Dissertation HS4101 1004740

Faculty of Health and Social Care

School of Health Science

BSc (Hons) Applied Sport and Exercise Science

May 2014

‘‘Investigation into the Influence of Fluid Restriction on Cognition

and Mood in University Level Basketball Players’’

By Amy Street (1004740)

Supervisor: Dr. Eimear Dolan

BSc (Hons) Applied Sport and Exercise Science

http://www.google.co.uk/url?sa=i&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&frm=1&source=images&cd=&cad=rja&uact=8&docid=lC4I6UR3PtbnZM&tbnid=p-xn0YajiQbOmM:&ved=0CAUQjRw&url=http://rgu-sim.rgu.ac.uk/i3conf/venue13/rgu13.htm&ei=3LJ0U760POqn0QXN-oDYBg&bvm=bv.66699033,d.d2k&psig=AFQjCNHQcdwWdzO1lUZbypSdiU8gElkxuA&ust=1400243289657411

Assessment Submission

I certify that I have complied with the following statements:

Please initial the

boxes1. All material in this assessment is my own work and that which is not my

own work has been identified.

2. Any names and locations that would allow clients to be identified have been changed to protect confidentiality of information.

3. I have read the University Academic Regulations relating to Student Disciplines and Academic Misconduct, which are available on the University’s web site. I understand that I am bound by such policy and that I may be subject to student disciplinary processes in the event of an act of plagiarism, collusion or impersonation by me.

4. I have read the assessment guidance in full including the proformas used for grading (i.e. assessment brief /grid /MPD).

5. I have attended any relevant assessment tutorials (group and /or individual) and clarified any queries I have with regard to the assessment criteria prior to submission.

6. Whilst preparing this assessment submission, I have taken into account the feedback comments that I have received on previous assessment submissions.

7. I have fully proof read or sought help with proofreading all work prior to submission for grammar, spelling and structure; I have prepared my work as per the instructions in the brief and the School of Health Sciences’ Style Manual.

8. By submitting this assessment, I know of no reason (medical or otherwise) that has negatively impacted upon my ability to complete it. If I know of anything that has negatively impacted upon my ability, I have completed an extenuating circumstances form and submitted it along with the accompanying evidence to my course leader.

Module number: HS4101Module title: Research ProjectModule leader: Dr Paul SwintonDate of hand-in: 16/05/2014Student number: 1004740Word count: 8436TurnItIn checked: Yes

HS4101 Research Project Matriculation No: 1004740

Contents:

Pg No.

1. Acknowledgements

2. Abstract

3. Introduction

4. Literature Review

4a. Sweat Loss in Basketball and Intermittent Sport

4b. Basketball Specific Studies

4c. Sport Specific Studies

4d. Summary

5. Aims and Objectives

6. Hypothesis

7. Methods

7a. Study Design

7b. Population Sample

7c. Profile of Mood States Questionnaire (POMS)

7d. Ruler Drop Test

7e. Symbol Digit Modalities Test (SDMT)

7f. Test Procedures

8. Data Analysis

9. Results

9a. Physiological Data

9b. Reaction Time

9c. Symbol Digit Modalities Test

9d. Profile of Mood States Questionnaire

10. Discussion

5

6

6-7

7-13

13-14

14

14-19

19

19-23

24-32

3


10a. Physiological Findings

10b. Cognition Findings

10c. Mood Findings

10d. Strengths of Study

10e. Limitations

10f. Practice and Future Implications

11. Conclusion

12. References

13. Appendices

32

33-44

45-70

1. Acknowledgments

4


I would like to take this opportunity to first and foremost say a huge thank you to my wonderful tutor Dr Eimear Dolan, for all her support, guidance and encouragement throughout this project. She has been such a role model.

Thank you to the basketball coach Donnie, for permitting me to experiment on the basketball team, and to all the players who participated.

Thank you so much to all the lecturers who have also supported me throughout this final year.

I would also like to thank Craig Thain, for his constant motivation and for being by my side throughout. He has been my rock.

Finally, thank you to all my friends and family, who have been so supportive. I would also like to apologise to those who were appointed the unfortunate job of proof reader.

2. Abstract

5


This study examined the effects of fluid provision and restriction in a

simulated basketball game on cognitive function and mood. 5 members (Male=4,

Female=1) were recruited from the university basketball team. Method:

Participants took part dehydrated or hydrated during the initial session and

exposed to the opposite state in the second session. Subjective feelings were

measured pre and post-game and the cognitive functions of attentional

vigilance, visual scanning, working memory and reaction time were immediately

measured post-game in both fluid states. Results: Participants displayed a mean

body mass loss of 0.74±0.19% in the fluid restriction state and 0.00±0.25% in

the fluid provision state (P=0.01). Improvement in post-reaction time result was

identified in the fluid restricted state (P < 0.01), however results displayed

potential learning effect (P= 0.01). Fluid restriction was associated with

significant increase in subjective feelings of confusion after comparison of pre to

post game mood change between fluid states (P=0.03). Conclusion: Mild

dehydration of <1% after a 40 minute basketball game has been shown to

increase perceived confusion, however further research is required to develop a

more conclusive finding.

3. Introduction

It is evident according to literature that cognition and mood status are vital

determinants of performance within the majority of intermittent sports (Araujo et

al., 2006; Eysenck et al., 2007; Martin & Thomson 2011; Prapavessis 2000;

Totterdell 2000; Voss et al., 2010). Attention, visual search, working memory and

reaction time are some of the principal cognitive functions incorporated within

most intermittent sports alongside all aspects of mood (Burke 2007; Moran,

2009; Moran, 2012; Abernethy et al, 2007). However, understanding of the

impact of fluid intake on these parameters for performance purposes is limited

regardless of the fact that sufficient fluid replacement is essential for optimal

metabolic, cardiovascular and thermoregulatory function during exercise

(Popkin, D’Anci & Rosenberg 2010; Buyckx 2007).

In highly severe cases (9% to 12% total weight loss), dehydration can

cause extreme deterioration in cognitive function and can lead to death

(Wilmore, Costill & Kenney 2007; Maughan & Murray 2001). With this in mind, it

can be theorized that naturally, mild and moderate dehydration will also be

6


associated with negative impacts on mood and cognitive function with regards to

sports performance. However, there is very little conclusive evidence of the

relationship between degree of dehydration and its effects on governing

cognitive functions and mood in sport (Armstrong et al. 2012; Burke, 2007;

Sawka 2004). Dehydration within Basketball in particular is a prime concern due

to heightened player susceptibility to dehydration, because of their physical

stature and the intense demands of the sport (Osterberg, Horswill and Baker

2009). However there is currently no evident literature assessing the effects of a

basketball specific inducement of dehydration on cognition and mood in players.

4. Literature Review

4a. Sweat Loss in Basketball and Intermittent sport

Basketball involves bursts of high-intensity activity incorporating power

and speed with intermittent rest periods, as well as cognitive functions such as

reaction time and decision making (Sharkey & Gaskill 2006). Exercise such as

this can be associated with heavy sweat losses (Burke and Hawley 1997). A study

by Osterberg, Horswill and Baker (2009) assessing fluid intake and urine specific

gravity of National Basketball Association players found that within the first 20

minutes of game time, over 2 litres of sweat was lost for each player, resulting in

substantial losses by the end of the game. They state that basketball players in

particular are more susceptible to dehydration within their sport due to their

tendency to have taller and larger frames, increasing their fluid requirement due

to high sweat production (Osterberg, Horswill & Baker 2009). This is supported

by a study that found significant correlation between sweat rate and body

surface area, highlighting that the greater the skin surface area, the greater the

amount of sweat produced (Godek et al. 2006). It can be proposed that

basketball inflicts high physiological demand, resulting in proportionally high

levels of sweat loss in players (Dougherty et al. 2006). A study by Casa et al.

(2000) monitoring NBA players during a game found that only 40% of sweat

losses were replaced, resulting in 1-3% DEH (dehydration). This is reasoned by

Burke (2007), stating that basketball players are more susceptible to

dehydration because team talks are the prime focus during pre-game, half-time

and post-game, overshadowing the importance of hydration and opportunity to

7


drink. Without sufficient awareness of fluid intake specific to an individual’s

sport, there is high probability of the onset of dehydration: a state of excessive

water loss within the body that has not been equally replaced (Dougherty et al.

2006).

4b. Basketball Specific Studies

Regardless of the fact that basketball induces high sweat losses,

increasing risk of dehydration, current literature exploring the effects of

dehydration on primary determinants of performance within basketball is limited

and generally not valid within context of the sport.

A study by Baker, Conroy & Kenney (2007), analysed vigilance-related

attention in 11 male basketball players after 3 hours interval walking (50%

VO2max) on a treadmill in 40˚C heat, followed by a simulated basketball game

during euhydrated and dehydrated (1-4%) states. The study found vigilance-

related attention was impaired by dehydration. Another study by Dougherty et

al. (2006) determining the effect of heat (40°C) and exercise (50% VO2max)

induced dehydration on basketball skills in 15 year old males found significant

decreases in skill performance after 2% DEH. Both studies concluded that

basketball players were advised to remain euhydrated during game play to

maintain optimal performance.

Through evaluation of both studies it could be seen that inducement of

both hyperthermia and sweat production through exercise restricts analysis of

the effects of exercise induced dehydration alone. This is supported by studies

that have identified significant differences in cognitive outcome between induced

hyperthermia and dehydration associated with exercise (Cian et al. 2000;

Gonzalez-Alonso et al. 1997). Evidence suggests that exercise in the heat can

cause greater interference with brain neurotransmission, due to reduction in

cerebral blood flow, compared to exercise within neutral environments which can

increase cerebral blood flow (Ide & Secher, 2000; Nybo & Neilsen, 2001). It can

be suggested that disrupted brain neurotransmission can lead to increases in

dopamine levels; a key neurotransmitter responsible for fatigue (Maughan,

Shirreffs & Watson 2007). Consequentially, it can be appreciated that exposure

to both hyperthermia and exercise induced dehydration may produce results

that do not reflect exercise dehydration alone, highlighting that study specificity

with regards to basketball may be limited.

8


A similar study by Baker et al. (2007) assessing basketball skill

performance in 15 skilled male basketball players after 15 minute bouts of

exercise in heat for 2 hours at 50% VO2max, found skill was impaired at 2% DEH.

The study concluded that players were advised to prevent ≥2% DEH before and

during the game to maximise performance. As well as heat, exercise duration,

intensity and type was not specific to that of a basketball game, whereby the

induced dehydration method may not typically reflect induced levels within an

actual game setting. For example, intensity of exercise is an important

determinant of cognitive function according to Easterbrook’s (1959) cue

utilization theory of arousal, whereby moderate exercise could improve cognitive

performance and high intensity could impair performance. All the mentioned

studies induced exercise intensity to 50% VO2max, which is classified as

moderate intensity (<70% VO2max) according to Brisswalter, Collardeau & Rene

(2002). Montgomery, Pyne & Minehan (2010), found that the average VO2max

within a basketball game is approximately 85% (High intensity). Therefore it can

be seen that the results of these studies may have potentially displayed an

inaccurate interpretation of results when compared to that achieved through

dehydration inducement within a basketball game.

Additionally, the location of induced dehydration can influence degree of

sweat loss according to Osterberg (2009), whereby basketball is usually played

within dry environments seen within sports halls or arenas, increasing sweat

evaporation. It can therefore be seen that amount of sweat loss within a

laboratory setting may not replicate the same amount lost within a game

situation, further highlighting the need for a sports specific study. Evidentially,

although the studies displayed detriments in cognitive and mood performance

and skill during approximately a 2% DEH state, they may not provide a valid

interpretation of specific dehydration effects in context to specific demands and

nature of a basketball game.

With such limited amount of studies referring to basketball, further

exploration of sport specific literature is required to develop a greater

understanding of the potential effects of dehydration on cognition and mood.

4c. Sport Specific Studies

Studies have established specific boundaries to determine dehydration

state of an individual, whereby 1 to 2% body weight loss is classed as mild, 2 to

9


5% is moderate and >5% is severe (Burke 2007; Maughan 1991; Tomporowski

2007). There is varied research assessing the effects of dehydration on cognition

and mood in relatively neutral temperatures. However it is evident that the

majority studies that have assessed dehydration have identified that an

inducement of >2% DEH solely through fluid restriction is usually associated with

detrimental effects on cognition and mood (Grandjean & Grandjean 2006;

Szinnai et al. 2005; Wilson & Morley 2003). This can be understood because

physiologically just 2% fluid loss of body weight reduces blood plasma volume,

which in turn decreases blood pressure and stroke volume, thus blood flow to the

muscles and skin (Wilmore, Costill & Kenney 2007). It can be appreciated that

these physiological changes will consequently reduce blood flow to the skin’s

surface, restricting dissipation of heat. Heart rate is increased in direct

proportion to decreases in stroke volume, which has a linear relationship with

rate of perceived exertion (Borg 1982). This could suggest that inducement of

2% dehydration could negatively impact perceived exertion, inducing mood

states such as fatigue, anxiety and tension which may decrease exercise

performance (Szinnai et al. 2005). However it can be questioned as to whether

exercise induced dehydration will have similar effects on cognition and mood

due to the fact that exercise has been shown to immediately enhance cognition

and mood (Lichtman & Poser, 1983; Tomporowski 2003), which may outweigh

the impacts of mild dehydration.

The majority of studies using exercise have exacerbated dehydration with

the use of environmental conditions such as heat and humidity which have

displayed performance decrements in mood and cognition (Cian et al. 2001;

Gopinathan, Pichan & Sharma 1998; Maughan, Shirreffs & Watson 2007; Sharma

et al. 1986). However, as previously mentioned, by inducing hyperthermia whilst

exercising, the effects of solely dehydration cannot be examined accurately,

initiating a broader argument during analysis of results and reducing study

specificity (Ganio et al. 2011; Lieberman 2007). It can therefore be questioned as

to what extent solely exercise induced dehydration affects brain function and

mood, whereby currently relevant literature is limited.

A study by D’Anci et al. (2009) involved thirty one male college athletes

from both the rowing team and lacrosse team. The rowers engaged in a 60

minute high intensity rowing session, whilst the lacrosse team partook in 75

minutes of lacrosse specific drills, whilst either randomly dehydrated or

10


euhydrated. A series of cognitive tests including vigilance attention, visual

working memory, reaction time, visual perception and mathematical addition, as

well as a thirst and mood questionnaire were then completed. The study found

that reaction time was decremented and anger, depression and tension were

significantly ranked more negatively after a >2% decrease in body weight.

However visual working memory and search performance were enhanced within

the dehydrated session. Yet it was identified that these enhanced results

displayed potential learning effect between sessions, decreasing reliability and

validity of values. The positive results of visual working memory may be

explained by this learning effect or due to the fact that dehydration can elevate

cerebral arginine vasopressin, a hormone that has been shown to enhance

memory (Wilson & Morley, 2003). With regards to study validity, it is evident that

the induced dehydration would reflect the amounts achieved within the sports,

due to the fact that it incorporated sport specific exercise, thus making results

applicable for rowing and lacrosse. However, because the study incorporated two

different sports, the degree and duration of inducement of dehydration between

the exercises will be different. This may lead to increased exposure to varied

confounding variables that could influence cognitive performance and mood

independently of dehydration (Easterbrook 1959). Specificity of results are

therefore reduced, as physiologically, with relation to Easterbrook’s (1959) cue

utilization theory for example, rowing and lacrosse impose extremely different

demands upon the body inducing different exercise intensities and therefore

degrees of arousal.

Alternatively a study by Ganio et al. (2011) that initiated exercise induced

mild dehydration (>2%) during three sets of 40 minutes walking on a treadmill

(5.6km/h, 5% incline) with 26 male participants, found visual vigilance and visual

working-memory were impaired in the dehydrated state compared to an

euhydrated state. Fatigue and tension were also rated more negatively. There

are potential benefits of testing within a laboratory setting, as seen within this

study, as confounding variables such as weather and environmental temperature

can be controlled to a greater extent than that of field based tests, increasing

study reliability. However the practicality of the results for future implications

can be questioned due to the fact that participants were also required to

consume a diuretic to enhance dehydration, preventing precise identification of

the effects of solely exercise induced dehydration (Armstrong, Costill & Fink,

1985).

11


Such conflicting evidence between the studies could be due to said

limitations of studies and the differing physiological demands of exercise, which

could expose separate confounding variables that may influence results

(Collardeau & Rene 2002). A potential explanation could be due to degree of

stimulation achieved during exercise, whereby the type of exercise may

determine participant arousal and susceptibility to dehydration effects. The

natural movement of walking may not be as mentally stimulating as sport

developed movements of cycling or rowing. This is supported by a study by

Lambourne & Tomporowski (2010) comparing the degree of arousal in cycling

and running and identified that cycling produced a greater arousal and

evidentially improved cognitive functions including reaction time and attentional

vigilance, however running on a treadmill reduced cognitive performance.

Theoretically, inducement of dehydration within an environment that lacks

stimulation could increase a participant’s awareness of becoming dehydrated

and resultantly could cause a potential placebo effect that may negatively

impact cognition and mood. Supporting this theory, Aarts, Dijksterhuis & Vries

(2001) suggest that to a certain extent mental stimulation could provide

distraction to negative associations of dehydration such as thirst and headaches.

Furthermore, fatigue was not affected by dehydration within the study by D’Anci

et al. (2009), however was negatively affected in the study by Ganio et al.

(2011), suggesting that rowing potentially may have induced greater arousal

compared to walking, counteracting sensation of fatigue.

4d. Summary

According to Karslo (2011) with many studies it can be difficult to isolate

certain variables that affect physiology, which may lead to conclusions in

research that are lacking in strength. It is evident that the available studies

relevant to basketball do not provide an accurate sports specific interpretation of

dehydration and its effects on cognition and mood, primarily due to exacerbation

of exercise induced dehydration through hyperthermia. Although they provide

insight to the potential negative impacts of >2% dehydration on cognition and

mood, the lack of sport specific literature, with regards to a dehydration

susceptible sport such as basketball, emphasises the requirement for this study.

With regards to conflicting results of current studies mentioned, it could be

seen that the effects of mild dehydration may partially be influenced by the type

12


of sport and degree of arousal. The fast paced, varying nature of basketball

could potentially increase degree of arousal that may display decreases in

fatigue and improved working memory. However, with consideration of degree

of dehydration ranging from 1-3% in basketball players (Casa et al. 2000) and

relatively high intensity of the game (Montgomery, Pyne & Minehan 2010),

cognitive performance and mood are likely to differ from results of the

mentioned studies.

5. Aims and Objectives

Aim

To determine the effects of basketball specific exercise induced

dehydration on cognitive function and mood within university level basketball

players.

Objectives

1) Achieve sports specific level of %DEH through exercise and fluid

restriction during a basketball game

2) To assess the differences in cognitive function between hydrated and fluid

restricted test sessions through the completion of a ruler drop test and a

symbol digit modalities test to assess reaction time, visual scanning,

attention and motor speed between hydration and dehydration groups.

3) To compare participants’ change in perceived mood between hydration

and fluid restricted sessions using a self-reported profile of mood state

questionnaire.

6. Hypothesis

It can be hypothesised that a basketball induced dehydration of >2%

will be achieved during fluid restriction, whereby the measured aspects of

cognition and mood will be significantly decremented.

13


7. Methods

7a. Study design

The study was an experimental singular repeated measures cross over

design providing primarily quantitative results, whereby sessions were carried

out over two days with one week rest between each session. Procedures and

subject participation for each session remained the same, whilst variable

(Hydration level) was altered to assess data correlation between sessions. By

replicating test structure, test retest reliability is subsequently increased by

reducing exposure to external data-influencing variables (Piepho, Büchse &

Richter, 2004). With this in mind participants were allocated equally into either a

1) Hydration or 2) dehydration group on the initial testing session and exposed

to the opposite variable during the second test session, thus reducing the

confounding influence of individual variability. The implemented procedures

provided numerical data; the profile of mood states questionnaire, ruler drop

test, symbol digit modalities test, urine osmolality test and %DEH via weight

measurement. By incorporating a quantitative design results provide numerical

data which generally allows factual, non-biased results and therefore opportunity

for a proficient, accurate analysis of findings (Hopkins 2000).

7b. Population Sample

9 university level regular basketball players (6 males, 3 females, age 19 to

25) were recruited to take part in the study. Initially participants were provided

information of all the test procedures and the requirements of the study

(Appendix 1-2). An informed consent form was completed to agree to

participation within the test (Appendix 4) and participants were then screened

prior to testing to ensure compatibility for participation in the study through

completion of a participant questionnaire (Appendix 3). Exclusion criteria

included significant health concerns or injuries that may influence test results or

pose a risk to health whilst partaking within the study. One week later

participants attended a familiarization session, whereby tests were

demonstrated and participants were allowed to complete each test once. This

familiarization session ensured participants fully understood each test procedure

and its requirements for test repeatability. It ensured reduced risk of participant

error during the official testing sessions that could otherwise affect result validity

14


and reliability (Altmann 2002). Each test during familiarisation was only

completed once to prevent the risk of learning effect that may occur through

task repetition which could influence results (Mosheiov 2001). Ethical approval

for testing was sought and achieved and permission to use the basketball team

was granted through RGU Sport and the basketball coach (Appendix 5-7).

7c. Profile of Mood States Questionnaire

The Profile of Mood States (POMS) (McNair, Lorr & Droppleman 1971) is a

self-examined rating system, whereby participants marked on a scale of 0-4 (0-

not at all, 4-extremely) how they were currently feeling in relation to the

provided emotions (Appendix 10). Participants were seated in a quiet

environment and there was no time limit for test completion. To ensure validity,

this test was completed immediately pre and post-game to identify overall

change in mood state induced by the game, preventing influence of external

confounding mood states that may be present regardless of hydration status. By

referring to guidelines (Mackenzie 2001) scoring of their overall degree of anger,

anxiety, depression, confusion, fatigue and vigor could be achieved. Pre and

post-game change in state of tension, depression, anger, vigor, fatigue and

confusion could then be compared between hydrated and fluid restricted states.

Several studies have praised the validity and reliability of the profile of

mood states in accurately interpreting mood (Covassin & Pero 2004; Gibson

1997, Gutman et al. 1984; Silva et al. 1985). Gutman et al. 1984 found that

athletes who displayed low anger, anxiety, depression, confusion and fatigue,

and high vigour scores within the profile of mood states were more successful in

performance than athletes that exhibited the opposite profile. The link between

performance and mood ratings highlights that the profile of moods states

questionnaire is a valid interpretation of an individual’s mood state and this is

supported by a study by Gibson (1997) assessing the reliability and validity of

the POMS in 479 participants and found that the POMS was able to accurately

and repeatedly discriminate between healthy individuals and those with known

mood disturbances.

7d. The Ruler Drop Test

15


Reaction-time was measured using the ruler drop test (Russ & Geller,

1968) whereby a 30cm ruler was held between the individual’s tip of their thumb

and index finger at 0cm and dropped, by which the participant caught it as

quickly as possible. To increase reliability of the test, the participant was seated,

with their dominant arm and wrist resting on a table and their fingers off the

edge of the table, to provide support and reduce movement that may affect

results. A parallel gap between the participant’s thumb and finger from the ruler

needed to be present to ensure that the same proportional distance between the

fingers and the ruler was consistent for all participants to increase test reliability.

The test was consecutively repeated three times to minimize random error. The

distance the ruler drops before the participant catches it is applied into an

equation which determines the subjects’ reaction time. The equation is based on

Newton’s formula (Lieberman & Goodman 2007).

Reaction Time= √ (2*distance (metres)/9.81 (gravity))

The test is deemed valid because results are determined by the speed at

which an individual reacts to the release of the ruler and subsequently displays

their capability to catch it quickly (Molnar et al. 2007). Fong, Shamay & Chung

(2013) indicate that the ruler-drop test is the best determinant of simple reaction

time when without the availability of more complex and expensive equipment

that monitors reaction time.

7e. Symbol Digit Modalities Test

The Symbol Digit Modalities Test (SDMT) (Smith 1968; Smith 1982)

(Appendix 8) measures key neurocognitive functions including attentional

vigilance, visual scanning, working memory and motor speed and has previously

been used as a measure of cognitive impairment (Zuri et al., 2013 and Sheridan

et al., 2006).

Using a reference key, participants were required to pair as many specific

numbers with given geometric figures using a pen as quickly as they can in 90

seconds. When 90 seconds was reached the test was terminated and

participants were required to stop writing immediately. Their score depicted the

correct amount of numbers paired with the geometric figures in the 90 second

time span (Benedict, 2012). For the second testing session, the numbers

16


associated with a symbol were swapped and replaced to become associated with

a different symbol. Also the order of symbols provided on the grid was changed.

By changing the symbol-number association and grid order, the risk of learning

effect is minimised for the second session, increasing the validity of the test.

According to several studies, the SDMT is one of the most valid and

reliable tests of neurocognitive function (Benedict & Zivadinov 2007; Morrow et

al. 2010; Nocentini et al. 2006; Sonder et al. 2014). Moreover the test is easy to

administer and can be completed simultaneously by all participants, reducing

waiting time that could otherwise increase influence of the confounding

physiological variables of exercise recovery, that may influence results (Piepho,

Büchse & Richter 2004). It can be seen that the SDMT is a valid test with regards

to basketball because it measures cognitive functions such as attentional

vigilance, motor speed and visual scanning, all specific components required to

excel as a basketball player (Millslagle 2002).

7f. Test Procedures

On the morning of the initial test session, subjects reported to the sports

hall at 07.00 hours and were randomly allocated into either the hydration or

dehydration group. The hydrated participants were provided with a two liter

bottle of water, labeled with their corresponding number. Each bottle had been

marked at different fluid levels labeled with time periods; ‘before game’ (340ml),

‘half-time’ (+230ml) and ‘after game’ (+500ml), in accordance with the

recommended fluid intake guidelines by Simpson and Howard (2011) (Appendix

9). Participants were required to consume at least to the minimum marked

amount of fluid at each time period in order to maintain hydration and were

permitted to drink beyond the minimum if required. The dehydrated participants

were notified that they would not have access to any fluids until completion of

the session. All participants completed an initial profile of mood states

questionnaire and provided a urine sample. Participants were then weighed on

scales. They were required to remove all clothing except their shorts and (for

females) sports bra to ensure readings depicted a relatively accurate

interpretation of body mass. Hydrated participants were required to consume

their initial 340ml of water prior to measurement to identify their initial hydrated

weight measurement. 1 volunteer team member took part within the game to

make teams equal, therefore the game consisted of 6 players. However, the

17


volunteer was not included within testing. Participants took part in a 5 minute

sport specific warm up followed by a standard full court 40 minute basketball

game, with a 2 minute half-time break after 20 minutes of the game. During the

break, the hydrated participants were required to have consumed to at least the

‘half-time’ mark on their bottle (+230ml) prior to initiation of the second half of

the game.

After the game, hydrated participants were required to consume up to or

past the ‘after game’ mark (+500ml). Participants were then immediately seated

and requested to complete a second POMS questionnaire, with reminder to score

accurately to that of their perceived emotions. Mood is a variable that can be

influenced relatively easily (Lieberman 2005); therefore immediate completion of

the questionnaire after the game reduces the influence of external variables that

could affect results. Once completed, participants were then required to provide

another urine sample, followed by a weight measurement. Participants were

encouraged to empty their bladders prior to weighing to enable a more accurate

depiction of body weight. Following on from this, participants took part in the

reaction time test. Finally the SDMT test was completed.

In addition, a 24 hour dietary recall was taken prior to the initial test

session. This required participants to record everything they ate and drank in the

24 hours prior to testing to ensure control of confounding variables such as

carbohydrate consumption that has been found to enhance performance in high

intensity intermittent basketball games (Dougherty et al. 2006; Welsh et al.

2002; Burke 2007). Participants were encouraged not to consume or drink

anything for four hours prior to testing. This dietary consumption was then

repeated 24 hours prior to the second session.

The second session was carried out 1 week after the initial session to allow

for complete recovery. The session was initiated at the same time as the

previous session. A study by Lieberman (2005), declared that time of day was

found to influence mood level and performance, as well as urine osmolality.

Therefore it was evident to repeat measures at the same time of day as the

previous session, to reduce potential time influence on outcome measures.

Procedures were repeated in the same order as the initial session to increase

reliability of test results, however participants were exposed the opposite state

to ensure that they provided both fluid restricted and fluid included results.

18

Graph 1. Mean change of body weight pre and post-game for fluid restricted and fluid included states


8. Data Analysis

All data was analysed via the SPSS programme version 21. The Shapiro-Wilk

test was used to identify whether results were parametric (normally distributed)

or non-parametrically distributed in order to determine the test best suited for

analysis of data. Results were deemed parametrically distributed; therefore the

paired-samples T-test was deemed the most suited test for data analysis. Data

was deemed significant if significance displayed a p value of <0.05.

10. Results

3 participants were excluded from data analysis as attendance was not fully

completed for both test sessions, whilst 1 participant withdrew their participation

due to injury. Therefore data analysis depicts the results of 5 participants (n=5)

that provided results for both fluid restricted and fluid included sessions.

9a. Physiological Data

Change in mean body weight pre and post-game for participants during

the dehydrated state (Table 1) was deemed significant (P=0.01) whilst hydrated

participants displayed no significant weight change (Graph 1). Overall there was

an average percentage body weight loss of 0.93±0.18% and 0.64±0.21% for

fluid restricted participants and fluid inclusion participants respectively. No

significance was found in urine osmolality pre/post-game or between sessions.

Fluid Inclusion Fluid Restriction

BW Pre (Kg) 79.08 ±10.99 78.76 ± 9.8

BW Post (Kg) 79.08 ± 10.79 78.02 ± 9.64

Weight Difference (Kg) 0.00 ± 0.25 0.74 ± 0.19*

UO Pre mOsm/Kg 654 ± 227.29 850 ± 122.15

UO Post mOsm/Kg 548 ± 183.45 798 ± 106.85

UO Difference mOsm/Kg 106 ± 149.75 52 ± 208.37

19

Table 1. Body weight and urine osmolality mean results of pre and post-game for both fluid restricted and fluid included sessions.

Body Weight (BW), Urine Osmolality (UO), *P=0.01


9b. Reaction Time

Results for each particpant were derived by the mean of the 3 attempts,

whereby overall mean results of all particpants were 0.167±0.015s and

0.175±0.037s for fluid restriction and fluid inclusion states respectively (Graph

2). Difference in overall mean post-game reaction time between fluid restriction

and fluid inclusion states was deemed significant (P=0.003), whereby reaction

time was reduced in the dehydrated state.

20Fluid Inclusion (FI), Fluid Restriction (FR), *P= 0.003

Graph 2. Mean reaction time for both fluid inclusion and fluid restriction states


Data also displayed a significant improvement in reaction time (P=0.01)

for all participants in session 2 when compared to session 1 (Graph 3).

21

5

Graph 3. Mean reaction time performance of each participant of session 1 and session 2, P=0.01


9c. Symbol Digit Modalities Test

There were no significant differences between performance of the symbol

digit modalities test between hydrated and dehydrated states of participants

(P=1.0).

9d. Profile of Mood States Questionnaire

No significant changes were identified for total mood state, tension,

depression, vigour and fatigue. Difference was identified through subtraction of

post-game score from pre-game score, whereby the higher the score the more

negative the mood state. Confusion was deemed to have a significant pre to post

game difference (P=0.03) between states. Graph 4 highlights that the negative

difference in confusion is due to a significantly increased post-game confusion

rating during the fluid restriction state (-4±3.52) compared to the fluid inclusion

(2.8±3.27).

22

*

*P=0.03

Graph 4. Overall mean pre to post game change comparison between fluid inclusion and fluid restriction states for confusion


9. Discussion

The aim of this study was to identify the effects of fluid restriction on

aspects of cognition and mood in university level basketball players with the

hypothesis that at least 1% dehydration would be induced and cognition and

mood tests would show deterioration in performance. The results of this study

highlight that fluid restriction within a standardised 40 minute basketball game

on university level basketball players caused significant decreases in body mass

of 0.93 % resulting in exercise inducement of very mild dehydration.

Predominant findings of test results from fluid restricted participants for

cognition displayed significant improvements in reaction time; however the

SDMT displayed no change. Furthermore, no change was identified in the mood

test between fluid inclusion and fluid restricted states except for a significant

increase in perceived confusion in the fluid restricted state.

10a. Physiological Findings

With regards to hydrated and fluid restricted participant results, it is likely

that fluid loss due to perspiration and breathing rate would have accounted for

the significant change in body mass loss of 0.93±0.18% (p=0.01) within the fluid

restricted participants, whilst hydrated participants’ body mass remained

relatively unchanged due to the ability to replace fluid lost through fluid

replacement. This 0.93% loss of body mass can be seen as an inducement of

extremely mild dehydration whereby very few studies have observed such mild

dehydration and its related affects. This relatively small loss of weight to what

was expected of approximately 2% may be due to the fact that there were only 6

players within the game, potentially reducing competitive edge or challenge,

thus reducing exercise intensity. Observation in change of urine osmolality from

pre to post game in fluid inclusion and fluid restriction sessions highlight no

change in urine concentration. It could potentially be seen that the degree of

23


exercise induced dehydration was not extensive enough to display significant

effects in urine concentration.

Comparison of the 24 hour dietary recall sheets between session 1 and

session 2 using WinDiets software displayed no change in dietary consumption

between the two sessions for each participant. This suggests that the

confounding aspects of diet were reduced, due to the fact that diet remained

relatively the same before participation within both sessions, increasing the

probability that the results obtained were determined by dehydration.

10b. Cognition Findings

Reaction time comparisons of post participant results between hydrated

and fluid restricted sessions displayed a significant performance enhancement

during the fluid restricted session (p=0.003), whereby overall time to catch the

ruler decreased by 10.27±2.67%. This finding is interesting because it

contradicts the majority of findings displayed by similar studies assessing the

effects of fluid restriction on reaction time performance (D’anchi et al. 2009;

Neave et al. 2001; Leibowitz et al. 1972; Serwah & Marino 2006). It could be

wholly or partially explained by the fact that analysis of results displayed

significant reductions in reaction time (p=0.01) during the second session for all

participants regardless of fluid state when compared with performance during

the initial session. This may be due to a learning effect because the majority of

the participants within the study who attended the second session had already

experienced the fluid restricted state, leading to an increase in performance

during the fluid restricted state. This is supported by a study by Sanders (1988)

that found that individuals that were new to a reaction time task, significantly

became more efficient at the task after several attempts.

Although potential learning effect is the most likely explanation for the

outcome of these findings, there are other theories that may have potentially

contributed to such a significant performance improvement during fluid

restricted state. A study by D’anci et al. (2009) assessing the effects of fluid

restriction and fluid inclusion on college athletes after a high intensity rowing

session lasting 60 minutes found a significant increase in reaction time results

after 1.5-2% weight loss in the fluid restricted state. It can be seen that a greater

number of participants (n=31, 16 males, 15 females) were used compared to

this study, indicating that reliability of results may indicate a more accurate

24


interpretation of the effects of fluid restriction on reaction time, due to the

reduced risk of random error (Hopkins, 2000). Additionally, there are relatively

equal numbers of males to females within the study by D’anci et al. (2009) which

may also explain the difference in performance outcome of reaction time

compared to this study which incorporated just 1 female. A few studies have

identified a significant difference in reaction time performance between males

and females, whereby females generally displayed a slower reaction time

compared to males (Adan 2012; Der & Deary 2006). It could be seen that the

increased incorporation of female participants may have influenced a more

negative performance outcome within mean results. However the most

predominant explanation for such a difference in reaction time compared to this

study could be due to achievement of a higher weight loss % potentially caused

by the longer duration of exercise and/or difference in physiological

requirements of rowing compared with basketball.

On the other hand, Szinnai et al. (2005) also displayed performance

enhancements within male participants after a gradual loss of 2.6% dehydration

over a 7 day period when performing a computerised reactive response task,

whilst female performance remained unaffected (men: -36 ms, women: +26 ms,

p = 0.01). The study theorized that the performance difference in gender may

have been due to low oestrogen levels in men being linked to greater visual-

spacial awareness (Szinnai et al. 2005). This theory is supported by a study by

Der & Deary (2006) that used 7400 participants, whereby male participants had

significantly faster reaction-times than females. However Szinnai et al. (2005)

failed to provide a theory as to why there was a performance improvement in

males during their dehydrated state compared to their hydrated state,

regardless of gender difference. A second study with similar findings by Heuvel

et al. (2013) found that 5% dehydration induced faster reaction times compared

to that of a euhydrated or 3% dehydrated state, during heat induced dehydration

via thermo regulated water immersion. However this study theorised that the

increase in reaction time performance was directly related to core temperature

rather than due to inducement of dehydration.

Although there is no conclusive explanation for the reported findings of

the improved reaction time results for this study and the similar studies

mentioned, D’Anci, Constant & Rosenberg (2006) state that initiation of mild

25


dehydration could potentially activate cognitive compensating mechanisms in an

attempt to inhibit dehydration stressors. Heinrichs & Koob (2004) and Kloet, Joëls

& Holsboer (2005) both highlight that organisms exposed to stressors that alter

normal functioning of the body, produce a coping response as a survival

mechanism to ensure that homeostasis is preserved. They state that

corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF)/urocortin is up regulated, increasing

production of adrenal glucocorticoid production which enhances sensitivity and

arousal; a prime determinant of reaction time performance (Eason & Harter

1969). The majority of studies that identified increases in reaction time induced

>2% dehydration (Grandjean & Grandjean 2007; Gopinathan Pichan & Sharma

1988). This could suggest that an initial increase in CRF may eventually be

overruled by gradual increases in severity of dehydration, which has been

observed by Aguillera et al. (1992), stating that inducement of dehydration

through consumption of 2% saline solution decreases CRF secretion. It could

therefore be suggested that the improvement in reaction times seen during mild

dehydration of 0.93% potentially could be due to enhanced levels of arousal

through release of CRF. It can be theorised that exercise inducement of <1%

dehydration may initially enhance reaction time of basketball players, but

greater inducement of dehydration may induce negative performance outcomes.

However the most likely explanation for improved performance was due to a

learning effect and it is therefore evident that further basketball related research

is required with regards to reaction time and <1% dehydration to establish a

strong conclusive finding.

Analysis of the SDMT test identified that results displayed no change

between fluid inclusion and restricted states. This potentially indicates that >1%

DEH may not have a significant impact on the measured attributes of the SDMT

test; divided attention, visual scanning, tracking and motor speed. Currently

there is no evident literature identifying the effects of >1% dehydration on

cognition through the use of the symbol digit modalities test. A study by Zuri et

al. (2013) is the only study at present that has incorporated the SDMT test to

measure cognition after dehydration. The study induced a dehydration state of

3.27% through a combination of heat and exercise within a humid environment,

whereby the SDMT test revealed significant performance detriment compared to

the control group (hydrated). However, because Zuri et al. (2013) incorporated

both heat and exercise variables for inducement of dehydration, cognition may

have been affected more extremely due to the added stressor of heat, than just

26


exercise alone (Leiberman 2007). It can therefore be seen that comparability of

the study’s outcome to the findings of this study cannot be solely depended

upon to determine a valid explanation.

The majority of studies have found that significant deterioration of the

outcome variables of visual scanning, attentional vigilance and motor speed

occur at >2% DEH (Baker, Conroy & Kenney 2007; Cian et al. 2001; D’Anci et al.

2009; Gopinathan Pichan &Sharma 1988). This is supported by a study by

Szinnai et al. 2005 that measured aspects of cognition including visual scanning

and attentional vigilance after water deprivation and found that deterioration in

performance was only evident after 2.6% DEH, whereby it was theorised these

aspects of cognition could potentially be preserved until this level of dehydration.

10c. Mood Findings

In contrast to several studies observing dehydration and its negative

effects on mood (Armstrong et al. 2012; D’Anci et al. 2009; Ganio et al. 2011;

Lieberman et al. 2005), this study surprisingly displayed no change of pre to post

difference between hydrated and fluid restricted states for total mood state,

tension, depression, vigour and fatigue. However analysis of confusion scores

highlighted a significant increase of perceived confusion of participants during

their fluid restricted state (p=0.03) between pre and post-game results when

compared with their fluid inclusion session.

The fact that no change was seen for the majority of the mood states

between fluid included and restricted states may be due to the fact that an

induced dehydration of <1% was not sufficient enough to cause mood

degradation. This theory is supported by several studies that have failed to find

detriments in mood at dehydration levels of lower than 1% (D’anci et al. 2009;

Szinnai et al. 2005; Ganio et al. 2011; Kempton et al. 2011) A further potential

explanation may be due to lack of thirst sensation whereby Adolph et al. (1947)

found perceived thirst after >2% DEH had significant negative alterations in

mood. This may explain why the majority of studies displaying significant

negative associations of dehydration with mood in different settings have

attained it through inducement of at least >2% DEH (Armstrong et al. 2012;

Armstrong et al. 2010; Ganio et al. 2011; Lieberman 2005). Other studies have

27


also found a link between mood and level of perceived thirst indicating that a

higher perception of thirst could have detriments in perception of mood (D’Anci

et al. 2009; Guelinckx et al. 2013; Pross et al. 2013) Potentially it could be seen

that the sensation of thirst and the requirement to drink may be less apparent at

such a mild level of dehydration, resulting in the insignificant findings, or simply

due to the fact that dehydration level was not high enough to have a significant

impact on results.

According to the results of this study, confusion may be affected at

dehydration levels as mild as <1% induced after a 40 minute basketball game.

Currently there is very little evidence to neither support nor contradict this

finding or propose any valid reasoning behind it with regards to such a low level

of induced dehydration specifically for exercise. However the reason for such a

significant effect on solely one mood state is interesting, and may simply be due

to random error and coincidence, based on the fact that results have been

derived from a limited amount of participants. However, a study by Shirreffs et

al. (2004) monitoring the effects of fluid restriction over a 37h period, noticed a

significant increase in confusion and decrease in alertness 13 hours into testing

at 1% DEH, whilst subjective feelings of tiredness only became present after 24h

after 1.7% DEH. It can be seen that this study displayed earlier signs of confusion

decrements, whilst increased fatigue was delayed until a more elevated level of

dehydration, which potentially supports this study’s finding. It could be theorised

that confusion may be more susceptible to early negative effects of dehydration

compared to other mood states and could potentially be the first mood state to

deteriorate. Further exploration is required in relevant research in order to

provide a clearer explanation as to whether these findings are due to valid

physiological reasoning or simply a display of random error.

10d. Strengths of the study

A significant strength of the study was the recruitment of individual’s with

relatively similar fitness levels, when considering that fitness level could

potentially have an impact on the effect of exercise intensity on cognitive

function. This is supported by a study by Gutin & DiGennaro (1968) that

observed that after a treadmill run to voluntary exhaustion individuals classified

as being extremely fit performed the mathematical tasks significantly better

than those that were classified as being less physically fit. By recruiting

28


individuals with similar levels of fitness, overall implications of results are more

specific towards a particular population of athletes, in this case, university level

basketball players. Additionally it can be seen the repeated cross-over design of

the study decreases the contribution of individual variability that could cause

greater dispersion of results, leading to insignificant findings (Adan 2012). This

study design allows

Following on from this, a second strength of this study is its specificity with

regards to basketball related dehydration. As a field based research project, it

provides sport specific information that could potentially reflect results displayed

in a real game scenario, providing beneficial implications for teams.

10e. Limitations

With regards to outcome of the study, test reliability cannot be

guaranteed due to the limited number of subjects, whereby at least 50

participants should be used to justify results and reduce random error according

to Hopkins (2000). This limited number of participants may have partially been

due to inconvenience with regards to time of day or due to university

commitments. Due to practicability of assessing a basketball team, population

sample would generally remain limited in order to increase specificity of results

with regards to the sport and team fitness levels (Burke, 2007) and this is a

generalised limitation for studies assessing team sports.

The limited change in urine osmolality pre to post may be explained the

fact that both sessions were carried out on early mornings, making it likely that

the pre-game urine sample provided would have been the participants’ first urine

void of the day. Eberman, Minton & Cleary (2009) highlight that the first urine

void of the day may not accurately depict an individual’s hydration status,

because its osmolality is usually stronger due to increased fluid preservation

during sleep. It could be seen that the stronger osmolality reading for pre-game

samples may not have accurately depicted the true hydration status of

participants, therefore potentially reducing the difference between pre and post-

game osmolality reading for fluid restricted state results. This can be seen as a

potential limitation within the study, however due to limited team availability;

early mornings were the only opportunity for carrying out this research.

29


Potential limitations with the profile of mood states questionnaire that may

have affected accuracy results could be due to the subjective nature of its

assessment. It can be seen that qualitative tests may induce socially desired

expectations and fear of judgement which can influence participant ratings and

therefore cause variation between presented results and actual perceived

feelings (Smit & Rogers 2002). Additionally the POMS is sensitive to alterations in

mental state induced by various environmental stressors, sleep loss, drugs, and

nutritional manipulations (Banderet & Lieberman 1989) To reduce the effects of

external stressors, the test was carried out pre and post-game and the difference

between the two was the participant’s score. Furthermore the 24 dietary recall

sheets encouraged repeatability of diet to minimise nutritional manipulation.

However, at present, there are no alternative tests that are capable of measuring

an individual’s mood qualitatively and the profile of mood states questionnaire is

currently one of the most accurate tests for observation of mood status (Terry,

Lane & Fogarty 2003). Similarly the 24 hour dietary recall procedure poses as a

potential limitation within the study due to the fact that information is based

upon subjective input. It cannot be guaranteed that the information provided

replicates the participant’s actual dietary consumption, whereby failure to repeat

the recorded diet may occur, however this may not be highlighted due to fear of

scrutiny. In an attempt to minimise this limitation, participants were clearly

reminded and encouraged to provide accurate information on every item they

consumed within the 24 hours leading up to each session.

Finally, with regards to reaction time, learning effect was a potential

limitation within the study. Results displayed that all participants improved their

reaction time scores within the second session, regardless of hydration status.

However, this was a potential risk within the study and effort to minimise

learning effect was applied within the familiarisation session, whereby

participants were only allowed one practice attempt during the ruler drop test.

10f. Practice and Future Implications

With regards to the results of this study and consideration of previous

studies, potential future recommendations for basketball players are to remain

hydrated pre-game and throughout game play, to maximise cognitive

performance and mood. It is evident that there is greater need to emphasize the

importance of hydration, therefore by ensuring rehydration is the primary focus

30


during half-time, players are more likely to replace their sweat losses effectively

(Burke 2007).

Due to the limited number of recruited subjects within this study, it can be

recommended that further research with a greater population sample is required

to attain more conclusive findings with regards to dehydration and its impact on

aspects of cognition and mood in basketball. It should be emphasised that future

studies should incorporate a similar sports specific approach to dehydration, to

ensure findings are valid and can be implemented.

11. Conclusion

This study aimed to identify the effects of fluid restriction on cognition

and mood in university level basketball players. The main finding within this

study was that fluid restriction during a 40 minute basketball game resulted in

an average dehydration of 0.93% in participants, whereby a significant increase

in confusion was evident within this state. A second predominant finding was a

significant improvement in reaction time within the fluid restricted state.

However it has been established that this improvement was predominantly due

to a learning effect and cannot be considered for future implication until verified

by further research. It can be concluded that although confusion was increased

by dehydration, reliability of all test results can not be guaranteed due to limited

subject participation, whereby at least 50 participants should be present

(Hopkins 2000). Evidentially it is advised that basketball players remain hydrated

during practice and competitions to potentially prevent confusion during

performance, however further research is recommended with a larger population

sample to attain more conclusive findings.

References

AARTS, H., DIJKSTERHUIS, A. & VRIES, P.D., 2001. On the Psychology of

Drinking: Being Thirsty and Perceptually Ready. British Journal of Psychology,

92(1), pp. 631-642.

ABERNETHY, B. et al., 2007. Handbook of Applied Cognition. 2nd ed. Chichester,

West Sussex: John Wiley.

31


ADAN, A., 2012. Cognitive Performance and Dehydration. Journal of the

American College of Nutrition, 31(2), pp. 71-78.

ADOLF, E.F. et al., 1947. Physiology of man in the Desert. New York:

Interscience.

AGUILLERA, G. et al., 1992. Regulation of the Hypothalamic Pituitary Adrenal

Axis during Stress: Role of Neuropeptides and Neurotransmitters in Stress.

Neuroendocrine and Molecular Approaches, 1(1), pp. 365-381.

ALTMANN, G.T., 2002. Learning and Development in Neural Networks – The

Importance of Prior Experience. Cognition, 85(2), pp. 43-50.

ARAUJO, D., DAVIDS. K. and HRISTOVSKI, R., 2006. The Ecological Dynamics of

Decision making in Sport. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 7(6), pp. 653-676.

ARMSTRONG, L.E., COSTILL, D.L. & FINK, W.J., 1985. Influence of Diuretic-

Induced Dehydration on Competitive Running Performance. Medicine and

Science in Sports and Exercise, 17(4), pp. 456-461.

ARMSTRONG, L.E. et al., 2012. Mild Dehydration Effects Mood in Healthy Young

Women. American Journal of Nutrition, 142(2), pp. 382-388.

ARMSTRONG, L.E., 2007. Assessing Hydration Status: The Elusive Gold

Standard. Journal of the American College of Nutrition, 26(5), pp. 575-584.

ARMSTRONG, L.E. et al., 2010. Mild Dehydration Degrades Mood And

Symptoms, Not Cognitive Performance In Females: A Placebo-Controlled

Study. The Journal of the Federation of American Societies for Experimental

Biology, 24(1), pp. 991-997.

BAKER, L.B., CONROY, D.E. and KENNEY, W.L., 2007. Dehydration Impairs

Vigilance-Related Attention in Male Basketball Players. American College of

Sport and Exercise, 7(1), pp. 976-983.

BAKER, L.B. et al., 2007. Progressive dehydration causes a progressive decline

in basketball skill performance. Medicine and Science in Sport and Exercise,

39(7), pp. 1114-1123.

32


BANDERET, L.E. & LIEBERMAN, H.R., 1989. Treatment with Tyrosine, a

Neurotransmitter Precursor, Reduces Environmental Stress in Humans. Brain

Research, 22(1), pp. 759-762.

BARR, S. I., 1999. Effects of Dehydration on Exercise Performance. Canadian

Journal of Applied Physiology, 24(2), pp. 164-172.

BEAN, A., 2013. The Complete Guide to Sports Nutrition. 7th ed. London:

Bloomsbury Publishing.

BENEDICT, R. H. & ZIVADINOV, R., 2007. Reliability and Validity of

Neuropsychological Screening and Assessment Strategies in MS. Journal of

Neurology, 254(2), pp. 22-25.

BENEDICT, R. H., 2012. Brief International Cognitive Assessment for MS

(BICAMS): international standards for validation. BMC Neurology, 12(55).

BENTON, D., 2011. Dehydration Influences Mood and Cognition: A Plausible

Hypothesis. Nutrients, 3 (1), pp. 555-573.

BORG, G. A. V., 1982. Psychophysical Bases of Perceived Exertion. Medicine and

Science in Sports and Exercise, 14(5), pp. 377-381.

BRISSWALTER, J., COLLARDEAU, M. & RENE, A., 2002. Effects of Acute, 32(9),

pp. 555-566.

BROUNS, F., 1991. Heat ‐ Sweat - Dehydration ‐ Rehydration: A Praxis Oriented

Approach. Journal of Sports Sciences, 9(1), pp. 143-152.

BURKE, L., 2007. Practical Sports Nutrition. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

BURKE, L.M. & HAWLEY, J.A., 1997. Fluid Balance in Team Sports: Guidelines for

Optimal Sports Practices. Sports Medicine, 24(1), pp. 38-54.

BUYCKX, M.E., 2007. Hydration and Health Promotion: A Brief Introduction.

Journal of the American College of Nutrition, 26(5), pp. 533-534.

CASA, D. J. et al. 2000. National Athletic Trainers Association position

statement: fluid replacement for athletes. Journal of Athletic Training. 35 (1),

pp. 212–224.

33


CASA, D.J., CLARKSON. P.M. & ROBERTS, W.O., 2005. American College of

Sports Medicine on Hydration and Physical Activity: Consensus Statements.

Current Sports Medicine Reports, 4(3), pp. 115-127.

CHEUVRONT, S., CARTER, R. & SAWKA, M.N., 2003. Fluid balance and

endurance exercise performance. Current Sports Medicine Reports, 2(1), pp.

202–208.

CIAN, C. et al., 2000. Influences of variations in body hydration on cognitive

function: Effect of hyperhydration, heat stress, and exercise-induced

dehydration. Journal of Psychophysiology, 14(1), pp. 29-36.

CIAN, C. et al., 2001. Effects of Fluid Ingestion on Cognitive Function after Heat-

Stress or Exercise Induced Dehydration. International Journal of

Psychophysiology, 42(1), pp. 243-251.

COHEN, S., 1983. After Effects of Stress on Human Performance During a Heat

Acclimatization Regimen. Aviation, Space and Environmental Medicine, 54 (1),

pp. 709–713.

COHEN, I. et al., 1981. The Effect of Water Deficit on Body Temperature during

Rugby. South African Medical Journal, 60(1), pp. 11-14.

COUTTS, A. & DUFFIELD, R., 2010. Validity and Reliability of GPS Units for

Measuring Movement Requirements In Team Sports. Journal of Science and

Medicine in Sport, 13(1), pp. 133–135.

COVASSIN, T. & PERO, S., 2004. The Relationship between Self-Confidence,

Mood State, and Anxiety among Collegiate Tennis Players. Journal of Sport

Behaviour, 27(3), pp. 230-242.

DAVIS, B. et al. (2000) Physical Education and the study of sport. 4th ed. Spain:

Harcourt. p. 130

D’ANCI, E. et al., 2009. Voluntary Dehydration and Cognitive Performance in

Trained College Athletes. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 109(2), pp. 251-269.

D’ANCI, K.E., CONSTANT, F. & ROSENBERG, I.H., 2006. Hydration and Cognitive

Function In Children. Nutrition in Clinical Care, 64(10), pp. 457-464.

34


DER, G. & DEARY, I.J., 2006. Age and Sex Differences in Reaction Time in

Adulthood: Results From the United Kingdom Health and Lifestyle Survey.

Psychology and Aging, 21(1), pp. 62-73.

DOUGHERTY, K.A. et al., 2006. Two Percent Dehydration Impairs and Six

Percent Carbohydrate Drink Improves Boys Basketball Skills. American College

of Sport Science, pp. 1650-1658.

DUFFIELD, R., COUTTS, A.J. & QUINN, J., 2009. Core Temperature Responses and

Match Running Performance during Intermittent Sprint Exercise Competition in

Warm Conditions. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 23(4), pp.

1238-1244.

EASON, R.G. & HARTER, R.M., 1969. Effects of Attention and Arousal on Visually

Evoked Cortical Potentials and Reaction Time in Man. Physiology and

Behaviour, 4(3), pp. 283-289.

EASTERBROOK, I. A., 1959. The effect of emotion on cue utilization and the

organization of behaviour. Psychological Review, 66(1), pp. 183-201.

EBERMAN, L.E., MINTON, D.M. & CLEARY, M.A., 2009. Comparison of

Refractometry, Urine Color, and Urine Reagent Strips to Urine Osmolality for

Measurement of Urinary Concentration. Athletic Training and Sports Health

Care, 1(6), pp. 267-271.

EYSENCK, M.W. et al., 2007. Anxiety and Cognitive Performance: Attentional

Control Theory. American Psychological Association, 7(2), pp. 336-353.

FONG, S. M., SHAMAY, S.M. & CHUNG, L. M., 2013. Health through martial arts

training: Physical fitness and reaction time in adolescent Taekwondo

practitioners. Health, 5(3), pp.1-5.

GALLOWAY, S.D. & MAUGHAN, R.J., 1997. Effects of Ambient Temperature on

the Capacity to Perform Prolonged Exercise on Man. Medicine and Science in

Sports Medicine, 29(9), pp. 1240-1249.

GANIO, M.S. et al., 2011. Mild Dehydration Impairs Cognitive Performance and

Mood in Men. British Journal of Nutrition, 106(1), pp. 1535-1543.

GIBSON, S.J., 1997. The measurement of Mood States in Older Adults. Journal of

Gerontology, 52(4), pp. 167-174.

35


GODEK, S.F., BARTOLOZZI, A.R. & GODEK, J.J., 2005. Sweat Rate and Fluid

Turnover in American Football Players Compared with Runners in a Hot and

Humid Environment. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 39(1), pp. 205-211.

GODEK, S.F., et al., 2006. Core Temperature and Percentage of Dehydration in

Professional Football Lineman and Backs During Preseason Practices. Journal

of Athletic Training, 41(1), pp. 8-14.

GONZALEZ-ALONSO, J. et al., 1997. Dehydration Markedly Impairs

Cardiovascular Function in Hyperthermic Endurance Athletes During Exercise.

Journal of Applied Physiology, 82(4), pp. 1229-1236.

GOPINATHAN, P.M., PICHAN, G. & SHARMA, V.M., 1988. Role of dehydration in

heat stress-induced variations in mental performance. Archives of

Environmental Health, 43(1), pp. 15-17.

GRANDJEAN, A.C. & GRANDJEAN, N.R., 2006. Dehydration and Cognitive

Performance. Journal of the American College of Nutrition, 26(5), pp. 29-30.

GREGO, F. et al., 2005. Influence of Exercise Duration and Hydration Status on

Cognitive Function during Prolonged Cycling Exercise. International Journal of


GUELINCKX, I. et al., 2013. Changes In Daily Water Intake Impact Mood of High

and Low Drinkers. The Journal of the Federation of American Societies for

Experimental Biology, 28(4), pp. 840.

GUTIN, B. & DIGENNARO, J., 1968. Effect Of A Treadmill Run To Exhaustion On

Performance Of Long Addition. The Research Quartely, 39(1), pp.958-964.

GUTMAN, M. et al., 1984. Training Stress in Olympic Speed Skaters: A

Psychological Perspective. The Physician and Sports Medicine, 12(1), pp. 45-

57.

HEINRICHS, S.C. & KOOB, G.F., 2004. Corticotropin-Releasing Factor in Brain: A

Role in Activation, Arousal, and Affect Regulation. The Journal Of

Pharmacology, 311(2), pp. 427-440.

HOGERVORST, E., 1996. Cognitive Performance after Strenuous Physical

Exercise. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 83(1), pp. 479-488.

36


HOPKINS, W.G., 2000. Measures of Reliability in Sports Medicine and Science.


IDE, K. & SECHER, N.H., 2000. Cerebral Blood Flow and Metabolism during

Exercise. Progress in Neurobiology, 61(1), pp. 397-414.

KEMPTON, M.J. et al., 2011. Dehydration Affects Brain Structure and Function in

Healthy Adolescents. Human Brain Mapping, 32(1), pp. 71-79.

KERSLAKE, D.M., 1955. Factors Concerned in the Regulation of Sweat

Production in Man. Journal of Physiology, 127(1), pp. 280-296.

KLOET, E.R., JOËLS, M. & HOLSBOER, F., 2005. Stress and the Brain: From

Adaptation to Disease. Journal of Medical Pharmacology, 6(1), pp. 463-475.

LAMBOURNE, K. & TOMPOROWSKI, P., 2010. The Effect of Exercise Induced

Arousal on Cognitive Task Performance: A Meta-Regression Analysis. Brain

Research, 1341(5), pp. 12-24.

LICHTMAN, S. & POSNER, E.G., 1983. The effects of Exercise on Mood and

Cognitive Functioning. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 27(1), pp. 43-52.

LEIBOWITZ, H.W. et al., 1972. The Effect of Heat Stress on Reaction Time to

Centrally and Peripherally Presented Stimuli. Human Factors, 14 (1), pp. 155–

160.

LIEBERMANN, D.G. & GOODMAN, D., 2007. Pre-landing muscle timing and post-

landing effects of falling with continuous vision and in blindfold conditions.

Journal of Electromyography and Kinesiology, 17(2), pp. 212-227.

LIEBERMAN, H.R., 2007. Hydration and Cognition: A Critical Review and

Recommendations for Future Research. Journal of the American Journal of

Nutrition, 26 (5), pp. 555-561.

LIEBERMAN, H.R. et al., 2005. Severe decrements in cognition function and

mood induced by sleep loss, heat, dehydration, and under nutrition during

simulated combat. Biological Psychiatry, 57(4), pp. 422-429.

MACKENZIE, B. (2001) Scoring for POMS [WWW] Available from:

http://www.brianmac.co.uk/pomscoring.htm [Accessed11/5/2014].

37


MACKENZIE, B. (2000) Illinois Agility Run Test [WWW] Available from:

http://www.brianmac.co.uk/illinois.htm [Accessed 13/2/2014].

MARESH, C.M. et al., 2004. Effect of hydration status on thirst, drinking, and

related hormonal responses during low-intensity exercise in the heat. Journal

of Applied Physiology, 97(1), pp. 39-44.

MARTINI, F.H. and BARTHOLOMEW, E.F., 2010. Essentials of Anatomy &

Physiology. 5th ed. San Francisco, CA: Pearson Education Inc.

MARTIN, G.L. & THOMSON, K., 2011. Overview of Behavioural Sport Psychology.

Behavioural Sport Psychology, 7(1), pp. 3-21.

MAUGHAN, R.J., 1991. Fluid and Electrolyte loss and replacement in Exercise.

Journal of Sport Science, 9(1), pp. 117-142.

MAUGHAN, R.J. & MURRAY, R., 2001. Sports Drinks: Basic Science and Practical

Aspects. Danvers, MA: CRC Press LLC.

MAUGHAN, R.J., SHIRREFFS, S.M. and WATSON, P., 2007. Exercise, Heat,

Hydration and the Brain. School of Sport and Exercise Sciences, 26 (5), pp. 604-

612.

MCNAIR, D.M., LORR, M. & DROPPLEMAN, L.F., 1971. Manual for the Profile of

Mood States. San Diego, CA: Educational and Industrial Testing Services.

MILLSLAGLE, D.G., 2002. Recognition Accuracy by Experienced Men and Women

Players of Basketball. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 95(1), pp. 163-172.

MOLNER, F.J. et al., 2007. Acceptability and Concurrent Validity of Measures to

Predict Older Driver Involvement in Motor Vehicle Crashes. Accident Analysis

and Prevention, 39(5), pp. 1056-1063.

MONTGOMERY, P.G., PYNE, D.B. & MINAHAN, C.L., 2010. The Physical and

Physiological Demands of Basketball Training and Competition. International

Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance, 5(1), pp. 75-86.

MORAN, A., 2009. Cognitive Psychology in Sport: Progress and Prospects.

Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 10(4), pp. 420-426.

MORAN, A., 2012. Thinking in Action: Some insights from Cognitive Sport

Psychology. Thinking Skills and Creativity, 7 (2), pp. 85-92.

38


MORROW, S.A., et al., 2010. Evaluation of the Symbol Digit Modalities Test

(SDMT) and MS Neuropsychological Screening Questionnaire (MSNQ) in

Natalizumab-treated MS Patients over 48 Weeks. Multiple Sclerosis Journal,

16(11), pp. 1385-1392.

MOSHEIOV, G., 2001. Scheduling Problems with a Learning Effect. European

Journal of Operational Research, 132(3), pp. 687-693.

NEAVE, N. et al., 2001. Water Ingestion Improves Subjective Alertness, But Has

No Effect On Cognitive Performance In Dehydrated Healthy Young Volunteers.

Appetite, 37(1), pp. 255–256.

NIELSEN, B., 1997. Acute and Adaptive Responses in Humans to Exercise in a

Warm, Humid Environment. Phlugers Archives, 434(1), pp. 49-56.

NOAKES, T.D., GIBSON, A. & LAMBERT, E.V., 2005. From Catastrophe to

Complexity: A Novel Model of Integrative Central Regulation of Effort and

Fatigue During Exercise in Humans: Summary and Conclusions. British Journal

of Sports Medicine, 39 (1), pp. 120-124.

NOCENTINI, U. et al., 2006. The Symbol Digit Modalities Test-Oral Version:

Italian Normative Data. Journal of Functional Neurology, 21(2), pp. 93-96.

NYBO, L. & NEILSEN B., 2001. Middle Cerebral Artery Blood Velocity is Reduced

with Hyperthermia During Prolonged Exercise in Humans. Journal of

Physiology, 5(34), pp. 279-286.

OSTERBERG, K., 2009. Basketball and Hydration - New Research Indicates

Fluids is Key to Maintain Performance. Gatorade Sports Science Institute, pp.

1-3.

OSTERBERG, K.L., HORSWILL, C.A. & BAKER, L.B., 2009. Pregame Urine Specific

Gravity and Fluid Intake by National Basketball Association Players during

Competition. Journal of Athletic Training, 44(1), pp. 53-57.

PALMER, M.S. & SPRIET, L.L., 2008. Sweat Rate, Salt Loss, and Fluid Intake,

During Intense on-ice practice in Elite Canadian Male Junior Hockey Players.

Journal of Applied Physiology, Nutrition and Metabolism, 33(1), pp. 263-271.

PARKINSON, B. et al., 1996. Changing moods. The psychology of mood & mood

regulation. Harlow, England: Longman.

39


PIEPHO, H.P., BUCHSE, A., and RICHTER. C., 2004. A Mixed Modeling Approach

for Randomized Experiments with Repeated Measures. Journal of Agronomy

and Crop Science, 190(4), pp. 230-247.

POPKIN, B.M., D’ANCI, K.E. & ROSENBERG, I.H., 2010. Water, Hydration and

Health. Nutrition Review, 68(8), pp. 439-458.

PRAPAVESSIS, H., 2000. The POMS and Sports Performance: A Review. Journal

of Applied Sports Psychology, 12(1), pp. 34-48.

PROSS, N. et al., 2013. Influence of progressive fluid restriction on mood and

physiological markers of dehydration in women. British Journal of Nutrition,

109(2), pp. 313-321.

PUGH, I.E., CORBETT, J.I. & JOHNSON, R.H., 1967. Rectal Temperatures, Weight

Losses, and Sweat Rates in Marathon Running. Journal of Applied Physiology,

23(3), pp. 347-352.

REILLY, T., 1997. Energetics of High Intensity Exercise (Soccer) with Particular

Reference to Fatigue. Journal of Sports Sciences, 15(3), pp. 257-263.

ROGNMO, O., et al., 2004. High Intensity Aerobic Interval Exercise is Superior

too Moderate Intensity Exercise for Increasing Aerobic Capacity in Patients

with Coronary Heart Disease. European Society of Cardiology, 11(3), pp. 216-

222.

RUSS, N.W. and GELLER, S.E., 1986. Using Sobriety Tests To Increase Awareness

Of Alcohol Impairment. Health Education Research, 1(4), pp. 255-261.

SANDERS, A. F., 1998. Elements of Human Performance: Reaction Processes

and Attention in Human Skill. Mahwah, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum

Associates.

SAWKA, M.N., 2004. Panel on Dietary Reference Intakes for Electrolytes and

Water: Dietary Reference Intakes for Water, Potassium, Sodium, Chloride and

Sulphate. Washington, DC: National Academies Press.

SCHRÖDER, H. et al., 2004. Dietary Habits and Fluid Intake of a Group of Elite

Spanish Basketball Players: A Need for Professional Advice?. European Journal

of Sports Science, 4(2), pp. 1-15.

40


SERWAH, N. & MARINO, F.E., 2006. The combined effect of hydration and

exercise heat stress on choice reaction time. Journal of Science and Medicine

in Sport, 9(1), pp. 157–164.

SHARKEY, B.J. & GASKILL, S.E., 2006. Sport Physiology for Coaches. Champaign,

IL: Human Kinetics.

SHARMA, V.M. et al., 1986. Influence Of Heat Stress-Induced Dehydration On

Functions. Ergonomics, 29(2), pp. 791–799.

SHERIDAN, L. et al., 2006. Normative Symbol Digit Modalities Test performance

in a community-based sample. Archives Of Clinical Neuropsychology, 21 (1),

pp. 23–28.

SHIRREFFS, S.M. 2004. The effects of fluid restriction on hydration status and

subjective feelings in man. British Journal of Nutrition, 91 (2), pp. 951–958.

SILVA, J.M. et al.,1985. Discriminating Characteristics of Contestants of at the

United States Olympic Wrestling Trials. International Journal of Sport

Psychology, 16(1), pp. 79-102.

SIMPSON, M.R. and HOWARD, T., 2011. ACSM Information on Selecting and

Effectively Using Hydration for Fitness. [online]. Michigan: ACSM. Available

from : http://www.acsm.org/docs/brochures/selecting-and-effectively-using-

hydration-for-fitness.pdf [Accessed 22 April 2013].

SMITH, A., 1968. The Symbol-Digit Modalities Test: A Neuropsychological Test of

Learning and Other Cerebral Disorders, J. Helmuth (Ed.), Learning disorders,

Special Child Publications, Seattle, pp. 83–91.

SMITH, A., 1982. Symbol Digits Modalities Test, Western Psychological Services,

Los Angeles.

SMIT, H.J. & ROGERS, P.J., 2002. Effects of ‘Energy’ Drinks on Mood and Mental

Performance: Critical Methodology. Food Quality and Preference, 13(5), pp.

317-326.

SONDER, J.M., et al. 2014. Comparing Long-Term Results of PASAT and SDMT

scores in relation to neuropsychological Testing in Multiple Sclerosis. Multiple

Sclerosis, 20(4), pp. 481-488.

41

http://www.acsm.org/docs/brochures/selecting-and-effectively-using-hydration-for-fitness.pdf

http://www.acsm.org/docs/brochures/selecting-and-effectively-using-hydration-for-fitness.pdf


SZINNAI, J. et al., 2005. Effect of Water Deprivation on Cognitive-Motor

Performance in Healthy Men and Women. The American Journal of Physiology,

289(1), pp. 275-280.

TERRY, P.C., LANE, A.M. & FOGARTY, G.J., 2003. Construct Validity of the Profile

of Mood States — Adolescents for Use with Adults. Psychology of Sport and

Exercise, 4(2), pp. 317-326.

TOMPOROWSKI, P.D. et al., 2007. Effects of Dehydration and Fluid Ingestion on

Cognition. International Journal of Sports Medicine, 28 (10), pp. 891-896.

TOMPOROWSKI, P.D., 2003. Effects of Acute Bouts of Exercise on Cognition.

Acta Psychologica, 112(1), pp.

TOTTERDELL, P., 2000. Subjective Performance in Professional Sports Teams.

Journal of Applied Psychology, 85(6), pp. 848-859.

VOSS, M.W., 2010. Are Expert Athletes ‘Expert’ in the Cognitive Laboratory? A

Meta-Analytic Review of Cognition and Sport Expertise. Applied Cognitive

Psychology, 24(6), pp, 812-826.

WALSH, N.P. et al., 2004. Saliva flow rate, total protein concentration and

osmolality as potential markers of whole body hydration status during

progressive acute dehydration in humans. Archives of Oral Biology, 49(2), pp.

149-154.

WILMORE, J.H., COSTILL, D.L. & KENNEY. L.W., 2008. Physiology of Sport and

Exercise. 4th ed. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

WILSON, M.M.G. & MORELY, J.E., 2003. Impaired Cognitive Function and Mental

Performance in Mild Dehydration. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 57(2),

pp. 24-29.

WINSLOW, C-E. A., HERRINGTON, L. P. & GAGGE, A. P., 1938. The reactions of

the clothed human body to variations in atmospheric humidity. American

Journal of Physiology, 124(1), pp. 692-703.

WOODS, K., BISHOP, P. and JONES. F., 2007. Warm-Up and Stretching in the

Prevention of Muscular Injury. Sports Medicine, 37(12), pp. 1089-1099.

42


ZURI, R. et al., 2013. Cognitive Performance May be Impaired by Exercise in a

Hot, Humid Environment: A Preliminary Investigation, Florida International

University, USA.

Appendix 1

Recruitment Material

Dear Sir/Madam

We would like to invite you to take part in a study that explores the effects of mild dehydration on cognitive function (memory, mood and reaction time) and skill performance in basketball.

The study will take place over three weeks and will be during your scheduled training sessions so you will not need to give up any additional time.

To assess your suitability for the test you will be required to complete a Physical Activity Readiness Questionnaire (PARQ) and an informed consent form. From these the researcher will determine if you surpass the exclusion criteria.

Below is a detailed account of the test procedures for you to read:

Three test days will be carried out over three weeks, each on the basketball teams scheduled training days. The first will be an initial control trail to familiarise participants with all test procedures. The second day of testing will involve the team being hydrated by following the exercise hydration guidelines provided by ASCM (2011). Immediately after game play, you will be weighed and a urine sample will be taken to monitor your level of hydration and then the tests will be carried out. The third day of testing will involve all participants to be dehydrated and restricted access to water, followed by execution of all the tests. All results obtained will be recorded and analysed.

43


The participants will complete each of the tests after a 40 minute game. The Illinois agility test (physical performance) will be completed first with the participants being separated between two stations. The mood, memory and reaction time tests (cognitive function) will be completed second with the participants being split between the three for speed of completion so the results will be more accurate. For more detailed information on the tests involved see the attached participant information sheet.

The result from the tests will be shared and could benefit your game as you will able to see the potential merits of remaining fully hydrated throughout a game.

Attached is a copy of the PARQ and the informed consent sheet for you to fill in.

Thank You

Yours Sincerely

Amy, Simon, Lewis

Appendix 2

Participant Information Sheet for Competent Adults (PISCA)

Generic Information

SRRG Ref No: SHS 13 42

Title (short): Fluid restriction in basketball players.

Date: 11.11.13

Introduction:

We are applied sport and exercise students currently undertaking our fourth year research projects. This letter is an invitation for you to participate in our study which would be very much appreciated.

The study:

The purpose of the study is to look at the effect of fluid restriction on cognitive function and skill performance in basketball players. To be included in the study you need to play basketball for RGU, training at least once a week and competing in games. For the study you will be required to take part in a basketball session, be weighed both before and after the session and provide a urine sample. The study also requires you to carry out a performance test as well as a memory, mood and reaction time test at the end of the session. Your participation in the study is completely voluntary and you can withdraw from the study at any point.

Taking part:

The study will take place at RGU sport in the hall during a normal basketball training session. There will be a familiarisation session and two testing sessions and these will take place on a weekly basis during the normal basketball training sessions at

44


RGU sport. The familiarisation will be a practice session where you will find out what the tests are and be able to have a practice of each test so you know exactly what you will be doing within the testing sessions. There are two testing conditions, a hydrated one where you will be encouraged to drink water throughout the session and the second is a fluid restricted session where you would not be allowed access to water until the end of the session. The sessions will be approximately two hours long. As a participant you will be required to be weighed and give a urine sample at the start then take part in a basketball game. You will then be weighed after the session and required to give a urine sample. You would also have to carry out an Illinois agility test which is a simple speed and change of direction test where you will be timed when carrying out the course. A simple reaction speed test which involves catching a falling ruler, a written test to assess cognitive function such as motor speed, short term memory, scanning ability and attention and a current mood status questionnaire to assess your mood after the session. You will be asked to provide a 24 hour dietary recall before the first session and to avoid any major changes to your diet and activity patterns between testing sessions. If you are injured or have been injured in the past six months you will be unable to take part in the study.

Expenses and payment:

This is a voluntary study and therefore no payment will be received for participation.

Advantages and disadvantages of taking part:

Taking part will give data on how effectively you manage to stay hydrated when playing basketball and the effect it can have on your performance when you are not properly hydrated. The disadvantage is that some discomfort may be felt during the fluid restriction session causing you to be very thirsty by the end of the session. However you have the right to withdraw from the tests at any point.

Confidentiality, data protection and anonymity:

All your data will be kept completely confidential and saved in a secure database that will be password encrypted. It will only be available for the research team and anonymity will make it impossible to link the data to you the individual.

Data Protection: all data will be collected and stored within the requirements of the Data Protection Act (1998). Data will be stored in a locked cabinet/password protected computer/memory stick/ hard drive and accessible only to the research team (student researcher and supervisor)

What happens if there is a problem?

If you have any problems then you can contact the research team via the

45


information provided at the end of the sheet.

Complaints may be made to the SRRG convenor Dr Lyndsay Alexander [email protected].

What will happen to my research data?

The data will be used to write up the research paper which may be published within academic journals and then it will be destroyed at the end of the study.

Assurance of research rigour:

This research has been approved by the School Research Review Group at the School of Health Sciences, Robert Gordon University, Aberdeen.

What happens now?

If after reading this information sheet you are interested in taking part in this research project please contact the researcher at the address/email/phone number below.

Further information and contacts:

Researchers: Lewis Kerr, Amy Street, Simon Gilmour

Supervisor: Eimear Dolan

HS3 Applied Sport and Exercise Science

School of Health Sciences

Robert Gordon University

Garthdee Road

Aberdeen AB10 7QG

[email protected]

[email protected]

[email protected]

HS3 Applied Sport and Exercise Science


Robert Gordon University

Garthdee Road

Aberdeen AB10 7QG

e.dolan @rgu.ac.uk

01224 263258

46


Appendix 3

PARQ

Participant Questionnaire

If you wish to participate in the study, it is important that you complete this quick questionnaire to ensure that test procedures will be appropriate for you to participate in.

Please carefully read each question below and circle ‘Yes’ or ‘No’ depending on your answer. Please answer each question honestly and to the best of your knowledge.

1. Has your doctor ever said that you have a heart condition and that you can only do physical activity recommended by a doctor?

2. Do you experience a tightness or pain in your chest when you do physical activity?

3. In the past month have you ever experienced pain in the chest when NOT doing physical activity?

4. Do you ever feel faint, experience dizziness or lose consciousness?

5. Do you have a bone or joint problem (for example back, hip, and knee) that could be made worse as a result of physical activity?

6. Have you had any injuries in the past 6 months?

7. Have you been unwell in the past month? If yes please explain.

47

Yes / No

Yes / No

Yes / No

Yes / No

Yes / No

Yes / No

Yes / No


………………………………………………………………………………………………………

8. Is your doctor currently prescribing you drugs for blood pressure or a heart condition?

9. Do you know of any other reason as to why you should NOT engage in physical activity?

If you answered ‘Yes’ to one or more questions:

If not already done so, please consult your doctor either by telephone or in person before participating in physical activity and inform them of the questions that you answered ‘Yes’ to on the PAR-Q. After medical evaluation, please seek advice from your doctor as to whether it is appropriate for you to take part within the study.

If you answered ‘No’ to all of the questions:

If you answered the PAR-Q accurately and honestly you have reasonable assurance that you will be able to take part within the test.

I hereby state that I have read, understood and answered the above questions honestly and to the best of my knowledge. I also state that I wish to take part within the study which will involve aerobic exercise, agility tests and stretching. I understand that my participation within this study involves the risk of injury or even the possibility of death. I hereby confirm that I agree to take part within the study at my own risk.

Name of participant ………………………………………………………………………

Signature ………………………………………… Date ………/………/………

Name of Researcher ……………………………………………………………………

Signature ………………………………………… Date ………/………/………

48


Appendix 4

Informed Consent Form

Generic Information



Please initial

each box

1. I confirm that I have read and understand the participant information sheet dated 11/11/2013 for the above study. I have had the opportunity to consider the information, ask questions and have had these answered satisfactorily.

2. I understand that my participation is voluntary and that I am free to withdraw at any time without giving any reason.

3. I understand that data collected during the study will be looked at by individuals from Robert Gordon University where it is relevant to my taking part in this research. I give permission for these individuals to have access to the data.

4. I agree to providing urine samples and being weighed prior to and after playing basketball.

5. I agree to take part in testing after each session as outlined in the information sheet.

6. I agree to take part in the above study.

Participant:

Name:

Signature:

Date:

49


Person taking consent:

Name: Amy Street, Lewis Kerr & Simon Gilmour

Signature:

Date: 11/11/2013

Appendix 5

Research Proposal

Generic Information


Title (full):The effect of fluid restriction on cognitive function and skill performance in basketball players.


Researcher’s name: Amy Street, Lewis Kerr, Simon Gilmour

Signature: Amy Street, Lewis Kerr, Simon Gilmour

Date: 11.11.13

Supervisor’s name: Eimear Dolan

Signature: Eimear Dolan

Date: 11.11.13

Background to the Research Topic

Introduction:

Water is a vital component required in order to survive, whereby it has been found that in severe cases (9% to 12% total weight loss due to dehydration) can cause serious deterioration in cognitive and physiological functions and could lead to death (Wilmore, Costill and Kenney 2007). This study aims to find out whether cognitive function and skill performance deteriorates as a result of mild exercise induced dehydration (DEH) of a minimum of 2% DEH in university level in basketball players. A basketball team was chosen due to basketball involving bursts of high intensity exercise (Dougherty et al 2006) where quick decision making, reaction time and skill execution can change the whole dynamic of the game making it essential to maintain optimum performance for as long as possible. It is important to assess the impact of dehydration on these variables to emphasise its importance in relation to basketball performance as well as other high intensity sports.

50


Literature Review:

Literature highlights that it is essential during sport to maintain the body’s hydration levels as a loss of just 2% of body water could affect physical and cognitive performance. Dehydration of 5% and 7% can have a serious effect on decision making and awareness and as water loss increases, individuals begin to experience symptoms such as tiredness, sore heads and dizziness (Latzka and Montain 1999). It can therefore be questioned as to whether these effects would be present at a more subtle induced dehydration state of 2% and to what degree.

Studies by Gopinathan, Pichan and Sharma (1988) and Cian et al (2000) to induce DEH of 2% have shown that mood was rated more negatively and memory and reaction time performance diminished when exercising in heat and restricting fluid. Interestingly a study involving college athletes during a training session without access to fluids found that mood was ranked more negatively after a >2% decrease in body weight, yet memory was actually enhanced (D’anchi et al 2009). With such conflicting results it can be concluded that it is necessary to carry out tests to further analyse the effects of 2% DEH on cognitive functions in a basketball related setting within a neutral temperature.

A study by Lion et al (2010) found that cycling on an ergometer for forty five minutes in a room (22-24◦C, room temperature) induced sweat loss sufficient enough to induce a state of 2% dehydration which in turn negatively affected the participants sensory perception directly after the cycle however sensory organisation tests highlighted that the participant regained efficiency after 30 minutes. It can therefore be questioned that if sensory perception is affected at 2% DEH during a closed environment test would results show similar findings in a test within a sports specific setting?

Research Question and/or Hypothesis:

Will fluid restriction leading to a minimum of 2% DEH impact on the cognitive functions of memory, mood and reaction time and the dribbling ability of basketball players?

It is predicted that there will be a significant relationship between cognitive function and skill performance with fluid loss, whereby performance quality will decline as percentage of DEH increases.

Aim(s) and Objectives

Aim(s):

1. To determine the effects of ≥2% DEH on university level basketball players’ ability to perform a sports specific skill.

2. To determine the effect of ≥2% DEH on university level basketball players’ cognitive functions.

Objectives:

1. Induce a level of ≥2% DEH during a basketball game and then carry out an Illinois agility test incorporating dribbling and a free throw shot to determine the

51


effect on skill performance.

2. To monitor their cognitive function through the completion of a reaction time test and a written test to assess their visual scanning, attention and motor speed.

3. To obtain a player’s perceived feelings due to both hydration and dehydration after the game using a valid profile of mood state.

4. Determine the effect of dehydration on skill and cognitive performance

through statistical analysis and comparison of results between the hydrated and

fluid restricted sessions to see if any difference is witnessed. Also if any

relationships exist between the aspects tested and hydration status.

Methods

Introduction, study design and justification:

The methods used are coherent logical and will allow for easily interpretable results.

The study design used will be experimental repeated measures quantitative study Jones 2004 conducted over several weeks. This design has been chosen as it will give tangible numerical results that can be easily analysed and the experimental study design components will be easily repeatable and are all established tests within the subject area. The repeated measures will increase the reliability of the results from all tests and will allow for the test to be completed with fewer participants which is beneficial as the subject base only exists within the university basketball team.

The participants will complete each of the tests after completing a standard 40 minute basketball game. After the game they will be split into groups and directed towards the tests stations that will have been set up prior to the training session commencing. They will then again be quickly briefed to ensure that they are aware of the exact procedures of each test before they begin. The participants will be split between the reaction time, weighing and urine stations for speed of completion which should take approximately 15-20 minutes. The tests will be directed by a researcher and will follow a strict protocol.

The Illinois agility test (Appendix 6) will be completed first with the participants being separated between two stations. The test will consist of the participants starting by passing through timing gates which disrupts the connection between the gates and initiates the timer on the receiver. Once they run through the second set of timing gates at the end of the course then this disrupts the connection again and stops the timer on the receiver giving a more accurate time for course completion. This takes out the possibility of human error and judgement as to when a player starts and finishes the course. This standard and modified Illinois test as well as the five free throws at the end of the Illinois tests will take approximately 30 minutes for completion by all the participants.

The mood, memory and reaction time tests will be completed last which should only take about five minutes to complete.

The reaction time will be completed three times in the same session for increased reliability and overall the testing should take approximately 45 minute

52


to an hour.

Population and Sample:

Permission to approach the basketball team will be attained from the basketball coach via e-mail, followed by an initial meeting with the team and coach a week before testing to explain the procedures of each test day and how the tests will be carried out. Permission from RGU:Sport will be requested to gain access to all equipment required.

20 Robert Gordon University male Basketball players, between 18 and 30, will be recruited to test. The recruitment process will be done in three stages. Firstly, permission from the basketball coach will be requested via e-mail, followed by an initial meeting with the team and coach a week before testing to explain the procedures of each test day and how the tests will be carried out. The basketball players will receive a written and verbal briefing on the full protocol, procedures and how they will be sampled to ensure there is no ambiguity. Secondly the participants will be sampled using a physical activity readiness questionnaire (PARQ) (Appendix 7) to determine there suitability for the test. Thirdly the participants will be selected based on their participant questionnaire.

The participants will have one week from their initial briefing to complete the PAR-Q and informed consent and deliver the forms back to the researchers, who will return to the training session to collect these forms. The participants will have the opportunity to ask any questions at this time. They will be informed of selection within 24 hours after the forms deadline. Any participants that have circled ‘Yes’ to any of the questions will be requested to provide a doctor’s letter confirming that they are fit to take part in the study before the one week deadline. Testing will commence one week later, and participants will be asked to sign a written informed consent form prior to testing.

Protocol or Plan of Investigation:

As well as the initial familiarisation trial, the fluid provision and restriction test days will be carried out over two weeks during normal training sessions, resulting in a test period of three weeks. The test sessions will be randomised so that half are hydrated one session and half are restricted fluid and this will be switched the following session. The selection of groups will be completely random and both groups will experience both states (hydration or fluid restriction) in at least one of the sessions. Skill performance, cognitive performance and mood will be tested. During trials two and three urine samples and weight will be taken pre and post-game and the tests will be carried out after the game. As the participants are just being compared to themselves between the testing sessions there is no need to have baseline data for the results. In addition, a 24 hour dietary recall will be taken prior to each test session. This will involve the participants recalling everything that they have eaten and drank in the 24 hours prior to the test, and this will allow control for the confounding variable of changes in nutritional factors affecting results.

Trial Test

This will occur a week after recruitment and consist solely of the tests whereby urine samples and weight will be taken to identify current hydration status

53


followed by participation within each test, to familiarise participants with the procedures. This is essential to eliminate a difference in the results due to a learning effect (Comfort and Matthews 2010). Therefore the participants will be allowed to have three practice attempts so they feel comfortable carrying out the tests (Comfort and Matthews 2010) and to allow the sessions to run smoothly.

Hydration Test

This will involve the team being hydrated by following the exercise hydration guidelines provided by ACSM (2011). The ACSM guidelines state that they should drink a minimum of 8-12 ounces of water 15 minutes before participation and then between 3-8 ounces every 10 minutes during activity and finally 20-24 ounces for every pound of bodyweight lost after exercise. Participants will be encouraged to drink the set amounts of water before, during (in each quarter break) and after game play. The aim of this is to keep them hydrated throughout their basketball session to see if this has a positive effect on performance when they carry out the tests at the end when compared to when they carry out the tests at the end of the dehydrated session.

Dehydration Test

This will involve all participants to be dehydrated and completely restricted access to water throughout the basketball session followed by execution of all the tests at the end. All results obtained will be recorded and analysed to be compared with the results from the hydration test. They will be dehydrated by at least 2% which is still within a safe range as dehydration levels of 1-3% are a common occurrence in basketball players during gameplay (Dougherty et al 2006). All participants will be tested however the focus will be on those that reach ≥2% DEH for the results. However the results for those who reached less than 2% dehydration will be used for a comparison between individuals to evaluate a common factor between those that achieved efficient dehydration and those who did not. In the unlikely event that not enough participants reach 2% dehydration then all participants will be included within the results, in order to ascertain if lower levels of dehydration impact on the outcome measures and to satisfy the requirements of the assessment.

The urine samples will be obtained in the disabled toilet downstairs at RGU: Sport as this is close to the hall where basketball training takes place. The subjects will fill their numbered container (a number will be assigned to each participant throughout the test) with urine and leave it on a tray within the toilet. The urine analysis will take place in the toilet where a small amount of urine will be taken up by a pipette and dropped on to a urine osmolality indicator which assesses how concentrated the urine is by analysing how much light can pass through it. After analysis all urine will be disposed of down the toilet and the used pipettes and containers will be placed in an autoclave bag which will be sealed before disposal within the Faculty of Health and Social Care. Gloves will be required for the testers and alcohol wipes for cleaning the osmolality indicator between analyses of the different urine samples.

Skill Performance

Participants will take part in a timed Illinois agility test (Appendix 6). This requires participants to complete the course from start to finish, changing directions quickly around cones. They will do the normal standardised test first and then a modified one dribbling a basketball. This allows a comparison of the

54


difference in time between the standard and the modified test as well as the modified test being more sport specific. After finishing the Illinois agility test with the basketball they will continue on to carry out five free throw shots to assess their success rates between sessions. To reduce the time it takes to test everyone, two circuits will be set up and monitored at the same time. This test is suitable as it is quick and easy to set up and is also very sport specific. The test is also reliable for comparison of results between sessions as it has a test retest reliability of 0.86 as well as only having a two per cent error of measurement for the results (Gabbett 2002).

Cognitive performanceThe Symbol Digit Modalities Test (SDMT) (Smith, 1968 and Smith, 1982) measures key neurocognitive functions including attention, visual scanning and motor speed and has previously been used as a measure of cognitive impairment (Zuri et al., 2013 and Sheridan et al., 2006). Participants will be seated separately with the SDMT (Appendix 9) test paper set facedown in front of them. The stopwatch will begin, whereby participants will turn over their paper and begin the test.

Using a reference key, participants are required to pair as many specific numbers with given geometric figures using a pen as quickly as they can in 90 seconds. When 90 seconds is reach the test is terminated and participants are required to put down their pen immediately. Their score is the correct amount of numbers paired with geometric figures in the 90 second time span (Benedict, 2012).

Reaction-time will be measured using the ruler drop test (Russ and Geller, 1968; Fong, Shirley SM, Sheung-mei Shamay Ng, and Louisa MY Chung) whereby a 30cm ruler is held between the individual’s thumb and index finger at 0cm and dropped and the participant must catch it as quickly as they can. There has to be a small parallel gap between the participant’s thumb and finger from the ruler so it is visible for the tester to see. The distance the ruler travels until the participant catches it again is then put into an equation which works out the subjects’ reaction time. The equation is based on Newton’s formula (Liebermann and Goodman 2007;Fong, Ng and Chung 2013) and is:

Reaction Time= √(2*distance(metres)/9.81 (gravity))Mood

Participants will be required to fill out a profile of mood states (Lorr, McNair and Droppleman 1971) (Appendix 8) a self-examined rating system, where they mark on a scale of 1-5 (1 - not at all and 5- extremely) to measure their current state of depression, anger, vigour, fatigue, confusion, tension and how they were feeling in relation to the provided emotions prior to the game.

Materials, Resources and Equipment:

Weighing scales, towels, ruler, stop watch, basketball and net, cones, tape measure, bibs, hall, pens and paper, chairs, tables, urine sample tubes, pipettes, urine osmolarity indicator , water bottles, toilets, contamination bag, first aid kit and gloves for the research team for handling the urine sample tubes.

Data Analysis:

55


The data will be analyzed for distribution using the Shapiro Wilks (Peat and Barton 2005) test which checks the data for normal distribution in experiments with a relatively small number of participants. This will give the results of whether the data is parametric (normal spread) or non-parametric (not normal spread). The descriptive statistics will provide the best representation of the data overall giving the standard deviation in the results and the central tendency (Peat and Barton 2005). This will give an idea of the most common result and the size of the gap in the data. If the data is non-parametric and there is not a common theme for the results then the data will be analyzed using the Wilcoxon Signed-Rank test (Woolson and Clark 2011). However if the data is parametric then a paired T test will be used to look at the difference between the results from the hydrated and dehydrated tests (Woolson and Clark 2011). If the P value from the tests is less than 0.05 then the results can be considered statistically significant (Peat and Barton 2005). A p value of less than 0.05 means that the results of each test session (fluid restriction and fluid provision) occur due to the variable being changed by the intervention rather than occurring by chance. This data analysis design allows analysis of the same people during multiple tests where their hydration status is the variable being altered (Woolson and Clark 2002).

Key Implications / Value of the Outcome of the Proposed Project:

The results of this study could prove beneficial for identifying the effects dehydration may have on cognitive performance, skill performance and mood. It may also identify an estimated %DEH a game of basketball can induce and how much fluid is required to maintain adequately hydrated throughout a game. The results may prove useful for future use by basketball players in preparation for games.

Limitations of the proposed project:

It is impossible to determine the effects of dehydration as a sole variable. Stressors such as fatigue, temperature and diet will all impact results recorded. To reduce contribution of these factors, individuals will be encouraged to eat a balanced and healthy diet avoiding high alcohol or caffeine content foods and drinks, 24 hours prior to testing and get a minimum of 8 hours sleep the night before.

An exact DEH% cannot be achieved for each player due to the open environment setting of the game, where each player has different priorities and roles within the game, so intensity between players will vary. Therefore a DEH% of ≥2% will be deemed acceptable and a mean DEH % will be calculated after to provide an average for all players.

Due to the number of participants only a certain amount can be tested at any one time during the agility test. This may lead to slight recovery from fatigue for the people going last in the test which could help improve their results compared to those who went first. To minimise this tests will be set up in stations to allow quick transition from one test to another and will make better use of the time and efficient testing of the large group.

Ethical Concerns:

56


Volunteers will be screened prior to testing to ensure that they are physically capable for participation and filled out a participant questionnaire and informed consent to agree to participation within the test. Permission to use the basketball team was granted through RGU Sport and the team manager prior to testing. Any information provided by participants will remain confidential and personal information will be destroyed after use.

IRAS required: NO

References:

BENEDICT, R., 2012. Brief International Cognitive Assessment for MS (BICAMS): international standards for validation. BMC Neurology, 12(55).CIAN, C. et al., 2000. Influence of variation of body hydration on cognitive function: effect of hyperhydration, heat stress and exercise-induced dehydration. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 14(1), pp. 29–36.COMFORT, P., AND MATTHEWS, M., 2010. Assessment and Needs Analysis. In: P, COMFORT and E, ABRAHAMSON, ed. Sports Rehabilitation and Injury Prevention. West Sussex, UK: John Wiley & Sons Ltd. pp. 39-64.D’ANCHI, K.E. et al., 2009. Voluntary dehydration and cognitive performance in trained college athletes. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 109 (1), pp. 251-269.DOUGHERTY, K.A. et al., 2006. Two percent dehydration impairs and six percent carbohydrate drink improves boys basketball skills. Medical Science and Sport and Exercise, 38(9), pp. 1650-1658.FONG, S. S., NG, S. M. S. AND CHUNG, L. M. (2013). Health through martial arts training: Physical fitness and reaction time in adolescent Taekwondo practitioners. Health. 5 (6A3), pp. 1-5.FOX, 1969. The Comparison of Thermo regularity function in men and women, Journal of Applied Physiology, 26(4), pp. 484.

GABBET, T.J. 2002 Physiological characteristics of junior and senior rugby league players. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 36, pp.334-339.

GOPINATHAN, P.M., PICHAN, G. and SHARMA, V.M., 1988. Role of dehydration in heat stress-induced variations in mental performance. Archives of Environmental Health, 43 (1), pp. 15-17.

LATZKA, W.A. and MONTAIN, S.J., 1999. Water and electrolyte requirements for exercise. Clinics in Sports Medicine, 18(3), pp. 513-524.

LEIBERMAN, H.R., 2007. Hydration and Cognition: A Critical Review and Recommendations for Future Research. Journal of the American Journal of Nutrition, 26 (5), pp. 555-561.LIEBERMANN, D.G. AND GOODMAN, D., 2007. Pre-landing muscle timing and post-landing effects of falling with continuous vision and in blindfold conditions. Journal of Electromyography and Kinesiology, 17(2), pp. 212-217.LIM, W.M and TING, D.H., 2012. Research Methodology: A Toolkit of Sampling and Data Analysis Techniques for Quantitative Research. Germany: Grinn VerlagLION, 2010. Exercise and dehydration: A possible role of inner ear in balance control disorder, Journal of Electromyography and Kinesiology, (20) pp. 1196–1202.MCNAIR, D. M., LORR, M., and DROPPLEMAN, L. F., 1971. Manual for the Profile of Mood States. San Diego, CA: Educational and Industrial Testing Services.PEAT, J. and BARTON, B., 2005. Medical Statistics: A Guide to Data Analysis and Critical Appraisal. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing Ltd.

57


RUSS, N.W. and GELLER, S.E., 1986. Using Sobriety Tests To Increase Awareness Of Alcohol Impairment. Health Education Research, 1(4), pp. 255-261.

SIMPSON, M.R. and HOWARD, T., 2011. ACSM Information on Selecting and Effectively Using Hydration for Fitness. [online]. Michigan: ACSM. Available from : http://www.acsm.org/docs/brochures/selecting-and-effectively-using-hydration-for-fitness.pdf [Accessed 22 April 2013].WILMORE, J.H., COSTILL, D.L. and KENNEY, W. L., 2007. Physiology of Sport and Exercise. 4th ed. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.WOOLSON, R.F. and CLARKE, W.R., 2011. Statistical Methods for the Analysis of Biomedical Data. 2ND ed. New York: John Wiley and Sons.SHERIDAN, L. et al., 2006.Normative Symbol Digit Modalities Test performance in a community-based sample. Archives Of Clinical Neuropsychology, 21 (1), pp. 23–28

SMITH, A., 1968. The symbol-digit modalities test: a neuropsychologic test of learning and other cerebral disorders, J. Helmuth (Ed.), Learning disorders, Special Child Publications, Seattle, pp. 83–91.

SMITH, A., 1982. Symbol Digits Modalities Test, Western Psychological Services, Los Angeles.

ZURI, R. et al., 2013. Cognitive Performance May be Impaired by Exercise in a Hot, Humid Environment: A Preliminary Investigation, Florida International University, USA.

Appendix 6

Research Student Project Ethical Review (RSPER)

58


Before completing this form, please refer to the Research Ethics Policy and

Research Governance Policy which can be found online at

http://www.rgu.ac.uk/policies. The student’s supervisor is responsible for

advising the student on appropriate professional judgment in this review.

Section A: Generic information


Title (full):

The effect of fluid restriction on cognitive function and skill

performance in basketball players.



Project start date: September 2013

Section B: Ethics review checklist - PART 1

YeNo

1. Is approval from an external Research Ethics Committee

required/being sought?

2. Is the research solely literature-based?

If you answered YES to 1 and/or 2 please go to the Ethics Review Checklist - Part 2

3. Does the research involve the use of any dangerous substances?

4.

5. Does the research involve ionising or other type of dangerous

“radiation”?

6. Could conflicts of interest arise between the source of funding and the

potential outcomes of the research?

7. Is it likely that the research will put any of the following at risk:

(i) living creatures?

(ii) stakeholders?

(iii) the environment?

59


(iv) the economy?

8. Does the research involve experimentation on any of the following?

(i) animals?

(ii) animal tissues?

(iii) human tissues (including blood, fluid, skin, cell lines)?

9. Will the research involve prolonged or repetitive testing, or the

collection of audio or video materials?

10.Could the research induce psychological stress or anxiety, cause harm

or have negative consequences for the participants (beyond the risks

encountered in normal life)?

11.Will financial inducements be offered?

12.Will deception of participants be necessary during the research?

13.Are there problems with the participant’s right to remain anonymous?

14.Does the research involve participants who may be particularly

vulnerable (such as children or adults with severe learning

disabilities)?

Section B: Ethics review checklist - PART 2

Please give a summary of the ethical issues and any action that will be taken to

address the issue(s). If you believe there to be no ethical issues please enter

“NONE” into the box below.

The participants will be required to attend three test trials. This will include the

two test sessions (fluid provision and restriction) as well as a familiarisation

session with the tests to allow it to run more smoothly during the test session.

The participants will be restricted access to water in the fluid restriction session

and this could potentially be detrimental in extreme circumstances however this

is unlikely to happen as water will be readily available for them should they need

it. They will also be monitored throughout the session by gauging how they are

feeling as an indicator of their hydration status and whether they should be

given water.

All data collected from participants will remain anonymous and any information

obtained will remain confidential. Any stored information will be on a locked

60


system. Any information on paper will be transferred to a secure database and

the paper will be destroyed.

Section C: Affirmations

I believe that the information I have given in this form on ethical issues is

correct.

Researcher’s name: Amy Street, Lewis Kerr, Simon Gilmour

Signature:Amy Street, Lewis Kerr, Simon Gilmour

Date: 11.11.13

I have read this Ethical Review Checklist and I can confirm that, to the best of my

understanding, the information presented by the student is correct and

appropriate to allow an informed judgment on whether further ethical approval is

required.



Date: 11.11.13

Section D: Supervisor recommendation on the project’s ethical status

Having satisfied myself of the accuracy of the project ethical statement, I believe

that the appropriate action is:

The project proceeds in its present form x

The project proposal needs further assessment under the School

Ethics procedure*

The project needs to be returned to the student for modification prior

to further action*

*The School is reminded that it is their responsibility to ensure that no project

proceeds without appropriate assessment of ethical issues. In extreme cases,

61


this can require processing by the University’s Research Ethics Sub-Committee

or by external bodies.

Appendix 7


School Research Review Group (SRRG)

Research Risk Assessment Form

Generic Information


62



Researcher’s names: Simon Gilmour, Amy Street, Lewis Kerr

1. Research Activity

Participants will partake in a game/training session to induce a minimum of 2% DEH. They will then complete a series of tests based around cognitive function, mood and reaction time and dribbling ability. It can be predicted that there will be a significant relationship between cognitive function and skill performance with fluid loss, whereby performance quality will decline as % DEH increases.

2. Location

RGU:Sport

3a. Significant Hazards 3b. Control Measures

Exhaustion due to dehydration

Injury from attempting skill.

Slipping on Floor

Urine contamination

Participants will be told to tell a researcher immediately if they begin to feel ill during and after the session/testing.

Floor will be checked for abnormalities before participant completes jump. Correct footwear should be worn.

Floor will be observed and dried if wet, with hazards sign placed.

The samples will be placed on a specific table within the toilet to avoid contamination of the surrounding area. When analysing the urine the researcher will wear gloves, dispose the urine down the toilet and place containers, wipes, pipettes and gloves in a contamination bag. Everything will be sanitised with alcohol wipes when the analysis is complete.

These risks however are no greater than those experienced in a normal basketball training session, apart from the urine analysis and the increased risk of dehydration occurring in the fluid restriction trial. Although some discomfort may be felt, the chances of adverse events occurring as a result of the mild levels of dehydration that may be induced through fluid restriction are thought to be low.

4a. Who might be at risk? 4b. How will the control measures remove or minimise the risks?

Participants/Researchers The control measures will remove or minimise risks that are on or

63


surrounding the court and at the basket area.

5. Risk Evaluation

What is the likelihood of any of the identified risks occurring?

High Medium Low

How severe do you judge the implications (to participants, researchers, environment, equipment, the University etc) should any of these risks occur?

Severe Minor Negligible

State how the risks could be reduced further: Careful vigilance.

Explanation of potential risks to participants before test is conducted.

Date by which any further controls will be implemented:

Non-discernible at this time.

Declaration

I have undertaken a risk assessment of the above named project and have put into place the controls listed above. Any further controls will be implemented by the date stated and details regarding these submitted to SRRG for review and ratification before the research project commences.

Researcher’s names: Simon Gilmour, Amy Street, Lewis Kerr

Signature: Simon Gilmour

Date: 03/05/2013



Date: 11.11.13

SRRG Convener:

Date:

64


Appendix 8

The Symbol Digits Modalities Test

65


Appendix 9

ACSM Guideline recommendations (Simpson and Howard 2011) for fluid intake, before, during and after planned exercise.

66

Fluid Ounces of

Water (oz.)

Frequency

(Minutes)

Before8-12

10 -15

(Before)

During 3-8 Every 15-20

After 20-24

(for every lb. of

body weight lost)

N/A

http://www.google.co.uk/url?sa=i&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&frm=1&source=images&cd=&cad=rja&docid=fQRiE-eBs89KWM&tbnid=_wOYbpUju6VI6M:&ved=0CAUQjRw&url=http://www.springerimages.com/Images/RSS/5-10.1186_1471-2377-12-55-0&ei=1h95UtLmDa-20QXf84GoAQ&bvm=bv.55980276,d.d2k&psig=AFQjCNGgdJB_Ph8-k8CfrGg2DUdtqi1chQ&ust=1383755970607514


Appendix 10 Profile of Mood States - (Lorr, McNair and Droppleman, 1971)

Below is a list of words that describe emotions people have. Please decide carefully the number that best describes how you are feeling for each emotion at this moment in time

0- Not at all 1 – A little 2– Moderate 3- Quite a bit 4- Extremely

1.Friendly 0 1 2 3 4 40.Exhausted 0 1 2 3 4

2.Tense 0 1 2 3 4 41.Anxious 0 1 2 3 4

3.Angry 0 1 2 3 4 42.Ready to fight 0 1 2 3 4

4.Worn Out 0 1 2 3 4 43.Good natured 0 1 2 3 4

5.Unhappy 0 1 2 3 4 44.Gloomy 0 1 2 3 4

6.Clear Headed 0 1 2 3 4 45.Desperate 0 1 2 3 4

7.Lively 0 1 2 3 4 46.Sluggish 0 1 2 3 4

8.Confused 0 1 2 3 4 47.Rebellious 0 1 2 3 4

9.Sorry for things done 0 1 2 3 4 48.Helpless 0 1 2 3 4

10.Shaky 0 1 2 3 4 49.Weary 0 1 2 3 4

11.Listless (Unenthusiastic) 0 1 2 3 4 50.Bewildered 0 1 2 3 4

67


12.Peeved 0 1 2 3 4 51.Alert 0 1 2 3 4

13.Considerate 0 1 2 3 4 52.Deceived 0 1 2 3 4

14.Sad 0 1 2 3 4 53.Furious 0 1 2 3 4

15.Active 0 1 2 3 4 54.Efficient 0 1 2 3 4

16.On edge 0 1 2 3 4 55.Trusting 0 1 2 3 4

17.Grouchy 0 1 2 3 4 56.Full of pep (Energy) 0 1 2 3 4

18.Blue 0 1 2 3 4 57.Bad tempered 0 1 2 3 4

19.Energetic 0 1 2 3 4 58.Worthless 0 1 2 3 4

20.Panicky 0 1 2 3 4 59.Forgetful 0 1 2 3 4

21.Hopeless 0 1 2 3 4 60.Carefree 0 1 2 3 4

22.Relaxed 0 1 2 3 4 61.Terrified 0 1 2 3 4

23.Unworthy 0 1 2 3 4 62.Guilty 0 1 2 3 4

24.Spiteful 0 1 2 3 4 63.Vigorous 0 1 2 3 4

25.Sympathetic 0 1 2 3 4 64.Uncertain About things 0 1 2 3 4

26.Uneasy 0 1 2 3 4 65.Worn-out 0 1 2 3 4

27.Restless 0 1 2 3 4

28.Unable to Concentrate 0 1 2 3 4

29.Fatigued 0 1 2 3 4

30.Helpful 0 1 2 3 4

31.Annoyed 0 1 2 3 4

32.Discouraged 0 1 2 3 4

33.Resentful 0 1 2 3 4

34.Nervous 0 1 2 3 4

35.Lonely 0 1 2 3 4

36.Miserable 0 1 2 3 4

37.Muddled 0 1 2 3 4

38.Cheerful 0 1 2 3 4

39.Bitter 0 1 2 3 4

68

Score

Tension ……

Depression ……

Anger ……

Vigour ……

Fatigue ……

Confusion ……


69

Date post:	25-Jul-2015
Category:	Documents
Upload:	amy-street
View:	66 times
Download:	0 times

Dissertation HS4101 1004740

Documents