward, D.; Johnson, E. W.; Beddoe-Stephens, B.; Young, B.; Kneller, B. C.; Lee, M. K.; Fortey, N.

J.; Allen, P. M.; Branney, M. J.; Cooper, D. C.; Hirons, S.; Kokelaar, B. P.; Marks, R. J.; McConnell, B.

J.; Merritt, J. W.; Molyneux, S. G.; Petterson, M. G.; Roberts, B.; Rundle, C. C.; Rushton, A. W. A.;

Scott, R. W.; Soper, N. J. & Stone, P. (2000) “Geology of the Ambleside district”. Memoir of the

British Geological Survey, England and Wales, Sheet 38.

Millward, D. (2004) “The Caradoc Volcanoes of the English Lake District”. Yorkshire Geological

Society. 55(2): 73-105.

Mitchell, G.H. (1956) “The geological history of the Lake District”. Proceedings of the Yorkshire

Geological Society. 30: 407-463.

Mineexplorer.org.uk. (2011) Coniston Copper Mines (Online) Available at:

http://www.mineexplorer.org.uk/coniston.htm . (Accessed 24th November 2014).

http://www.mineexplorer.org.uk/coniston.htm

37


Moseley, F. (1993) “The metamorphic history of the Borrowdale Volcanic Group: a petrographic

study”. Proceedings of the Yorkshire Geological Society. 52: 243-254.

Oliver, R.L. (1954) “Welded tuffs in the Borrowdale Volcanic Series, English Lake District, with a

note on similar rocks in Wales”. Geological Magazine. 91: 473-483.

Oliver, R.L. (1961) “The Borrowdale Volcanic and associated rocks of the Scafell area, English Lake

District”. Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society of London. 117: 377-417.

Ortega, L.M.; Millward, D.; Lugue,F.J.; Barrenechea, J.F.; Beyssac, O.; Huizenga, J.M.; Rodas, M. &

Clarke, M. (2010) “The Graphite Deposit at Borrowdale (UK) : a Catastrophic Mineralizing Event

Associated with Ordovician Magmatism”. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta. 74: 2429–2449.

Pharaoh, T.C.; Brewer, T.S. & Webb, P.C. (2009) “Subduction-Related Magmatism of Late

Ordovician Age in Eastern England”. Geological Magazine. 130(05): 647.

Rgs.org. (2014) Lake District Schools Fieldwork and Local Learning (Online) Available at:

http://www.rgs.org/OurWork/Schools/Fieldwork+and+local+learning . (Accessed 9th December

2014)

Scott, R.W. & Kneller, B.C. (1990) “A report on the lithostratigraphy of the Ashgill and Llandovery

age rocks on Sheet 38 (Ambleside)”. British Geological Survey Technical Report. WA/90/63.

Soper, N.J. (1987) “The Ordovician (?) batholith of the English Lake District”. Discussion of Firman,

R.J. & Lee, M.K. (1986) “Age and structure of the concealed English Lake District batholith and its

probable influence on subsequent sedimentation, tectonics and mineralisation”. 117-127 in Geology

and the Real World – the Kingsley Dunham Volume. Institution of Mining and Metallurgy. Geological

Magazine. 124: 481-482.

Stone, P. (2012) “The demise of the Iapetus Ocean as recorded in the rocks of southern Scotland”.

Open University Geological Society Journal. 33: 29-36.

Treagus, J.E. (1992) “Caledonian Structures in Britain: south of the Midland Valley”. Geological

Conservation Review Series. 3: 177.

http://www.rgs.org/OurWork/Schools/Fieldwork+and+local+learning

38


Trench, A. & Torsvik, T.H. (1991) “The Lower Palaeozoic apparent polar wander path for Baltica:

palaeomagnetic data from Silurian Limestones of Gotland, Sweden”. Geophysical Journal

International. 107: 373-379.

Software Used

Microsoft Word, Microsoft Excel, Visible Geology Stereonet, Sedilog, ArcGIS, CorelDraw, Google Earth.

39


TUTORIAL REPORT FORM: FINAL YEAR PROJECTS

Student Name: Joe Rogers

Advisor name: Dr Crispin Little

Tutorial 1. Date: 10/10/2014

ABSENT


- Finalise dissertation structure, write up introduction and title pages

- First draft of lithological descriptions

- Begin layout of structure section


ABSENT


- First draft of structure

- Begin layout of discussion

- Amend lithological descriptions


- Amend structure

- Finalise discussion

40


- Plan for hand in and finishing report

Other meetings: N/A

Advisor's comments on project.

Advisor's signature: ______________

Student's signature: ______________

41


Appendix

Map, Cross-section, Stratigraphic Column, Field Slips

Documents kept separate.

Date post:	26-Jan-2016
Category:	Documents
Upload:	john
View:	381 times
Download:	24 times