DOCUMENT CONTROL SHEET Client Dublin Docklands Development Authority (DDDA) Project Title Poolbeg Peninsula Planning Scheme Document Title Sustainability Consultancy - Options & Opportunities Report Document No. MDR0558Rp0004 DCS TOC Text List of Tables List of Figures No. of Appendices This Document Comprises 1 1 46 1 1 - Rev. Status Author(s) Reviewed By Approved By Office of Origin Issue Date D02 Draft AD, DR, MC, RH, FF, JG J Gannon A Druhan West Pier 11/03/2008 Poolbeg Peninsula Planning Scheme Options & Opportunities Report
Transcript
DOCUMENT CONTROL SHEET
Client Dublin Docklands Development Authority (DDDA)
Project Title Poolbeg Peninsula Planning Scheme
Document Title Sustainability Consultancy - Options & Opportunities Report
Document No. MDR0558Rp0004
DCS TOC Text List of Tables List of Figures No. of Appendices This Document
Comprises 1 1 46 1 1 -
Rev. Status Author(s) Reviewed By Approved By Office of Origin Issue Date
The Dublin Docklands Development Authority (DDDA) is planning to regenerate the heavily industrialised Poolbeg Peninsula by providing sustainable social, economic and physical development of the area and the wider community. It is vital that the regeneration is carried out in a manner that conserves resources, has a minimised impact in the existing environment and is inline with current best practice for sustainability. Following on from a Baseline Sustainability Report, broad sustainable development options and opportunities are being developed within the planning scheme team. A bespoke evaluation has also been created to evaluate the scheme itself and developer proposition projects within the scheme. The evaluation criteria includes:
• Sustainable Energy Supply and Utilisation
• Built Environment Sustainability
• Transport and Traffic
• Sustainable Drainage and Water Conservation
• Waste Management
• Biodiversity and Ecology
• Social and Cultural
This report, while aiming to encourage innovation in the Poolbeg development, is mindful of costs to residents and developers. For this reason, the requirements to be put in place need to be practicable and affordable in terms of construction, commissioning and their operation by building occupants. It is noted that while sustainable and ‘green’ building methodologies can often mean increased investment cost, the reward of decreased running costs through improved control, efficiencies and environmental comfort will be an improvement for residents and will more than outweigh the associated initial spend. The report defines and describes the sustainable options and opportunities available to those who intend to develop the Poolbeg area and the potential benefits and pitfalls associated with them are highlighted. Explicit recommendations will direct the planning scheme design team to adopt the most sustainable options practicable.
This framework for developers, planners and architects working on the area, should facilitate continued and improved development with the principles of sustainability to the fore while also improving the standard of living for current and new residents and businesses.
Sustainable energy refers to using energy effectively and efficiently and in such a way as to ensure that present energy needs are satisfied without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their energy requirements. The concept of sustainable energy has been borne out of a global need to produce a secure and cost competitive supply of energy in an environmentally responsible way. Sustainable energy is concerned with being efficient with energy in order to reduce the amount of energy we need to produce in the first place, cutting energy related greenhouse pollution and reducing household and business energy bills.
The Poolbeg Peninsula is already served by a strong gas and electrical network and the presence of such a network should facilitate the easier integration of renewable resources in the area. Investigations and feasibility studies into the use of renewable technologies for both the thermal and electricity requirements of the area should be considered. Along with conventional boiler systems and grid power, there are a range of alternative, sustainable and renewable energy sources such as solar, geothermal, wind, CHP and biofuelled based systems which may be feasible in the regeneration of the Peninsula. Furthermore, options for integration with the proposed Dublin District Heating Network and the proposed Waste to Energy Facility should also be examined.
2.2 GEOTHERMAL
Geothermal heating systems capture the constant temperature of the earth and transport it through a circuit of direct thermal interchanges from the earth to a heat pump, which then distributes the heat source to regular radiators and hot water cylinders. Solar energy is absorbed at the earth’s surface but further down into the ground, the temperature becomes more stable at about 12.8°C (a depth of approximately 3m). This temperature is not sufficient for heating purposes so it is concentrated with a ground source heat pump. The use of this source of renewable energy can be highly economical and environmentally friendly, as geothermal heating systems use approximately 25% of the electrical energy normally required to run a conventional heating system. Furthermore, in the summer, the system can be reversed to cool the property, transporting the heat to the subsoil, generating an energy saving of more than 50% compared to conventional systems.
The initial capital costs of installing a geothermal heat pump system are usually higher than conventional central heating systems and the payback is typically about 8-10 years, with a typical life expectancy typically around 20 years. However, under the SEI Greener Homes Scheme and Renewable Heat (Reheat) Deployment Programme, there are now grants available which will reduce initial costs significantly. The results of a 2004 review commissioned by SEI indicate that Ireland is particularly well suited for the utilization of ground source heat pumps, due to its temperate climate and rainfall levels that ensure good conductivity and year round rain-fall recharge. The same report identified the north Leinster and Mallow regions as the two main areas of warm spring development in Ireland. However, the profile and extent of the geothermal sources requires additional assessment in any area deemed to be of interest.
Table 2-1 Advantages & Disadvantages of Geothermal Systems
Advantages Disadvantages
A geothermal system is inconspicuous Capital costs are much higher with geothermal heating installations than conventional heating systems, especially for vertical / borehole arrays
Maintenance costs are practically very low In cooler climates, many of the antifreeze solutions used to prevent freezing of the loop water produce CFC’s and HCFC’s
The ‘green’ credentials include an efficiency of more than 100% and no requirement for fuel burning or back up system on site
Antifreeze solution may raise the viscosity of the mix, increasing the workload on the pumping/circulation system
Payback periods for a typical, modern 4-bedroom house average at 8 – 10 years
Difficulty with access to the pipe network and in finding or fixing a leak in the refrigerant loop system should one arise
Grants available from SEI
Preliminary studies on the potential for geothermal energy sources should be carried out at Poolbeg. This type of heating system might be more applicable to larger commercial, retail or industrial units rather than urban domestic settings as the full utilisation of geothermal heat for this location will be dependent on the potential for and scale of usage of external open area. Site layout and geological/soil profile constraints would also need to be investigated further at detailed design stage for suitability and compatibility.
2.3 SOLAR
2.3.1 Active Solar Heating
Active Solar Heating technology employs solar collectors to transform sunlight into heat energy and can be used to provide buildings with space or water heating. A solar thermal system providing space and water heating is generally sized to cover 40 to 60% of the annual heating requirement of a house. In Ireland, most solar thermal systems are designed to combine solar heating and ventilation through the same system. By using air as the heat transfer medium in this way, heating costs are reduced to a minimum.
A solar water heater produces hot water by transforming sunlight into heat through its solar panels. That heat is then stored in a large hot water cylinder so that it is available when needed. A solar water heater converts both direct sunlight and indirect sunlight into heat and the system even works when the sky is overcast. During the winter months, there will be less solar heat available but a back-up heater can be used to boost the water temperature. A solar water heating system can be easily incorporated into the design of any new or existing building. Solar panels are generally installed on the buildings roof orientated between south-east and south-west with no over-shadowing by trees or other buildings. This allows for good exposure to the sun. As was the case for geothermal systems, under the SEI Greener Homes Scheme and Renewable Heat (Reheat) Deployment Programme, there are now grants available which will reduce capital costs significantly.
Figure 2-1: Solar panels on endface of apartment block & hotel and restaurant building
Table 2-2 Advantages & Disadvantages of Solar Thermal Panels
Advantages Disadvantages
Little or no running costs, hot water immersion costs can be reduced by as much as 50% in some cases
May only be suitable if there is an adequate hot water demand
Very little maintenance issues once installed correctly
Will not provide for all the annual hot water requirements. On some days of the year back up from a boiler or immersion heater is required
Relatively pollution free, i.e. zero carbon emissions (excluding manufacture, construction and transportation)
May not be practical in certain areas due to orientation, shading, etc
Becoming more economical with advances in efficiencies
Lower heat availability in winter and at night when needed most
Operational life of 20+ years
Grants available from SEI
2.3.2 Solar Photovoltaic (PV) Systems
Photovoltaic systems use daylight to convert solar radiation into electricity. The light which shines on the PV cells creates an electric field causing electricity to flow; the greater the intensity of the light, the greater the flow of electricity. Photovoltaic systems use semiconductor materials to convert solar energy into electricity. This technology has been previously used on small scale consumer products such as solar calculators, watches or garden lights. It is also rapidly becoming a cost-effective solution in Ireland for stand-alone applications where a grid connection is too expensive (e.g. parking meters, emergency phones on motorways, remote holiday homes). Solar PV systems are also used to provide free solar electricity to domestic, commercial and industrial applications, however capital costs of solar PV panels are still considered very high and this is hampering their adoption in Ireland.
Table 2-3 Advantages & Disadvantages of Solar PV Panels
Advantages Disadvantages
Fossil fuel avoidance High capital costs
Decreased environmental impact and improved energy rating of a building
Needs direct sunlight, daylight not adequate – decreased reliability
Low maintenance and operating life of 30+ years Will not provide for all electricity requirements
Storage of DC power
2.4 BIOENERGY
Bioenergy is energy derived from solar energy which has been stored in biomass during photosynthesis. Photosynthesis draws on solar energy to combine carbon dioxide from the atmosphere with water and various nutrients from the soil to produce plant matter or biomass.
Types of biomass that are used to provide bioenergy include;
• Wastes streams, including residues from forestry and related industries
• Recycled wood products
• Agricultural residues and effluents
• The organic fraction of municipal solid waste
• Separated household waste and sewage sludge
• Purpose grown energy crops
Wood energy is one of the most common forms of biomass energy used in Ireland today and is a form of bioenergy with high potential for the Poolbeg Regeneration Scheme. Wood energy can be generated from industrial wood wastes, forest residues and energy crops and can be processed to form wood chips or high calorific value wood pellets. Commercial and domestic biomass fuelled heating systems are now a mature technology that operate similarly to conventional oil fuelled boilers and are of similar size. They operate with efficiencies greater than 90% and are designed to be flexible in their fuel intake, often accepting both woodchips and/or pellets. These systems represent increased heat savings and low CO2 emissions that result in a short return on investment against a high capital cost.
Wood pellets are compact and easy to store and burn effectively because of their low moisture and ash content. Typically they come in bags, but depending on the application and storage facilities they can also be delivered in bulk by truck. Wood pellets can be ordered from local fuel merchants, and wood pellet stoves and boilers are now commonly available in Ireland. Many businesses, especially those with high or constant heat demands, such as hotels, are switching from conventional oil and gas boilers to wood pellet boilers. This changeover is borne out of a need to reduce operating costs and a desire to significantly improve the environmental impact of operations. The key benefits of a woodchip fuelled heating system for a typical hotel would be a much cheaper cost per kWh of heat energy delivered (up to 66% in some cases). Furthermore, under the SEI Greener Homes Scheme and Renewable Heat (Reheat) Deployment Programme, there are now grants available for both feasibility studies and for capital investment designed to encourage the adoption of wood fuelled heating systems.
Figure 2-2: Wood pellets and in-feed auger with chip
Table 2-4 Advantages & Disadvantages of Biomass Heating Systems
Advantages Disadvantages
Ability to retro-fit to a conventional heating system
Higher capital and installation costs than conventional boilers
Cheap, clean and easy to manage fuel High, constant head load required
Ability to provide all space and hot water requirements
Limited (but growing) chip/pellet manufacturers and distribution network in Ireland
High efficiencies of up to 90% and operating life of 20+ years
Limited customer awareness
Quick payback with a year round continuous heat load
SEI Grants available
2.5 COMBINED HEAT & POWER (CHP)
CHP is a process in which both heat and electricity are produced simultaneously. The heat generated when fuel is burnt to produce electricity is captured and utilised for some useful purpose such as space heating, water heating or refrigeration. In this way, CHP systems require less fuel than equivalent separate heat and power systems to produce the same amount of energy. Typically this achieves a 35% reduction in energy use as well as ensuring a secure supply from having an independent source of power. CHP units can run on traditional fossil fuels such as natural gas and oil or on biomass fuels such as woodchip and biogas.
CHP installations should be considered for any development on the Poolbeg Peninsula that will have continuous high heat and electricity demand as CHP is only cost-effective with long operating hours (c. 5,000 hrs/yr). Applications that would be most suited to CHP systems are industrial processes; commercial and retail buildings; hotels and hospitals where a year-round heat and electricity demand is required. Micro-CHP units should also be considered for smaller buildings/industries. These units are designed to provide heat and power to small buildings in place of conventional boilers. The installation of CHP units to suitable sites brings considerable financial and environmental benefits in the form of reduced energy costs and lower emissions compared to conventional power plants. The new SEI CHP Deployment Programme provides grant support to assist the deployment of small-scale (<1MWe) CHP systems. There is funding available for both feasibility studies and for capital investment.
Table 2-5 Advantages & Disadvantages of CHP Systems
Advantages Disadvantages
Significant reductions in energy for suitable applications
High capital and installation costs
Well established technology in Ireland High, constant head load required
Ability to provide electricity, space and hot water requirements
High efficiencies of up to 86% and operating life of 20+ years
SEI Grants available
2.6 DUBLIN DISTRICT HEATING NETWORK
District heating involves the use of one or more centralised sources of heat to supply thermal energy to a group of buildings, a town or a city. A district heating system can provide space heating, hot water and in some cases space cooling to both residential and commercial customers. District heating systems typically use conventional boilers, CHP units or municipal waste to energy plants as their heat source.
The proposed waste to energy plant due to drive the Dublin district heating network is to be situated in Poolbeg and all new or existing developments in the area are ideally located to benefit from integration with the network. The City Council has carried out a feasibility study on the implementation of a citywide district-heating network and developers in the Dublin area have been approached on the benefits of district heating and they have been encouraged to consider district heating for their developments.
District heating systems comprise of 3 major components:
• Thermal production plant that provides heat to the system
• The underground transmission and distribution system which conveys the thermal energy (in the form of hot water or steam) from the plant to the customer
• The heat exchanger that forms the connection between the distribution network and the remainder of each in-building heating and cooling system
District heating systems, owing to the fact that they are usually connected to a diverse group of customers with varying load requirements, must typically accommodate a relatively large total heating/cooling load with potentially wide variations from season to season. Since individual customers often experience their peak loads at different times of the day, the central production plant's daily characteristic load curve tends to be smoothed out, with the peak demand reduced, compared to the sum of all the individual peak loads. Thus, the installed total capacity of such a system can be less than that of conventional decentralised systems - a distinct advantage of district heating systems.
Table 2-6 Advantages & Disadvantages of District Heating Systems
Advantages Disadvantages
Increased fuel utilisation efficiency from 1 centralised system over separate individual system in each building
High capital and installation costs (particularly for the transmission and distribution network)
CHP district heating systems provide electricity in tandem with heat generation. The proposed waste to energy facility would provide 50MWe and in excess of 100 MWth
Installation of an extensive transmission and distribution network can be a drawn out and disruptive process
Ability to provide electricity, space and hot water requirements
Because the network is underground, system maintenance can require expensive excavation work
Reduced running costs and CO2 emissions associated with a centralised system
2.7 WIND ENERGY
Wind power, although more commonly used on a large scale to feed into the national grid, has recently experienced a growing trend in the utilisation of smaller scale turbines in conjunction with battery applications for individual houses, small businesses or community electricity generation. Wind energy provides a clean, sustainable solution to our energy problems and can be used as an alternative to fossil fuels in generating electricity, without the emission of greenhouse gases. Wind energy is inexhaustible and renewable and it is envisaged that wind power will make the most significant contribution to the achievement of national and international targets for green electricity, due to its environmental benefits and increasing competitiveness.
While wind is a 100% renewable resource it can be difficult and expensive to utilise efficiently as it is dependent on local wind regimes and tree and building heights. Following consideration of site layout, land area and urban setting, a decision on the application of wind technologies could be made at Poolbeg. Alongside the technical details, social impacts concerning visual amenity, noise and shadow-flicker also need to be considered. However, the very visible nature of a turbine could be used to promote DDDA’s and Poolbeg’s environmental image and commitment to sustainable and renewable energy.
For an average home or small development, a unit ranging in size from 5 – 15kW would suffice to meet most of the buildings electricity needs, although more detailed information would be required on potential power demands. Medium to large-scale turbines as well as small-scale turbines for stand-alone buildings should also be considered as a potential technology and should be considered for both domestic and commercial development.
Table 2-7 Advantages & Disadvantages of Wind Energy
Advantages Disadvantages
Clean, renewable, non-polluting energy source Depending on the location of the turbine, they may not be as cost effective as fossil fuelled systems and turbines still require high initial investment
One of the lowest priced renewable energy technologies in terms of c/kWh
Wind energy cannot be stored (unless batteries are used) and not all winds can be harnessed to meet the timing of the electricity demand
Does not use up significant land space (unlike biofuels)
Good sites for wind potential are often located in rural areas, far from cities where there is a high electricity demand
Turbines can be considered unsightly
Noise pollution from turbines can be an issue if they operate in noise sensitive locations
2.8 WATER SOURCE HEAT PUMPS
Water source heat pumps move heat more efficiently than any other heating/cooling technology. They can move energy from where it is not needed to where it is needed. Similar to other heat pumps, a water source heat pump extracts heat from a low temperature heat source and upgrades it to a higher temperature and releases it when required for space or water heating purposes.
Specifically for the Poolbeg area, a source of waste hot water may be available in the form of condenser cooling water discharged from the Synergen and Poolbeg Power Plants. These plants take in water from the Liffey Estuary and discharge after cooling. Through the cooling process, the water gains heat and is released at a higher temperature than intake. Average temperature gains and flow rates are shown in Table 2-8 below.
Table 2-8 Cooling Water from Power Plants
Plant Discharge (m3/s) �T (deg C)
Synergen 7.6 6.61
Poolbeg 18.7 7.12
With these flow rates and temperature gains, there may be good potential to use this water in heat pumps for heating requirements in the area. Furthermore, with the proposed Waste to Energy Power Plant due to be located on Poolbeg Peninsula, there will be another source of waste hot water
A water source heat pump system incorporates many individual heat pump units in one common closed water loop, with the ability to heat individual zones as required. The loop temperature is typically controlled by adding heat with a boiler or by rejecting heat with a cooling tower. Because water source heat pump units are designed to respond only to the heating and cooling loads of the
1 Average temperature & discharge rate 2004-2005 2 Average temperature & discharge rate 2002-2004
individual zones they serve, they provide good comfort levels for occupants and better control of energy consumption for building managers. Also, because units generally operate independently of each other, the chance of total system failure is eliminated. They can be particularly advantageous and cost effective in buildings where rooms are not constantly occupied and the entire building does not have to be heated.
Table 2-9 Advantages & Disadvantages of Water Source Heat Pumps
Advantages Disadvantages
Low operational cost due to efficient energy transfer
Added maintenance time and units can be complex because of lots of moving parts
Good comfort control and zoning capability – each unit can provide heating or cooling regardless of what other units operating off the same water loop are doing or weather the building is occupied or not
Cooling tower can be prone to freezing
Less ductwork because air handling units only provide make up air and do not transfer heat
If a unit fails, the rest of the system is still operational (unless the boiler or the cooling tower fails)
2.9 ENERGY MANAGEMENT & CONSERVATION
2.9.1 Monitoring & Targeting
Energy monitoring and targeting (M&T) is the collection, interpretation and reporting of information on energy usage. Its objectives are to measure and maintain performance, and to locate opportunities for reducing energy consumption and costs.
Figure 2-4 Energy Monitoring & Targeting
M&T works by combining regular energy consumption data (usually weekly or monthly) with corresponding data on production throughput, weather, or other driving factors. An M&T system is primed with targets for each stream of consumption, these targets being related to the relevant driving factor, so that for a given level of activity in the facility, a correct ration of energy can be estimated at each point of use. Any deviation between actual and expected consumptions indicates the extent of
any unexpected loss, which can then be converted to its implied cost in order to establish its significance. In order for an M&T system to work effectively, meters for significant energy consumers need to be installed and regular readings taken – either manually or as part of an electronic energy management system. Ongoing and regular monitoring in this way will allow the occupiers/developer to be more aware of the building energy consumption and such a system can make it easier to define realistic targets for energy consumption and increasing overall energy efficiency.
2.9.1.1 Building Management Systems
A Building Management System (BMS) is a high technology system installed in buildings that controls and monitors the building’s mechanical and electrical equipment such as air handling and cooling plant systems, lighting, power systems, fire systems and security systems and can be very effective as part of an integrated M&T system.
A BMS consists of both hardware and software. The hardware is typically represented by one or more control and processing units and by a number of other peripheral devices such as sensors, meters or thermostats connected to the control units. The control unit, based on the information supplied by some of the peripherals or based on pre-set instructions, runs the system. The control unit can be as simple as a relay or a timer switching on or off an electric water heater or as sophisticated as a microprocessor.
The software is the program and instructions that allow the energy centre to manage the operations of the peripheral devices and of the appliances. The software would allow the energy centre to set schedules for lighting and heating, to regulate the building temperature and monitor utility meter readings remotely. The use of a BMS does not require a separate control and plant room as it can be managed from a single PC unit.
2.9.2 Hot Water & Space Heating
Depending on a particular buildings day to day activity, space heating can be one of the more significant energy costs – this is particularly true of offices and residential buildings. Space heating management should be incorporated into the buildings M&T system and targets for energy consumption should be set and reviewed regularly. For new developments, energy efficiency should be incorporated into the design stage and recommendations for energy effective space heating are outlined below.
2.9.2.1 Suitable Heating System
Choosing the most appropriate heating system for a particular buildings needs is key to achieving high energy efficiency. Depending on the activity of the building, certain heating systems may be more suitable than others. For example, a warehouse or factory workshop where doors are constantly open will require a completely different heating system to a large retail or commercial building. Careful consideration should be given to a particular developments current and future heating requirements before any system is purchased.
2.9.2.2 Insulation
Apart from ensuring that a buildings envelope is insulated to the highest possible standards for doors, windows, walls, floors and roof (see Section 3.3.1), careful attention should be paid to ensure that the buildings hot water and space heating generation and distribution network is adequately insulated. The boiler itself, any heat exchangers, the pipe work and all valves and flanges should be well insulated. This will be key to reducing the energy consumption of the boiler. It is now considered good practise to insulate valves and flanges, however it is still quite common to see them uninsulated, even in new buildings.
These devices switch the heating system on and off at predetermined times and in doing so avoid the risks of heating the rooms overnight or during the weekend, or other periods when the rooms are unoccupied. The advantages of these devices include:
• The ability to set different temperatures for different times of the day and night
• Seven-day timers available to have different settings for weekdays and weekends. Some models can also allow a different heating pattern for each day
• Expected energy savings of 10%
2.9.2.4 Thermostats and Thermostatic Radiator Valves
Where rooms or other areas are designed to have different temperatures during the hours of occupation, the space heating system should incorporate either thermostatic radiator valves (TRVs) or room thermostats/sensors. A thermostat consists of a series of sensors that record the room temperature to control the functions of the heating and cooling system. A TRV is a radiator valve with an air temperature sensor (a wax capsule which expands when heated and stops the flow of water to the radiator), can be used to control the heat output from the radiator by adjusting water flow. A TRV should not be fitted in the same room as the room thermostat as this can interfere with its operation. Advantages include savings of up to 30% on heating use.
Figure 2-6: Thermostat and TRV
2.9.2.5 Optimum Start/Stop and Weather Compensation
These controllers alter the time that HVAC (Heating, Ventilation, Air Conditioning) equipment starts/stops depending on weather conditions. Energy savings depend on the size of the space controlled, insulation type and cost of fuel but usually a minimum of 10% savings can be achieved.
The optimum start control adjusts the starting time for space heating according to the temperature measured inside or outside the building, aiming to heat the building to the required temperature by a chosen time. The optimum stop control adjusts the stop time for space heating according to the temperature measured inside (and possibly outside) the building, aiming to prevent the required temperature of the building being maintained beyond a chosen time.
2.9.2.6 Load Compensation
Load compensating software packages are now available for hot water boiler systems which can check and record the boiler performance at all levels of output and can recycle the heat generated based on an optimum control strategy. When the building demands heat it is there and when the demand drops off, the software adjusts the boiler controls accordingly.
2.9.3 Lighting Management
Lighting management is essential for buildings in order to optimise the use of natural light and to reduce lighting and energy costs. This can be achieved through simple measures such as good housekeeping, ensuring that light fixtures and windows are kept clean, as well as using various daylight, occupancy and zonal control systems. Furthermore, ensuring that the most appropriate fittings and light levels are chosen for the buildings activity at the design stage will be the critical to reducing the buildings energy consumption.
2.9.3.1 Energy Effective Lighting
As is the case for choosing an appropriate heating system, careful attention should be paid to selecting a lighting system that will adequately serve the buildings needs as well as keep energy consumption to a minimum. Depending on the requirements of the building, various lighting types may need to be assessed. For example, traditionally metal halide lights were recommended in warehouses or buildings with high roofs and constant occupancy, however, new technology such as low wattage T5 electronic ballast fluorescent tubes are now considered best practise for warehouses (depending on roof height and required lux level). The same applies for office spaces and residential properties, where a trade-off between capital cost, energy efficiency and comfort can be reached.
2.9.3.2 Timers
These devices are very useful to avoid the risk of leaving the lights on overnight or during the weekend when rooms are unoccupied, and therefore contribute to reduced building energy consumption. They;
• automatically switch the lights on and off
• lead to typical energy savings of between 10 – 70% depending on the amount of lighting and running hours
2.9.3.3 Occupancy and Daylight Sensing
Occupancy sensors operate by switching the lights on once somebody is detected in an area by an in-built motion or infrared sensor. Once the person leaves the room, the light switches off automatically after a defined period of time. This technology can be particularly useful in storage areas and bathrooms, which are not permanently occupied.
Daylight sensors operate by automatically dimming the lights according to ambient light level (off when bright and gradually come on when it gets darker). With new technology on the market and correct zoning, there are opportunities for energy savings in most buildings. For daylight linked lighting, the illuminance sensor should be positioned relative to the daylight illuminance distribution, e.g. controlling a line of fluorescent tubes parallel to a window. The sensor may be positioned on the ceiling looking
down to read the combined daylight and electric light luminance or it could be positioned to read the external daylight level. These sensors however will only work on electronic (high frequency) ballasts and hence electronic fittings would need to be installed prior to installing any ambient lighting technology.
During detailed specification of the lighting system, each major zone and occupancy area should be examined separately with the most energy efficient and cost effective solutions identified for each area. As with heating specifications and controls, it is vital that the occupants and caretakers of buildings are aware of the energy efficient lighting systems available to them and how to run them in an efficient manner.
2.9.4 PCs & Office Equipment
According to The Carbon Trust, it is estimated that 60% of the energy used by office equipment in the UK could be wasted due to equipment being left on unnecessarily and standby facilities being absent or disabled. This amounts to £180 million across the UK every year. The majority of this energy use comes from large numbers of small pieces of equipment. With this in mind, the following recommendations should be considered for any new office development.
• Flat screen monitors - Liquid crystal display (LCD) screens have significantly lower energy consumption than the more conventional TV style (CRT) monitors. Their initial higher cost can often be offset by lower energy costs. Other benefits include no electromagnetic emissions and less screen flickering. An average new CRT monitor uses around 95W, whereas an average flat screen monitor will use less than 40W.
• Combined printers, fax machines and copiers are now widely available and improve
energy efficiency because they avoid the cumulative idling and standby energy consumption from separate machines.
• Instant warm up copiers - Some manufacturers are introducing copiers that warm up by the
time the first copy reaches the heated ink-sealing roller. This means they can be set to remain in standby mode without wasting staff time.
• Enable power-save options (on PCs, photocopiers, printers, fax machines etc.) - This can
significantly reduce energy consumption depending on how often a particular item of equipment is on. The delay times can be reset to the users preferred level.
• Monitor out-of-hours use - Check energy consumption overnight and at weekends to see
how much equipment is being left on. Rectifying this waste will require some element of staff training and awareness.
• Fit 7-day timers to as much equipment as possible, especially communal equipment such as
photocopiers and printers to save money and reduce overheating. Timers can also reduce water cooler and vending machine energy use by up to 70%.
• Print in batches - This allows equipment to spend the maximum time in a ‘sleep’ mode,
saving money and reducing the amount of heat given out into the space.
• Switch to laptops - Laptops use only 10% of the energy of a standard PC
• Disable screen savers - They do not save energy.
Implementing most of these recommendations will require the active participation and cooperation of all staff. Increasing awareness among staff will be key to achieving energy savings and they should be motivated to try and implement some of the above simple savings.
While Sections 2.1 to 2.8 outline the various technology options available to increase performance levels with regards to sustainable energy, another driver for increased environmental improvements in sustainable design is the availability of funding and grant schemes open to developers. Sustainable Energy Ireland (SEI), Irelands national energy authority, operates a number of programmes that provide financial support to demonstrate superior energy technologies or provide essential support in specifically identified sectors. Such schemes cover the commercial, once off residential, mixed-use and multi-residential developments by promoting and funding, renewable and alternative energy technologies. Available funding which may have relevance to the Poolbeg Regeneration Scheme is outlined below.
2.10.1 Buildings and Housing
Greener Homes Scheme - The Greener Homes Scheme provides assistance to homeowners who intend to purchase a new renewable energy heating system for either new or existing homes. The scheme is administered by Sustainable Energy Ireland and aims to increase the use of renewable energy and sustainable energy technologies in Irish homes. The Irish Government, through SEI, wishes to encourage people over the next 5 years to ‘green’ their homes by contributing to the initial investment cost of installing a renewable energy heating system. The government believes that this will help ensure a faster uptake of renewable heating systems which will underpin the development of a long term market, while enabling homeowners to play their part in reducing carbon dioxide emissions.
Although not specifically aimed at developers, this scheme does present those individuals who own their homes and require a new heating system the opportunity to do so with a more environmentally friendly option. Maximum grant aid available depends on the technology choice however; up to €3,000 is available for a biomass boiler, a maximum of €3,500 for a vertical ground source heat pump and €300/m2 for evacuated tube solar thermal panels. Conditions and certain approval criteria must be met before any grant money is approved.
Warmer Homes Scheme - The Warmer Homes Scheme provides funding to community based organisations for the installation of energy efficiency measures in low income dwellings, through the low income housing programme. As stated by SEI, almost 60,000 Irish households are estimated to live in persistent fuel poverty and a further 160,000 or so experience intermittent fuel poverty.�The scheme aims to improve the energy efficiency and comfort conditions of homes occupied by low-income households. The scheme covers work such as attic insulation, draught proofing, lagging jackets, energy efficient lighting, cavity wall insulation and energy advice. Again, this scheme is applicable to existing residents and individual homeowners, not the developer and no direct costs to the home owner are involved.
House of Tomorrow - The House of Tomorrow scheme provided funding directly to developers for the design and construction of superior energy performing housing units. A minimum of ten housing units was required to meet the eligibility criteria and projects where the energy performance was at least 40% better than that required by the current Building Regulations Technical Guidance Document Part L 2002 (new build) were considered for funding. Preference was given to those housing projects where renewable energy technologies had been incorporated into the design of the building.
The House of Tomorrow programme however is currently closed for applications and there are no immediate plans for its reopening. As such, it is not possible to indicate the nature or timing of any further phase to the programme. In the event of a new programme being announced, it should be noted that support for any new developments would be expected to be on the basis of performance at least 60% ahead of current regulatory standards. Should the scheme reopen, it would be directly applicable to the regeneration of Poolbeg and should be considered at the design stage of each new
housing scheme. It would afford the developer the extra aid required for higher capital cost renewable technologies and would contribute to the greening of the Peninsula.
2.10.2 Renewable and Alternative Energies
Renewable Heat (ReHeat) Deployment Programme – This programme provides assistance for the deployment of renewable heating systems in industrial, commercial, public and community premises in Ireland. The programme is an expansion of the previous Bioheat Boiler Deployment Programme which supported wood chip or wood pellet boilers only, but has now expanded to include solar panels and heat pumps under the newly launched scheme. This is another programme aimed specifically at developers in order to increase the number of renewable technology units being installed into larger spaces and non-domestic units. There is funding available for both feasibility studies and for capital investment.
Combined Heat & Power Deployment Programme – The new SEI CHP Deployment Programme will provide grant support to assist the deployment of small-scale (<1MWe) fossil fired CHP and biomass (anaerobic digestion (AD) and wood residue) CHP systems. It supersedes the “Combined Heat and Power RD&D” Programme. The programme is aimed at organisations in the public sector, industrial or commercial fields or energy supply companies. Up to 40% funding is available for feasibility studies and 30% grant support for small-scale CHP systems. It is the aim of the Government, as outlined in the White Paper to achieve at least 400MW from CHP by 2010 through continued support under this programme and continued R & D supports with particular emphasis on biomass fuelled CHP, and will aim to achieve at least 800MW by 2020.
2.10.3 Final Comment
There are a wide range of funding schemes available that are directly available to developers that should be considered when examining the technical and economic feasibility of efficient and sustainable energy technologies in Poolbeg. These grants cover specific renewable energy technologies, CHP schemes and contribution to upgrade or achievement of requirements in excess of current building regulations. These schemes should be utilised where practicable to the advantage of DDDA and future residents. It is vital for all of these mechanisms that early consultation is sought with SEI to guide both preliminary design and to guide the developer along the application process for funding through these programmes.
Sustainable systems of energy, water supply and materials disposal should be considered for every modern development; however of primary importance is a reduction in the initial demand by implementing some initial sustainable building design measures and adopting a more conscientious lifestyle in relation to resource usage. The aims of this approach are to facilitate increased efficiency in a buildings energy, water and materials demand and to decrease the impacts of buildings on the environment through better siting, design, construction, operation and maintenance. This requires a shift in the typical approach to building design and construction and an undertaking to consider more extensive operational and resource analyses of lifecycle performance than is required to merely comply with the building regulations will be necessary.
Sustainable buildings should provide the occupants with a measure of protection against future energy and water price increases in addition to increased internal comfort levels. Careful selection at the design and construction stages can often yield products and practices that are indistinguishable in price and performance from non-sustainable equivalents. Other advantages of more sustainable buildings are that they tend to have greatly reduced environmental impacts, lower operating costs and more comfortable indoor environments.
3.1 BUILDING ASPECT & PLAN
At the preliminary design stage, the architect/planner/developer needs to take full advantage of the natural and physical attributes of the proposed site. Making use of the natural lay of the land during the planning stages and before detailed design begins will ensure the development will make maximum use of the site, for example, earth sheltering and windbreaks can help reduce the amount of absolute heat needed by a building.
Orientation of buildings within a development is also an important factor and, where possible, buildings should be oriented to take advantage of shade and airflows for cooling in summer, and of passive solar energy for heating and wind protection in winter. Buildings should ideally be elongated on an east-west axis to gain maximum heat and natural daylight from the sun and adequate spacing should also be incorporated into the site to minimise overshadowing effects where possible.
The optimisation of open floor plans in commercial and retail units will help to capitalise on passive systems such as daytime lighting and ventilation. Orientation and placement of rooms according to their functions where possible will also be a factor in reduced building energy demand throughout the life of the building, i.e. interior spaces with daytime occupancy requiring the most light and heat during the day should be situated along the south face of the building whereas less frequented and night-time occupancy areas such as service areas, bedrooms, stairwells and store rooms should be located on the north (less natural daylight and cooler).
3.2 PASSIVE DESIGN
3.2.1 Passive Heating & Lighting
As far as possible, buildings (particularly houses) should be designed in such a way as to allow the sun to shine into the building in order to bring in natural light and heat for free. This is best achieved by giving the building a southerly orientation and locating larger windows on the south façade. The design should allow for all windows to have a high insulating value to minimise heat losses and a high degree of transparency to maximise solar gains. Rooms which will not be constantly occupied (such as bathrooms) should be located on the northern side of the building and window size should be
restricted where possible. During the summer months, excessive heat gains from the sun can be avoided by shading windows with blinds, eves, overhangs or by having deciduous trees planted in the garden. During the winter months deciduous trees will loose their leaves and allow sunlight in. Consideration should also be given to the reduction of heat loss through wind shear. If possible, trees and hedges can be used as a very simple means of wind shielding. The northern side of the building may be exposed to cold northerly winds and using the existing topography and landscaping of the site is a very simple way to reduce heat loss.
Through correct siting and plan orientation, daytime lighting can be maximised to illuminate building interiors with natural light so that the use of artificial lighting is reduced. A combination of natural daylighting with high performance artificial lighting can result in savings of up to 50-60% across a development. Specifically, the provision of dual aspects in apartments should be considered a minimum requirement and will ensure an optimum benefit with regard to passive solar design, providing living areas benefiting from daytime lighting.
3.2.2 Passive Ventilation
It will be very important to ensure that there is a constant supply of clean and fresh air in all new buildings on the Peninsula. Having adequate ventilation will remove moist air to prevent condensation and the proliferation of mould and dust mites. In a well sealed and insulated building, it is necessary to make sure that the indoor air is regularly replaced without incurring excessive heat losses (i.e. without opening windows).
Passive ventilation, as opposed to mechanical ventilation, uses no fans to drive the air, hence a considerable saving on energy can be achieved. There are two main types of passive ventilation to aid in airflow: cross ventilation and stack ventilation. Cross ventilation techniques use high and low pressure zones created by wind to draw fresh air through a building. Stack ventilation uses high and low pressure zones created by rising heat, causing convection currents. This technique can be implemented by designing an exit vent that draws warm air out of the top of the building and a vent near the lower levels of the building to allow cool air to enter, thus passive ventilation will only work in some commercial and retail blocks. Due consideration for the potential for passive ventilation needs to be shown, particularly in commercial and retail centres.
Mechanical ventilation with heat recovery or heat recovery ventilation (HRV) is an alternative, efficient and sustainable method to ensuring a safe and comfortable environment for building occupants. The concept behind HRV is that stale and moist air from bathrooms, kitchens and other living areas is extracted, drawn into the HRV unit and passed over a membrane before it is exhausted from the house/unit. At the same time cold, incoming fresh air is pulled into the unit and passed over the opposite side of the membrane; thus causing the heat, which would otherwise be wasted, to be transferred over to the incoming fresh, cold air. Should a passive ventilation strategy not prove practicable in certain areas of the development then HRV systems should be considered as the next best option in the sustainability hierarchy.
3.3 BUILDING ENVELOPE
The residential and tertiary sector, in particular buildings, is responsible for over 40% of final energy consumption and corresponding carbon emissions in the EU. However, exploiting the thermal mass of building materials as part of a passive sustainability design and construction approach could significantly reduce the carbon footprint of buildings.
Heat loss and gain and thermal mass are largely associated with a building’s envelope and fabric. The rate of heat flow through a building's structural elements is determined by its geometry (i.e. rounded, aerodynamic buildings lose less heat), the thermal mass of each element, the level of insulation of the
building and the level of air tightness. The envelope should therefore be ideally constructed with materials of high thermal mass and low U-values to avoid loss of heat through the building frame.
Thermal mass can contribute significantly to reducing the heat demand of a building. Buildings with a high thermal mass possess an ability to absorb heat on hot days, helping to control the internal temperature and prevent overheating problems. During winter or at night with cooler temperatures, heat gains from the day are absorbed into the thermal mass and used in the evenings reducing the need for heating. The use of thermal mass therefore, as part of a sustainable design can reduce CO2 emissions resulting from the use of heating, electricity and lighting.
3.3.1 Insulation
All houses, apartments and commercial buildings need to comply with the insulation requirements of the amended Part L of the Building Regulations which have been operative since 21st September 2007. A thick layer of insulation in the roof, walls and floor, as well as highly insulated windows should be incorporated into the design of all new buildings to avoid heat losses. It will also be important to adequately seal the building in order to avoid draughts and unwanted air leaks. Windows and doors should close tightly and there should be no cracks in the walls and ceilings. Tubing for electrical wires and water pipes should also be adequately sealed. The use of natural fibre insulation, such as hemp, sheepswool and cellulose fibre, along with conventional insulation materials, should be considered in order to increase environmental performance.
The table below outlines the requirements for insulation levels for all new dwellings in Ireland as included in the Building Regulations, Technical Guidance Document, Part L. It should be the aim of the Development Authority to achieve at least a 10% improvement above those outlined in Table 3-1 below.
Table 3-1 Elemental U-values (W/m2K)
Fabric Elements Building Regulations, Part L Maximum Requirements (2007)
Pitched roof, insulation horizontal at ceiling level 0.16
Pitched roof, insulation on slope 0.20
Flat roof 0.22
Walls 0.27
Ground floors 0.25
Other exposed floors 0.25
External Doors, windows and rooflights 2.20
3.3.2 Glazing
Windows contribute to heat loss and gain, with up to 15% of heat loss from a building being through glazed areas. According to the new building regulations, a minimum standard of double glazing with a 12mm air-gap is required. Glazing in all new buildings in the proposed development should adhere to
this standard and also incorporate a low-e coating. Generally this specification would achieve a U-value of below 1.8 W/m2K.
3.4 SUSTAINABLE CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS & NATURAL RESOURCES
Sustainable site development and due regard to existing services should be considered during construction and commissioning phases. Care should be taken to minimise disruption to the site and surrounding environs and should include for waste (see Section 6.1), noise, dust and traffic minimisation.
Materials with a reduced environmental impact should be incorporated into the design to increase sustainability, through re-use of materials or incorporation of recycled materials in place of conventional building materials. The following materials should be considered in any new specification:
• Ground Granulated Blastfurnace Slag (GGBS) & Pulverised Fuel Ash - Used as replacements for Portland cements to increase sustainability and carbon footprint of civil and structural works.
• Wood – Many products such as chipboard and fibreboard make use of waste cut-offs and chips of timber. Although, this is no guarantee that the timber comes from a sustainable source, it does ensure efficient use of raw timber material.
• Straw and plant fibres – A building material that is being used more often because it has low environmental impacts and excellent insulating properties. It can be used as a binder in earth bricks and structures and in bale form and can be used as building blocks for insulating walls.
• Concrete and stone – This forms about half of all waste from construction and demolition activities. It can be crushed for reuse as an aggregate in pavements, road and street construction, including base and asphalt paving for highways and parking lots. It can also be utilized for landscaping applications.
• Glass – Secondary uses of glass include abrasives, roadbed and pavement aggregate substitute, fibreglass insulation and tiles. Sharp-free glass paviors can be used in place of traditional brick paviors.
• Sheepswool or hemp – Natural insulation materials that provide a safe, healthy and environmentally friendly alternative.
• Hazardous materials – The use of hazardous materials including Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC’s), formaldehyde, timber preservatives and PVC should be minimised or eliminated in all new buildings on the Peninsula.
A policy of sourcing building materials from the locality should be followed where practicable. Significant reductions in construction traffic movements, carbon emissions and construction waste (from necessary high-volume delivery and lengthy storage) can be achieved. Additional advantages to local business and employment will also occur as knock-on benefits.
The above materials and practices should be incorporated into the requirements for all new buildings on the Peninsula where possible. This policy will help to increase and optimise the use of local, reclaimed, renewable, recycled and low environmental impact materials for the construction and commissioning phases.
The initial brief for the project required the incorporation of links and facilities to encourage walking, cycling and use of public transport networks, while also investigating the effect of linking in with existing road services in the area.
Currently, the South Bank Road and the Whitebank road, both of which currently support predominantly industrial and commercial traffic, service the Poolbeg Peninsula. Other routes directly relevant to the peninsula are Pearse Street, Strand Road, Seán Moore Road, East Wall Road, North Wall Quay, East Link Bridge and the Dublin Port Tunnel, with Pearse Street, Strand Road and East Wall Road being heavily trafficked at peak times. Most of these access routes are also currently constrained by bridges and/or Dart overpasses. There is currently no rail transport linkage to the peninsula, limited public bus services and only some water transport, almost all of which is associated with industrial uses.
With limited infrastructure in the area, increased congestion in Dublin city and its environs and the increased use of the private car are leading to heavy pollution and serious damage to the environment. Mitigation of greenhouse gases, in conjunction with longer term sustainability requirements should encourage the development of an approach that is independent of the private car and encourages slow-mode transport options.
With this in mind, and the development of the Masterplan, the following transportation objectives should be investigated for the peninsula:
• Maximizing the self-containment of the peninsula, so that the majority of trips made by residents and workers are short walks
• Making the peninsula itself as car-free as possible
• Maximizing the public transport share of journeys to the rest of the city
• Making the local public transport as green and non-polluting as possible.
4.2 OPTIONS & OPPORTUNITIES
4.2.1 Self Containment
Increased mobility through higher rates of car ownership and an improving road network has changed the Irish lifestyle in the last ten years and encouraged a dispersal of land uses or urban sprawl. This continuing change has led to longer distances travelled and an increased number of car journeys taking place. In new developments, particularly masterplanned areas, self-containment has recently emerged as a popular means of reducing urban sprawl and contributing to phased developments. It is understood to represent a balance between employment and housing in a community and through increased levels of self-containment, demands on the existing road infrastructure and use of the car will be reduced, while dependence on public transport options will increase. It also has knock-on effects for the community in minimizing pollution effects and decreased road congestion, thus leading to a safer living environment for all residents. Further, the concept of self-containment, or compactness, typically includes high-density residential, mixed-use and short distances to the urban centre and nearby concentrations of employment and retail outlets. The creation of a self-contained community, with the proportion of journeys that are entirely within the development being maximized as opposed to traveling outside of the development for employment, retail and entertainment requirements will aid to minimising transportation impacts. By encouraging people to travel more within the community, it will in turn decrease the number of journeys in and out of the area and also lead to increased journeys taken on foot or cycling due to shorter travel distances to and from provided services and resources. However, a key to the success of a self-contained community is that a substantial retail component is required in order to reduce the number of trips in and out of the development. Analysis of household survey data3 suggests that around 21% of all trips are made for shopping purposes, compared with;
• 16% for commuting,
• 12% for visiting friends and relatives at home,
• 11% for education (including escorting children to and from school)
• 10% for personal business (such as trips to the bank, the doctor, the library).
Clearly the mix depends on the demographic profile of the area.
To ensure the success of self-containment, the development will need to be designed to maximize, where possible, the use of internal trips. There are a variety of factors that need to be taken into
consideration at this stage in order to ensure that the uptake of internal movements is sufficient and that external journeys are minimised. Within a free market economy it is not possible to ensure that jobs within the development are filled by local residents or conversely that local employees have any sort of priority for the housing on the site. However, it can easily come about by accident that this is prevented from happening, either by timing considerations – e.g. all the housing being sold before tenants are found for the employment premises – or by a mismatch of low-paid jobs and high-cost housing (or vice versa). A policy aim of self-containment needs to feed through to many aspects of development planning if it is to be successful.
4.2.2 Designing for Internal Trips
Minimizing Distances In the case of smaller developments and communities, internal journeys would largely be met by means of walking or cycling. One key to facilitating these journeys is to establish a sensible threshold distance to the core of the development, to associated employment and retail units and also to transport nodes for linkages to the external environment. An example is the Kronsberg District in Germany (see Baseline Report, MDR0558Rp0003D04) where the main aims were to address sustainable transport planning, environmental compatibility and a compact community. It used the idea that no inhabitant would need to walk no more than 600m to the nearest stop on the new direct light rail transit service that linked the community to the wider city. This reduced walking distance could be replicated at Poolbeg if each inhabitant/apartment unit is strategically located in good proximity to the core of the development. For a larger scale development, some form of internal public transport system using emission-free vehicles should be investigated. An intermediate option, where the development is too large for everyone to walk but too small to warrant internal public transport, would be to extend an external public transport link into the development, with a number of stops to cater for reduced walking distances for residents. At Poolbeg, for example, the proposed Luas line to the Point Depot could be extended into the peninsula. Quality of walking environment Another factor in the success of achieving self-containment is an attractive, interactive, user-friendly public realm thus increasing and improving the walkable condition of the development.
A bicycle and pedestrian network that is safe, direct and continuous and has safe prioritized pedestrian and cycle crossings of any roads is paramount in increasing slow-mode transport on the peninsula. An internal system of off-street pedestrian and bicycle trails, with design characteristics of an interconnected street network for travel within the peninsula should be investigated from preliminary design stage.
One possible constraint to the widespread uptake of pedestrian access is the weather. This can be mitigated by good design of pleasant sheltered walkways with sensible threshold distances between dwellings, services and transport stops. Another issue is associated with the security and safety of residents, particularly in an area that is already quite remote in its location. This would need to be addressed with the development or management agency, involving consideration of built-in security measures. Managing car use The sustainable ideal would be for the peninsula itself to be a completely car-free zone, with sufficient secure car parking at the edge of the development,
• for visitors,
• for pool cars owned by a “car club” of which all residents would automatically be members,
• for any residents who felt the need to own a car themselves and were prepared to pay for its storage when not in use.
Internal deliveries, waste collection etc. would be carried out by a small number of dedicated low-speed emission-free vehicles.
Depending on the size of the development, this ideal may not be entirely feasible. In practice, access routes are required for emergency vehicles, mobility-impaired people may need car access right to the door, and there may be strong efficiency arguments for allowing access by ordinary delivery vehicles rather than an entirely separate distribution system.
Getting as close as possible to this ideal requires consideration of:
• design for very limited parking space within the development
• effective enforcement to prevent parking on grass verges, on footways and on access roads
• roadways within the development designed for very low speeds
• a strong and successful “car club” in place before the first residents move in
Good public transport connections to the wider city is paramount to the success of sustainable development on the peninsula.
Figure 4-3: New LUAS Bridge, Royal Canal at Docklands North Lotts & Existing LUAS
The primary need is for a high-quality public transport route to the city centre, from which onward connections can be made to anywhere in Dublin. The options here would seem to be:
• extension of the Luas network from The Point
• a rail-based link from the Dart line (unlikely to be feasible)
• bus-based rapid transit to/from the city centre via The Point with connection to the extended Luas red line there
• bus-based rapid transit to/from the city centre via Pearse Station with connection to the Dart line there
In order to be successful, bus-based systems need to be seen as a step-change from conventional bus services, having many of the same characteristics as a Luas line – a largely-dedicated trackway, priority at traffic lights, real-time information etc. This primary connection would need to be supplemented by bus services in other directions.
In addition to the above, the connection into the proposed cycle track and pedestrian promenade (already in preliminary design stage) from Sutton to Sandycove should be integrated into the development.
4.2.4 Green Systems of Public Transport
When considering the use of an internal public transport, the options for introducing more environmentally friendly vehicles should be considered. Renewable and sustainable energy for public transport can contribute to providing a clean and attractive alternative to conventional fossil fuel transport options. Hydrogen, electric and biofuel powered public transport is considered here.
Hydrogen powered buses have been introduced on trial in many countries in recent years and they are considered to be one of several technologies which may eventually replace traditional petrol and diesel combustion engines. Essentially, the chemical energy of hydrogen is converted to mechanical or torque energy, which is used to drive the vehicle.
The major advantage of hydrogen powered vehicles is that they produce no point of use emissions which makes them ideal for city transport. They also operate at higher efficiencies than traditional engines and they can recover energy via regenerative breaking.
However, there are disadvantages to hydrogen transport. Hydrogen is very expensive to produce and hydrogen powered vehicles are costly to manufacture. Also, and perhaps the greatest difficulty is finding a suitable way of storing and transporting hydrogen. It can be stored as a gas but a huge tank fitted to the vehicle would be required to travel any reasonable distance. It can be stored as a liquid but must be compressed, consuming additional energy.
A number of fuel cell powered electric vehicles are on the roads worldwide, including passenger cars, delivery trucks, buses and military vehicles. Researchers are working to bring down fuel cell and related component costs and to improve durability to enable full commercialisation. California boasts the largest number of fuel cell fleets, and there are many demonstration projects worldwide. In London, following successful trials, a contract worth almost £10m (€14.2m) was signed for 10 buses, the largest fleet of its kind in Europe. The buses will be fully operational by 2010. London is now the first city in Europe to commit to a hydrogen bus fleet of this size, which is intended to match traditional diesel buses in terms of performance.
4.2.4.2 Electric Buses
The first type of electric bus is a Trolley bus, which is connected to two overhead wires from which it draws electricity to power the bus. Trolley buses have been around since the late 19th century and are a well-established mode of transport in use in many American and European cities. The major advantage of trolley buses is that when powered by electricity generated from renewable sources, they can be considered almost emission free.
The battery electric vehicle (BEV) is the second type of electric bus, which uses chemical energy stored in rechargeable battery packs to power an electric motor which drives the vehicle. The battery is the most expensive part of the vehicle and the type, capacity, travel range, top speed, recharge time and lifespan all dictate the price. However, battery technology is constantly improving and this is helping to bring down the cost and increase performance. As with trolley buses, the major advantage is that when powered by electricity generated from renewable sources, they can be considered almost emission free. They are also less expensive to run than conventional diesel or petrol engines.
In Adelaide, a free solar powered electric bus service is in operation. The bus is recharged using solar PV panels at the Adelaide Central Bus Station and has a 200km operation range between charges under typical urban conditions. For every 1 minute of charge the bus receives, it can travel an extra 1 kilometre.
Biofuels can be defined as solid, liquid or gaseous fuels consisting of, or derived from biomass. Biofuel transport is still a relatively new technology in Ireland with biodiesel and bioethanol being the two most commercially viable options. Biodiesel and bioethanol are liquid fuels made from plant material and recycled elements of the food chain and to a large extent, they can be considered renewable and sustainable. Biodiesel is a diesel alternative and bioethanol is a petrol additive/substitute. Currently, there are 6 biofuel public busses operating in the country (five in Dublin and one in Cork). In April 2006, Bus Éireann piloted the use of a biodiesel bus fuelled by recovered vegetable oil (RVO) in Cork and in May of the same year, Dublin Bus piloted the use of five open top tour buses also powered by RVO. These buses have been operating without any technical difficulty since they commenced operation.
4.2.5 Outcome
Reducing the number of private car journeys and the numbers of cars owned would start to tackle the negative consequences of a car-dependent society. The gains would include the reduction of air pollution, fossil fuel consumption, and class and social segregation. This has been addressed at Freiburg in Germany, where approximately 40% of households have agreed to live without cars (car-free), while others park in a community car park located at the periphery of the residential area (parking-free). The combination of the above with a regular and dependable public-use system in place would leave most streets pedestrian friendly, presenting a safe environment for dwellers. To be successful, there has to be a balance between the “carrot” measures and the “stick” measures. If restricted access for cars is not balanced by attractive public transport and slow mode opportunities, the development will fail to attract employers and residents. If restrictions are a token effort, then the pattern of car dominance observed elsewhere will recur, and the plan will fail to meet its aspirations as an international example of sustainability.
Dublin Bay is generally shallow in depth with extensive areas of mud and sand flats at low tide. The bay is open and broad at its mouth and is marked by the rocky headlands of Howth to the north and Dalkey to the south. The three principle rivers discharging to the Bay are the Liffey, the Tolka and the Dodder. The Dodder discharges to the Liffey. The rivers Camac and Poddle as well as the Royal Canal and the Grand Canal also discharge to the Liffey. The Santry River discharges into Dublin Bay at the causeway to North Bull Island.
The water depth in the Bay is generally less than ten metres; with the spring tidal range around three meters. The direction and velocity of the currents in the bay are highly influenced by the tidal cycle. During flood, a strong north-westerly current enters from the south. At high water, currents are generally slack. During ebb, strong currents enter the outer bay from the north at Howth and flow in a south-westerly direction. Similar strong flows are observed in a south-easterly direction past Dun Laoghaire. At low water, a clockwise rotation of flow extends from the Burford Bank in the east throughout most of the inner Bay area.
The water quality of Dublin Bay is generally good with low to occasionally moderate concentrations of organic matter and nutrients, low concentrations of phytoplankton and well oxygenated water. Elevated levels of nutrients and poor oxygen conditions have been observed in the inner areas of the Bull lagoons and in the Tolka and Liffey estuaries.
The ground level of the lands at Poolbeg are generally higher than that of the quays, however flooding could be a potential problem due to the flooding history of the neighbouring communities in Ringsend, Irishtown and East Wall.
In addition, water supply and management of demand is a significant issue for the Greater Dublin area, with options currently being investigated for the supply of the Dublin region with potable water from the Shannon River or a desalination plant to provide the city of Dublin with its ever-growing water requirements. Increased efficiency of water use and awareness of conservation techniques is required.
5.2 OPTIONS & OPPORTUNITIES
5.2.1 Water Conservation
There are many methods to reduce the water consumption levels within a development, with the principles of sustainable water management helping to identify alternative sources of water to meet water demand in ways that do not require potable water quality. It also puts emphasis on using the most water efficient appliances where possible. However, another aspect of water conservation is awareness and the encouragement of responsible water use.
5.2.1.1 Monitoring Water Consumption
The first step in conserving water use is to determine the quantity of water used and identifying if there are any peaks in demand and what and where the largest users lie. Through the use of meters and measuring water consumption levels, tenants are given the tools and incentives to use water more efficiently and effectively and encourages conservation. This is also an important measure as
commercial water rates are on the increase and the future likelihood of the introduction of domestic metering and water rates. The installation of water meters in all new buildings (commercial, retail and residential) should be considered to enable tenants to monitor their consumption levels and to regularly take readings. In larger buildings or in premises that have water intensive processes, the installation of additional meters on the main water consuming systems/equipment or areas where potential leaks or inefficiencies are likely to occur should be investigated. Different types of water meters are available e.g. basic water meters that can be manually read by employees or more sophisticated meters that send data to a computer. If strategically placed, additional meters can allow zoning of the water flow and enable quick localisation of leaks or inefficiencies. For instance, this could be relevant upstream of a zone where non-visible leaks are likely to occur. Leaks are likely to occur in worn taps, damaged or corroded pipework (most likely underground pipework below or adjacent to the premises). Plumbing systems are susceptible to clogs and stoppages, which can lead to overflowing appliances such as toilets, sinks and washing machines. In the winter, pipes can freeze and weaken and lead to cracking; a 3mm crack in a pipe can release up to 1,000 litres of water per day. Energy and resource savings achievable are dependent on the amount of leaks encountered but in some surveys, up to 80% savings have been achieved.
Once a reading has been taken from the meter it is important to ensure that continuous analysis is undertaken to make full effect of the information. Data readings need to be logged to show usage levels and ultimately show the results in graphic format. This allows the tenant to visualise historic water consumption levels and linkage to production, output or per head consumption levels. Analysing water consumption data in such a manner can highlight leaks, areas of malfunctions and overly high consumption rates. This information can be then used to set targets for reduction and plan for future water requirements and costs.
5.2.2 Water Efficient Appliances
The incorporation of water-efficient appliances into a development will not only help tenants conserve water but will also ultimately aid in saving on the cost of water used and also on the energy required to heat it. There are a variety of features that should be incorporated into new build as a minimum to address the rising concerns over water availability in the Dublin region. These are outlined as follows;
• Water efficient showerheads and taps with flow restrictors conserve water by altering the water flow through showerheads and taps. Typical flow rates for non-efficient taps and showers are usually 10-12 L/minute, which can be reduced to 2.5 L/minute with the installation of appropriate flow regulators. The average flow rate from all taps and showerheads should be < 8.5 L/minute
• Spray head taps can considerably reduce water use by up to 70%. Percussion or push taps are also available which slowly close when abandoned, avoiding the risk of leaving the taps open for long periods. These taps would be suited to commercial and retail units
• Toilets usually account for a significant portion of total water demand in buildings. By using devices such as the Hippo Water Saver in an existing conventional toilet cistern, a reduction in the amount of water consumed in every flush can be achieved. Most toilets should consume less than 6 litres of water per flush
• Dual flush toilets can lead to a reduction in total water consumption. Based on typical usage patterns, 6/3 L dual flush toilets have an average water demand of 4 L/flush. With higher drainage grades, flush toilets can operate at 5/2 L or lower, reducing average demand per flush to less than 3 L. Dual flush toilets should be installed as a minimum.
• Typically, the flush in urinals is activated each time the cistern is full, regardless of their utilisation, with flushing frequency remaining the same throughout the day and night.
Electronic urinal flush controllers with occupancy sensors, such as PIR sensors (Passive Infra Red), can be fitted to reduce water consumption. This equipment activates the flush only when it is necessary and can reduce water consumption by up to 80%. Urinals can also be adjusted for no flow system, which uses the drainage system only; this involves retrofitting of existing urinals to water free systems.
• For landscaping/gardening purposes the use of trigger hoses can reduce the level of water used by a quick on/off control system.
Although, not an appliance in itself, more a technology, the increased use of greywater recycling in new buildings shows the significance that developers and management are placing on water conservation and re-use where feasible.
Greywater is collected from sources within the building such as sinks, baths, showers or washing machines, treated onsite and re-used or recycled in the building for flushing toilets, washing machines and outdoor taps. Through using this greywater, the amount of freshwater needed to supply the building is decreased but the amount of wastewater sent for treatment via sewers or septic systems is also reduced.
Greywater recycling saves water in an intelligent way - water is saved without limiting consumption or habits. For a typical household, a family of four or five can save around 90,000 litres of water per annum, and at the same time contribute towards the conservation of a precious resource.
External With the development and increased build-up of the Peninsula, there will be a significant increase in surface run-off from both buildings and impervious surfaces and loss of vegetation cover. One method to reduce the volume of discharge is to collect building run-off and for re-use. The advantage of this is that not only is water being conserved and re-used but the volume of water for drainage, eventual treatment or contribution to risk of flooding will also be reduced. In buildings, the most common method of this approach is rainwater harvesting for reuse.
Facilities for the collection and re-use of rainwater can be incorporated into the design of a new building relatively easily. At the simplest level, rainwater can be collected in a small tank for garden and irrigation use. More advanced harvesting systems can provide water supply for a range of domestic uses, including laundry and toilet flushing.
Space for a storage tank must be provided, either on the roof, on ground level or underground with down pipes located accordingly. Separate pipes are required to carry rainwater and a mains supply backup should be provided as the efficiency of the systems is based on predicted rainfall levels within the proposed area.
Basic components of a rainwater-collection system include the catchment area (usually the roof), conveyance system (guttering, downspouts, piping), filtration system, storage system (cistern), and distribution system. The highest cost in most rainwater-collection systems is for water storage.
Appropriate roofing materials for the catchment area are metal, clay, and concrete-based (such as tile or fiber cement). Lead-containing materials such as flashing should not be used in catchment roofs. Gutters and downpipes should be sized for the roof size and rainfall intensity with screens to collect leaves and debris to prevent them from entering the storage tank. Simple filtration with graded screens and paper filters can filter harvested rainwater for use in irrigation.
Rainwater systems in office buildings can reduce costs when comparing operating costs and costs of mains water and are more viable than domestic rainwater reuse.
5.2.3 Sustainable Drainage Systems
As mentioned previously, the communities in the vicinity around the Peninsula are prone to flooding, and although the ground level of the lands at Poolbeg are generally higher than that of the quays, the area could still be at risk of flooding.
With the development of the peninsula there is also the potential that some lands will need to be drained to ensure it is suitable for development while also ensuring that the effects of surface run-off from the development are minimised. Any new development will reduce the permeability of the peninsula by replacing vegetated areas with buildings, roads and paved areas, thus reducing the area of infiltration available for surface water with potential risks of flooding and erosion due to increased flow rates.
Flood risk and other environmental damage can be managed by minimising changes in the volume and rate of surface run-off from development sites through the use of sustainable drainage systems (SuDS). The inclusion and acceptance of SuDS within a development site however requires a holistic approach and input and support from a number of stakeholders including the development agency, developers, planners, drainage experts, landscape architects and sustainability consultants. SuDS not only reduce the amount of diffuse pollution but also improves the environmental quality of development to the benefit of the local community and as such should be the preferred solution for drainage of surface water run-off, including roof water, for all proposed development, greenfield and brownfield.
The drainage of new developments within the Dublin area must now comply with the requirements set out in the New Development policy document which forms part of the Regional Drainage Policies of the Greater Dublin Strategic Drainage Study(GDSDS) and provides guidelines for the incorporation of SuDS.
In previous years, the conventional method of draining excess surface water from developed areas was through underground pipe systems where it was combined with grey water from buildings and drained through one combined sewer to waste water treatment works. This method placed extra strain on waste water treatment works and so now foul water is pumped to the treatment works and surface water is piped to the nearest watercourse. These systems however have not been designed with the aims of sustainable development to the fore and do not sufficiently address aquatic ecology and biodiversity requirements, amenity or landscaping potential.
SuDS on the other hand, aims to deal with the issues of water quantity, water quality and amenity through managing surface water run-off on-site as near to source as possible; slowing down run-off; treating it naturally; and releasing good quality surface water to watercourses or groundwater. The main objective is to return excess surface water to the natural water cycle with little or no impact on people or the environment.
There are many control options outlined below, which provide varying degrees of treatments for surface water using the natural processes of sedimentation, filtration, adsorption and biological degradation, and which could be integrated into drainage design of the peninsula. A detailed assessment of ground conditions, including an analysis of the suitability of surface water infiltration, is required prior to final section of SuDS at individual sites.
Filter Strips & Swales Filter strips and swales are vegetated surface features that drain water evenly off impermeable areas. Swales are long shallow channels whilst filter strips are gently sloping areas of ground. They are primarily used to treat runoff from roadways, car parks and other highly impervious urban areas and are typically located along property boundaries i.e. road verges or adjacent to impervious areas. They can replace curbs or gutters, adding an aesthetically pleasing element to a development while also creating areas to increase biodiversity within a development through the introduction of local wild grasses and flower species (see Biodiversity & Ecology section for applicable species).
Both of these mechanisms are effective at removing polluting solids through filtration and sedimentation as the vegetation traps organic and mineral particles that are then incorporated into the soil, while the vegetation takes up any nutrients and can be used in a variety of land uses including residential, industrial and commercial developments.
The placement of swales and filter strips should relate to natural flow paths and contours of the land, ideally being located in areas of gentle slopes and flat surfaces that will promote reduced flow velocities and an even spread of stormwater runoff. The contributing catchment of a swale or filter strip should be less than 4 hectares and large flows should be designed to bypass the swale to maximise treatment efficiency. Swales are generally greater than 30 metres in length with a minimum residence time of nine minutes i.e. it should take at least nine minutes for flow to pass along the swale. Although filter strips do not have specific dimension requirements a minimum resistance time of nine minutes is standard.
Filter Drains & Permeable Surfaces When water hits a non-permeable surface it will follow gravity to the lowest point, normally a drain. Filter drains and permeable surfaces however, allow water to permeate to the ground below through a permeable material to store surface water. Permeable surfaces can include grass (if the area will not be trafficked), gravelled areas, solid paving blocks with large vertical holes filled with soil or gravel, solid paving blocks with gaps between the individual units, porous paving blocks with a system of voids within the unit or continuous surfaces with a system of voids. The permeable fill or sub-base traps sediment, thereby cleaning up runoff. When installing a permeable surface it is necessary to consider what the area will be used for and its overall appearance. There are a variety of surfaces available that will meet drainage and operational requirements of the peninsula but will also fit in with the style of development proposed for the peninsula.
Infiltration Devices Infiltration devices are designed to treat runoff and divert it into groundwater and they include soak ways, infiltration trenches and infiltration basins as well as swales, filter drains and ponds. The infiltration process reduces the total volume of runoff and reduces the level of contaminants entering receiving environments.
Infiltration trenches recharge ground water supplies, where infiltration occurs through an excavated trench, which is backfilled with stone or other filter media. The excavated trench provides storage until the runoff can infiltrate into the underlying soil. Infiltration trenches are designed to serve an area no greater than four hectares and performance is greatest on slopes no greater than 15º. An infiltration trench can often require a pretreatment device such as a swale to remove larger solids and prevent clogging.
Soakaways and infiltration trenches are completely below ground, and water should not appear on the surface. Storage is provided in an underground chamber, lined with a porous membrane and filled with coarse crushed rock. Infiltration basins store runoff by temporary and shallow ponding on the surface.
The use of infiltration devices could be considered for the peninsula in recreational areas or public open spaces and parks. Infiltration basins can be planted with trees, shrubs and other plants, again promoting natural biodiversity within the area while also improving their visual appearance.
Basins & Ponds The use of flood plains, detention and extended detention basins incorporate areas for storage of surface runoff that are free from water under dry weather flow conditions. Ponds on the other hand, are designed to hold water in dry weather conditions with the capacity to retain further levels in wet weather conditions. Ponds cover such devices as balancing and attenuation ponds; flood storage reservoirs; lagoons; retention ponds and wetlands.
Basins and ponds are designed to control flow rates by storing floodwater and releasing it slowly once the risk of flooding has passed. Pollutants are treated through settlement, adsorption by aquatic vegetation or the soil or through biological activity.
Figure 5-2: Basin and Pond use in SuDS
The attraction of basins and ponds is that they are aesthetically pleasing and can be easily integrated into the landscape of an area or be landscaped into an area. Ponds in particular can be attractive integral amenity features within a development and can achieve significant ecological enhancement compared to conventional drainage options.
5.2.4 Roof Gardens
Roof gardens are looked at as another form of sustainable drainage systems as they reduce rainwater runoff from buildings. They also play a part in improving the energy performance of the building through reduced heating requirements in the winter and less air-cooling requirements in the winter.
Roof gardens are typically employed in larger commercial buildings. There are two types of green roofs – extensive and intensive. Extensive green roofs have a thin growing medium, have lower plant diversity and are relatively inexpensive. Intensive green roofs have a deeper soil substrate, have a greater diversity of plants and habitats, and potentially have greater energy efficiency and storm water retention capabilities. In a commercial building, roof gardens can be used either for storm water retention or to evapotranspirate the effluent generated from wastewater treatment plants.
The lack of maturity and years run of this type of roofing, alongside health and safety for operation and maintenance needs to be considered.
Over the years waste has become an issue of major global concern. Since the mid 1990s Ireland has moved from a waste management system previously heavily reliant on disposal to landfill to one based on integrated solutions including source separation. Previous conventional disposal was coming under pressure due to urban growth, a growing consumerist society and specific national and European legislation and directives.
The current waste hierarchy follows the credo that Reduction followed by Re-use and then Recycling should be the prioritised list of waste management options in any organisation. Prevention is at the pinnacle of the Waste Management Hierarchy and is at the core of European and Irish legislation.
Figure 6-1: Waste management hierarchy
In order to increase recycling rates across the country, to fulfill objectives to achieve target recycling rates and avoidance of biodegradable waste being sent to landfill, a three-bin system (black bin – residual waste; green bin – mixed dry recyclables; brown bin – biodegradable incl. food and garden waste) was adopted as the preferred approach as national policy within the majority of waste management plans in Ireland. This system was considered the most efficient method to achieve high recycling rates and clean material for resource recovery. The three-bin collection system has been slow to progress across the country with Galway and Waterford leading the way, with the roll-out of the brown bin collection service in Dublin due in 2008 within all four Local Authority areas (Fingal, Dubln City, Dun Laoghaire-Rathdown and South Dublin County Council).
The three-bin collection schemes are successful in providing single unit households with a separate collection of organic waste, although very few apartments are included. This is an important factor of consideration within the Poolbeg Peninsula, as due to the urban location of the site, the potential and probability of development of high-density, apartment style residential units is high. This leads to issues on how to deal with and manage waste effectively and in an environmentally conscious way, not only as a responsibility to conform to national and European target levels but also as a social responsibility within a rapidly developing society.
Waste management is discussed below from planning and design and construction phase through to operational phase, encompassing all elements of minimisation, prevention, separation, recycling, storage, transport and awareness amongst tenants on how to manage their waste responsibly. Waste needs to be dealt with in a sustainable way within the peninsula and the practices outlined following should ensure that waste generated in the area is disposed of in a manner that is in line with national objectives but also demonstrates new and best practice procedures as an exemplar to other masterplanned communities.
A construction phase waste management plan is a comprehensive recycling plan for the materials anticipated to be generated from construction activities prior to the start of the project.
The Voluntary Construction Industry Initiative empowers local authorities in Ireland to request a Construction and Demolition Waste Management Plan at the planning stage of a development. The initiative places responsibility on developers and project contractors to implement best practice and sustainable waste management on construction sites. Although a voluntary initiative, it is recommended that a Plan be completed for the area to demonstrate an understanding and awareness of proper waste management of construction materials.
As this site is Greenfield, soil removal and management will be a key focus of any Plan with proposals for best practice management of site construction materials including steel, timber, concrete etc also included. The Plan should outline how best to segregate different waste streams, including hazardous materials generated on-site and appropriate solutions for site storage, recycling and disposal.
6.2 PREVENTION AND MINIMISATION
As demonstrated in the Waste Management hierarchy, initial prevention and minimisation of generated waste represent the most favourable waste management options and are a responsibility shared across a wide range of areas. By not generating waste, we can eliminate the need to handle, transport, treat and dispose of waste and also avoid having to pay for these services.
Prevention and minimisation requires an awareness and a shift in behaviour amongst consumers when purchasing and also in reuse and recycling.
6.3 SEPARATION AND RECYCLING
6.3.1 Separation Practices
Separation of waste at source should be one of the primary objectives of any waste management solution. Separation and segregation at source not only achieves an essential physical task in preparation for dispatch and recycling but also acts as a constant reminder to all future tenants of their responsibilities with regard to waste. Separation of waste into its component parts facilitates disposal to a contractor who accepts separated waste streams i.e. mixed dry recyclables, glass and biodegradable waste and who will distribute these waste streams to valid recycling centres and disposal points.
To ensure maximised separation and recycling rates in apartment blocks and individual housing units, space for additional bins or integrated kitchen receptacles, with segregated sections should be specified for in kitchen design, in all new build of commercial and residential developments.
6.3.2 Organic Waste
With regard to organic waste, the publication of the National Strategy on Biodegradable Waste (2006) and the regional waste plans has emphasised the need for increased participation in separate organic waste collections. By year-end 2006, 9% of Ireland’s houses were apartments, generating approximately 32,000 tonnes of organic waste, or 6% of the total household organic waste generated in Ireland. With increasing urban density, apartment dwellings are expected to generate over 50,000 tonnes of organic waste by 2016.
The introduction of organic waste collection especially in apartments will help Ireland meet its targets to divert organic waste from landfill, and provide equal opportunity to those apartment residents who wish to source separate waste as much as possible.
To fulfil these objectives, a kitchen caddy (approx. 7L) should be provided to apartment units to encourage organic waste recycling. Along with this, guidance notes should be provided to residents on what to put into the bin, where and how to store it and how often to empty the bin.
Figure 6-2: Kitchen Caddy
6.4 WASTE STORAGE
Waste storage is usually an afterthought and decisions on placement of the bins often only occur as residents are at the moving in stage. If a waste area is designed and included in the plans, it is usually for residual waste only, which may cause problems if bins for separate waste is added later.
Another problem with communal bins is the lack of personal responsibility on behalf of the residents. It is important that someone is employed to maintain the area, with CCTV in waste storage areas been shown to be effective in the prevention of vandalism.
6.4.1 Waste Storage - Residential
The Waste Management Plan for the Dublin Region (2005-2010) sets out guidelines and standards for waste storage areas in apartments. The Plan sets out requirements for the collection, storage, presentation of household waste and the requirement to segregate to facilitate the collection of dry recyclables.
A recycling depot and area would need to be established for apartment dwellers or centralized office units which would provide residents and businesses with a convenient location to drop off recyclable materials. Communal waste storage areas should be above ground, not in basements or underground car park levels, and should be placed in an easily accessible area, both for residents and collection vehicles. A critical factor for locating the bin storage area is the aesthetic impact it creates. Proximity to residents and waste collectors to access is an issue. Residents can be unhappy if it is located too close but needs to be close enough for residents to use. Accessibility in bad weather conditions and for the elderly needs to be considered also.
In apartment blocks, communal bins are the most appropriate option for apartments with more than 10 units and typically a green 1,100 litre capacity should be used for mixed dry recyclables, black bin for residual waste and brown bin for organic waste. It is important to note the colour coding scheme here as identified in the Waste Management Plan. The bins should be 1.3 metres long by 1.3 metres high and with a load capacity of 0.5 tonnes. There must be enough storage space for a minimum of one 1,100-litre bin per 15 people availing of the communal collection scheme. Provision should also be made for the collection of glass (separated by colour) in bottle banks within the apartment complex. The footprint of each of these banks should be four metres by two metres wide.
A system of deep storage, where the bin opening is at ground level but about two thirds of the bin is stored underground is a successful alternative to the wheely bins, especially where space constraints are an issue. A space footprint of 5m2 can provide enough storage capacity for four different waste bins and serve 50-80 apartments. Deep storage and underground collection, if employed, must be located within 10m of the roadway to allow for access and collection of waste by the refuse collection vehicles. The advantage of this type of waste solution is that it avoids Health & Safety problems with
the larger wheelie bins, but also that no one person or building maintenance attendant is required to bring out bins on collection day.
Figure 6-3: Deep Storage Communal Bins and Screening from View
In the communal areas, a bin capacity of approximately one tenth the size of the dry recyclables bin should be provided for organic waste (if centralised collection is available), along with the mixed dry recyclables bin and residual waste bin. If the roll-out of the brown bin collection services has not been initiated within the peninsula area and environs, then the inclusion for space of either a compost bin or wormery (where space is limited) should be considered for apartment blocks. The issue of maintenance and upkeep will need to be considered for this option however.
The potential need for a user-pay system should be considered to encourage waste diversion and fund waste management activities. The inclusion of an automated pay-by weight, locked system could be investigates, which entail each resident possessing a swipe card to unlock the bins but also which would keep track of the amount owed for waste disposal. Communal charging systems have the potential to encourage people to contaminate so individual weighing systems could contribute to increased segregation and recycling rates.
6.4.2 Waste Storage - Commercial
Commercial waste is also the responsibility of the occupier of the building. Adequate space is to be provided for waste storage to accommodate responsible waste management at each facility. A minimum of 2m2 per 1,000m2 floor area should be set aside for waste storage in all non-residential buildings (to meet 95% Best Practice requirements). It is essential that adequate delivery and storage areas be provided for raw materials and incoming goods to ensure a minimisation of wastage and spoilage for commercial and retail business. Areas for compaction and separate storage of recyclables need to be incorporated into the design.
It will be one of the basic design criteria to provide service and infrastructure, which not only facilitate but actively promote the minimisation and responsible management of waste by all occupants in new developments.
Public litter bins will also be provided throughout developments as appropriate and, where practicable, will be specified to accommodate waste separation.
In all cases, waste storage areas should be adequately vented to minimise odours and potential vermin/flies. Ground level storage areas should be adequately fenced or screened off to reduce visual impact.
6.5 MONITORING, INFORMATION & AWARENESS
To ensure sustained recycling rates and support best practice waste management techniques, a comprehensive public education, awareness and marketing program should be initiated throughout the peninsula, which will outline benefits and encourage participation in waste reduction, re-use, and recycling programs. Enhancing awareness and input from all residents will only contribute to reduction and diversion programs, thus improving residual waste disposal rates and meeting social and community responsibilities.
This section aims to outline broad development opportunities, options and constraints for preservation and promotion of biodiversity and ecology on the Peninsula, based on what already exists there. Options including conservation of the existing value, development of green areas, integration with marine environment and accessibility of ecology and a variety of flora and fauna are examined inter alia.
7.1 SURROUNDING ENVIRONMENT
The Poolbeg Peninsula situated on the southern side of Dublin port, is mainly industrial in its activities including power generation, sewage treatment, metal recycling, a concrete batching plant, oil storage, gas regulation and freight storage. Much of the area is reclaimed land and was previously used as a municipal landfill, however it does contain some open areas of interest such as the Irishtown Nature Park, the most significant land area on the Peninsula with regard to biodiversity.
The immediate surrounding environment is made up of the docklands area at the mouth of the River Liffey, Dublin Bay lies to the east and the surrounding landscape of the bay consisting of mostly residential areas extending from Dun Laoghaire in the south bay area around to Howth in the north. The Peninsula is adjacent to both the River Liffey and the mud and sand flats of Sandymount Strand. The area of Sandymount Strand to the Tolka River Estuary has been designated a Special Protection Area with regard to the bird species supported there. South Dublin Bay is also listed as a Special Area of Conservation, considered important on both a European and National level. Both are of significance with specific regard to birds and bird habitats.
Considering the nature and location of the site, there are two areas of ecology, terrestrial and estuarine, which need to be looked at for conservation purposes but also for development and potential integration into any new development on the Peninsula.
7.1.1 Existing Terrestrial Ecology
Apart from the Irishtown Nature Park, the terrestrial ecology is formed around two other main habitats on the Peninsula, buildings and artificial surfaces and recolonising bare ground.
A wide range of ruderal species were identified, with rank grasses well established in some parts. The following species were also identified (based on information gathered for the Dublin Waste to Energy Project, Baseline Monitoring Report and subsequent EIS)
In areas that have not been recently disturbed, brambles and young sycamore trees are also established.
7.1.2 Fauna
Based on previous studies, the following species of fauna were found around the Peninsula. The brown rat (Rattus norvegicus) was the only mammal species recorded, however the house mouse would also be expected, and perhaps the pygmy shrew (Sorex minutus). The low number of species reflects the low diversity of habitats present. Signs of fox (Vulpes vulpes) were found near the boundary fence of the Irishtown Nature Park and this species probably has a permanent presence in the port area. Long-tailed field mouse (Apodemus sylvaticus) may also occur, and possibly rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus).
7.1.3 Irishtown Nature Park
Irishtown Nature Park is located to the southeast of the Peninsula and was designed as an ecological park with a focus on habitat creation and nature conservation with native trees, shrubs, wildflowers, and grasses being planted. A previous detailed survey of the flora of the park was undertaken and the park now comprises a mix of young trees and shrubs and open areas of grassland, with trees and shrubbery becoming more established. The following tree species were noted; birch (Betula pubescens), alder (Alnus glutinosa), willow (Salix spp.) and oak (Quercus spp.). Some of the original wild flowers were still present, such as bird’s-foot trefoil (Lotus corniculatus), yellow rattle (Rhianthus minor), oxeye daisy (Leucanthemun vulgare) and yarrow (Achilla millefolium). The flora also included a
range of additional species, many of which are typical ruderal plants that occur elsewhere on the Poolbeg Peninsula – these include teasal (Dipascus fullonum), oxford ragwort (Senecio squalidus), spiny restharrow (Ononis spinosa), mugwort (Artemisa vulgaris), red valerian (Centrathus ruber), common soapwort (Saponaria officinalis), butterfly-bush (Buddleja davidii) and fennel (Foeniculum vulgare).
7.1.4 Existing Estuarine Ecology
Dublin Bay is generally shallow in depth with extensive areas of mud and sand flats at low tide. Dublin Port divides the estuaries of the Liffey and Tolka rivers and certain areas of the bay are designated sites of conservation.
Sandymount Strand and the Tolka Estuary were designated as a Special Protection Area (SPA) under the Birds Directive in 1994. The boundaries of this site have been revised to cover more extensive areas of intertidal habitat. South Dublin Bay was listed as a candidate Special Area of Conservation under the Habitats Directive in 1999, and is also a proposed Natural Heritage Area.
The main habitat in South Dublin Bay is tidal sand and mudflats and it supports internationally important numbers of Brent geese, and other wintering waterfowl species also occur. There is an important tern roost in the south bay in autumn, used by 2,000 to 3,000 terns including roseate terns.
7.2 OPTIONS & OPPORTUNITIES
7.2.1 Conservation of Existing Value
The conservation of the existing value of biodiversity and ecology on the Peninsula is perhaps the most significant aspect. Through proposed development of the area, it is imperative that there is minimal disturbance to existing habitats or deterioration of existing species of flora and fauna. The preservation of the recreational Sean Moore Park and the Irishtown Nature Park, with its significant species list already detailed, should remain a top priority in terms of development options with regard to ecology and biodiversity. Ultimately, there should be no reduction in the number of protected species on the site following development, either through a direct impact on terrestrial ecology or indirect impacts on the estuarine ecology.
Owing to the very nature of the site at present, i.e. a heavily industrialised area, a key to sustaining existing biodiversity levels, would be to implement maintenance of biodiversity. As noted from earlier descriptions, there is a wide variety of floral species found on the Peninsula, and through an encouragement of a general restoration of existing habitats and ‘tidy-up’ as such, minimal impact and disturbance should result. The high amenity value of Irishtown Nature Park and existing walkways out to, and along the South Bull wall should be retained and rehabilitated to provide a safe and amenable environment to current and future residents.
The small beach area to the northeast corner of the Irishtown Nature Park should also be maintained, with the possibility of developing it further to provide a higher amenity factor investigated. By retaining this beach area, it will act as a buffer zone between designated areas of conservation and the development site but will also act as a continued link between existing terrestrial and estuarine ecology, providing integration of ecosystems. Other carefully managed tourism options should also be considered as means to sustain both nature and the economic/social welfare of local communities.
It should also be ensured that all developments are compatible with the nature conservation designations of the South Bay area.
This area is one where the potential of increasing biodiversity and ecology can be addressed significantly. In recent years, the planning and development of urban spaces and growth has neglected the integration of green spaces, often leading to the degradation of ecosystems, air quality, recreation and quality of life for local residents. Green areas represent areas for development of urban biodiversity, and in this case increase the likelihood of maintaining and increasing existing species and habitats already found on the Peninsula, thus increasing the chances of similar fauna developing. With already existing ecosystems, these new areas of green development should build on natural and native characteristics to preserve Peninsula living and to penetrate further into the Dublin cityscape. A list of suitable plant species is found in Table 7-1 below.
Table 7-2 Suggested Plant Species Suitable for Landscaping Purposes
Common Name Latin Name
Ash Fraxinus excelsior
Oak Quercus petrea Quercus robur
Hazel Corylus avellana
Rowan Sorbus aucuparia
Holly Ilex aquifolium
Hawthorn Crategeus monogyna
Blackthorn Prunus spinosa
Dog Rose Rosa canina
Willow Salix spp
The idea of green areas also helps to promote healthier living and lifestyle through noise moderation, improved air quality, improved health, comfort, amenity value, cultural heritage and also connection and linkages of city areas.
Green corridors should be considered whereby natural urban areas are linked to suburban green areas by linear street greenery or elongated green areas, thus increasing native species found on the Peninsula into new developments and again, further into the city through a transitional zone.
A concept used in Sweden is that of ‘Pocket Parks’, small green spaces that can be found in unexpected places. These are typically hidden between houses or buildings, with limited access due to their locations (potential for resident-only use) but would normally be heavily used. Consideration of pocket parks should be investigated, especially where space is limited, thus penetrating biodiversity further into development areas and complexes.
7.2.3 Linkage to Marine Environment
In terms of biodiversity and ecology alone, it is suggested that links between the terrestrial and estuarine ecology be minimised. The reason behind this is that the Peninsula itself and any future developments would not support any marine ecosystems and establishment of same would not contribute to the overall enhancement or aesthetic quality. Buffer zones between the existing shoreline and any development work should be maintained as noted previously.
Also, the possibility of a shoreline survey should not be ruled out in order to identify any possible opportunities for habitat creation.
One possible area for development here is the inclusion of small ponds used for sustainable urban drainage practices, to include native species of flora. They can provide for an aesthetic addition to a community and at the same time provide a buffer to the natural aquatic ecosystems. Estuarine species cannot be used in planting for ponds, as ponds will contain freshwater, not saline. A list of suitable plant species is included in Table 7-2 below.
Table 7-3 Suggested Plant Species Suitable for Inclusion in Ponds
Common Name Latin Name
Bulrush Typha angustifolia
Lesser Bulrush Typha latifolia
Yellow Flag Iris Iris pseudacorus
Duckweed Lemna minor
Pondweeds Potamogeton species
Yellow Water Lily Nuphar lutea
White Water Lily Nymphaea alba
Common Reed Phragmites australis
Branched Bur Reed Sparganium erectum
Marsh Marigold Caltha palustris
7.2.4 Development of Native Biodiversity
This will only occur through the introduction of native flora and habitats into developed areas, however a possible ecological survey could also be completed to identify more opportunities for habitat creation.
Through the creation of the green corridors, mentioned previously, the qualities of existing habitats will be preserved via wildlife migration pathways.
The requirement for a social and community aspect within a Masterplan is to ensure that along with the consideration of economic growth and environmental issues, that community needs are factored in and that a level of social equity exists. After all, the "people" part of any development is what makes it
successful through a sense of ownership, and by factoring in community needs from initial design phase a fully developed, cohesive society can result.
Provision should be made for appropriate locations for cultural, recreational, leisure and community support activities to meet the needs of all tenants within the peninsula, without compromising present and future populations. This include for community halls, neighbourhood centres and information offices inter alia. Carefully managed tourism options should also be considered as means to sustain the economic and social welfare of local communities.
With regard to transport and traffic options, through reducing the number of private car journeys and the numbers of cars owned within the peninsula it would start to tackle the negative consequences of a car-dependent society and the gains would include the reduction of class and social segregation.
A final aspect that could be included is the need for cultural heritage. Any design and development plans will need to conserve and enhance important natural and man-made features that already exist on the peninsula and integrate new development sensitively within them.
This report aims to present option and opportunities to the client and wider design team on alternatives in the regeneration of the heavily industrialised Poolbeg Peninsula, by incorporating sustainable social, economic and physical development needs of the area.
The report is presented as a working draft and comments, suggestions and feedback from all sectors are welcomed.
