CULTURAL RESOURCES, ARCHAEOLOGY AND HISTORY

OF THE PROPOSED

ORGAN MOUNTAINS-DESERT PEAKS

NATIONAL MONUMENT

DOÑA ANA COUNTY, NEW MEXICO

AN EXPLORATION OF SIGNIFICANCE AND RISKS

FOR A NATIONAL TREASURE

JULY 1, 2013

REBECCA PROCTER, PH.D., JEAN FULTON

POLLY SHAAFSMA

W W W.O R GA N M O U NTA I N S .O R G

!O

!O

!O

!O

!O

!O

!O

k

k

k

k

k

k

k

k

k

k k

kk

k

k

k

k

k

k kk

kk

kk

k

k k

k

k

k

k

k

k

k

k k

k k k

k

k

kk kk

k kk

k

k

k kk k k

kk

k

k

k

k

kkkkkk

k

kk

k

kk

kk

k

kkkkkkkkkkkk

k

k kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkk

kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkk

kk

k

k

k

kkk

k

k

k

k

kkk

kk

kkkkkkkkkkkk

kkkk

kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkk

kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkk

kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkk

kkkkk

kkk

kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkk

k

kkk

k

k

k

kk

k

k

kkk

k

k

k

k

k

kkkkk

kk

k

k

kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkk

k kk

kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkk

kkkkkkkkkk

k

k

k

k

k kkk kk

k

kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkk

k

kk

ò òò

×

×

××

×

×

×

××

×

×

× ×

×

×

×

"T"T"T

"T"T

"T

"T

"T"T

"T"T"T

"T

"T

"T

"T

"T

"T

"T

"T

"T

"T

"T

"T"T

"T

"T"T

"T

"T

"T

"T

!P

!P

!P!P

!P!P

!P!P

!P

!P

!P

!P

!P!Ë

!I

!I

!I

!I

!I

!I

!I

!I

!I

!I

!I

!I

!I

"T

"T

"T

"T

"T

"T

"T "T

"T

"T

"T

"T

"T

"T

"T

"T

Sierra County

Luna County

Dona Ana County

West Potrillo Mountains

Aden Lava Flow

East Potrillo Mountains

Mount Riley

Providence Cone

Trackways Nat'l Monument

White Sands

Source: Esri, i-cubed, USDA, USGS, AEX, GeoEye, Getmapping, Aerogrid, IGN, IGP, and the GIS User Community

Modified January 9, 2013Produced by L Uhring of NM Wilderness Alliance

Sources: NM BLM, BLM Geocommunicator, RGIS, NMWA, Senator Bingaman's Office, ESRI Online Maps

C:\GIS\2012 Maps\Dona Ana County\ Maps\organmtns_desertpeaks_w_Satellite.mxd

Orga n

Mountains

Texas

Proposed Organ Mountains - Desert Peaks National Monument

Robledo Mountains

Geronimo's CaveOutlaw

Rock

Fort Seldon

Rough & Ready Hills

Valles Canyon Petroglyphs

Broad Canyon

Magdalena Peak

Apache Flats Petroglyphs

Massacre Peak

AdenCrater

Kilbourne Hole

Hunt's Hole

q0 2.5 5 7.5 101.25

Miles

SleepingLady Hills

Isaack's Lake

Gadsden PurchaseUS - Mexico

International Border 1848

US - Mexico International Border 1853

Points of Interest

!I Aplomado Falcon Sighting

!Ë Butterfield Stage Stop

!P Cave

"T Petroglyphs/Archeological Site

× Historic Ranch House Ruin

ò Gadsden Purchase Survey Cairn

k Special Status Plant

!O WWII Aerial Target

Slot Canyon

Fort MasonButterfield Overland Trail

Gadsden Purchase

National Natural LandmarkApollo Mission Astronauts' Training Site

Research Natural Area

Sierra de Las UvasMountains

Legend

Butterfield Overland Trail

Gadsden Purchase

Nat'l Monument Proposed Boundary

BLM Wilderness Study Area

Area of Critical Environmental Concern

County Boundary

Tonuco Mountain

Dona AnaMountains

WWII Aerial Target

Hatch

Las Cruces

Chapparal

Anthony

PicachoPeak

Mesilla

Organ Mountains-Desert Peaks National Monument

Types of Cultural and Historical Sites in the Project Area

1 ExecutiveSummary

2 Introduction

4 TypesofCulturalSitesintheProjectArea

PetroglyphsandtheNativeAmericanLegacyButterfieldStagecoachTrailBillytheKidGeronimoGadsdenPurchaseInternationalBoundaryWorldWarIIAerialTargetsElCaminoRealdeTierraAdentroApolloSpaceMissionTrainingSites

7 WhyProtect?

8 HowDoWeProtectThesePlaces?

9 TheHumanTapestry

10 TheSuperiorQualityoftheArchaeologicalRecord

12 RockArt:AFragileTreasure

13 ThePromise,andtheDangers,ForArchaeologyandHistory

15 Appendix1:TheSpanofHumanOccupation

18 Appendix2:SpecialTopicsinOrganMountains-DesertPeaksArchaeology

19 Appendix3:Latino/aHeritageinSouthernNewMexicoandtheOrganMountains-DesertPeaks

21 Appendix4:TheWaytoNewMexico:CaminoRealdeTierraAdentro

23 Appendix5:TheNationGrows...Again:TheHistoricGadsdenPurchase

25 Appendix6:TheErroneousMapof1847thatLedtotheGadsdenPurchase

26 Appendix7:ButterfieldTrail–TheCaliforniaConnection

28 Appendix8:BillytheKid

29 Appendix9:GeronimoandtheApacheWars

30 Appendix10:WorldWarIIAerialTargets

33 Appendix11:TheNationalRegisterOfHistoricPlaces:WhatItMeansForSouthernNewMexico

35 Appendix12:NewMexico,ALandofRichHistory

vi

1

Executive Summary

AnabundanceofuniqueandoutstandingnaturalandculturalresourcesmaketheproposedOrganMountains-DesertPeaksNationalMonumentanationaltreasure.

Amongthemostimportanthistoricandculturalfeaturesare:

» Spectacularprehistoricrockartcarvedandpaintedontothecliffsinstylesunknownelsewhere;

» Ancientarchaeologicalsitesshowinguptotenthousandyearsofhumanoccupation;

» TwentytwomilesofthehistoricButterfieldStagecoachTrailandatleastonepartiallypreservedstagestopbytheRoughandReadyHills;

» SitesrelatedtotheApachewarsandthelastdaysofChiefGeronimo’sbattleswiththeU.S.Army,includingawell-knownsitelocallyknownas“Geronimo’sCave;”

» LocationswheretheinfamousBillytheKidattemptedtoremainhiddenfromhispursuers,including“OutlawRock”whereBillytheKid’sinscriptionisstillvisible;

» Maarvolcaniccraterdesignatedin1975asaNationalNaturalLandmark,usedinApolloSpaceMissions12–17;

» WorldWarIIAerialTargetsusedbyDemingAirBasepreparingforWorldWarII;

» GadsdenPurchaseInternationalBoundary;and

» HistoriclocationsofSpanishsettlementandAngloranching.

TheresourcesrepresentedintheOrganMountains-DesertPeaksareaareidealforenhancingthepublicvaluesof

» HistoricandEnvironmentalProtection» HeritageInterpretation» Recreation» EconomicDevelopmentandTourism» Education» CulturalPreservation

Thethreatstotheseremarkableculturalmaterialsaretremendous,andareincreasingeveryday.Thethreatscomeasmuchfrominadvertentdestructionandlackofknowledgeasfromoutrightlootingandtreasurehunting.ProtectionofthisregionwillallowthepeopleofsouthernNewMexicoandallAmericanstobenefitfromthespecialheritageofthisareaandfromtherecreationalandeconomicrewardsderivingfromthatheritage.

2

ORGAN MOUNTAINS

ThecrownjewelofthesouthernRockies,thismountainrangecreatesthedramaticbackdropforLasCrucesandDoñaAnaCounty.

Introduction

Ifyoucoulddoonlyonethingforyourcountry,whatwoulditbe?TheanswersareasvariedasindividualAmericans.Theymightciteserviceintimeofwar,serviceasanelectedofficialforthepeople,serviceasaneducator,apublicservant,oravisionaryentrepreneur.Atthismoment,ourCongressionaldelegationandourChiefExecutiveintheWhiteHousehavethechancetodosomethingthatencompassesalltheseactionsandroles,somethingthatgoesbeyondthepresenttoencompassthepast,presentandfutureofahighlydiverseandculturallyrichnation.

Whilethereisno“rightanswer”tothequestionabove,thedocumentyouhavebeforeyoudemonstrateshowasingleact,establishingtheOrganMountains-DesertPeaksNationalMonumentforcominggenerationsofAmericans,willachievethisall-encompassingservice.Asyoureadthedifferentsectionsofthispaper,youcanengagewiththisamazingregionatthelevelofanordinaryAmericanexploringourhistory.Atthesametime,youwillaccessdetailedfactsandexpertinterpretationsallowinganunderstandingthatprotectingtheOrganMountains-DesertPeaksistrulyaonce-in-a-lifetimeopportunitytoperformanenduringservicetothenation.ThisdocumentisintendedtoserveasbotharesourcefordecisionmakingandaneducationaltooltobetterunderstandthisAmericantreasure.

WhatistheOrganMountains-DesertPeaksregionlike?Itisaplacethatdefiessimpledescription.Inthesouth-centralportionofNewMexico,borderingthelifelineoftheRioGrande,aseriesofmountainrangesandlowpeaksformadistinctiveandstarklybeautifulecologicalandhistoricalregionwithinthewesternUnitedStates.Geographically,theregionispartofthe“basinandrange”topographyoftheNorthernChihuahuanDesertecozone.Historicallyandarchaeologically,itisanareawithoutstandingpotentialforunderstandingpeoplesofthepast.

TheOrganMountainsandotherpeaksintheprojectarearepresentislandsofresourcediversityintheChihuahuandesertenvironment—theyareremoteand,atthesametime,vulnerable,givencurrentlanduseandthepaceofpopulationexpansionandmoderndevelopment.Thecurrentofhumanhistoryinsouth-centralNewMexicoisdeepandrepresentsaprofoundsourceofknowledgeabouthowhumanshavedealtwitharidity,resourcescarcity,andclimatechangeoveralongspanoftime.Thedevelopmentofcultureinthisareafollowedauniquetrajectory,connectedwith,butoftenverydifferentfrom,thebetterknownancientculturesoftheSouthwest.

TheProposedOrganMountains-DesertPeaksNationalMonumentincludes:

ROBLEDO MOUNTAINS

NamedafterfamedSpanishsoldierPedroRobledo,thesemountainshousedbothBillytheKidandGeronimointhemid19thcenturyandincludesthePaleozoicTrackwaysNationalMonument.

3

SIERRA DE LAS UVAS MOUNTAINS

ThislargediversemountainrangeincludeshistoricsitessuchtheButterfieldStagecoachTrail,Geronimo’sCave,andpetroglyph-linedcanyonsofVallesandBroadCanyons.

POTRILLO MOUNTAINS

ThelargestWildernessStudyAreainNewMexico,thePotrilloMountainsarepartofthePotrilloVolcanicField.ThePotrilloVolcanicFieldhasmorethan150cindercones,fivemaarcratersincludingKilbourneandHuntsHoles,andlavaflows.ThePotrilloMountainsareadjacenttotheMountRileyWildernessStudyArea,aswellasMountCoxandtheEastPotrilloMountains.

ADEN CRATER

AdenCraterisafootballfieldsizedcraterthatliesinthenorthernpartofthePotrilloVolcanicField.Knownforitsotherworldlyfeelcreatedbyancientlavaflows,AdenCrateralsohasfumeroles(volcanicvents),inwhichonewasfoundtocontainadeepchamberwiththeremainsofagiantgroundsloth.TheslothremainsarenowlocatedinthePeabodyMuseum.

KILBOURNE HOLE

DesignatedasaNationalNaturalLandmarkin1974,KilbourneHoleisanexceptionalgloballyfamousmile-widevolcanicmaarcraterthoughttobe80,000yearsold.ThisraregeologicwonderwasalsousedbytheApollo12-17missionstotrainastronautsforalunarenvironment.ThissiteisalsonearHunt’sHole,asmallercrateralsoincludedintheOrganMountains-DesertPeaksNationalMonumentproposal.

ADEN LAVA FLOW

LocatedbetweenKilbourneHoleandAdenCrater,theAdenLavaFlowwascreatedfromlavaflowingfromnearbyAdenCrater.ThisareaoffersoneofthebestopportunitiesinthecontinentalUnitedStatestoviewlavaflowsandthemanyuniqueshapesandstructurescreatedbythem.

4

TYPES OF HISTORICAL SITES IN THE PROJECT AREA

DetailedanalysisofthearchaeologicalandhistoricalrecordoftheproposedOrganMountains-DesertPeaksNationalMonumenthasrevealedmanykindsofuniquesiteswithintheproposalarea.Someoftheminclude:

» Rockartpetroglyphandpictographpanelsonexposedrocksandcliffs

» ButterfieldStagecoachTrailandstops,andotherwagonroadsusedbyearlySpanishandAnglosettlements

» MilitaryFortsusedtoprotectsettlersandtravelersalike

» Mountainhide-outsforwellknownfiguresincludingBillytheKidandGeronimo

» CampsitesofearlyNativeAmericans

» Quarriesforprehistoricpeoplegatheringstonefortoolsandweapons

» Huntingblinds,whereancientpeoplesobservedandambushedgame

» VillagesofNativeAmericanpithousesandsmallfarmplots

» SacredlocationsforNativeAmericans

» Corralsandpensmadebyearlyshepherdsandcattleherders

» RocksheltersusedfromthetimeoftheearliesthumaninhabitantsuptotheIndianWars

ROCK ART: PETROGLYPHS AND PICTOGRAPHS

TheproposedOrganMountains-DesertPeaksNationalMonumentpossessesanationallysignificantrepositoryofNativeAmerican“rockart.”Comprisedofpetroglyphsandpictographs,therockartintheOrganMountains-DesertPeaksregionspansmanythousandsofyearsfromtheArchaicperioduptothenineteenthcentury.CertainpictographandpetroglyphstylesshowclearconnectionswiththeculturalexpressionsoftheMimbresareatothewestandtheJornadaMogollonareatotheeast.SomemotifsareclearlyrelatedtothehistoricApachebandswhoresidedhere.WhilerockartcanbefoundinalmosteverypartoftheOrganMountains-DesertPeaksregion,itismostprevalentintheSierradelasUvasMountains.

BUTTERFIELD STAGECOACH TRAIL

In1857CongressauthorizedtheestablishmentofAmerica’sfirstoverlandmailandpassengerservice.ThecontractwaswonbyJohnButterfieldandhispartnersinwhatbecameknownastheOverlandMailCompany.TheButterfieldTrailwastherouteusedforthisservice,andranfromSt.LouistoSanFrancisco.EnteringNewMexicoatElPaso,itfollowedtheRioGrandenorthtoMesilla,thenwestwardacrossthefoothillsoftheSierradelasUvasMountainsinasoutherncurveacrossdesertwildernesstoCalifornia.In2012,theNationalParkServicebeganaprocesstoconsiderrecommendingdesignationoftheButterfieldTrailasaNationalHistoricTrail.Therearetwenty-twomilesoftheButterfieldTrailwithintheproposedOrganMountains-DesertPeaksNationalMonument,aswellasasemi-preservedstagestopneartheRoughandReadyHills.

5

BILLY THE KID

WilliamH.Bonney,laternicknamedBillytheKid,isperhapsthemostfamousoutlawevertooccupyNewMexico.Bonney’stimeinNewMexico,andspecificallyinmoderndaySoutheastNewMexico,correspondedwithaneraoflawlessviolenceoftenreferredtoastheLincolnCountyWar.Tosome,hewasconsidereda“thieving,murderous,littlecowboy-gone-bad.”Toothers,Bonneyhadanalmostheroicstatus,respectingthenativeMexicancultureandpeoplewhilefightingthelaw.In1880,helefthismarkquiteliterallyintheOrganMountains-DesertPeaksregionwhen,alongwithfriendsTomO’Folliard,CharlesBowdre,DaveRudabaugh,andTomO’Keefe,heholedupintheRobledoMountainstokeepaneyeonFortSeldonbelow.Bonneyfamouslyinscribedhisnameonthemountaininanareanowknownas“OutlawRock.”Bonney’ssignatureisstillvisibleonOutlawRocktoday.

GERONIMO

Duringmuchofthe1800’s,theU.S.–MexicoborderregionwasabattlegroundbetweentheApachesandSpain,MexicoandtheUnitedStates.Well-knownApacheleaderslikeVictorioandGeronimoarebelievedtohavebeenactiveintheOrganMountains-DesertPeaksregion.ItwasthoughtbymanythatGeronimowasashamanwhohadsupernaturalpowers.Onesuchincidentaddedtothismystique.Asthelegendgoes,GeronimoandhisfollowersenteredacaveintheRobledoMountainstoavoidcapture.TheU.S.soldierswaitedoutsidethecaveentranceforhim,butthoughheescaped,theyneversawhimleave.Asecretexithasneverbeenfound.

APOLLO SPACE MISSION TRAINING SITE AT KILBOURNE HOLE

KilbourneHole,arare80,000yearoldmaarvolcaniccraterwasusedtotrainastronautsforthelunarenvironmentonApolloMissions12–17.Thismilewidecrater,establishedasaNationalNaturalHistoricLandmarkin1975,becameavaluablenationaltrainingsiteduetoitsgeologyandmoonliketerrain.

WORLD WAR II AERIAL TARGETS

IfyouflyovertheproposedOrganMountain-DesertPeaksNationalMonument,youmaybetreatedtoasurprisingsight:gianttargetsbuiltwithbladedsoilriseoutoftheChihuahuanDesert,resemblingbullseyesoraliencropcircles.TheyareremnantsofaformerregionalairbaseandpilottrainingprogramessentialtohelpingAmericawinWorldWarII.In1942,twenty-fourtargetswerebuiltandusedextensivelybypilotsattheDemingAirBaseuntilthemid-1940’s.SevenofthetargetswerebuiltintheOrganMountains-DesertPeaksregion.Eachtargetconsistedoffourconcentricrings,theoutermostbeing1000feetindiameter,withawoodenshackresemblingapyramidatthecenter.Nighttimetargetsrequiredgeneratorstopowerastringoflightsthatformedalargecrosshairontheground.Someofthetargetshadoutlinestosimulatetheappearanceofshipsorbuildingsfromtheair.Theconcentriccircleswereconstructedbyscrapingashallow,clearedfurrowontheground,

6

sometimesleavingaringofdisplacedrocksaroundtheperimeter.SeveraloftheWorldWarIIAerialTargetarevisibletodayintheOrganMountains-DesertPeaksregion.

EL CAMINO REAL DE TIERRA ADENTRO

TheSpanishexploredandcolonizedtheAmericasbyfollowingestablishednativepathsconnectingindigenousvillagesforhundredsandeventhousandsofyears.WhatwastobecomeknownasElCaminoRealdeTierraAdentro,“TheRoyalRoadoftheInterior,”originallyunitedtheSpanishcapitalofMexicoCitywiththerichminingdistrictssurroundingZacatecasandCiudadChihuahua.Thebest-preservedlengthoftheactualElCaminoRealliesjustnortheastoftheRobledoMountainsintheOrganMountains-DesertPeaksregion,inanareaknownastheJornadadelMuertoor“theJourneyoftheDeadMan.”TheElCaminoRealdeTierraAdentroremainedinuseupuntil1881,whentherailroad’sarrivalusheredinaneweraoftransportation..

GADSDEN PURCHASE INTERNATIONAL BOUNDARY

AnalignmentofrockcairnssituatedwithintheproposedOrganMountains–DesertPeaksNationalMonumentboundarydemarcatesoneofthemostpeculiarandimportantfederallandprocurementsinUnitedStateshistory.TherocksmarkingtheGadsdenPurchasesettledyearsofcontroversyresultingfromtheinaccuraciesoftheofficialmapoftheUnitedStatescitedintheTreatyofGuadalupe-Hidalgo.UpondiscoveringtheerrorintheDisturnellmapwhichwasusedtonegotiatetheTreatyandendtheMexican-Americanwar,newnegotiationswereinitiatedthatledtoAmericapurchasingadditionallandfromMexico.TheGadsdenPurchaseof1853gavethelowercontinentalUnitedStatesitsfinalform.

7

Why Protect?

Fromthetimeofthefirstnationalparksandmonuments,theAmericanpeoplehaverecognizedthevalueofprotectingourcountry’srichhistoryanduniquelandscapestopreservethenation’sculturalheritage,naturalenvironment,andnationalidentity.TheproposedOrganMountains–DesertPeaksNationalMonumentisclearlysouniqueintheculturalresourcesitcontains,sofragileinitslargelyunprotectedstate,andsovastinitsdiversityofresourcesthatprotectionisthebestoption.

Whenconsideringtheneedforprotectionandlong-termplanningforarcheologicallyandhistoricallyrichpubliclands,itisimportanttorecognizehowtheremainsofpasthumansocietiesareintimatelyconnectedwiththenaturalresourcesofagivenarea.Thishappensintwoways:

1. Thefragileandoftenelusiveremainsofancientsitesareembeddedinthelandscapeasverydelicatedeposits,easilyoverlookedordamagedbyfootandroadtraffic;

2. Ancientinhabitantsandhistoricpeoples,bothNativeAmericanandEuroamerican,wereheavilydependentontheirsurroundinglandscapetomakelifepossible.Bothancientandmorerecenthistoricsitesarelocatedinameaningfularrangementwithinthenaturalenvironment,reflectingtheirfunctionandtheiraccesstocertaincriticalnaturalresourcesatdifferenttimes.

TakingamomenttoconsiderthedeeperimplicationofPoint2above,wecanseethatanyscholarlyresearch,aswellasanyattempttointerpretthehumanpastforthepublic,mustautomaticallytakeabroad,landscape-levelapproachtounderstandingpasthumanactivities.Thoughthisnotionhasbecomeaclichéforprofessionalarchaeologists,itisarelativelynewideaforthepublic:ancientartifactsorevenhistoricalrelicsyieldverylittleinformationwhentheyarestudiedasisolatedobjects,outofcontextfromtheiroriginallocationsandusewithinthelargerlandscape.PlanningforappropriatefutureusesandprotectionofAmerica’sincomparabletreasuressuchastheproposedOrganMountains-DesertPeaksNationalMonument,wemustconsiderthefateofarchaeologicalsitesandhistoricplacesreflectingourbroaderculturalheritage,giventhattheyaresofragile,sointimatelylinkedtonaturalresources,andsosensitivetonatural-andhuman-causeddegradation.

THE ORGAN MOUNTAINS-DESERT PEAKS REGION:

A TIGHTLY WOVEN FABRIC OF HISTORIC SITES, PROPERTIES AND RECORDS

TheproposedOrganMountains-DesertPeaksNationalMonumentisnolessrichinhistoricperiodresourcesthaninarchaeologicalresources.Asispossiblewithnoothertypeofculturalresource,thetangible,highlyvisiblenatureofhistoricstructuresandfeaturessuchaspetroglyphsandtrailshelpscapturethepublicimagination.Thismakesthemespeciallysuccessfulsitesforpreservationefforts,becausepeoplecanseeandfeelhowtheseresourcesaffecttheirdailylives.Thissamehigh-profilevisibility,however,makeshistoricstructuresandfeaturesparticularlyvulnerabletopoorly-planneddevelopmentanduninformeduse.

Resourcesbelongingtothehistoricperiodareespeciallyimportantfortelling,ataregionallevel,thestoryoftheAmericannationasawhole.GenerationsofNative,Spanish,andAnglooccupation,withtheirvaryingimpactsontheculture,landscape,andsocialdevelopmentofsouthernNewMexico,playedoutanarrativethatispartofthelargerhistoryoftheU.S.Regionalhistoryclearlyillustratesthebiggerpicture,whereintheU.S.hasgrappledwithuniversalthemesofculturalconflict,debatesaboutrace,religion,andethnicity,andstrugglesforequityandinclusivenessinaninequitablesocialenvironmentinthecourseofitsdevelopment.

8

How Do We Protect These Places?

OurpublicofficialsfacethedecisionwhetherornottoprotecttheOrganMountains-DesertPeaksregion.Butmoredifficultisdecidinghowmultiplepublicrequirementscanbeaccommodatedinchoosingamanagementstatusforthisland.Thisdecisionshouldtakeintoconsiderationthefollowingfactors:

» TheculturalresourceswithintheproposedOrganMountains-DesertPeaksNationalMonumentareuniqueandnationallysignificant

» Theculturalresourceswithinthisdesertenvironmentareunusuallyfragile

» TheresourcescontainedwithintheproposedOrganMountains-DesertPeaksNationalMonumentarevulnerabletoextractionanddevelopmentbythepublic

» Publiceducationandrecreationaretheusesmostcompatiblewiththeurgentneedtoprotectandpreserveculturalresources,history,andsacredtraditionalplaces

Forallthesereasons,fromtheprofessionalperspectiveofarchaeologistsandhistorians,thecreationofanationalmonumentisanidealwaytomanagetheOrganMountains-DesertPeaksregion.Amonumentisopentoallcitizensforparticularuses,yetaffordsahighlevelofprotectiontotheirreplaceableculturalresourceswithinthearea.Federallandmanagerswillthushavetherighttoolsattheirdisposaltocreateabalance,consistentwithAmericanviewsonpubliclands,betweenusageandprotection.

9

The Human Tapestry

HumanshavelivedinthispartofsouthernNewMexicoforatleasttenthousandyears,andtherearesitesfromalltimeperiodspresentintheproposedOrganMountains-DesertPeaksNationalMonument.Theresearchpotentialexiststostudyknownsitesanddiscovermanynewonesthatcontain:

» ExquisitelyflakedPaleoindianspearpointsfromtheearliesttimesofhumanhabitation

» Carvedpetroglyphsandpaintedpictographsonexposedrockfaces,withgeometric,animalandmythologicalimages

» CavesandrockshelterscontainingstonetoolsandremnantsofperishableobjectssuchaswovensandalsandbasketsfromtheArchaicperiod,beforepeoplebeganfarming

» OccupationsitesfromtheMogollonperiod,whenpeoplebeganfarming,livinginpithousevillages,andmakingfiredpottery

» RemnantsofApachecampsandhidingplacesfromthetumultuousperiodoftheIndianWars

» RemainsofSpanishandAnglofarmingandranchingeffortsinnow-drywatersheds

10

The Superior Quality Of The Archaeological Record

Ancientpeoplesinthesouth-centralregionofwhatisnowNewMexicointeractedwiththebetter-knowncultures,butweredifferentinmanywaysfromanyofthem.CurrentknowledgeindicatesthattheOrganMountains-DesertPeaksregionwasafertilegroundforcross-culturalexchange.Thereisreasontobelieveancientinhabitantswereincontactwith:

» NorthernMexico,» theMimbresCulturetothewest,» theZuniandChacoCanyonareastothenorth,and» theJornadaMogollon(Mug-ee-yóne)Culturetotheeast.

ThescientificknowledgewaitingtobeuncoveredisimmenseandcannotbefoundanywhereelseinNewMexico.Thefactthattheregionhasnotyetbeenstudiedtothelevelthatallowsustounderstandfullyhowsouth-centralNewMexicofitsintothelargerpictureofprehistoricandhistoriclandusewithintheGreaterSouthwestmakesitespeciallyimportantandespeciallyvulnerabletopoorplanningordestructiveforces.

Areviewofthedataavailableforthisregionshowshowimportantculturalresourcesareinthisdesertwilderness.Morethan20discreteareasofsignificantrockarthavebeenidentifiedontheexposedvolcanicandsedimentaryrocksintheproposedmonument.Theseinclude:

» Atleast15areaswithintheSierradelasUvasMountains;» MultiplelocationsintheProvidenceConearea,whichisasyetpoorlyexplored;» AtleastoneareainthesouthernOrganMountains,withmuchmoreterritoryunexplored;» FourormorerockartsitesintheDoñaAnaMountains,withmuchlandstillundocumented;» AtleastninerockartlocationsinotherpartsoftheOrganMountains-DesertPeaksregion.

Thearchaeologicalrecordalsoincludes:

» Open-airandrocksheltersitesindicatingthatArchaic(pre-potteryandpre-bow-and-arrow)gatherersandhuntersusedtheselowmountainareasasanimportantsourceoffoodandtool-makingmaterials;

» Sitesfromthelaterfarmingpeoples,knownastheMogollon(Mug-ee-yóne),whoventuredintothemountainsforhunting,quarryingstone,andgatheringimportantmaterialsformedicinesortool-making;

» LateHistoricsitesthatmaybeassociatedwiththeApacheWars;itisknownthatfamouschiefGeronimoandhisfighterstookrefugeintheRobledoMountains,likelyusingsomeofthesamerocksheltersthattheirforebearshadoccupiedmillenniaearlier;

» RemnantsoftheCaminoReal,the“RoyalRoad”fromSpanishColonialMexiconorthwardtoSantaFeandbeyond;» TracesofthefamousButterfieldStagecoachRoutethathelpedconnecttheyoungU.S.withitsPacificcoast.

Tounderstandthevastnessofthearchaeologicalmaterialwaitingtobestudiedandprotected,thefollowingpointsareimportant:

» Onlyahandfulofformalarchaeologicalsurveyshavebeenconductedintheprojectarea;» Theexistingsurveysaccountforlessthan5%ofthetotallandbase;» Evenwiththistinyamountofarchaeologicalsurvey,thereareapproximately243knownarchaeologicalsites;» Basedonthestatisticsabove,professionalarchaeologistscouldconcludethatthetruedensityofsitesintheproposedOrganMountains-DesertPeaksNationalMonumentcouldbeasmuchasonesiteforevery123.5acres,oralmost5000sites.

11

12

Rock Art: A Fragile Treasure of Petroglyphs And Pictographs

SOME IMPORTANT STATISTICS

» Approx.600,000=number of acres in this special area;

» 22=number of known rock art areas—that’sareas,notindividualmotifs,whichnumberinthetensofthousands;

» 243=minimum number of archaeological sites known at this time;

» Lessthan5%=portion of organ mountains-desert peaks region surveyed for archaeology to date—Thatmeansatleast1siteforevery123.5acresofland,sowecanexpectalmost

» 5000=rock art panels, archaeology sites, and historic locations in the organ mountains/desert peaks!

AvisualcountofknownarchaeologicalsiteswithintheOrganMountainsaloneyieldsatotalofatleast70sites.InthetotalareaofwildlandsthatsurroundtheOrganMountains,theSierradelasUvas,thetwoPotrilloranges,theDoñaAnaMountains,andtheRobledos,therecouldeasilybeoverfivethousandarchaeologicalsites,mostofwhichhavenotbeenrecordedorstudiedyet.

Thislargequantityofsitesincludesnumerousrockartsites,someofwhichrepresentartstylesunknownelsewhereinNewMexico.Rockartisespeciallyvulnerabletodegradationfromnaturalforcesanddeliberatedestruction.Mostresearchtodatehasbeenconductedbyavocationalarchaeologists,whostudythepictographsandpetroglyphsontheirowntimewithlittleornofinancialbacking.Theirwork,coupledwiththatofprofessionalspecialists,showsthatrockartintheOrganMountains-DesertPeaksregionspansmultipletimeperiodsfromatleasttheArchaicuptothenineteenthcentury.PainteddesignsthatseemtobeconnectedtoanartstyleofnorthernChihuahua,Mexicoarespreadacrossthesouthernpartofthestate,includingtheprojectarea.OtherpictographandpetroglyphstylesshowclearconnectionswiththeculturalexpressionsoftheMimbresareatothewestandtheJornadaMogollonareatotheeast.SomemotifsareclearlyrelatedtothehistoricApachebandswhoroamedhere.Rockartisnotoriouslydifficulttodateandevenmoretrickytointerpret;itis,therefore,imperativetopreserveasmanyrockartsitesaspossibletoincreasetheavailabledataandtoavoidobscuringimportantcross-culturalconnectionsbydestructionoftherelevantdesigns.

Well-known rock art expert Polly Schaafsma

recently discussed the dense but still

poorly documented rock art of the Organ

Mountains-Desert Peaks region. She says:

“The rock art of this area is extraordinarily important to our

understanding of prehistoric life. This is partly because it forms a direct

connection between the prehistoric mythology and religion of southern

New Mexico with the modern Pueblo and Apache worlds. The Pueblo

people today are direct descendants of the prehistoric inhabitants of New

Mexico, and their religious iconography is reflected in the rock art of this

area. This great cultural legacy thus has validity for people today, not just

as a scientific database. Rock art conveyed important aspects of a religious

belief system and associated mythology, and it’s so valuable as a reflection

of the time-depth of religious beliefs still held by Native Americans. It is

incredibly important that rock art be preserved as part of complete, intact

landscapes because it has direct connections with the archaeological

sites—neither can be fully understood without the other. Vandalism

is so common, and must be stopped before we lose these irreplaceable

connections with the ancestral Puebloans and Athapaskans.”

13

The Promise–and the Dangers–For Archaeology

and History

Theabundant,spectacularnaturalresourcesoftheproposedOrganMountains-DesertPeaksNationalMonumentmarkitsclearprominenceasasetoflandscapesworthyofspecialprotectionandcarefulplanningforappropriateuses.Itistheunparalleledculturalresourcesofthisregion,however,thatmakeprotectionparticularlycrucial.Fromanexaminationoftheinterpretiveandresearchpotentialofheritageresources,itiseasytoseehowtheproposedmonumentexemplifyasuiteofimportantpublicvalues.ThesevalueshavegainedacceptanceacrossthepoliticalandsocialspectrumoftheUnitedStatesinlargemeasurebecausetheyreflectthedeeperprinciplesonwhichtheAmericanrepublicisbased.Thesevaluesinclude:

NewMexicohasneverbeenbetterpoisedtoenjoythebenefitsofeconomicdevelopmentthroughenvironmentalandheritagetourism.Overthecenturies,ElCaminoRealdeTierraAdentrohasleftatimeless,immeasurable,andindelibleimpression.Itshapesregionallife,traditions,andcustomsforthosewhotraveleditspath,forthosewhowerealreadyhere,old-timers,newcomers,theirdescendants,andfuturevisitors.Indeed,thelivingculturalcorridordottedbyElCaminoRealcommunitiescontinuestothrivetoday.ProtectingtheOrganMountains-DesertPeaksregionasaNationalMonumentwillallowvisitorsandfuturegenerationstore-traceElCaminoRealanditsenvironsandtoexperiencethenaturalbountyofitshistoricbosquesandwoodlands.ThecurrentefforttoprotecttheOrganMountains–DesertPeaksregionaugmentsandstrengthenssimilarendeavorstoencourageinternationalvisitationbypromotingElCaminoRealdeTierraAdentroandtheButterfieldTrailthroughsignageandevents;andtotelltheregion’smanystoriesfromasmanydifferentvantagepointsaspossible.

1. HistoricandEnvironmentalProtection

2. HeritageInterpretation

3. Recreation

4. EconomicDevelopmentandTourism

5. Education

6. CommunityPride

7. CulturalPreservation

14

Thesuperlativequalityofknownandyetunknownculturalmaterialsinthisregion,fromtheoldesttothemostrecenthistoricperiods,givesthemahighpotentialtofulfillthepublicvalueofeducationandinterpretationtoallcitizens.Mostofourpubliclandshavebeenestablishedlargelybecauseofthispotential,asthisisaqualitythatpersiststhroughtimeregardlessofvariousrecreationalandeconomicusesforpubliclands.

ThevalueofeconomicdevelopmentispotentiallyveryhighfortheproposedOrganMountains-DesertPeaksNationalMonumentastherichhistory,archeologicalsites,andecologicaldiversityoftheregionmakeheritagetourismastrongandviableeconomicoptionforlocalcommunities.Inaddition,thehealthandeducationalbenefitsofpublicrecreationarestronglysupportedbythecapacityofanationalmonumenttoallowmultipleuses.Properinterpretationof,coupledwithstrongprotectionsfor,thedensenumbersofarchaeologicalsitescanonlyenhancetherecreationvalueofthisregionforlocalpeopleandforvisitorswhocometoenjoyandspendmoney.

Finally,thereisapublicvaluetotheculturalresourcesoftheproposedOrganMountains-DesertPeaksNationalMonumentthatismoreabstract,butnolesssignificant.Thishastodowithourlocalpopulation’ssenseofprideinitshomeplaceanditsspectacularanddiverseculturalheritage.WhetherlookingtotheNativeAmericanpast,thestrongSpanishcolonialpresence,ortheindependent,hardyranchingperiodandtherollicking,colorful“WildWest”oflattertimes,ourdiversesouthernNewMexicopopulationwillfindbothasourceofknowledgeandadirectconnectionwithhumanhistoryintheOrganMountains-DesertPeaksregion.

TribessuchastheApacheandPiroMansawillhavethecapacitytoidentifyimportantancestralplaceswithintheregionandtoknowthatsuchplaceswillbepreservedandprotected.DescendantsofSpanishcolonistsandlaterranchersandfarmerswillfindintheproposedOrganMountains-DesertPeaksNationalMonumentadeeperunderstandingofwhatinventivenesswasrequiredtomaketheleapfromaEuropean-styleexistencetothisharshlybeautifulenvironment.Thisvalueofpublicprideisasourceofgreatercommunitycohesionandpromotescarefulconsiderationofthedifferentusestowhichpubliclandisputnowandinthefuture.

Asweconsidertheverysignificantvaluesthatcanbeattachedtoculturalresourceswithintheproposedmonument,itisimperativetorecognizeandplanforthevariousthreatsthatexisttothoseresources.UnknowingandevendeliberatedestructionofculturalmaterialsoccursonalargescaleeverydayinNewMexico.Thebuildingofnewroads,expansionofresourceextractionefforts,andunregulatedoff-roadrecreationallposemajorthreatstothephysicalremainsofpastcultures.Inaddition,thereisawidespreadlackofpubliceducationaboutwhythoughtlessorunscientificcollectingofartifactsactuallyharmsthearchaeologicalrecord.

Aspartofitspublicservicemandate,anationalmonumentwouldnaturallyhaveastrongeducationalcomponentandwouldalsomakeitpossibleforvisitorstohavecontactwithculturalmaterialsinanappropriatesetting,thussatisfyingournaturaldesiretoexperiencetheexcitementofarchaeologyandhistoryfirsthand.Becauseculturalheritageinsouth-centralNewMexicoisunderdirectthreateveryday,whetherinadvertentlyorthroughknowingabuse,thereisgreaturgencyforustofindasolutionfortheOrganMountains-DesertPeaksregionthatprovidesthegreatestbenefittothegreatestnumberofcitizens.“Knowledgeispower,”theysay,andprotectingtheresourceswithintheOrganMountains-DesertPeakscouldbeapowerfulmeansofenhancingthisregionofthestate.

15

APPENDIX 1: THE SPAN OF HUMAN OCCUPATION IN THE PROPOSED ORGAN MOUNTAINS-DESERT PEAKS NATIONAL MONUMENT

TogetaquicksnapshotofthesequenceofhumanhistoryintheproposedOrganMountains-DesertPeaksNationalMonument,itishelpfultolookatthechronologiespainstakinglydevelopedbyarchaeologists.Scholarshavedevelopedthesechronologiesthroughcomparingthestonetools,pottery,andarchitectureofancientpeopleasthesematerialobjectschangedthroughtime.Oncearesearcherhasgraspedthesequenceofmaterialcultureitemsbeingusedinacertainsiteorgroupofsites,itbecomespossibletocomparethemwithothersitesinotherareastoseewhichsitesarecontemporarywithoneanother.Bylookingatboththechangesinmaterialcultureasonegoesdeeperintothegroundoracrossspace,andbyusingchemicalandphysicaldatingtechniquessuchasradiocarbondatingwhereverpossible,onecanbegintogetapictureofhumanoccupationthroughtime.

PALEOINDIAN PERIOD:

THE EARLIEST AMERICANS AND THEIR UNSURPASSED STONE TOOL TECHNOLOGY

Formanydecades,ithasbeenknownthathumansoccupiedpartsofNewMexicoandtheentireWesternHemisphere,foratleasttenthousandyears.Inourstate,wecanpointtonumeroussites,includingafewintheproposedOrganMountains-DesertPeaksNationalMonument,whichdatetothePaleoindianPeriod(~10,000yearsago).Morerecentresearchacrossthehemisphere,however,isbeginningtomakeitclearthattheremayhavebeenpeopleintheNewWorldevenbeforetheten-thousandyearmark.WemayonedaybeabletopointtositesofthiskindinNewMexico,thoughtheyhavenotyetbeenidentified.

ThePaleoindianlifestyleinvolvedmovingfrequentlyacrosstheland,gatheringwildplantsandhuntinganimalsincludingthenow-extinctmegafaunaofthelateGlacialPeriod,suchasmammothsandgiantbison.Insouth-centralNewMexico,thefewPaleoindiansitescurrentlyknownincludetheCruzTarinSiteintheUvasValley(Kirkpatricketal.,2000),partofthecurrentprojectarea.TheProvidenceConevicinity,alsopartoftheprojectarea,hasreportedlyyieldedthePaleoindianFolsomprojectilepoints,thoughfewifanyhavebeenprofessionallyexamined;parenthetically,itisthelarge,deftlyflakedandverydistinctivePaleoindianprojectilepoints(spearpointsinthiscase)thatmakethesitesveryvulnerabletocasualcollectors.

ResearchpotentialforthePaleoindianaboundsintheprojectarea.TheOrganMountains-DesertPeaksregioncontainsnumerousrockshelters—shallowcave-likeoverhangsincliffs—thatareidealplacestolookforremnantsofthisearliestculturalperiod.Inaddition,thereareolddrainagesthatcouldhavesedimentdeepenoughtocoversuchancientsites.

THE ARCHAIC PERIOD:

GATHERING AND HUNTING IN A HARSH ENVIRONMENT

Thesubsequentperiod,calledtheArchaic,isaverylongone(fromabout5500-6000BCEtoabout1500-2000yearsbeforethepresent),representingacontinuationofthegatheringandhuntinglifestyleinatimewhentheIceAgemegafaunahadbecomeextinctandthemosaicofenvironmentsweknowtodayintheSouthwestwasbecomingestablished.Peopleseemtohavecontinuedtoberelativelymobile,buttheymayhavedevelopedcertainspatialterritories,wheretheymovedamongsmallerareastogetplantandanimalresourcesthatwereavailableonaseasonalbasis.Huntingwithatlatls(“attl-át-els”,spear-throwers),wastypical,andbasketryandotherformsofweavingbecamehighlydevelopedandessentialtechnologiesineverydaylife.Peoplelivedinsmallstructuresthatwererelativelyquickandeasytoconstructusingcutsaplingsorbranchesandadobe,sometimeswiththefloorsdugintothegroundafewinchestoafootorso.Attimesthefloorswerelinedwithslabsofflatstone.

SitesfromtheArchaicPeriodarecommonthroughouttheproposedOrganMountains-DesertPeaksNationalMonument.Notonlyarethesitesnumerous,buttheyarevariedinsizeandfunction,intermsoftheseasoninwhichtheywereoccupiedandthelengthofoccupation.WithsomanyArchaicsitesofsomanytypes,theOrganMountains-DesertPeaksisaregionthathastremendouspotentialtoprovideinformationonsubtlechangesinArchaicsocietiesacrossalongtimespanduringwhichtherewasfairlyfrequentclimaticchange,anapparentincreaseinthehumanpopulation,andimportantdevelopmentsintechnologiesformakingalivinginthedesert.

16

BytheearlycenturiesoftheChristianera,asourcalendarisreckoned,theArchaicinhabitantsofsouth-centralNewMexicoandelsewherewereexperimentingsuccessfullywithgettingmoreandmorefoodfromdomesticatedplants.Theprocessisnotclearlyknownyet,buttheresearchassociatedwithitisveryexciting,aswehavegainedsophisticationinrecognizinghowArchaicgroupsfirstencouragedtheplantstheywantedtouseinacasualwayand,overtime,begantoaltertheplantstosuchadegreethattheyweretrulydomesticated,growingonlyunderhumancare.

THE FORMATIVE PERIOD:

TRUE FARMING AS A WAY OF LIFE

AswemoveintowhatisknownastheFormativePeriod,prehistoricinhabitantswereengaginginalifewaythatisrecognizablydependentonfarming,althoughhuntingandgatheringwildplantswasalwaysimportant,rightuptotheSpanishinvasionoftheRioGrandeterritory.AfteraboutA.D.200intheWesterncalendar,FormativesocietieswerewidespreadacrosstheSouthwest,includingsouth-centralNewMexico.Pithouses,partiallydugintotheground,becamelargerandmoresubstantial;peoplelivedinlargerandmorepermanentvillages,andtheydependedonhard-firedpotteryandthebowandarrowasnewtechnologicalintroductions.LikethepreviousArchaicperiod,Formativesitesarecommonintheprojectareaandinfactarethemostobvioussites,giventhattheyareoftenlargerandmoredensewithmaterialremains,andaresometimesdepositedontopoftheoldersites.WhatisparticularlyimportantaboutFormativesitesintheOrganMountains-DesertPeaksregionisthepotentialtounderstandhowpeopledependentonfarmingwereusingthedrieruplandareasawayfromtheRioGrandeanditstributaries—ourownsuccessinanincreasinglyaridenvironmentwouldbeenhancedbyadeeperknowledgeoftheuseofdifferentlandscapesanddifferenttypesofresourcesbytheseearlyagriculturalists.

THE HISTORIC PERIOD:

EUROPEANS ENTER AND THE SOUTHWESTERN WORLD IS CHANGED FOREVER

ItisnoeasiertosummarizethehistoricperiodinsouthernNewMexicothanthelonghumanhistorythatprecededit.Thiswasatimeofmassivechange,sociallyandculturally,foralloftheinhabitantsofthisregion.

InthecenturiesjustprecedingtheentranceofSpanishcolonistsintotheRioGrandecorridor,Athapaskan-speakingpeopleswenowknowasApachesdevelopedastrongpresenceinsouthernNewMexico.TheApache,withagenerallymobilelifestyle,createdaverydifferentnetworkofinteractionwithotherpeoplethanhadbeenpresentbefore.Sometimesraiding,sometimestradingwithotherNativeAmericansandlatertheEuroamericans,theApacheweredominantintheregionuntillongaftertheSpanishinvasion.AlongwithAthapaskanspeakerswhobecameknownasNavajo,theApacheandothernomadicpeoplesformedastrongcomponentofthenativeoccupationoftheSouthwest.Whilemanycontemporarynomadicpeopleshavemaintainedlittlerecordoftheirrecenthistory,others,includingtheComanche,Pawnee,Cheyenne,andKiowa-Apachearewell-documented.ManywereacculturatedintoHispanichouseholds.RecordedProtohistoricsitesinNewMexicoincludeapproximately2,872Pueblosites,276Plainssites,37Utesites,884Apachesites,and16,419earlyNavajosites.

WhiletheinitialSpanishinvasionoccurredin1539-1540underFranciscoVásquezdeCoronado,itwasmostlytheupperRioGrandethatwitnessedtheearliestSpanishcolonization.SouthernNewMexicowassubjecttointensiveraidingbymobileApachebands,whowereabletotakehorses,otherlivestock,andfoodfromsettlers,orattacktravelersalmostatwill,andthenquicklydisappearintothevastdesertspaces.TheCaminoReal(“CameenoRay-áhl”,RoyalRoad)fromMexicoCityintotheheartofNewMexicowasestablishedalongexistingNativeAmericantrailsveryearlyinthehistoryoftheSpanishentrada,andservedasalifelinebetweenthefar-flungoutpostsandthefirmlyestablishedSpanishcommunitiesinMexico.

TheSpanishentradawasconceivedasanefforttocreateawholenewworldofpermanent,Catholic,SpanishcoloniesintheSouthwest.Spanishnoblemen,soldiers,clergymen,slaves,servants,andentirefamiliesexplored“NewSpain”inwhatisnowNewMexicoasaconcertedsocialandreligiousrevolutionfortheregion.By1598,underJuandeOñate’sleadership,Spainhadestablishedapermanentsettlementnearpresent-dayOhkayOwingehPueblonorthofSantaFe.PeriodsitesrecordedthroughoutNewMexicoincludeapproximately51PuebloRevoltsites,579post-RevoltPueblosites,andnearly2,000SpanishColonialbuildings,structures,sites,districts,andobjects,includingsegmentsofElCaminoRealdeTierraAdentroNationalHistoricTrail,historicplazas,irrigationditches,missionchurches,villages,artifacts,andresidences.

17

OnceMexicogaineditsindependencefromSpainin1821,strictsanctionsagainstforeigncommercewerelifted.ThecolonistslivingnorthofwhatisnowElPasowerenowpartofanewnation.TradealongElCaminoRealandthenewly-establishedSantaFeTrailflourished.Thereare239recordedMexicanperiodsitesinNewMexico,includingSantaFeTrailremnants,distinctivehomes,andimportantcommercialproperties.

DuetoongoingconflictwiththeApache,permanentSpanishsettlementaroundwhatisnowLasCrucesoccurredmuchlaterthaninthenortherncommunitieslikeSantaFeorBernalillo.ThehistoriccommunityofOldMesilla,foundedin1848justwestofpresent-dayLasCruces,preservessomeoftheatmosphereofthisperiod.ThiswastheperiodwhenNewMexicowasannexedbytheU.S.asapreludetotheMexican-AmericanWar.Theinfluxofnon-Spanishsettlersgreatlyincreased.

Inanactlargelymotivatedbyopportunitiesforeconomicgain,theUnitedStatesdeclaredwaronMexicoin1846.Forthenexttwoyears,AmericanmilitarypresenceinNewMexicomounted,followedbyaninfluxofEuro-AmericansduringtheperiodinwhichNewMexicowasaTerritoryoftheUnitedStates(1848-1912).Railroading,ranching,mining,andhomesteadingoccupiedmanyofthenewcomers.Thiserawitnessedmanychangestoexistingstylesoflandownership,materialculture,andarchitecture.Some2,956Hispanicand12,253AngloTerritorialsiteshavebeenidentifiedacrossNewMexico.Still,muchofsouth-centralNewMexicoremainedwildandlargelyunsettledinthenineteenthcentury,thusitservedasanescaperouteforoutlawssuchasBillytheKid,andthebandsledbyembattledApachewarchiefssuchasGeronimo.

ThelatenineteenthandearlytwentiethcenturiessawtheriseofintensiveagricultureintheRioGrandeValley.Bythenineteen-teens,theU.S.federalgovernmenthaddevelopedaseriesofdamsontherivertocontrolfloodingandmakeirrigationwateravailableonaregularbasistothefarmsinthevalley,whichformedamajorfoodbaseformuchofthestate.Irrigatedfarmingintherivervalleyremainsanimportanteconomicactivitytoday.

NewMexicobecamethe47thstatetobeadmittedtotheUnitedStatesofAmericaonJanuary6,1912.Sincethen,NewMexicansengagedintraditionalagricultural,mining,militaryandranchingpursuitshavebeenjoinedbyhealth-seekers,outdoorenthusiasts,students,motorists,environmentalandheritagetourists,scientists,andartists.TwoWorldWars,Roosevelt’sNewDeal,theColdWar,Route66,newtechnologies,andinternationalimmigrationhavemadeNewMexicothediverse,many-facetedculturallandscapeandsingulardestinationitistoday.

18

APPENDIX 2: SPECIAL TOPICS IN ORGAN MOUNTAINS-DESERT PEAKS ARCHAEOLOGY

TheproposedOrganMountains-DesertPeaksNationalMonumentissorichinpotentialinformationaboutthepastthatitisimportanttonotesomeofthetopicsthatprominentresearchersintheareahaveidentifiedasrelevantforcurrentandfuturework.Manyofthesesameresearchtopicswillhelplandmanagersinterpretthepasttoawidepublicaudiencethathasdifferentbackgroundsanddifferentideasofwhatisimportant.ThefollowingappendixdescribesafewofthemostimportantareasforarchaeologicalworkasnotedbyKirkpatricketal.(2000),agroupofresearcherswhohavebeeninvolvedwithsouthernNewMexicoarchaeologyfordecades.

How did the earliest people use the land?WhatisthenatureofPaleoindianlanduseinthispartofNewMexico?Wedon’tyethaveagoodsampleofsitesfromthisperiod.

How can we save the earliest cultural remains, those that are the most threatened?Howcanwesaveveryearlysites,giventherampantunauthorizedcollectingofPaleoindianpoints?TheProvidenceConeareahasbeenespeciallyhard-hit.

Where are the Early Archaic sites in this region?Werepeopleusingtheareaatthattime?Weneedbettersamplesofsitesfromthisperiod.

The East Potrillos are “terra incognita.”HowcanweachievebetterunderstandingofMiddleandLateArchaicsitesintheEastPotrilloMountains?TherearemanyEastPotrillositescoveredinsanddunes,makingitdifficulttogetagoodpictureoftheirdistributionasthesandcoversanduncoversthem.

Stone was the most important raw material, but we don’t know much about sources.WhatcanwelearnabouttheSierradelasUvas,RoughandReadyHills,andSleepingLadyHillsassourcesoflithicrawmaterials?Thereseemtobemanyquarrysitesandusablerockoutcropsintheseranges.

Did ancient southern New Mexicans interact with other cultures?IsSouth-centralNewMexicoArchaiccultureconnectedwithEasternNewMexicoand/orWestTexas?Someprojectilepointsarestylisticallysimilarinthesethreeareas.

Did ancient people return to certain places to live over time?DidearlyfarmingpeoplelocatetheirvillagesinplacessimilartothehabitationsoftheirLateArchaicpredecessors?Someresearchsuggeststhisisso.

How did early farmers maximize the chances of getting a crop?Didlaterfarmingpeopleusemultiplelandformsforagriculture—hillandmountainslopesinadditiontorivervalleys?–andisthisbecauseitwaswetteratthattime?Someresearchsuggestslaterfarmingsitesweresometimeslocatedinplaceswherepeoplewouldhavehadtoutilizerainfallonlyforirrigation.

Where did early farmers fulf ill their non-agricultural resource needs?Whatotherresourcesdidlatefarmingpeopleutilizeinthemountainsandhills?Whatdoesthissayabouttherelativeimportanceofdomesticatedcrops?

Kirkpatrick,DavidT.,PeterEidenbach,KarlW.Laumbach,andMelihaS.Duran,2000.Basin and Range Archaeology: An Overview of

Prehistory in South-Central New Mexico.HumanSystemsResearch,Inc.,LasCruces,NewMexico.

19

APPENDIX 3: LATINO/A HERITAGE IN SOUTHERN NEW MEXICO AND THE ORGAN MOUNTAINS-DESERT PEAKS

AstheoldestEuropeancultureintheUnitedStates,theLatino/aheritageofNewMexicocontinuestothriveandadapttothechallengesoftoday.Deeplytiedtotheland,thepeopleofsouthernNewMexicopreservealifewaythatgoesbackcenturies.InadditiontoNativeAmericanswholivedinthisregionforthousandsofyears,peopleofSpanishdescenthavealsobeenpartofthislandscapeforover400years.Beginninginthelate16thCentury,thedescendantsoftheseLatino/asettlershavecreatedauniquecultureandsocietyinanisolatedregionofNorthAmerica.Partheirloomtradition,partcontemporarycreation,thecultureoftwenty-firstcenturysouthernNewMexicoisarichcombinationofmanypeoplesinwhichthoseofSpanishdescentcontinuetoplayamajorrole.Avarietyofinstitutions,communities,andindividualsinNewMexicopreservethe400yearsofLatino/acultureandtraditions.

ThefirstSpanishpartythatexploredsouthernNewMexicowasledbyAntoniodeEspejoin1583.Espejo’ssmallexplorationpartygazeduponthearidvalleysplitintwobytheRioGrandethatwanderedaroundthelandscapelikeasidewinderrattlesnake.Theysawthesteepmountainrangesthatflankedthevalleytotheeastandthewest.Thesemajesticmountainsarepartoftheproposednationalmonument.

Inthespringof1598,DonJuandeOñate’sfamouscolonizingexpeditionarrivedattheMesillaValleyonitswaytonorthernNewMexico.Forthenextthreecenturies,tensofthousandsofpeoplepassedthroughtheMesillaValleytravelingonthetrailblazedbyOñate,experiencingthestarkdesertandthetallcrestsoftheOrganMountainsandtheDesertPeaks.DuringtheSpanishcolonialperiod,peopletravelingonElCaminoRealstoppedatthemanyparajes(campsites)insouthernNewMexicoandsearchedthenearbymountainsforgameandpreciousmetal.FewsettlersstayedduetotheharshdesertclimateandtheApachesandotherNativeAmericanswhoroamedthecountrysideandsometimesmadesettlementdifficult.

WhenMexicowonitsindependencefromSpainin1821,severalgroupsofpeopleattemptedtosettleintheMesillaValley.ThefirstgrouptoreceiveagrantfromtheMexicangovernmentwasledbyJuanAntonioGarcía.In1823,theBrazitoLandGrantwasawardedtoGarcía.Oncehereceivedhisgrant,helivedinthesouthernpartoftheMesillaValleyuntilillhealthforcedhimtoreturntoPasodelNorte(nowCiudadJuárez)in1827.FollowingseveralattemptsbyamysteriouswomannamedDoñaAnaMaríadeCórdovatosettlewithherfamilyatabendintheriverneartheRobledoMountains,in1839JoséMaríaCostalesand115othermenrequestedasectionoflandatthisspot.ApprovalfortheDoñaAnaBendColonywasdelayedforseveralyears,butfinallyin1843,BernabéMontoyaledthirty-threesettlerstoanareanorthofpresentdayLasCruces,whichbecameknownasthevillageofDoñaAna.Othersettlersquicklyarrivedinthecommunity.

InApril1846,theUnitedStatesdeclaredwaronMexicooverterritorialdisputesspawnedbyAmericanwestwardexpansion.In1847,MissourivolunteersunderthecommandofColonelAlexanderDoniphanmarcheddowntheCaminoRealandcapturedNewMexicofortheUnitedStates.In1849,PabloMelendres,themayordomo(personincharge)ofthevillageofDoñaAna,askedtheU.S.Armytohelprelievetheovercrowdinginhissmallcommunity.Goingsouthaboutfifteenmiles,LieutenantDelosSackettlaidoutagridofstreetsusingarawhideropenearacamposanto(cemetery)thatmarkedthesiteofamassacreontheCaminoReal.ThesitethatSackettcreatedwascalledEl Pueblo del Jardín de Las Cruces(TheCityoftheGardenofCrosses),orsimplyLasCruces.Thispartofthecity,nowtheMesquiteHistoricOriginalTownsiteDistrict,isontheNationalRegisterofHistoricPlaces,andhasbeenatraditionalneighborhoodforLatino/afamilieseversince.

TheTreatyofGuadalupeHidalgo,whichendedthewarin1848,settheinternationalborderbetweenMexicoandtheUnitedStatesattheRioGrande,butthetreatyleftambiguoustheexactlocationofthenewboundarywestoftheriver.MexicoclaimedthewestsideoftheriveralmosttothevillageofDoñaAnawhiletheUnitedStateswantedthesameland.AsMexicoassertedownershipoverthewestsideoftheMesillaValley,some2,000MexicanrefugeesfromNewMexicowhopreferrednottoliveundertheruleoftheUnitedStatesfoundedthetownofMesilla.FatherRamónOrtiz,awell-knownpriestinthearea,organizedcolonieslikeMesillaandothervillagesforMexicansdisplacedbythewar

20

alongtherivernorthwestofPasodelNorte.DespitethebestintentionsofFatherOrtízandthedesirebyMesillerostocontinuetoliveinMexicoasMexicancitizens,theUnitedStateswantedtomovethebordersouthtomakeroomfortherouteforatranscontinentalrailroad.Thus,in1853,JamesGadsdennegotiatedwithMexicanPresidentSantaAnnaandsecuredtheGadsdenPurchase(30millionacresinsouthernNewMexicoandsouthernArizona)foracostof$10million.SomeMexicansstayedinMesillaandbecameU.S.citizenswhileothersspreadthroughoutnorthernMexico.Foryears,peopleintheMesillaValleyhadbeenpartofMexico,andthensuddenlyovernight,theybecameU.S.citizens.Withoutmovingatall,theborderpassedoverthem,andforsome,cutthemofffromfamiliesandfriendsinthesouth.

In1855,ontheButterfieldOverlandMailTrail,thefirststagecoachtravelingfromSanAntoniotoSanDiegopassedthroughMesillaandblazedaroutethroughpartoftheproposednationalmonument.Travelersonthisgruelingthirty-eightdayjourneyacrossthedesertsoughtreliefinthewelcomingadobesofMesilla.Atthecrossroadsoftwomajortransportationroutes—ElCaminoReal(whichhadbecomeknownastheChihuahuaTrail)andtheButterfieldOverlandMailTrail,MesillawasthebiggestcommunityinsouthernNewMexicoforthenextthreedecades.WateredbytheRioGrande,agriculturesustainedthepeople.Bythemiddleofthe1850s,theHispanicfarmsofMesillaproduced25,000bushelsofcorn,7,500bushelsofwheat,and5,000bushelsofbeans.Fortherestofthe19thcenturyandintothe20th,theLatino/apeopleofsouthernNewMexicofarmed,ranched,freighted,andusedthelandscapeoftheproposedmonumentinnumerousways.Fromprovidingfortheirfamiliestopreservingtheirheritage,themountainpeaksanddesertvalleyshavecreatedauniqueculture.

TheUnitedStatesgovernmenthasbeenapartnerinthepreservationofHispanicheritageforalongtime.DuringtheGreatDepression,ittargetedNuevoMexicanocommunitiesforheritagepreservation.AshistorianSuzanneForrestnotes:“asignificantproportionoffederalfundswerechanneledintoprogramsdesignedtoassistHispanicvillagerstoregaineconomicindependencebyaugmentingtheirsmall-scaleagriculturalactivitieswithnativeartsandcraftscottageindustries,bymodernizingHispanicvillageagriculture,andbyrestoringthefertilityoftheland.”

Throughouttheover400yearsofLatino/apresenceinNewMexico,thelandscapehasplayedanimportantandessentialroleforthisisolatedoutpostofSpain,Mexico,andnowtheUnitedStates.CreatingtheOrganMountains-DesertPeaksNationalMonumentwillcontinuetopreservethisvitalculturallandmarkandresourceforthosewholiveinsouthernNewMexicoandforthevisitorswhocometotheregion.

photo courtesy of Robert Kaiser

21

APPENDIX 4: THE WAY TO NEW MEXICO: CAMINO REAL DE TIERRA ADENTRO by Jean Fulton, Historian, Camino Real de Tierra Adentro National Historic Trail

TheSpanishexploredandcolonizedtheAmericasbyfollowingestablishednativepathsthathadconnectedindigenousvillagesforhundredsandeventhousandsofyears.WhatwastobecomeknownasEl Camino Real de Tierra Adentro,“TheRoyalRoadoftheInterior,”originallyunitedtheSpanishcapitalofMexicoCitywiththerichminingdistrictssurroundingZacatecasandCiudadChihuahua.

In1598,IndianguidesledSpanishexplorerJuandeOñateandhiscaravanofcolonistsfromSantaBárbara,Chihuahua,nearParral,northacrossMexico’sremotefrontier.TheycrossedtheRioGrandenearSanElizario,traveledalongsidetheriverandacrosstheJornadadelMuerto(nearpresent-dayUphamnorthwestofLasCruces)towhatisnowOhkayOwingehPueblonorthofSantaFe.

Theinitialthree-monthjourneyfromnorthernMexicowasundertakenby129men,manyaccompaniedbytheirwives,children,andservants;andagroupofFranciscanfriars,using84heavily-ladencartsandherdingsome7,000headsoflivestockincludingsheep,goats,cattleandhorses.

ThisandsubsequentcaravansemanatingallthewayfromMexicoCitynegotiatedthedifficult1,600-miletrekthroughsomeofthemostdesolateandruggedterraininMexicoandwesternNorthAmerica.AlthoughovertimeElCaminoRealwasimprovedandevencobbledinMexico,thenorthernlengthremainedasimpleroughtrailorseriesofpathssurroundedbysparseandpricklyvegetation,occasionalsprings,inhospitablewaterlessstretches,erraticclimaticextremes,scarcefuelwood,highwinds,andintenseheat.

Creosote,whitethornacacia,saltbush,mesquite,andinsomeplacesyuccaandagavedominatedmuchofthenorthernCaminoReallandscape.Grammaandothergrassesprovidedforage.Nearpresent-daySocorro,canopiedforestsofcottonwoodswithanunderstoryofwillowsandsaltgrasslinedtheriver.

SmallercarretasorcartsmadeshortertripsbetweenpointsalongElCaminoReal.Largercarrosorwagonsfeaturedfouriron-rimmedwheelsandcarrieduptotwotons.Eightmulespulledawagon.Eightmulesfollowedtoserveasthealternateteam.Oñate’scaravanstretchednearlytwomileslong.Thecreakingofthewoodencartwheelsandthecloudsofdustcouldbeheardandseenformiles.Atrudgingtwelvemileswasatypicaldailyrateforcartandwagontravel.Chroniclerswrotethatthecaravantraveledasfastastheslowesthogcouldtrot.

Onetypicalcaravanin1631included544mules,72headsofcattle,200sheep,200heifers,andcountlesschickens.Bellsrang,bannersfluttered,andcrowdsgatheredeachtimeaprocessionapproachedElPasodelNorteandlaterSantaFe.Thewelcomedcaravansarrivedwithpeople,information,supplies,sacredornaments,religiousvestments,andfoodstuffs.

TheCaminoRealbraidedontopofancienttraderoutesusedforcenturiesbyindigenouspeoplestofurnishthemselveswithtradegoodsvitalforspiritualsustenanceandsurvival.Upfromthesouthcamemarineshells,parrotandmacawfeathers,andcopperobjects;downthetrailswentturquoiseandothersemi-preciousstones,pottery,salt,andprocessedbisonproducts.

ThefirstSpaniardsencounteredmorethan130multi-lingualcommunitiesofIndianstheydescribedas“Pueblos,”whichfeaturedsophisticatedagriculturalpractices,severalvarietiesofdomesticatedanimals,locallygrownandwovencottontextiles,anddeeply-rootedspiritualtraditionsincludingthekachinaculture.

Inadditiontonewbreedsoflivestock,thefirstEuropeansbroughtwiththemdozensanddozensofnon-nativevegetables,fruits,andherbsincludingartichokes,beets,carrots,chile,lettuce,oats,onions,tomatoes,wheat,apples,cantaloupes,peaches,pears,peanuts,oranges,watermelons,grapes,cherries,anise,cumin,dill,cilantro,lavender,

22

rosemaryandsaffron.Theyalsointroducedblacksmithing,brassandwoodmusicalinstruments,weaponry,Catholicism,andtheencomiendaandhaciendasystems,aswellasnewdiseases.

InearlyAugust1680,numerousfactorscoalesced—leadingtothemostsuccessfulNativeAmericanrevoltinthehistoryoftheAmericas.SomeestimatethatseventeenthousandPuebloIndians,speakingatleastsixdifferentlanguages,unitedandkilledhundredsofSpanishsettlersandpriests,lootedhaciendas,anddestroyedmissionchurches.NearlytwothousandSpaniards,accompaniedbyhundredsofenslavedorconvertedPuebloIndians,fledsouthalongElCaminoRealtotherelativesafetyofElPasodelNorte.IttooktheSpanishnearly12yearstore-conquerNewMexico.

FreightinghadincreaseddramaticallyafterMexicogaineditsindependencefromSpainin1821.Thenine-monthround-tripsmadeeverythreeyearsbyFranciscanexpeditionsduringthe16th-and17th-centuriestosupplythenorthernmissionswerereplacedbysmaller,independent,andmorefrequenttrips,includingannualwagontrains,conductasorconvoysrunmostoftenbyprivatecontractors.

Mulescouldcarry400poundswhilecovering12-15mileseachday.DuringtheheightofCaminoRealtravelandtrade,anatajoof200capable(butoftenrecalcitrant)muleswascommon,witheacharrieroormuleteermanaging40-50animals.

Onanygivendepartureday,acrowdwouldassembleatthetown’splaza.Withthelocalmilitaryprovidingescort,theassemblagewouldheadsouthtowardsMexico,oftentotakeadvantageofthemedicalservicesinCiudadChihuahua,thebestintheregion.Traderswiththeirpiñonnuts,roughwoolcloth,tannedanimalskins,tallow,pickledbuffalotongues,wines,brandies,andoftenIndianslavesalsoreadiedthemselvesforthejourney.Governmentofficials,friars,andevenentirefamiliesparticipated—researchersestimatethatbetween5and10percentoftheNewMexicanpopulationperiodicallymadetheround-triptrektoCiudadChihuahua.

Thebest-preservedlengthoftheElCaminoRealliesjustnortheastoftheRobledoMountainsinanareaknownastheJornadadelMuertoor“theJourneyoftheDeadMan.”Campsiteswereknownasparajes.LeavingtheparajeatRobledoatpresent-dayFortSelden,CaminoRealtravelerswouldmaketheshortday’striptotheparajeatSanDiegoattheveryedgeofaplainoverlookingtherivervalleyseveralhundredfeetbelow.WhentravelersreachedLagunadelMuerto(nearpresent-dayEngle)thelivestockwouldbesentfivemileswestthroughacanyontotheOjodelMuerto,areliablespring.LatertravelersguardedthemselvesagainstApacheattacksatthissamelocation.

SegmentsoftheElCaminoRealhavebeenusedduringtheWarwithMexico,aspartoftheButterfieldTrailbeforetheCivilWar,duringthemovementoftroopsintheCivilWar,wellintothe1870s,andevenintocontemporarytimes.

RecentarchaeologicalsurveysintheJornadadelMuertolocatedprehistoricartifacts,whatappearstobeahand-notchedwoodenchild’stoy,apossiblebuttonfromaFrenchuniform,andfairlymoderncarparts.TheNationalParkService,theBureauofLandManagement,andtheirlocalpartnersinstalledwaysideexhibitsinOctober2010tointerprettheoriginalTrailtrace.Sincethen,hikers,birders,touristsandoutdoorenthusiastshaveembracedthisarea,settingthestageforadditionalheritagetourismopportunitiespresentedbytheproposedOrganMountains-DesertPeaksNationalMonument.

23

APPENDIX 5: THE UNITED STATES GROWS... AGAIN: THE HISTORIC GADSDEN PURCHASE

THE TREATY OF GUADALUPE-HIDALGO: CONFUSION AND CONFLICT

AnalignmentofrockcairnssituatedwithintheproposedOrganMountains–DesertPeaksNationalMonumentboundarydemarcatesoneofthemostpeculiarandimportantfederallandprocurementsinUnitedStateshistory.

Presentedtothepublicasaninsetona29”x22”Nebraska and KansassteelengravingdrawnbycartographerJ.H.Coltonin1854,thenegotiated“GadsdenPurchase”gavethelowercontinentalUnitedStatesitsfinalform.TherocksmarkingthePurchasesettledyearsofcontroversyresultingfromtheinaccuraciesoftheofficialmapoftheUnitedStatescitedintheTreatyofGuadalupe-Hidalgo.

TheTreatyofGuadalupe-Hidalgo(inSpanish,theTratado de Guadalupe-Hidalgo)isthepeacetreaty—largelydictatedbytheUnitedStateswhileitsmilitaryforcesoccupiedMexicoCity—thatendedtheMexican-AmericanWaron2February1848.Underduressduringthenegotiation,Mexicoceded522,568squaremilesoflandandreceived$15,000,000inreturn(approximately$0.33peracre).

Beforetheonsetofstrifewithitsnorthernneighborin1846,theRepublicofMexico—ayoungnationwithancientroots—claimedallofthepresentU.S.statesofTexas,NewMexico,Arizona,Utah,Nevada,California,andportionsofKansas,Colorado,andWyoming.

Mexicansettlement,however,waslimitedtoafewriparianvalleysandfertilepocketsinalargelyinhospitablelandscape.TherestbelongedtotheComanche,Apache,Navajo,Ute,Hopi,Puebloans,O’odham,RiverYuma,Pais,Paiute,andamultitudeofgroupsindigenoustoCalifornia.

JohnDisturnell(1801-1877)wasabookandmappublisheroperatinginNewYork.His1847mapoftheUnitedStates,laterfoundtobeerroneous,servedastheofficialmapfortheTreatyofGuadalupe-Hidalgo.ThissetthestageforyearsofsimmeringtensionbetweenMexicanandAmericanofficialsandresidents.

THE GADSDEN PURCHASE, SEEN AS A SOLUTION

InaccordancewiththetermsoftheTreaty,ajointboundarycommissionwasorganizedtobeginthetaskofsurveyinganewdividinglinebetweenthetwonationsinJuly1849.GeneralPedroGarciaConde,thecommissionerappointedbytheMexicangovernment,andJohnRussellBartlett,thecommissionerrepresentingtheUnitedStates,metinElPasoin1850.

On-sitesurveysconfirmedsuspicionsthattheDisturnellmapmistakenlylocatedElPaso,Texasatalatitude34milesnorthandalongitude100mileseastofthetruepositionofthecity.ThismeantthatMexico’sadjustedborderwouldpotentiallywithdrawfiveorsixthousandsquaremilesfromtheUnitedStates,includingthefertileMesillaValleyandseveralminingdistricts.

AlthoughacompromisewasreachedbetweenPedroGarciaCondeandJohnBartlett,PresidentFranklinPiercenamedJamesGadsden,aSouthCarolinianrailroadexecutive,asministertoMexicotooverridetheBartlett-Condecompromiseandtonegotiatealandpurchasethatwoulddissolvetheboundarydisputeand,asanaddedbenefit,providetheUnitedStateswitharailroutetoCalifornia.

On17August1853,accordingtoElPasohistorianLeonMetz,JamesGadsdenmetwithPresidentSantaAnna,outlinedtheAmericanconceptofgeographicalpredetermination,andassertedtheUnitedStates’needforsufficientandprotectiveboundaries.HesuggestedthatMexicosellhersurplusunder-populatedregionsandacceptanaturalborderoutlinedbydesertsandmountainranges.GadsdenassuredSantaAnnathattheUnitedStateswouldpayafairprice.

SantaAnnafacedunpaiddebts,crushingtaxes,andrampantpoliticalcorruption.ViolentforaysbyAmericanopportunists,alackofrequestedsupportfromSpain,France,andBritain,andtheunspokenyetunderstoodthreatof

24

possibleU.S.forcealsounderminedSantaAnna’spowersofnegotiation.TheUnitedStateshadmoneyandwantedland.Mexicohadlandandwantedcash.

Theensuingpurchaseencompassed29,640squaremiles,ofwhich27,305(24percent)comprisestoday’ssouthernArizona.TheremainderwenttoNewMexico,includingthe‘MesillaStrip.’TheRioGrande’snewpointofU.S.entry,wheretheboundarylefttheriverandstruckwesttowardthePacific,wasthreemilesnorthofElPasoat31degrees47minutes.Theboundarymovedwestforonehundredmiles,thensouthto31degrees20minutes,westagaintotheintersectionofthe111thmeridian,andwesttotheColoradoRiver23.72milessouthofitsconfluencewiththeGila.FromthereitfollowedthemiddleofthestreamnorthtothealreadyestablishedboundaryextendingtothePacific.

BothtreatieshadtheunintendedconsequenceofratchetinguptensionsbetweensettlersandtheApache,whowereunderstandablyincensedthattheUnitedStateshadnegotiatedwithMexicoratherthanwiththemoverpossessionoftheirhomeland.RaidsagainstMexicansaswellasAmericanminers,settlers,herders,merchants,andtravelersincreased.U.S.militaryfortswereconstructedatstrategicpointstohelpsafeguardtheborderlandfrontier.

Despitetheescalatingviolence,misgivingsregardingshiftingnationalallegiances,andlingeringdoubtsabouttheaccuracyoftheboundarymarkers,troopsfromnearbyFortFillmoreoversawapeacefultransition.On16November1854,onMesilla’scentralplaza,theMexicanflagwasloweredwithreverence.Americanscheered,ranuptheirownflag,andsalutedwithtwoground-shakingroundsofartillery.Amilitarybandplayed“HailColumbia,”“YankeeDoodle,”andothertunes.NewMexico’sgovernorDavidMeriwetherdeliveredabriefpresentationwelcomingMexicanresidentstoAmericancitizenship,promisingprotectionfromtheApache,andensuringfairnesstoallinthecourts.

WhilemanyresidentsontheU.S.sideoftherealignedborderadjustedtotheirnewfoundstatusasAmericans,Mexico’sPresidentSantaAnnaspentthe$15millioninthreemonthsandwasforcedintoexileformorethantwentyyearsforhisroleinsellingoffthemotherland.

OnJuly20,1876,SantaAnnadiedinMexicoCity,poor,friendless,andalone.

Morethanahundredandfiftyyearsafteranofficialnegotiationthatmanywoulddescribeasasimplelandgrab,therockcairnsmarkingtheGadsdenPurchaseboundarycontinuetobearmutetestimonytoalonglegacyofmutualgreed,distrust,dispute,violence,resiliency,persistence,andresolution.

Secondary Sources

Beck,WarrenA.andYnezD.Haase.Historical Atlas of New Mexico.(NormanandLondon:UniversityofOklahomaPress,1969:26-28).

Clemons,RussellE.,PaigeW.Christiansen,andH.L.James.Southwestern New Mexico: Scenic Trips to the Geologic Past No. 10 (Revised).(Socorro,NM:NewMexicoBureauofMinesandMineralResources,1980:105-111).

Cohen,PaulE.Mapping the West: America’s Westward Movement 1524-1890.(NewYorkCity:RizzoliInternationalPublications,Inc.,2002:170-171).

Metz,Leon.Border:The U. S.–Mexico Line.(ElPaso:ManganBooks,1989:78-81,83-84,90).

Noble,DavidGrant.Pueblos, Villages, Forts & Trails: A Guide to New Mexico’s Past.(Albuquerque:UniversityofNewMexicoPress,1994:199-200).

Sheridan,ThomasE.A History of the Southwest: The Land and Its People.(Tucson:WesternNationalParksAssociation:10-15).

Simmons,Marc.New Mexico: An Interpretive History.(Albuquerque:UniversityofNewMexicoPress,1988:136-137).

Taylor,MaryDaniels.A Place as Wild as the West Ever Was: Mesilla, New Mexico 1848-1872.(LasCruces,NM:NewMexicoStateUniversity

Museum,2004:31-40).

25

APPENDIX 6: THE ERRONEOUS MAP OF 1847 THAT LED TO THE GADSDEN PURCHASE

26

APPENDIX 7: BUTTERFIELD TRAIL - THE CALIFORNIA CONNECTION

TheButterfieldTrailwastheroutefollowedbytheUnitesStates’firstoverlandmailandpassengerservicebetweentheMississippiRiverandthePacificOcean.EnteringNewMexicoatElPaso,itfollowedtheRioGrandenorthtoMesilla,thenwestwardinasoutherncurveacrosswildernessdesertstoCalifornia.TheOverlandExpressalsoinheritedthecontractformailserviceinpassengercoachesbetweenLaMesillaandSantaFebetween1860and1861,onthesameElCaminoRealdeTierraAdentroroutethatJuandeOñatetooknearly300yearsearlier.

InresponsetocomplaintsfromresidentslivinginNewMexico,Arizona,andCalifornia,wearyofthethree-monthdelayinsteamboatmailservice,Congressauthorizedtheestablishmentofafederally-subsidizedoverlandmailservicebetweenSt.Louis,MissouriandSanFranciscoin1857.ThecontractwaswonbyJohnButterfieldandhispartnersinwhatbecameknownastheOverlandMailCompany.

Butterfieldwasasuccessful,self-madeNewYorkentrepreneurandafriendofPresidentBuchanan’s.Fromhisstartasadependablestagecoachdriver,Butterfieldovertimeacquirednumerousmailandpassengerstagecoachlines,andeventuallybecameafoundingdirectoroftheAmericanExpressCompany,whichoperatestothisday.Duringhisyouthandadulthood,ButterfieldwitnessedtheconstructionoftheErieCanal,sawRobertFulton’snewfangledsteamboatmiraculouslychugupstream,watchedasthefirsttelegraphlineswerestrung,andexperiencedtherumbleofthefirststeamlocomotive.Anythingseemedpossible.

Amanofvisionandadeptmanagerialskills,Butterfield,alongwithWilliamG.Fargoandfiveotherinvestors,arrangedthe2,795-mileservicewithinthespanofasingleyear.Theyandtheircrewssurveyednewsectionsofroadtoconnectwithexistingroutes,appropriatedorconstructedcorrals,bridges,stations,andsleepingaccommodations;dugwells,andhauledspringwater.

ButterfieldandhisteamwereessentiallyretracinganearlierwagonrouteblazedbyKearnyandCookeadecadeearlier.GeneralStephenWattsKearnyandhisArmyoftheWestscoutedaninitialwagonroadthroughNewMexicoandArizonain1846-1847duringtheirquesttosecuresouthernCaliforniafortheUnitedStatesduringtheWarwithMexico.Soonafterward,CaptainPhilipSt.GeorgeCooke’sMormonBattalionfollowedonKearny’sheels.Thesetwomovementsofequipment,soldiers,andsuppliestransformedaseriesoffootpathsintothewagonroadthatbecametheButterfieldTrail.

Aspartoftheirfinalpreparations,Butterfieldandhispartnershired800employees,acquiredanddistributedmorethan1,500horsesandmules,stockedstationswithhayandfeed,andpurchased250coachesincludingmailwagonsandothernecessaryequipment.Inthelikelyeventofabreakdownorotheremergency,themailwastransferredtoback-upwagonsthatpressedontothenextstation.

Thetargetstartdateof16September1858wasmet.ServicebeganoutofSt.Louis,Memphis,andSanFranciscosimultaneously.“Remember,boys,”Butterfieldfamouslyadmonishedhisemployees,“nothinginGod’searthmuststoptheUnitedStatesmail!”

One-waytripsontheButterfieldTrailcostpassengersbetween$150and$200(around$3Kbytoday’sstandards)andtookjustunderthreeweekstravelingdayandnight.Postageforaletterwastencents,andfreightcostadollarperonehundredpoundsperonehundredmiles.Briefstopsweremadeonlytochangehorses,repairbrokenaxles,ortoconsumetwodailymeals(atanextracostoffiftycentseach)consistingoftenofhard,flatbiscuits,beefjerky,andrawonionsservedintincupsandwasheddownwithunsweetenedblackcoffee.Invertedpailsorstumpsservedaschairs.

WroteNew York HeraldcorrespondentWatermanL.OrmsbyuponhisarrivalinSanFrancisco:

SafeandsoundfromallthethreateneddangersofIndians,tropicsuns,rattlesnakes,grizzlybears,stubbornmules,mustanghorses,jerkedbeef,terrificmountainpasses,fordingrivers…hereIaminSanFrancisco…Ialmostfeelfreshenoughtoundertakeitagain.

27

Asanaside,onecan’thelpbutwonderifOrmsbywasasked(bribed?)byinvestorstopresentafavorablereview.Inanycase,waystations—smallrough-hewnwood,rock,oradobebuildingswithadjacentcorralsandawellorawatertank—werespacedatanaveragetwentymilesapart.Aguardofsixorsevenmenateachstationlookedafterthehorses.Thestationkeeperreceivedamonthlysalary.

ButterfieldreceivedacablefromPresidentBuchananafterthefirsteastboundmaildeliveryarrivedinSt.Louison9October1858proclaimingthatitwas“aglorioustriumphforcivilizationandtheUnion.Settlementswillsoonfollowthecourseoftheroad,andtheEastandWestwillbeboundtogetherbyachainoflivingAmericanswhichcanneverbebroken.”

ThearrivalofJohnButterfield’stri-weeklyOverlandMailservicecreatedaburstofgrowthinElPaso,whichservedasthehalf-waypoint.StreetnamesincentralElPasotodayindicatethearrivalanddepartureroutesofthestagesandtheirdestinations(SantaFe,SanFrancisco,andSanAntonioStreets).Indeed,eachofthetownsandvillagesalongtheoverlandroutebenefittedfromtheservicewhichbroughtmail,news,visitors,andthoseinneedoflocally-suppliedprovisions.

ThefirststopinNewMexicoafterElPasowasFortFillmore,followedbyLaMesilla.Atthattime,theRioGranderaneastofLaMesillabyaboutfourhundredyards,andwestofFortFillmoreaboutthesamedistance.Whatisnowthe“LaPosta”restaurantatthesoutheasterncorneroftheMesillaPlazahousedtheButterfieldHomeStationandHeadquarters,providingaplacetoexchangemailandbrieflyrestafterfordingtheriver.TheroutethencontinueditswayupthevalleytothetownofPicacho,andfromtheremadeananglewestwardtotheRoughandReadyStation,whichatthattimewassituatedsometwentymilesfromtheriver.

RenownedButterfieldTrailscholarGeorgeHackler’sdetailedfieldworkinformsusthattheRoughandReadyStation,establishedinDecember1858,waslocatedatthegapbetweenSleepingLadyHillsonthesouthandtheRoughandReadyHillsonthenorth,inSection28,Township22SRange2W.Archaeologicalexcavationsrevealedthatthestationwasbuiltofadobeonrockfoundationswithrockandadobefireplacesandchimneys.TheoriginalCorralitosRanchheadquarters(fromaround1912)wasbuiltnexttotheTrail.Althoughwhatremainsofthestationiscurrentlyburied,theButterfieldTrailitselfremainsevident.

StationsnextinlineheadingwestwereGoodsight,Cooke’sSpring,Mimbres,LosOjosdeVaca,Soldier’sFarewell,Barney’s,MexicanSprings,andStein’sPeak.Stein’sPeakinDoubtfulCanyonisaboutonemilefromtheArizonaborderandwasthelaststationinNewMexico.Eachstationnametellsastory.

LINKING EL CAMINO REAL AND BUTTERFIELD TRAIL

AlthoughtheoutbreakoftheCivilWarin1861prohibitedfurtherofficialuseoftheButterfieldTrail,privatestagescontinuedtobringpassengerswesttoSantaFeanddownalongtheoriginalElCaminoRealroutesouthtoMesillaandbeyond.

IfweimagineforjustamomenttravelingwiththeoriginalCaminoRealcaravans,theslowpaceofwalkingalongsidecreakingwagonsandcartsforatwelve-miledaywiththefreedomofmovementinsomewayscomparesfavorablywiththeconfinementofbetweensixandninetightly-packedpassengersinacoachbuiltforspeed(4-5milesanhour).Fast,rough,dangerous,thesecoacheswerepronetotippingandharboredpassengersplaguedbyboredom,sleepdeprivation,fearoftheunknown,andmotionsickness.

In1873,oneintrepidfamilymadesuchastagecoachtripfromNewYorktoSantaFe,MesillaandthenontoSilverCity.CatherineAntrim,hertwosonsandhersecondhusbandWilliamrelocatedwesttofindwork.Catherinebusiedherselfwithrunningaboardinghouse.Herhusbandworkedmostlyinthemines.Catherine’ssonWilliamHenryAntrimandhishalf-brotherJosieattendedtheone-roomschoolhouse.Afewyearslater,afterhismotherdied,youngWilliamwouldtakethenamepresumedtohavebeengiventohimbyhisbiologicalfather,WilliamH.Bonney.HisforcedreturntoMesillain1881asayoungadultandtheaftermathofthatstaycreatedquiteastir.

28

APPENDIX 8: WILLIAM BONNEY, AKA “BILLY THE KID”

ThegeneralmayhembetweentwocompetingfactionsstrugglingforeconomicdominanceinLincolnCountyin1878createdaperiodofanarchyoftenreferredtoastheLincolnCountyWar.Inaletterdated13April,1878totheLasVegas,NMGazette,onemortifiedvisitorobservedthat,“killingpeopleinLincolnistheleadingindustryatthepresenttime.”Thebloodshedandlawlessnessfascinatedaninternationalaudience,andcreatedamythicAmericanfigure—WilliamH.Bonney.

Bonney,betterknownasBillytheKid,wasbymostaccountsane’er-do-well,jovial,slightlybuilt,bucktoothedboywhoendedupbeingshotdeadinhisstockingfeetwhileaskinginSpanishseveraltimes,“Whoisit?”Afteryearsofmishaps,deadlyadventures,andinfamouselusiveness,theKidwasfinallycapturedandbroughttotrialinMesilla,NMforparticipatinginthe1April1878mid-morningambushandmurderofLincoln’sSheriffWilliamBrady.

Now,aMesillaplazagiftshopnorthofLaPostarestaurantinhabitsthebuildingthatservedthenastheThirdJudicialDistrictcourthouse.BroughttherefromtheendoftherailrunatRinconbyahorse-drawnvansurroundedbyarmedguards,theKidsworetothejudgehehadnotevenfiredatBrady.HeadmittedhewastryingtokillDeputyMatthewsinstead.RaptjurorsignoredBilly’spleaofinnocence.Hewasfoundguiltyofmurderon13April.JudgeBristolorderedthathebeincarceratedinLincolnuntil13Maywhenhewastobe“hangedbytheneckuntilhisbodybedead.”

TheKidwastransferredbacktothetownofLincoln,whereon28Aprilhemanagedtoescapethesecond-storyjailhousebyshootingbothofhisjailersafteratriptotheprivy.ItissaidthataHispanicsympathizerhidarevolverfortheKidthere.Accordingtocontemporaryaccounts,underthewatchfuleyesofbothfearfulandfriendlyonlookers,hecasuallypoundedoffhishandcuffsandoneofhislegirons,collectedarifleandasix-shooterfromtheSheriff’soffice,pocketedammunition,tookblankets,borrowedahorse(laterreturned)androdeoutoftown.TheKidremainedonthelamforthreemonths.

Anarticleinthe18July1881LasVegasDailyOpticreportedthattheKid’srepeatedquestion,“Quiénes?Quiénes?”justbeforemidnightinsideaFortSumnerhouseholdallowedpursuerSheriffPatGarrettthetimeheneededtodriveabullet,“throughthecenterof‘TheKid’s’heart.”Ajuryfoundtheincidenttobe“justifiablehomicide,”andwhilemostbreathedeasier,manymournedthelossofthishaplessoutlaw.

EvenSheriffPatGarrettremarkedthattheKidwas,“open-handed,generous-hearted,frank,andmanly.”OthersappreciatedhiscommandoftheSpanishlanguage.Itwassaidhewasagoodgambler,anexcellenthorseman,andagracefuldancer.Hehadagiftwiththeladies.Hewasalsodescribedasa“thieving,murderous,littlecowboy-gone-bad.”

StandingamongtheadobewallruinsatFortSelden(weatherwornsincetheiroriginalconstructionin1865tosafeguardCaminoRealtravelers)visitorscanjustmakeoutthetipof“OutlawRock”somefourmilesinthedistance.Itwasaperfecthideoutforanyoneontherun,ruggedandriddledwithrattlesnakes.Italsoaffordedagoodviewofthegoings-onattheFort,particularlyifyouwereinterestedinraidingortheft.Sureenough,avidresearchersrecentlyphotographedthename“Bonney”etchedintotherock,alongwithevidencethatWilliamBonneyaka“theKid”washoleduptherebetweenMayandDecember1880withfriendsTomO’Folliard,CharlesBowdre,DaveRudabaugh,andTomO’Keefe.

ThefascinationwithBillytheKidcontinues.ANewMexicoBillytheKidScenicBywayleadsauto-touristsonalooptourthroughSanPatricio,Lincoln,andotherlocationsofhistoricalinterest.ThedesignationoftheOrganMountains–DesertPeaksNationalMonumentprovidesadditionalexcitingopportunitiestopreserveandpromoteOutlawRock,thetownofMesilla,theKid’sboyhoodhomesiteinSilverCity,severaloftheFortshefrequented—andpointsinbetween—foranationalandinternationaltravelingpublic.

29

APPENDIX 9: GERONIMO AND THE APACHE WARS: THE CONFLICT OF CULTURES

DespitethesuccessoftheButterfieldOverlandExpressandothereffortsatwestwardmigration,thePlainstribesheldtheirgroundagainstdisplacementuntiltheearly1870s,whenthefullpressureoftheUnitedStatesmilitarywasusedrelentlesslyagainstthem.Theirresettlementontoreservationsandthevirtualextinctionofthebuffalosignaledtheendofopenhostilities.Afterward,defeatingafewstrayApachebandsinsouthwesternNewMexicoprovedtobethemostlong-lastinganddifficultmilitaryfeatoftheU.S.occupation.

HistorianLeonMetznotesthatforahundredyearstheU.S.-Mexicoborderregionwasabattleground:theApachesversusSpain,theApachesversusMexico,theApachesversustheUnitedStates,andtheApachesversusbothMexicoandtheUnitedStates.

In1879,MimbresApacheChiefVictorioandhisfollowersescapedfromtheSanCarlosReservation.ForthenexttwoyearstheycarvedabloodypathalongtheRioGrandeandintoArizonaandMexico.Untilhisdeathin1881someninetymilessouthofElPaso,VictoriowaschasedinturnbyMexicanforcesandbyAmericancavalry.

Twoyearslater,ApacheleadersNachez,Cato,Juh,andGoyaaté(kòjàːɬɛ )́“onewhoyawns”jumpedtheSanCarlosfencesandvanishedintotheSierraMountainsofSonora,Mexico.GoyaatewouldlaterbeknowntoallasGerónimo.SteadypressureandanopenskirmishinMay1883inducedtheApachegrouptosurrender,buttheconcessionwasnottolast.

InawayoflifethatconsideredMexicans,Hispanos,andAmericansaslegitimatetargetstoobtainsourcesofmeat,guns,ammunition,blankets,alcohol,andadditionalnecessities,Gerónimoinparticularisstillrememberedforhispatriotismtohispeople,andforhisbraveryasawarrior.Tobesure,thecontinuousraidingwasoutofretaliationandretributionasmuchasitwasasurvivaltechnique.IthasbeensaidthatmostMexicanpeasantsviewedGerónimoasadevilsentbyGodtopunishthemfortheirsins.MostAnglosettlerswerenotsointrospective.

AfteradecadeofresistingsettlementinNewMexicoandArizona,theApacheleaderGerónimosurrenderedtoGeneralNelsonA.Mileson4September1886atSkeletonCanyon,thirtymileseastofDouglas,Arizona.

WiththeexceptionofahandfuloffighterswhoremainedintheSierraMadresandbecamethe“LostTribe,”GerónimoandhisfamilyandfollowerswereloadedbytheArmyontoaSouthernPacifictrainandshippedtocourtinSanAntonio,TexasandthenontoyearsofincarcerationinPensacola,FloridaandVermont,Alabama.Shamefully,thegovernmentalsocapturedandshippedloyalIndianscoutsbackEastatthesametime.TheforcedrelocationendedtheopengovernmentwarfareagainstNativeAmericans.

Muchlater,in1904,Gerónimowasphotographedinasuitjacket,scarftie,andmoccasinssellingbowsandarrowsattheLouisianaPurchaseExhibitionattheWorld’sFair(St.Louis).Althoughstillaprisonerofwar,hehadbecomeanastutebusinessman,hadbyoutwardappearancesadoptedChristianity,andwaswellawareofwhiteAmericanconsumerism.Gerónimonevermadeitbacktohisbirthplace.Onhisdeathbed,heconfessedtohisnephewthatheregrettedhisdecisiontosurrender.HewasburiedatFortSill,Oklahomaon17February1909.

ItwasthoughtbymanythatGerónimowasashamanwhohadsupernaturalpowers.Oneofhissupernaturalfeats,asthestorygoes,wasanescapethattookplaceintheRobledoMountains.ThelegendstatesthatGeronimoandhisfollowersenteredacave.TheU.S.soldierswaitedoutsidethecaveentranceforhim,buttheyneversawhimcomeout.Asecretexithasneverbeenfound.

30

APPENDIX 10: WORLD WAR II AERIAL TARGETS

The1940censusreported132millionpeopleintheUnitedStates,withjustoverhalfamillioninNewMexico.Thedepressionhadended,andtherewerejobstobehadinmostofthecountry.WarhadalreadybrokenoutinEurope,andPresidentRooseveltandCongressdirectedanunprecedentedbuildupoftheUSmilitary-industrialcomplexinpreparationforouranticipatedentranceintothewar.SouthernNewMexicowasincludedinthesepreparations.TheArmyAirCorpsselectedtheDemingairfieldasoneofmanybasesfortrainingairmenaspilots,navigatorsandbombardiers.Asdidthepetroglyphsscribedbyancientpeoples,therockcairnspiledbysurveyorstomarktheboundaryoftheUnitedStatesfollowingthewarwithMexico,theruinsofButterfieldTrailStagecoachStops,andgravestonesfromApacheRaids,thelegacyoftheAirCorpstrainingeffortleftaseriesofuniquelandmarksacrossthesouthernportionofthestate,mostlyinDonaAnaCounty.AlthoughtheArmyAirCorpstrainingprogramislittle-knownbycurrentresidents,itplayedavitalroleinthealliedsuccessoverGermanyandJapanintheSecondWorldWar.

Open House at the Deming Air Field circa 1944

Demingwasasleepyfarmandranchtownwithapopulationof3500in1942whencontractsweresignedfortheconstructionofthe338thArmyBase/Airfield.(Itwouldbetwomoreyearsbeforethecommunityelecteditsfirstmayor.)Anothercontractintheamountof$45,225.31wasawardedtoCharlesTerry,forconstructionof24targetsthatweretobeclearlyvisiblefromtheair.Thetargetswerelocatedonarectangulargridacrossaspanofroughly40by50milesoverextremelyremoteterrain.Constructionwastostarton26October1942andbecompletedamere50dayslater–itseemstherewassomeurgencytothisproject.TodayInterstate10bisectsthegrid,with14sitestothenorthand10tothesouth.

Eachtargetconsistedoffourconcentricrings,theoutermostbeing1000feetindiameter,withawoodenshackresemblingapyramidatthecenter.Nighttimetargetsrequiredgeneratorstopowerastringoflightsthatformedalargecrosshairontheground.Someofthetargetshadoutlinestosimulatetheappearanceofshipsorbuildingsfromtheair.Theconcentriccircleswereconstructedbyscrapingashallow,clearedfurrowontheground,sometimesleavingaringofdisplacedrocksaroundtheperimeter.

31

MuchastheSpaniardsunderestimatedtheabilityofthePuebloanpeopletocommunicateacrossvastdistances,andasearlyU.S.soldiersunderestimatedtheabilityofApachestotravelgreatdistanceswithlittlefoodorwater,sotoocapturedGermanofficersatthecloseofWorldWarIIrevealedthattheyhadseverelyunderestimatedthecapacityoftheAmericanstosupportthelogisticsofourwareffort.

AnastonishingnumberofsortieswereflownbytheDemingairmenbetween1942and1945,typicallyfourtofivethousandpermonth–equatingtooneevery10minutes,aroundtheclock,dayinanddayout,forthebetterpartofthreeyears.ThetrainingwasconductedinBeechAT-11aircraft,modifiedwithaPlexiglassnosebubbleforviewingthegroundtargets,andnick-namedtheKansan.Atypicaltrainingmissionincludedthepilot,theinstructor,andtwocadets.Thecrawlbetweenthepilotandinstructortoenterthenosebubblewasatightsqueeze,aswastheseatingarrangementfortheinstructor,whosatbehindthebubblewithhisfeetonanescapehatch.AnAirCorpslegendtellsofanairmanwhoturnedaroundtosaysomethingtohisinstructor,andallhesawwasanopenescapehatch.Sohequicklygrabbedanearbyparachute(presumablyremovedbecauseofthetightquarters)andthrewitoutthehatchasfastaspossible.Toeveryone’srelief,subsequentauditsofArmypropertyrecordsindicatednodiscrepanciesinthenumberofeitherparachutesorairmen.

Today,whenviewedfromtheground,thelastremainsofthetargetslooklikeshallow,concentrictrenchesthatarebeingslowlyovertakenbythetimelessforcesofnature.Fromtheair,thetargetsbeararemarkableresemblancetoaliencropcircles.Onetargetinparticular,number22,providesaphysicalconnectionwithpreviouschaptersofhistoricalsignificance.LyingjustafewmileswestoftheruinsofMason’sFort,thenorthernedgeofTarget22isactuallyintersectedbytheButterfieldTrail,whiletheGadsdenPurchasecutsalineacrossthesouthernhalfofthelargeovalsurroundingthetarget.

AT-11 Trainer Aircraft Flying over Practice Target

32

AninterestingaspectofthebombardiertrainingisassociatedwiththeNordenBombsight.TheNordenincludedahighlysophisticatedmechanicalcomputer(anoriginalNordenbombsightresidesattheComputerHistoryMuseuminMountainView,California)thatusedinputfromtheplane’saltimeter,airspeedindicator,gyroscopesandautopilottocomputetheexpectedtrajectoryofthebombandtocontrolthereleasepoint.Nordenengineersclaimedthebombsighthadanerrorcircleof30feetfromanaltitudeofonemile,butwartimeresultswerelessspectacular;only24%landedwithin3000feetofthetargetduringtheearlyaircampaignoverGermanyin1943.

TheNordenBombsightwasinitiallyconsidered“topsecret”.Someunitsincludedthermitegrenadestoensurethebombsightmeltedintoalumpofmetaluponlossofanaircraft,ratherthanallowthebombsighttofallintoenemyhands.AfterthewaritwaslearnedthatplansfortheNordenwereleakedtotheGermans,andboththeGermansandBritishwereworkingonsimilardesigns.

Visible Evidence of Graded Target Ring Aerial View of Target #22, with Butterfield Trail visible near the top

& Gadsden Purchase shown below

33

APPENDIX 11: THE NATIONAL REGISTER OF HISTORIC PLACES:

WHAT IT MEANS FOR SOUTHERN NEW MEXICO

TheNationalRegisterofHistoricPlacesisAmerica’sofficiallistofculturalresourcesdeemedworthyofpreservationandfurtherresearch.Sinceitsinceptionin1966,morethan80,000propertieshavebeenlistedintheNationalRegister.Theserecordsholdinformationonmorethan1.4millionindividualresources—buildings,sites,districts,structures,andobjects—providingatangiblelinktothiscountry’ssharedheritageatthenational,state,andlocallevels.Itisespeciallyimportanttounderstandthatthelawsandregulationsprotectingculturalresourcesareappliednotonlytothosepropertiesthatarelistedintheregister,butalsothosethatareeligibleforlisting.Thisisanacknowledgementthatundermanycircumstances,itisnotpracticalorfeasibletogothroughthelengthynominationprocessforeveryeligibleculturalresource.Theyare,nevertheless,recognizedasresourcesofhighenoughsignificancetoreceivefederalprotectionandstewardshiponbehalfoftheAmericanpublic.

THE NATIONAL REGISTER OF HISTORIC PLACES AND DOÑA ANA COUNTY, NEW MEXICO

AlthoughtherearemanyimportantDoñaAnaCountyculturalresourceseligibleforlistingintheNationalRegisterofHistoricPlaces,thereare28propertiescurrentlyactuallylistedinthecounty.EachpropertyislocatedatornearoneofseveralcommunitieswhichwouldserveasgatewaycommunitiestotheOrganMountains-DesertPeaksprojectarea,includingLaMesa,LasCruces,Mesilla,Organ,theVillageofDoñaAna,RadiumSprings,andWhiteSandsMissileRange.ThuspositionedincloseproximitytotheOrganMountains-DesertPeaks,theseNationalRegisterpropertiesincreasethevalueanddrawingpoweroftheareaasawholeforheritagetourismandeconomicbenefits.

AwiderangeofhistoricaltopicsandperiodsarerepresentedbytheNationalRegisterproperties.TheMissileRangesitesharkbacktoNewMexico’smilitaryhistory.FivearchitecturallysignificantbuildingsarelocatedonthecampusofNewMexicoStateUniversityinLasCruces.Thisimportantgatewaytownalsofeaturesseveralsignificantresidences,numerousnoteworthypubliclandmarks,churches,atleastoneengineeringstructure,andtwohistoricdistricts.NationalRegistersitesincludingtheBarela-ReynoldsHouseanddistinctivehistoricplazasarelocatedatthenearbyvillagesofMesillaandDoñaAna.TheL.B.BentleyGeneralMerchandisestoreislocatedinOrgan,NM,andtheSummerfordMountainArcheologicalDistrictislocatedinthevicinityofRadiumSprings.

ThefollowingisacompletelistofculturallysignificantDoñaAnaCountypropertiescurrentlylistedintheNationalRegisterofHistoricPlacesthatcanbeexperiencedbyvisitorstotheOrganMountains-DesertPeaksarea:

PROPERTIES ALREADY LISTED IN THE NATIONAL REGISTER IN DOÑA ANA COUNTY

PROPERTY LOCATION PERIODOFSIGNIFICANCE

Alameda-DepotHistoricDistrict CityofLasCruces Territorial/Earlystatehood

Armijo,NestorHouse CityofLasCruces Territorial/Earlystatehood

Branigan,Thomas,MemorialLibrary CityofLasCruces Earlystatehood

GreenBridgeatDrippingSprings CityofLasCruces Earlystatehood

MesquiteStreetOriginalTownsiteHistoricDistrict CityofLasCruces Territorial/Earlystatehood

OurLadyofPuricationCatholicChurch CityofLasCruces Territorial/Earlystatehood

PhillipsChapel CityofLasCruces Territorial/Earlystatehood

RioGrandeTheatreDowntown CityofLasCruces Twentieth-centuryNewMexico

DoñaAnaVillageHistoricDistrict DoñaAna Spanishcolonial

SanJoséChurch LaMesa Spanishcolonial

Barela-ReynoldsHouse Mesilla Spanishcolonial

LaMesillaHistoricDistrict Mesilla Spanishcolonial

MesillaPlaza Mesilla Spanishcolonial

InternationalBoundaryMarkerNo.1,U.S.andMexico NearElPaso Twentieth-centuryNewMexico

AirScienceBuilding NewMexicoStateUniversity,LasCruces Twentieth-centuryNewMexico

FosterHall NewMexicoStateUniversity,LasCruces Twentieth-centuryNewMexico

GoddardHall NewMexicoStateUniversity,LasCruces Twentieth-centuryNewMexico

34

PROPERTY LOCATION PERIODOFSIGNIFICANCE

Hadley--LudwickHouse NewMexicoStateUniversity,LasCruces Twentieth-centuryNewMexico

UniversityPresident’sHouse NewMexicoStateUniversity,LasCruces Twentieth-centuryNewMexico

FortSelden NorthofDonaAna Territorial

Bentley,L.B.,GeneralMerchandiseStore Organ Territorial/Earlystatehood

RioGrandeBridge RadiumSprings Earlystatehood

SummerfordMountainArcheologicalDistrict RadiumSprings Territorial/Earlystatehood

FortFillmore SouthofLasCruces Territorial

ElephantButteIrrigationDistrict SouthernNewMexico Earlystatehood

LaunchComplex33 WhiteSandsMissleRange ColdWarEra

THE NATIONAL REGISTER OF HISTORIC PLACES AND LUNA COUNTY, NM

AlthoughthereareuntoldnumbersofimportantLunaCountyculturalresourceseligibleforlistingintheNationalRegisterofHistoricPlaces,therearesevenpropertiescurrentlylistedinthecounty.ThesesitesarelocatedinornearDemingorColumbus,NewMexico;townsthatareimportanttotheOrganMountains-DesertPeaksprojectareaasgatewaycommunitiestovisitorscomingfrom,orgoingto,thewestandsouthwest.

ThefollowingisacompletelistofculturallysignificantLunaCountypropertiescurrentlylistedintheNationalRegisterofHistoricPlacesthatcanbeexperiencedbyvisitorstotheOrganMountains-DesertPeaksNationalMonument:

PROPERTY LOCATION PERIODOFSIGNIFICANCE

DemingArmory Deming Earlystatehood

SeamanFieldHouse Deming Territorial/Earlystatehood

LunaCountyCourthouseandPark Deming Territorial/Earlystatehood

MahoneyBuilding Deming Earlystatehood

UptonSite DemingVicinity Earlystatehood

USPostOfficeMain Deming Earlystatehood

VillageofColumbusandCampFurlong Columbus Territorial/Earlystatehood

Insummary,theNationalRegistershowsthatNewMexicoenjoysarich,complex,anduniquehistory,withevidencefromeachhistoriccontextandperiodofsignificanceamplyrepresentedonthelandscape.InadditiontothearchaeologicalandhistoricsiteslistedintheStateofNewMexico’sculturalresourcesdatabaseandontheStateRegisterofCulturalPlaces,therearecountlessnumbersofsiteseligibleforlistingintheNationalRegisterofHistoricPlaces.The35propertiesofficiallylistedintheNationalRegisterforDoñaAnaandLunaCountiesareallsituatedinornearOrganMountains–DesertPeaksNationalMonumentgatewaycommunities.Becauselistedpropertiesgainwidepublicityandarepopulardestinationsandeducationalvenues,theyenhancethewholeregionofsouthernNewMexicoinwhichtheprojectareaislocated.SuchsitesprovideanaddeddrawfortourismtheyrelatetosomeofthesamethemesinarchaeologyandhistorythataresoamplyrepresentedintheOrganMountains-DesertPeaks.Further,theNationalRegisterwillserveasanindispensibletoolforprotectingandpromotingsimilarculturalresourcesintheprojectarea.

35

APPENDIX 12: NEW MEXICO, A LAND OF RICH HISTORY

Fromrockarttorockets,rough-and-tumblelawlessnesstolatestatehood,NewMexicocharmslong-timersandnewcomersalikewithitsrelaxedpace,magnificentvistas,andrichlyuniqueheritage.

FirstcrisscrossedbyPaleoindianbig-gamehunters,Mogollon,Anasazi,Jemez,Kiowa,Manso,Navajo,Pecos,Ute,Apache,Comanche,andPuebloIndiantribes,NewMexicolaterbecamehometofortuneseekers,trappers,traders,raiders,soldiers,artists,hikers,friars,farmers,miners,merchants,astronomers,conquistadors,andAmericanimmigrants.Treatiesweremadeandbroken,entiretribesrelocated,skirmisheswonandlost.Withitslegacyofclashingcultures,resistance,revolt,resiliency,innovation,restlessness,andsuccess,thereisnootherstateremotelylikeNewMexico.

Nuevo Mexico,theSpanishnamefortheupperRioGrande:“Mexico,”anAztecword,means“placeofMexitli,”oneoftheAztecgods.Eventhestatesymbol,adoptedfromZiaPueblo,fascinatesuswithitsdeceptivesimplicity.Fromthecirclerepresentinglifeandlovewithoutbeginningorend,thefourgroupsoffourraysthatemanaterepresentthefourcompassdirections,thefourseasons,thefourphasesofaday(sunrise,noon,evening,andnight),andthefourdivisionsoflife(childhood,youth,middleyears,andoldage).Simultaneouslyexoticandhardscrabble,NewMexicoisknownforitsbreathtakingscenery,addictivecuisine,expansiveskiesandfriendlyfaces,vibrant,Spanish-inspiredcentralplazas,andancientcliffdwellings.

Welistentowaterrunningincenturies-oldacequia(irrigation)systems.Wehearbellsclangingatophistoricadobemissions.Wewitnessviolentlightningstorms.Wevisitkivas.Hotairballoonswaftoverbattlesites.Whiskeyisstillsoldindustyandisolatedsaloons.WefeeltherumbleoftherailroadastheAtchison,TopekaandSantaFetrainpassesthroughtown.Townspeoplemakeannualsacredpilgrimagesjustastheirforebearsdid.Legallandandwaterdisputescarryontothisday.Thousandsofyearsofcultivatingthelandcontinues.Thepastremainswithus.

Thestate’scoatofarmsisaMexicaneaglegraspingaserpentinitsbeak,acactusinitstalons,shieldedbytheAmericaneaglewithoutspreadwings,andgraspingarrowsinitstalons;onthescroll,theLatinmotto:CrescitEundo,or,“growsasitgoes.”Inalandthatconnectsox-drawncarrettasandstagecoacheswiththespaceshuttlelandingatWhiteSands,wearestilltalkingaboutanunidentifiedflyingobjectthatallegedlycrashednearRoswelldecadesago.

Withmorethanitsfairshareofmysteries,mayhem,andmomentousoccasions,thisiswherethePueblotribesrevolt,Geronimosurrenders,BillytheKidisshot,CivilWarsoldiersclash,ThomasEdisonfilmsamovie,GeorgiaO’Keefepaints,womenwintherighttovote,TeddyRooseveltrecruitshisRoughRiders,CivilianConservationCorpsinducteesconstructfirelookouts,schools,andsidewalks;theworld’sfirstatomicbombisdetonated.GermanandJapaneseprisonersofwar,uponrelease,returnwiththeirfamiliestosettlehereforgood.ThisisthebirthplaceoftheNavajo“codetalkers”whohelpeddefeattheNazis.Outlawswerehanged,homesteadersstakedtheirclaims,BataanDeathmarcherssurvivedtoreturn,SmokeyBearwasrescued,healthandthrillseekersmadetheirway.

NewMexicoisacrossroadsandadestination,cursedbyduststorms,drought,andblazingheat;blessedbysnow-cappedpeaks,lushrivervalleys,basalticvolcanicflows,andhotsprings.ThroughitsheartruntheRioGrandeRiverandElCaminoReal.Thereisatranquilitynow,atolerance,a“liveandletlive”attitudethatseemstopermeatetheairwebreathe.ProtectingNewMexico’slandscapeandsingularpatrimonio–oursharedheritage—isatoppriority.

36

BIOGRAPHIES OF REPORT AUTHORS

REBECCA PROCTOR

Dr.RebeccaProcterhaspracticedasanarchaeologistfor33years,specializingintheprehistoryofthesouthwesternU.S.HergraduatedegreesincludeaMasterofArtsinanthropologyandaPh.D.inanthropology,bothfromWashingtonUniversityinSt.Louis.Herprofessionalexperienceintheareaofhistoricpreservationencompassesworkinthepublicandprivatesectors,withstateagencies,undercontracttostateandfederalagencies,andasanindependentconsultant.Specialinterestsincludethedevelopmentofpotterydesignasareflectionofcloseinteractionamongprehistoricpotters,andtheprotectionofheritageresourcesofalltimeperiods.ShehasperformedpublicserviceasavolunteerfortheNewMexicoArchaeologyFair,andasavolunteereducatorintheclassroomandforscouttroops.CurrentlysheservesastheassistantstatecoordinatorfortheNewMexicoSiteWatchProgram,astate-widegroupdedicatedtomonitoringarchaeologicalsitesthatmaybeatriskoflootingornaturaldegradation.ShealsoworkswiththeinformaladvisorygrouptotheBureauofLandManagementforimplementingtheGalisteoBasinArchaeologicalSitesProtectionAct.

JEAN FULTON

JeanFulton,Owner,TimeSprings,Inc.(Mesilla,NM)specializesinpublichistory,HistoricAmericanBuildingsSurveys,HistoricStructuresReports,NationalRegisternominations,technicalandgrantwriting,theconservationofearthen(adobe)architecture,economicdevelopmentthroughheritagetourism,andcommunity-rootedrevitalizationprojects.SheiscurrentlyworkingwithNewMexicoStateUniversityonadatabaseintegrationproject;andwiththeBraniganCulturalCenter,andtheYouthCourtCenterontwoupcomingculturalevents.JeanvolunteerswithseverallocalhistoricpreservationprojectsattheAmadorHotel,PhillipsChapel,andtheLakeValleyminingdistrictnearHillsboro,NM.SherecentlyservedasthefirstExecutiveDirectorforabi-national,non-profitEl Camino RealNationalHistoricTrail(NHT)association.

POLLY SCHAAFSMA

PollySchaafsmaisanarchaeologistwithaspecialtyinpre-HispanicIndianrockartandkivamurals.Withanacademicbackgroundinarthistory(MountHolyokeCollege)andaMasterofArtsdegreeinAnthropology(UniversityofColorado)hercareerintheSouthwestbeganinthe1960swithapreliminaryorganizationofthevastrockartdatabaseaccordingtoculturesandtimeframes.Herlaterworkhasbeenfocusedonthemeaningandcosmologiesbasictotheiconographyandthehistoryofpre-HispanicreligionsintheSouthwest.ShehasrecentlybeenengagedintheKuauaMuralsRe-StudyProjectattheMuseumofIndianArtsandCulture,andasamemberoftheCosmoGroupattheSantaFeInstitute.Herpublishedworksinclude10booksandmonographsaswellasnumerousjournalarticlesandbookchapters.HerbooksincludeThe Rock Art of New Mexico,The Rock Art of Utah,Indian Rock Art of the Southwest,andWarrior, Shield and Star.Inaddition,sheisvolumeeditorofandcontributortoKachinas in the Pueblo WorldandNew Perspectives on Pottery Mound Pueblo,andmostrecentlyco-editorwithKelleyHays-GilpinofPainting the Cosmos.

*SpecialthankstoJackSoules,DavidSoules,andMorrieDrexlerfortheircollectiveresearchdocumentingtheWorldWarIIAerialTargets

*SpecialthankstoJonHunnerfordetailingtheLatino/ahistoryofsouthernNewMexicoandtheOrganMountains-DesertPeaks