DOCUMENT RESUME
ED 091 214 SE 017 786
AUTHOR Bates, Gary C.TITLE A Search for Subscales in the "Science Process
Inventory."PUB DATE 17 Apr 74NOTE 74p.; Paper presented at the annual meeting of the
National Association for Research in Science Teaching(47th, Chicago, Illinois, April 1974)
EDRS PRICE MF-$0.75 HC-$3.15 PLUS POSTAGEDESCRIPTORS Educational Research; *Evaluation; Factor Structure;
*Measurement Instruments; *Physics; *ScienceEducation; *Scientific Enterprise; Secondary SchoolStudents
IDENTIFIERS Research Reports; *Science Process Inventory
ABSTRACTReported are the findings of a research project
designed to identify subscales in the "Science Process Inventory"(SPI) developed by Welch in the 1960's to assess student knowledgeabout the nature and processes of science. Form D of the instrumentwas used with a random subsample of 435 students who were included inthe Harvard Project Physics summative evaluation which used anational random sample of physics classes in the United States.Factor analysis of 43 items selected on the basis of moderatedifficulty level and demonstrated discriminating power did suggestfive factor scales of three to four items each. These "protoscales"are considered to hold promise for developing useful scales of 10-20similar items. Also discussed in this report are several issuesrelated to the construction of a multidimensional instrument formeasuring student knowledge about the nature and processes ofscience. Appendices are also included with the report.(Author/PEB)
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A Search for
Subscales in the
Science Process Inventory
AloPen444-eehe--419e44-06e81644446.
324 Longfellow HallHarvard UniversityCambridge, Ma. 02138
Gary C. BatesHarvard University
Presented at:National Association forResearch in Science TeachingChicago, April 17, 1974
ABSTRACT: A Search for Subs,:ales 'n the Science Process Inventory
Gary C. BatesHarvard University
National Association for Researchin Science Teaching
Chicago, April 17, 1974
The Science Process Inventory. (SPI) is one of severalinstruments developed during the 1960's to assess student knowledgeabout the nature and prOcesses of science. SPI (form D) has asingle scale comprised of 135 statements to which students "agree"or "disagree". This instrument has been used in a number ofresearch studies.
A single test score does not provide educators and curriculumdevelopers much specific information for modifying instruction.It was hoped that a number of independent subscales might be foundamong the 135 test items. This study used a random subsample of435 students who were included in the Harvard Project Physicssummative evaluation which used a national random sample of physicsclasses in the United States.
Because of the very low correlations between the items, factoranalysis of the total test has not provided interpretable factors.Efforts to group the items into subscales based on the originalconceptual organization of the test items also failed to producereliable scales. However, a factor analysis of 43 items selectedon the basis of moderate difficulty level and demonstrated discrim-inating power did suggest five factor scales of 3-4 items each.These "protoscales" hold promise for developing useful scales of10-20 similar items.
Several issues related to the construction of a multidimensionalinstrument to measure student knowledge about the nature andprocesses of science are also discussed. These include: 1) thephilosophical bias of the test, 2) criteria for levels of difficultyand discriminating power, 3) appropriate response format, 4) needfor a theoretical model, 5) need for development of a series ofinstruments, and 6) criteria for assuring a multidimensionalinstrument will be used by practitioners as well as researchers.
Bates ( i/aq) SP -3-9-Mar-74
Introduction
The Science Process Inventory (SPI) is one of several
instruments developed during the 1960's to assess student
knowledge about the nature and processes of science Since
"knowledge" is prerequisite to higher levels of the Bloom Taxon-
omy, reliable measures of student knowledge in this area should
provide valuable information to both teachers and curriculum
developers. However, the single scale score for all of the
135 items in SPI is a gross measure which provides little
specific guid-ace for modifying instruction.
This study explored the possibility of using items from SPI
to describe student knowledge about several dimensions of the
nature and processes of science. In general, divisions such
as "Classification" or "Theories" did not produce usable subscales;
however, five interpretable "protoscales" each containing 3-5
items with reliabilities of 0.4-0.5 were identified. These
protoscales suggest that relevant dimensions will reflect differ-
ent philosophies of science such as the "Realist" or "Instrument-
alist"; beliefs such as "Nature-Understandable" or "Science-Tentative";
and specific concepts such as "Measurement-Approximate". In
addition to encouraging continued efforts to develop a multi-
dimensional instrument, this study also suggests several guidelines
for future work.
I
Bates ( 2/2/) SPI-3-9-Mar-74
Some Background Information on SPI
The Science Process Inventory (form D) contains 135 state-
ments to which students are asked to "agree" or "disagree", e.g.
25. A theory in science may be modified in Dlight of new evidence.
These statements were drawn from several prominent books on the
history and philosophy of science. Only those concepts which
occured in a majority of the books surveyed were included
in the instrument. A copy of form D of the Science Process
Inventory has been included in Appendix A.
Norms for the 150 item form C were obtained using a sample
of 1283 senior high school students (grades 10-12) in two
Wisconsin high schools. The results as reported by Welch 3
are shown in Table 1. The differences between grades 11 and 12
are significant (p < .05).
TABLE 1 -- Norm Data for SPI (form C)
grade N rel. std. error mean std. dev. range
12 444 .80 4.6 108.8 10.4 77-13211 403 .79 4.8 106.8 10.5 70-13210 436 .78 4.8 107.0 10.4 70-134
1283 107.5 10.4
Welch also used SPI to compare high school students, high
4school teachers, and a group of scientists (see Table 2). The
significant differences (p04.05) among these groups was inter-
4
Bates ( 3/2N) SPI-3- -Mar-74
as an indication of the validity of the instrument.
TABLE 2 -- Comparison of three groups on SPI
---group mean std dev
High School Students 1283 107.5 10.3High School Teachers 16 129.4 6.7Scientists 19 135.0 4.7
A shorter form of SPI was used in the Harvard Project
Physics (HPP) summative evaluation (1967-68) which included
a national random sample of physics classes. Statistics for
a random subsample of approximately 1/4 of the students in the
HPP study are reported in Table 3. The high mean
TABLE 3 -- Norm Data for SPI (form D) (HPP data)
N
435
Irel. std. error mean std. dev.
.76 4.0 1107.0 8.14
of this sample reflects the increased homogeneity of the universe
of students who elect to take physics as compared to all students
enrolled in high school. The physics students in the HPP sample
had a mean IQ of 117 (Henmon-Nelson),6 and SPI has been shown
to be correlated with IQ rAh".61.7
A (2x3) multivariate
of variance (course x IQ) showed a significant IQ effect (p<.01),
Bates ( /2.1 ) SPI-3-9-Mar-74
but no course or interaction effects between the HPP experimental
and the control classes.
SPI has also been used in several other studies including
the evaluation of Physical Science for the Non-Scientist,9
and
Aikenhead has used items from SPI to investigate alternate methods
for assessing student knowledge about the nature and processes
10. of science.
Some General Comments about SPI
There are several general questions relating to tests
which measure student knowledge about the nature and processes
of science. Three areas of concern in this study include
1) the philosophical bias of the instrument, 2) criteria for
the level of difficulty and discriminating power of items, and
3) the choice of paper and pencil response format.
The first of these concerns is the tension which exists
within SPI between two philosophies of science -- the Realist
and the Instrumentalist. A Realist assumes that an external
REALITY actually exists and that the pursuit of science has
helped mankind make successively closer approximations to TRUTH.
This philosophical perspective was characteristic of the physical
models of Newtonian Classical physics which, at the time,
appeared to have resolved the major riddles of the universe.
The "correct" response to several SPI items reflects the Realistic
philosophy, e.g.
Bates ( r/214) SPI-3-Mar-9-74
69. Those people who carry on the practice ofscience assume that: matter is an idea,not reality.
A g
The development of atomic and electromagnetic theory in
the late 19th and 20th Centuries brought the Realistic perspective
into question. The physical models which were proposed to
explain phenomena such as polarization and propagation of
electromagnetic waves became increasingly absurd and were
ultimately replaced by mathematical equations. No longer was
it necessary to provide a physical model to explain how phenom-
ena occurred -- an internally consistant set of equations which
accounted for the phenomena would suffice. Further, the work
11of Thomas Kuhn demonstrated that the major scientific revolu-
tions have resulted in fundamental restructuring of "Reality".
The immobile earth became a fleeting planet. Phlogiston
evaporated. Time and space have been combined and made relative.
This new perspective is reflected in the Instrumentalist12
philosophy which has abandoned the search for "Truth" and is
content with a science which is internally consistant for the
phenomena as scientists currently perceive them. A student
who holds the sophisticated Instrumentalist philosophy will be
penalized in responding to many of the items in SPI.
One of the protoscales identified in this study also suggests
that some students hold a naively "Literal" interpretation of
Bates ( 6/2Y) SPI-3-9-Mar-74
scientific models. For example, they tend to agree with
statements such as
35. [The Bohr model of the atom] is a scaled-up A ®picture of what scientists have seen intheir microscopes.
It is important that instruments intended to measure student
knowledge about the nature and processes of science explicitly
recognize and hopefully measure differences such as those among
the scientific Literalist, Realist, and Instrumentalist.
The second concern is that most of the items in SPI are
very easy (see Table 4). The average item difficulty is approx-
Insert Table 4 about here
imately 0.8 with 45% of the items higher than 0.90.
Figure 1 shows the standard deviation (Cr) of the SPI items
as a function of their difficulty. This is the binomial distri-
bution (solid curve) for which the variance decreases very
rapidly as the probability of the event approaches 0 or 1.
.6
.4
a-
00 .5 1.0
TABLE 4-- Mean (Difficulty) and Standard
Deviation for SPI items*
Item
100 17 ASUM PST rxPPFNCF vARII1
,100 2? SCTS MK No AsumPTyAP(?)
109 77 ASUM NT AT PRV T VA0(1)
110 69 MATTER InFA NT RL
VA0(4)
110 72 TIME CN
'
MFASMC VAR(9)
110 76 TImF NT RrAL
VAPt6)
110 73 SPACE N FXIST
VAP(T)
110104 REAL WORE!) FxIST; yArfnI
120 74 MIND umnRsTn NTJR VA^(91
120 75 NATUR NVP lIN0RST9 VA0A1(1)
120 77 PBMS 2 CMPLX 7 IX VA!)(11)
130 12 ORDER IN ONTYFRSI VAr:f121
130 61 PRrSNT CLU ? PAST VAP(111
130109 NATU9 CHNG SU00 v vAP(14)
130114 NATUR fS CO4StsTA yAp(16)
130119 EXPMTS colsis'!ANT vAPI1f,1
130126 GRAVITY,FVFRywHk:R yArt171
130127 NATURE PRFIICTARL VAP(18)
140 70 A 1MPLTES 8
VY?(l9)
.140 66 OCCUR N HV CicicFc vA9(2(1)
140 67 ALL FFr.TS HV CAUS VAP( 21)
140 68 A3 SAME TIME -CA9S VAP(27)
140 70 FVNTS HV DISC rAs vAnI?31
140 71 DA -08 - -A cAusrs A yAPC,41
140123 SAME CAUS-S PrFcr yAp(75)
211 10 Gnno SIT ASK PT 0 vAPI761
211 29 OBS 2 ANS SPFCC 0 yA0I'7I
212
5 085 INF' PST ExPI vAPP9I
212 47 SUNRIS DIF 2
P!-.1P VAP(?°)
213 38 TNSTRMTS AID STMS vA4I111
214
2 SCT KEEPS RECORDS VAr(311
215 42 ACUR ORS WASTE TM VAP('2)
216
1 UNEXPTn IMP1
2 SC VAPI17I
216112 SM OISCOV R LUCK
VAP(14)
0.473
0.499
0.694
().461
0.891
n.311
0.878
0.875
0.898
0.99E
'
0.865
0.880
0.938
0.240
0.911
1.285_
0.941
0.231
0.910
0.392
0.909
0.393
0.681
0.466
0.87?
1
0.334
0.780
0.415
Mea
n
0.840
0,964.
0.410
0.893
0.812
0.838
0.972
0.851
0.796
0.840
0.723
0.964
0.969
;
1
0.99
7i
u0.969
0.977
!i0.887 :
SD 0.367
o.492
0.309
0.391
0,369
0.768
0.356
0.410
0.367
0.448
0.185
0.173
0.057
0.173.
0.149
0.317
0.317
.0.330,
0.309
0.491
0.341
0.325
Item
216133 WK 1 P8M-ANS OTHR vAP(75)
220 88 HOT mnR PRECIS 84 VAP(161
220 93 DOS MDR aln Tv PY yA0f371
220 98 15 IN -FXACT TRUTH VAr(71111
720103 MSUR 0-CNT R WRNC VAR('11
220108 THERmTR-usim n;-V i yAr4a)
I220113
MS'
IRWTH 4 ERR1P
VAP(411
220118 WANT LFS TN lUAL VAF(421
230 52 CLASIF-COM01 FCT9 VAP(41)
230 56 COt. ROCKS IS 5CI
VAP(44)
230 61 CLASIF P INHERFNT VAP(491
230 78 CLASIF GO ORGANIZ VAD(46)
,230 83 GRP ORS-PART SCI
VAP(471
1240 26 ExPlmT-coNn 4 nss vAP(49)
!240 30 FXPMT PRY LWS NAT VAP(49)
240 39 FXPMT TEST HYP1T4 VA4(901
I
240 41 CONTROL IV FXPMT
VAR(!))
_240 40_EXPMT N AGREE-WW7,.VAP(52)
1240 57 FXPMT ALLOW CNTRL VAP(51)
250
3 SCTS OIFRNT OPIMS VAP(54)
250
6 SCT SHUt) P1181 15-I
VAP(991
250 11 SCTS ACPT FXPT 40 VAP(E6)
250 16 SCTS SHAPE FINDGF, VAD(571
250 21 RSCH oFsR IN JR4f VAR(5R)
250122 SCTS SFAPCH IMP VAP(59)
261 6? INDUCTION
VAP(51)
262 40 HYP-SEA CNTS SALT VAP(611
262 58 HY0 IS A "HUNCH"
VAP(62)
262 80 HYP-MAY BE WPONr,
VA0(61)
262 85 HYP IS SC! FACT
VAP(64)
262105 HYP-SUG NEW nepmT VAR(65)
262115 HYP-FPM /MAGINATN VAP(66)
t
263.
.09 DE0-.PAR T.- P4 J.K4RL_VAP (67)
1263 99 1FO-SWAN SYLLOGSM vAp(68)
Mea
n
0.968
.0.942
0.953
0.781
0.956
0.976
0.959
0.1'0;
0.921
0.419
0.751
0.17?
0.971
0.98?
0.454
0.161
0.733
0.969
0.669
9.950
0.93?
0.910
0.1199
0.950
0.953
'
0.179
0.699
0.750
0.968
0.916
0.867
0.817
0.831
0.9?1
SD
0.177
0.234
0.212
0.413
0.209
0.154
0.197
0.361
0.270
0.403
0.434
0.16.
0.168
0.1.
0.49.
0.191
0.44-4
0.173
0.47)
0.252
0.255
0.348
0.218
0.21?
0.485
0.491
0.413
0.177
0.278
0.3311
0.387
0.374
0.270
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Bates ( d1 /2'q) SPI-3-9-Mar-74
If an instrument contains only very easy items, the distribution
of scores will be skewed to the right making it difficult to
discriminate among the "better" students. Likewise, a test
composed of very hard items fails to discriminate among the
"less able" students.
For a mastery test, a high difficulty level is desirable
because the purpose of the instrument is to demonstrate that
students exceed some minimum level of competence. There is no
need to discriminate among students who pass the test. However,
discrimination is paramount to an instrument intended to describe
differences among students. It is also desirable that the test
accomplish its purpose in as parsimonious manner as possible.
The norm data for form C of SPI (Table 1) show a range of 70-134.
Nearly half of the items in the test provide little
information about differences among students.
For maximum discrimination,the mean item difficulty
should be around 0.5. Whether the difficulty level of all
items should be 0.5 or represent a range of difficulties with
a mean near 0.5 depends upon the nature of the test. If the
test is assumed to contain independent items which measure a
variety of ,:oncepts, then it is best to include items with
uniform difficulty near 0.5 which provides maximum positive
and negative variation on each item. However, if the scale is
intended to measure a single concept, then the items will be
intercorrelated and a range of difficulties should be included.1 3
Bates (ic,f1';)
Some might argue against choosing a mean difficulty near
0.5 because the "guessing" level for an "agree"-"disagree"
response format is also 0.5. A chimpanzee marking responses
at random would receive an "average score" on the test. However,
contrary to the classroom behavior of some students, the data
do not suggest that many students respond to the items in SPI
as would their hypothetical primate counterpart. If guessing
were a serious problem, then it would be reflected in very low
discriminating power for the items with difficulty levels near
0.5. If fact, many of the most discriminating items in the
subscales are those with modest difficulty levels of 0.4 to 0.6
(see Appendix B).
The fact that a large portion of the SPI items are very
easy for high school students suggests that they already have
an acceptable understanding of many concepts about the nature
and processes of science. Perhaps many of these less difficult
items could be included in a simpler instrument appropriate for
upper grade school and early junior high."
The question of guessing could also be made moot by a change
in the response format. If a four point scale (AA A D DD)
with a confidence scale (L M H) were used, guessing would be
minimized and students would have more latitude in responding15
These concerns preclude generating a multidimensional instru-
ment directly from the existing items in SPI; however, the following
search for subscales was valuable in identifying possible
ctie-N =t-% inc4-rilmemn4-
Bates ( /1/2q)
Approach to the Analysis
Aikenhead factor analyzed SPI in total, but found
factors which could not be readily interpretea.16 However,
his analysis did establish that SPI does not contain a
strong general factor.
The difficulty in factor analyzing the total test arises
from the very low intercorrelations among the items. A portion
of the correlation matrix has been reproduced in Table 5.
Insert Table 5 about here
Cronback17
notes that for items found in psychometric tests,
the correlation among items is ordinarily below 0.3. Although
several of the items correlate 0.1 to 0.3, the relationships
are too weak to allow meaningful factor analysis of the total
135 items.
Relatively low phi correlations (O..13 ) are to be expected
because the maximum possible correlation between two dichotomous
variables depends upon their relative difficulty and the homo-
geneity of the items as indicated by their tetrachoric correlation
(r,Let
) (see Figure 2).18 If two homogeneous items (r
tet= 1.00)
have identical levels of difficulty (pi
pi= ), then they can be
perfectly correlated. However, as their levels of difficulty
diverge, the maximum possible correlation between them rapidly
decreases.
TABLE 5
-- Portion of CorrelationMatrix
NAME
for SPI items*
__C
DR
VA
R.
(1)
VAR
DESCRIPTION
RIL
AIL
ON
__ C
CIE
EE
KLE
AT
S...
._...
..
-.
VAR
VAR
L(
6)V
AR
IAB
LE
-VAR
VAR
J2)
VAR
100 17
ASUM PST EXPRENCE
VAR(1)
_15
100 22
SCTS MK NO ASUMPT
VAR(2)
0.035
a...-
100 27
ASUM NT ACT PRV
TVAR(3)
0.050
.0.125**
110 69
MATTER IDEA NT RL
VAR(4)
0.006
-0.010
0.022
110 T2
TIME CN_B_MEASURE_VAR
(5)_
___
0.016
_-..0.003
_0.013
0.048
113 76
TIME NT REAL
VAR(6)
0.047
0.034
0.018
0.204***
0.295*** 1.uu.,
110 73
SPACE N EXIST
VAR(7)
0.038
0.042
0.008
0.076
0.170*** 0.233**1-T;1A,l,-.,
110104
REAL WORLD EXISTS
VAR(R)
0.102*
-0.031
-^0.003
0.017
-0.027
0.050
0.048
120 74
MIND UNORSTO NTUR
VAR(9)
0.030
-0.036
-0.053
0.184 * ** 0.071
0.055
120 75
NATUR NVR UNDRSTU
VAR(10)
0.034
-0.010
.0.005
..-0.019
0.140*** 0.073
-0.016
120 77
P3MS 2 CMPLX 2 EX
VAR(111
0.045
0.024
0.039
-0.025
0.130**
0.051
0.056
130 12
ORDER IN UNIVERSE
VAR(12)
0.075
0.158*** 0.090*
-0.070
0.032
-0.040
-.0.043
133 63
PRESNT CLU 2 PAST
VAR(13)
0.105**
0.005
0.048
0.093*
0.012
-0.014
-0.036
130109
NATUR CHM; SUDDEN
VAR(14)
-0.005
0.033
0.066
0.107**
0.044
0.020
0.037
130114
NATUR IS CONSISTA
VAR(15)
0.071
0.022
0.053
-0.013
-0.012
-0.047
-0.038
130119
EXPMTS COVSISTANT
VAR(16)
0.026
0.019
.0.023
-0.019
-0.0
34-0
.040
-0.0
43130126
4VITYEYER.Y.W.H5-14VAR(17)_
0.020
0.041._ 700044
.0.044
*The appropriate correlation for dichotomous data is the phi coefficient.
However, for dichotomous
variables scored '0' or '1', the phi coefficient is equivalent
to the Pearson Product-Moment
Correlation.
Therefore, it was possible to use the DATATEXT Program to calculate the correlations
between the items.
A sample of 617 students was used in this calculation.
Students of 21 "experienced" teachers
who had taught HPP in previous years and were not randomly selected
are included.
The possible
sample bias is not important for this portion of the analysis.
Bates ( 13/ 214) SPI-3-9-Mar-74
As the items become less homogeneous, the effect of item
difficulty becomes less pronounced, but the maximum correlation
is severely suppressed.
0. 30
get '50 ------\rid 30
40 60 S 0 100
Iv so
0
rt.. moo
-,sso
4.1 .50
114 "0
20 40 $0 0j0 100
61111111Mia
Relation of sbil to pi and pi for Several Levels of Correlation.
Figure 2
Given these constraints, two efforts were made to examine
the SPI items for possible subscales. The first was to hypothesize
a set of subscales based on Welch's classification of the items.
This did not result in useful subscales. The second effort was
to factor analyze a sample of items which met certain criteria
of difficulty and discriminating power. This factor analysis
produced five promising "protoscales".
Bates ( 01/240 SPI-3-9-Mar-74
The 13 Hypothesized Subscales
An effort to increase homogeneity among items was made by
grouping items which appeared to be related into 13 hypothesized
subscales. These subscales are similar to the original organi-
zation suggested by Welch19 (see Table 6) with many of the
Insert Table 6 about here
subdivisions combined. Fourteen items were not included in any
of the subscales. A list of the items and statistical data for
each subscale is provided in Appendix B. A summary of these
data is presented in Table 7.
Insert Table 7 about here
Given the homogeneity of the student sample and the reduced
number of items in each subscale, we did not expect them to have
particularly high reliabilities. Indeed, the reliabilities
range from 0.12 to 0.50, too low for the scales to be useful
or to significantly increase their reliability by simply
adding more items. More sophisticated procedures are required.
The first effort to improve the hypothesized subscales
was to select only the "best" items. The resultant sub-subscales
contained only 3-4 items, but it was hoped that they would
provide a strong nucleus of items around which more could be
written. If a scale of three items has a reliability of 0.4,
TABLE 6-- eGnceptual Organization of SPI
--
Code
Concept
Item # (form B=150 items)
Item # (form D=135 items)
100
110
120
130
140
200
210
211
212
213
214
215
216
220
230
240
250
260
261
262
263
264
265
300
310
320
330
340
350
400
410
420
430
140
150
160
I. Assumptions
A. Reality
B. Intelligibility
C. Consistency
D. Causality
II. Activities
A. Observations
1. Selected
3,7
2. Infl. past experien. 2,11
3. Using instruments
8
4. Recording
1
5. Describing accurate
958,59,60
47,65,69,70,74
71,72,73,75
48,49,50,51,53,54,55,56,57
5,52,61,62,63,64,66,67,68
6. Unexpected
B. Measurement
C. Classification
D. Experimentation
E. Communication
F. Mental Processes
1. Induction
2. Formulate hypotheses
3. Deduction
4. Form. theories, pred
5. Many techniques
10,140,147
18,19,20,21,22,23,24
12,13,14,15,16,17
31,32,33,34,35,36,37,38
25,26,27,28,29,30
39,40,46
79,81,82,88,90,102
43,45
44,48,91
41,42,134,139,142,143,145,146,148
(17),22,27
104,69,72,73,76
74,75,X,77
109,114, 119,X,127, 126,X, 63,12
20,123,66,67,68,X,70,71,X
10,29
5,74
38
2 42 1,112,133
88,93,98,103,108,113,118
52,56,61,78,X,83
26,X,X,30,39,43,48,57
122,6,11,3,16,21
62,X,X
58,80,85,105,115,40
89,99
94,95,8
79,84,82,107,121,124,128,130,135
III. Nature of Outcomes
A. Probability
B. Tentativeness
C. Theories
D. Models
E. Laws
IV. Ethics and Goals
A. Goals & motivation
B. Objectivity
C. Anti-authority, skept.
D. Amorality
E. Repeatability
F. Parsimony
111,118,119,120,126
87,114,115,116,117,123,125
78,80,85,89,92,94,104,105,107
96,97,98,99,100,101,106,108,109
77,86,93,95,103,122,124
91,125,X,132,37
25,106,111,116,120,19,28
53,7,100,110,X,18,50,54,64
31,32,33,34,35,36,59,81,X
49,X,13,23,45,14,24
128,129,141,144,130
4,6,132,150
127,131,135,136,137,138,76
133
83,149
110,112,113,121
46,51,117,129,X
15,4,60,131
41,55,87,92,97,102,44
65
90,134
86,96,101,9
TABLE 7-- The 13 Hypothesized SPI Subscales
Name
items
mean
Universe: Orderly and Understandable
10
6.93
Assumptions of Science
86.26
Causality
75.i8
Science is Tentative
15
12.64
Scientific Knowledge-Public and
97.32
Objective
6Scientific Methods
12
10.54
7Experimentation
97.43
8Measurement
97.91
9Observation
98.11
10
Hypotheses
75.29
11
Theories
13
10.77
12
Models
86.57
13
Laws
64.54
Std Dev
1.66
1.15
1.13
1.47
1.22
1.31
1.08
1.20
0.90
1.23
1.46
1.37
1.09
Std Error
1.356
1.028
0.949
1.256
1.060
1.046
1.019
0.903
0.824
1.045
1.284
0.969
0.944
KR Rel
0.333
0.206
0.291
0.267
0.248
0.360
0.116
0.431
0.166
0.281
0.229
0.503
0.246
Bates (17/24) SPI-3-9-Mar-74
then a scale containing ten similar items can be expected to
have a reliability approaching 0.7. The selection criteria
for items was based on the following analysis.
The internal reliability of an instrument can be found
using the general formula:
r ttn
n - 1- 1.1
V.
Vt
Where n is the number of items in the test, Vt
is the variance
ofthetestscores,andV.is the variance of item score after
weighting.
If students respond to the items of the test at random,
then the total observed variance for the test will be the sum
of the item variances, the quantity in the bracket becomes
zero, and the reliability of the test will be zero. However,
if individual students consistently score above or below the
mean for the items of the test, then the observed variance of
test scores will be greater than the sum of the item variances
and the reliability of the test will be 0 1'
Sincetheitemvariance(V) is fixed for a given sample, an
effort was made to increase the test variance (Vt ) by selecting
items which were both discriminating and of moderate difficulty.
The discriminating power was the point biserial correlation
between the item and the subscale. A range of items with modest
Bates (18/2q)
levels of difficulty was desired because the subscales were
assumed to be homogeneous. The following criteria were used
to select items:
1) rtt
> 0.4
2) 0.2-= Diff 0.8
Six of the subscales contained three or more items which met
these criteria. They have been reported in Table 8.
Insert Table 8 about here
This procedure resulted in groups of highly discriminating
items; however, the reliabilities for all except two of the
sub-subscales are disasterously low. If subscales do exist,
they are not the obvious catagories such as "Laws", "Hypotheses",
etc.
Factor Analysis of Selected SPI Items
Thus far we have shown that if dimensions of knowing about
Lhe nature and processes of science exist, they are considerably
more subtle than might have been expected. We have also
identified a pool of 43 items which have modest difficulty and
demonstrated discrimination. While these items need not repre-
sent all of the "useful" items in SPI, they do provide a reasonable
sample for using factor anal; techniques to discover possible
relations.
Batas ( 19/24)
TABLE 8 -- Selected Items from Some Subscales
c7PI-3-9-Mar-74
Subscale Dif Dis Mean KR#201-(2) Universe: Orderly & Understandable
3 (120- 74) MIND UNDRST NTUR4 (120- 75) NATUR NVR UNDRSTD5 (120- 77) PBMS 2 CMPLX 2 EX8 (130-119) EXPMTS CONSISTANT
x.75.43
.66G.49
.59
.72
.65
.53
3
2.32 1.18 0.464
2.223-(2) Causality 0.77 0.067
4 (140- 68) AB SAME TIME--CAUS .80 .51
5 (140- 70) EVNTS HV DISC CAUS .73 .68
6 (140- 71) DA-DB--A CAUSES B .69 .58
7 - (2) Experimentation 1.79 6.£35 -.001
3 (240- 30) EXPMT PRV LWS NAT .53 .58
6 (240- 43) CONTROL IN EXPMT .65 .57
8 (240- 57) EXPMT ALLOW CONTROL .61 .59
--4---Hypotheses10-(2) ±2.05
1
0.89 0.261
2 (330- 50) HYP MOP. SUPRT THY .64 .65
3 (262- 58) HYP IS A "HUNCH" .70 .68 .
7 (262-115) HYP-FROM IMAGINATN .71 .58
12-(2) Models 2.08 0.91 0.396
1 (340- 31) MODELS-PIC OF ATOM .60 .74
5 (340- 35) MDL-SCALD UP PICT .67 .71
8 (340- 81) MDLS R DEFECTIVE .81 .56
13- (2) Laws '1.94 '0.81 0.126
1 (350- 13) LAW-DSCB OBSRVTNS
_
.79
.
.55
2 (350- 14) LAW IS PERMANENT .41 .66
6 (350- 49) LAW-NTR MUST DO .74 .59 .
Bates (20/2/) .?I-3-9-Mar-74
The results of the factor analysis are reported in Table 9.
Items with factor loading greater than 0.4 have been circled.
Insert Table 9 about here
Five of the seven factors can be readily interpreted:
Factor I Nature-UnderstandableII - Scientific LiteralistIII - Measurement-ApproximateIV Mixtures of misconceptionsVVI - Science Tentative
VII Scientific Methods
Items which loaded greater than 0.4 on only a single factor
were grouped into new subscales which were examined by item
analysis. The selected items have been marked with an asterisk
in Table 9. The results are reported in Table 10.
Insert Table 10 about here
These factor-subscales are encouraging. The homogeneous
scales such as I (Nature-Understandable), IIb (Literalist),
and III (Measurement-Approximate) have reliabilities around
0.4-0.5 for only 3-4 items. These can be expanded to strong
scales by adding 6-7 similar items. The Factor-subscales
VI (Science-Tentative) and VII (Scientific Methods) are more
heterogeneous and would require 15-20 additional items to
produce sufficiently reliable scales. Factor-subscale II
(Literalist) requires further study with the addition of
other examples of literal interpretation.
TABLE
Factor Analysis of Selected SPI Items
code
Ltem
120 74
120 75
120 77
130115
130127
140 65
14C 68
140 7u
140 71
450 90
460101
320120
250
6
-- -
Ces::'PTJ
'44TJA r.
,T,
1=uS 1 Cf0PLX
EX
EXPvIc 0o;4SISTANT
K 170RL
C.CC.14
I.Hy CALSE
4.3
JANL Tr.*:-C;US
rP4IS
AS
1_44-1)L3---% CAUSc_S
r
SCI
16I SP T,A'4
e.YP
SCI
SMrl_
LXfr
SCI
KNAL-TCP.T:cf1,
SCT Si-Jr PUriL:So
430 41 sCI STSL_;',7,
RCT
430 44 4:30'1-CP1.,:
F-;.CT
420131
265107
265121
265130
24C 30
240 43
240 57
310 91
220
95
220113
212
5
'211 2?
,:Lof rrY-uPP..FOT
SCA
INV-.;L:7 P;;CC
L Y
1 SCI
t3NrY
1 SL:4 2
4-0Y
PAV LAS NAT
C3:,;Ti-oL
EXi.MT
rX2'J
CNTP.L
12
I.J.
IS APP)4.7:X
15 14-LxacT 1":-.0TF
vSU:
Ti
A
1I\FL eSi rXPG
J!35 2 P;iS
SPEG07
2112 40 HYP-..4E:-.
330 5,2
1-01fp
(L)259 HYP IC A "Hlii;CH"
262115
264
C
264 94
340 31
340 33
340 35
340 35
343 59
340 81
350 13
350 14
350 23
350 49
1 .53
4 * -J.0i7
-C.137
0.20c
C.C63
0.227
- 0.112
C.Cu7
C.C47
-0.C73
C.CC.
C.14
0.15c,
C.21
-C.C39
C.I25
C.C25
C.C11
0./;12
C.C17
j.164
(:.244
1VATN
THY-TEST PkE;ICTN
C.C16
PREOCTN
THYS
G.C64
-0.
4-.ijoELS-PIC 0F 47TM
MI-15EL-CLe.S CF Wfr
mDL-SCALU UP PICT
C.170
,VIOLS MAY 6 M3oIF
-C.C31
mOLS-EXALT 9E1.'LTY
0.C40
MLLS R 06FECTIV::
-C.C23
LA-0SC8
C.C4S
LAW IS PEP.YANINT
L54-Nam NT DIS_.9.Y
C.C44
CA.r-NTr 1UST
.-C.C61
-0.137
-0.203
-0.045
-0.051
- 6.63n
0.054
-0.137
-6.1-.)7
0.j4i
-3.jI7
0.155
J.J42
0.055
0.057
- J.L7j
-0.012
-0.,1DJ
-0.1/3
= D4*
J.024
- J.LJi
-j.j717
- t,.1.31,
-0.067
0.124
0.171
- C.120
-0.I27
ez.g.41
0.I35
-0.j23
- 0.343
-0.159
0..00
-C.355
0.344
-0.014
- 0.052
0.607
-0.319
-0.033
- 0.195
-0.040
0.320
-G.046
sums of sgur-s
? c9
2.01
-0.364
-001
-6.004
0.316
C.J,J3
- 0.035
J.036
0.172
U.Jo
0.207
J. L94
0.017
- 0.036
A -J.000
*0.137
0.274
0.156
0.299
0.357
0.321
0.155
4
0.003
-0.105
-0.010
0.165
O .181
0.175
-0.20)
J.257
u.065
U .183
- 0.2o9
- 0.130
-0.315
-C.118
3.033
0.103
-0.C82
o.lol
-3.134
0.177
-0.218
J
* -0.0b4
41t.
0.:302
* -0.007
0.124
J.114
U .321
-C.3
9.-o.100
0.223
0115
2P0.000
0.003
-0.034
- 0.037
0.119
0.004
-J.065
3.058
- 0.066
0.028
1.7 *5
1.454
5-------
- 3.J23
0.064
-U.255
0.046
0.257
0.026
- 0.029
J.U33
- 0.027
0.018
- 6.13G
0.020
-0.167
0.131
0.025
0.036
0.072
0.3/2
-0.358
-0.034
- 0.143
-0.056
0.242
-U.310
- 0.160
0.164
-0.063
-0.072
6
0.021
3.116
- 0.136
-0.230
- 0.095
0.176
0.252
0.079
0 124
-0.0
06
7communality
0.129
0.050
-0.126
0.042
0.279
0.147
-0.218
0. /3
0.043
0.35
* 0.101
0.271
3.217
0.148
J.187
.i../;=)-tt -0.075
0.106
-0.171
0.262
-0.267
0.135
-0.137
0.257
0.071
0.077
0.074
0.166
0.196
0.260
-0.159
0.096
0.074
- 0.021
80.037
-0.224
-0.129
0.240
- 0.111
-0.086
0.1.35
-0.071
0.067
-0.131
0.111
-0.158
-0.066
0.064
-0.074
-0.079
-0.056
.7,170
-0.131
-0.267
0.017
-0.058
0.063
0.074
0.121
*-0.050
0.274
-0.031
0.045
-0.225
0.171
-0.144
0.083
0.139
3.288
-0.126
*0.101
0.215
-0.340
0.079
-0.057
-0.100
075
-0.078
-0.144
J.027
1.'348
1.77
2
0.300
0.534
O .37d
0.263
0.294
0.236
0.313
0.344
U.388
0.318
O .234
0.273
J.321
0.271
0.212
0.270
O .217
0.148
0.266
0.240
0.193
O .332
0.553
0.570
0.347
0.186
O .275
0.180
0.364
0.247
0.195
0.418
0.353
0.303
0.278
0.409
0.237
0.415
0.272
0.158
U-259
0.305
0-.256
1.877
13.016
Bates (a2/21)
TABLE 10-- Selected Items from SPI Factor Analysis
SPI- 3 -O- Mar -74
Factor Dif Dis # Mean KR#20I Nature-Understandable 3 1.84 1.01 0.535
(120- 74) MIND UNDRST NTUR .75 .64(120- 75) NATUR NVR UNDRSTD .43 .80(120- 77) PBMS 2 CMPLX 2 EX ,66 .72
II Literalist 5 3.51 1.07 0.237
(340- 31) MODELS-PIC OF ATM(340- 35) MDL-SCALD UP PICT(340- 36) MDLS MAY B MODIF(430- 41) SCI STS&END W FCT(265-130) ONLY 1 SOLN 2 rIBM
3 2.08 0.91 0.396
(340- 31) MODELS-PIC OF ATM .60 .74(340- 35) MDL-SCALD UP PICT .67 .71(340- 81) MDLS R DEFECTIVE .81 .56
III Measurement-Approximate 3 2.39 0.86 0.578
(310- 91) 12 IN. IS APPROX .67 .85(220- 98) 15 IN-EXACT TRUTH .79 .82(220-113) MSUR WTH N ERROR .93 .50
`VI Science Tentative 4 2,95 0.99 0.318
(430- 44) ASSUM - -OPIN NT FACT .62 .60(340- 81) MDLS R DEFECTIVE .81 ,54(450- 90) SCI DISP OWN HYP ,77 .62(320-120) SCI KNWL-TENTATIV .76 .53
F-VII Scientific Methods 4 2.68 1.07 0.341
(211- 29) OBS 2 ANS SPECF Q .81 .51(240- 57) EXPMT ALLOW CNTRL .61 .63(140- 71) DA-DB--A CAUSES B .69 .60(460-101) SCI PREF SMPL EXP ,57 .58
..... ..... _....1._____ ..moar..ma............w.
Bates (n/a'-i) SPI-3-9-Mar-74
Conclusion
Although we have failed to find usable subscales in the
Science Process Inventory, this effort has been most encoL jing
for the future development of a multidimensional instrument to
measure student's knowledge about the nature and processes of
science. There are also several guidelines for developing such
an instrument.
1) Theoretical Model A theoretical model which identifies
the important dimensions of kr'wing about she nature and processes
of science must be developed. A model will provide the basis
for both interpreting the scales and for selecting items. This
study suggests that the dimensions will be subtle and that
considerable theoretical and empirical effort will be needed to
identify them.
2) Refinement of Scales The scales need to be quite well
developed separately before techniques such as factor analysis
will prove useful for "purifying" the total instrument.
3) Item Selection Items should meet criteria of difficulty
and discriminating power similar to those suggested in the last
section, i.e. mean difficulty 0.5, discrimination ) 0.4.
4) Response Format The "agree"-"disagree" format provides
little latitude for student response. If the purpose of the
instrument is to describe rather than evaluate student's knowledge
about the nature and processes of science, then a four point
scale (AA A D DD) with a confidence scale (L M H) may provide
Bates (24/260 SPI-3-9-Mar-74
more useful information. Alternate response formats surely
need to be tested and evaluated during the development of
a multidimensional instrument.
5) Test Series The fact that a large portion of the SPI
items are very easy for high school students suggests that they
already have an acceptable understanding of many concepts about
the nature and processes of science. These less difficult
items might be included in a simpler instrument appropriate
for upper grade school and early junior high school.
6) Usefulness An instrument which is too cumbersome,
esoteric, or long will not be of much interest to any but a
few researchers. Although the amount of class time that can
be allocated to testing is severely limited, it is reasonable
to devote one class period to a regular testing program if the
yield is rich enough. Thus, a multidimensional instrument should
include some scales relating to the social aspects of science
and an indication of student attitudes toward science.
This paper has demonstrated that the development of a multi-
dimensional instrument to measure student knowledge about the
nature and processes of science is feasible. What is needed
at this time is a cooperative effort on the pert of several
science education researchers to advance the state of the art.
Bates
FOOTNOTES
SPI-3-9-Mar-74
1 - A number of these instruments are discussed by Glen S.Aikenhead, "The Measurement of High School Students'Knowledge About Science and Scientists", Science Education,57(4) 539-549 (1973).
2-4 Welch, Wayne and Milton 0. Pella, "The Development of anInstrument for Inventorying Knowledge of the Processes ofScience", Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 5(1)64-68 (1967).
5 - Welch, Wayne, "Review of the Research and Evaluation Programof Harvard Project Physics", Journal of Research in ScienceTeaching, 10(4) 365-378 (1973).
6 - Welch, Wayne, "Some Characteristics of High School PhysicsStudents: circa 1968", Journal of Research in Science Teachincl,6(3) 242-247 (1969).
7 - Welch and Pella (1967).
8 - Welch, Wayne W., Herbert J. Walberg, and Fletcher G. Watson,"A Case Study in Curriculum Evaluation: Harvard ProjectPhysics", University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota,1971, p172 (Unpublished mimeograph).
9 - Welch, Wayne, "Evaluation of the PSNS Course. I: Designand Implementation", and "Evaluation of the PSNS Course,II: Results", Journal of Research in Science Teaching,9(2) 139-156 (1972). Also Tamir, P., "Understanding theProcess of Science By Students Exposed to DifferentialScience Curricula In Isreal", Journal of Research in ScienceTeaching, 9(3) 239-245 (1972).
10 - Aikenhead, Glen S., "Course Evaluation: The Constructionand Interpretation of Tests", Saskatchewan Journal ofEducational Research and Development, 4, 45-53 (Fall, 1973).Also by Aikenhead, "Course Evaluation I: A New Methodologyfor Test Construction" and "Course Evaluation II: Interpre-tation of Student Performance on Evaluative Tests", Journalof Research in Science Teaching, (in press).
11 - Kuhn, Thomas, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, Chicago:
University of Chicago Press.
Rates SPI-3-9-Mar-74Footnotes (continued)
12 - Nagel, Ernest, The Structure of Science, Chapter 6, NewYork: Harcourt, Brace & World, Inc., 1961, R. M. Harrediscusses Realism and Positivism in The Principles ofScientific Thought, Chicago: University of Chicago Press.A. H. Munby studied the teaching implicationsof theRealist and Instrumentalist philosophies in his thesis"The Provision Made for Selected Intellectual Consequencesby Science Teaching: Derivation and Application of anAnalytical Scheme", Unpublished doctors thesis, Universityof Toronto, 1973.
13 - Marshall, Jon Clark and Loyde W. Hales, Classroom TestConstruction, Reading, Mass: Addison-Wesley, 1972, p224.
14 - The Test on Understanding_Science (TOUS) has been adaptedfor junior high school and elementary grade levels. SeeKlopfer, L. E. and E. O. Carrier, "Test on UnderstandingScience: Form Jw", Pittsburg, Penn.: Learning Researchand Development Centre, 1970.
15 - Several researchers have used a variety of response formats.In the Nature of Science Scale (NOSS) students may 1) agree,2) disagree, or 3) indicate they are unsure, do not under-stand or feel neutral about an item. The Test on the SocialAspects of Science (TSAS) uses a five point scale from"strongly agree" to "strongly disagree". The WisconsinInventory of Science Processes (WISP) uses a three responseformat similar to NOSS to which students respont 1) accurate,2) inaccurate, or 3) not understood. However, the scoringprocecure combines the last two catagories and is equiv-alent to the scoring system used in SPI. The content ofWISP and SPI are also essentially identical. The Test onUnderstanding Science (TOUS) uses a four-alternative multiplechoice format. The Facts About Science Test (FAS) uses athree-alternative multiple choice format. These instrumentsare discussed in the Aikenhead article (footnote #1).
16 -Personal correspondence with Glen Aikenhead, November, 1973.
17 - Cronback, Lee. J., "Coefficient Alpha and the InternalStructure of Tests", Psychometrika, 16(3) 297-334 (1951).
18 - Cronback, 1951, p 325.
19 - Welch, Wayne W0, "The Development of An Instrument forInventorying Knowledge of the Processes of Science", Unpublisheddoctor's thesis. Madison, Wisconson: University of Wisconson,1966 p79.
APPENDIX A
Science Process Inventory
Form D (Revised 1966)
Wayne W. WelchUniversity of Wisconsin
WELCH SCIENCE PROCESS INVENTORY
Form D (Revised 1966)
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WELCH SCIENCE PROCESS INVENTORY
Form D (Revised 1966)
Directions
The following statements are concerned with the activities, assumptions, pro-ducts, and ethics of science. Read each statement carefully and then mark youranswer on the answer sheet provided. BLACKEN SPACE ONE kl) on the answer sheetif you generally AGREE with the statement; BLACKEN SPACE TWO (2) if yor gener-ally DISAGREE.
Example: A D
1. New York is a city. 1. 3
2. Chicago is a mountain. 2. r
Do not mark spaces 3, 4, or 5. If you change your mind, erase the first markcompletely. Make no stray marks; they may count against you.
Use a pencil to mark your answer sheet. DO NOT USE A PEN. Please supply in-formation concerning name, school, birth date, etc., in the appropriate spaceson the answer sheet. Do not write in the test booklet.
Answer all statements. You will have 40 minutes which should give you suf-ficient time to finish all 135 statements. A scoring key has been establishedfor the Inventory. Slightly more than half of the statements are keyed agreewhile the remainder are keyed disagree.
Note carefully the numbering sequence on the answer sheet.
DO NOT TURN THE PAGE UNTIL TOLD TO DO SO.
1
SCIENCE PROCESS INVENTORY
Blacken space 1 on your answer sheet if you generally AGREE with the statement;blacken space 2 if you generally DISAGREE.
Dis-Agree agree
1. Surprising or unexpected observations have played an important 1 2
role in the advance of science.2. The work of a scientist includes keeping a record of observe- 1 2
tions.3. Scientists have differences of opinion about scientific matters. 1 2
4. Careful observation is less important in modern science since 1 2
the development of new instruments like the electron microscope.5. The observations a person makes are influenced by his past ex- 1 2
perience.
6. A scientist should make his findings available to the scien- 1 2
tific community for independent confirmation.7. Theories are usually so well established, they do not require 1 2
experimental testing.8. The essential test of a scientific theory is its use in pre- 1 2
dicting future events.9. If two different hypotheses fit the observed facts, the Limp- 1 2
ler is accepted.10. An essential characteristic of the scientist is the ability to 1 2
ask the right questions.
11. It a researcher accurately reports his experimental procedures, 1 2
other researchers will accept the experimental conclusionswithout question.
12. Scientists assume there is order in the universe. 1 2
13. A law of nature, such as Ohm's Law, is a statement that de- 1 2
scribes what has been observed.14. Although a scientific hypothesis may have to be changed on the 1 2
basis of new data, a physical law is permanent.15. A scientist wishes to make prejudiced observations of nature. 1 2
16. Scientists should be unwilling to share their findings with 1 2
other scientists.17. Assumptions in science are based on past experience. 1 2
18. Theories suggest new relationships among facts. 1 2
19. Science is a series of successively closer approximations to 1 2
the truth.20. A scientist is often interested in finding relationships of 1 2
the type, "when A occurs, then B will also occur."
21. Scientists write articles for professional journals describing 1 2
their research.22. Scientists do not make assumptions. 1 2
23. Nature is not permitted to disobey the laws of science. 1 2
24. Once a statement becomes a law of science, it will not be 1 2
changed.25. A theory in science may be modified in light of new evidence. 1 2
2
Dis-Agree agree
26. An experiment is a set of conditions under which observations 1 2
are made.27. Assumptions are not accepted until they are proven true. 1 2
28. The knowledge of science is final. 1 2
29. Scientists usually make observations of nature to answer spe- 1 2
cific questions.30. Experimentation is principally concerned with proving the laws 1 2
of nature.
(Statements 31 - 36 refer to the following information.) The Bohr model of theatom is a description of the atom similar in form to the solar system. It hasa central nucleus of protons and neutrons surrounded by electron orbits. State-ments 31 36 are concerned with this model.
31. The model pictures the atom as we actually know it to exist. 1 2
32. The model is a convenient way of representing the atom to help 1 2
us understand it.33. The model presents an effective way of showing the different 1 2
colors of the atomic particles.34. Scientific models are man-made. 1 2
35. The model is a scaled-up picture of what scientists have seen 1 2
in their microscopes.
36. The model of the atom may be modified. 1 2
37. Scientists do not make errors in their conclusions if they 1 2
act "scientifically."38. A characteristic of scientific research is the use of instru- 1 2
ments as aids to the senses.39. Experiments are used to test hypotheses. 1 2
40. "Sea water contains salt," is an example of a scientific 1 2
hypothesis.
41. Science must start with facts and end with facts no matter what 1 2
theoretical structures it builds in between.42. An accurate description of a scientific observation is a waste 1 2
of time.43. A control in an experiment is used to give a check on factors 1 2
not involved in the specific problem being studied.44. The assumptions in science are based on opinion, not fact. 1 2
45. A law of nature is a description of what actually takes 1 2
place, not a prescription of what must happen.
46. It is the task of science to form theories to explain observe- 1 2
tions.47. Two people looking at the same sunrise may see different 1 2
things.48. If the results of an experiment do not agree with the previous 1 2
answer, then the experiment is wrong.49. A law in science describes what nature must do. 1 2
50. Hypotheses have more experimental support than theories. 1 2
3
Dis-Agree agree
51. The main object of basic scientific research is the discovery 1 2
of understanding rather than its practical application.52. A classification scheme, such as the periodic table of the 1 2
elements, is based on common factors and differences notedin observations.
53. Theories in science are often expressed as mathematical re- 1 2
lationships.54. "We are going to have 36 snowfalls this winter" is an example 1 2
of a scientific theory.55. The published results of scientists should be accepted with- 1 2
out question.
56. Collecting rocks is an example of scientific investigation. 1 2
57. The point of an experiment is to set up a situation in which 1 2
the control of variables is greater than it is in the ordin-ary course of events.
58. A hypothesis is a simple guess or "hunch" that tries to ex- 1 2
plain several observations.59. Scientific models are exact duplications of reality. 1 2
60. Scientific conclusions should be based on facts, not opinion. 1 2
61. Classification schemes are inherent in the materials classi- 1 2
fied, rather than imposed on nature by the scientist.62. Induction is the process of generalizing the characteristics 1 2
of a class from observations of all of its members.63. Scientists view events today as clues to events in the past. 1 2
64. The majority of newly suggested theories are accepted by the 1 2
scientific community.65. Investigation of the possibilities of creating life in the 1 2
laboratory is an invasion of science into areas where itdoesn't belong.
(Items 66 - 77 are related to the following statement.) Those people who carryon the practice of science assume that:
66. some mysterious occurrences do not have causes. 1 2
67. all effects in nature have causes. 1 2
68. if events A and B occur at the same time, then one must be 1 2the cause of the other.
69. matter is an idea, not reality. 1 2
70. events in nature are the result of discoverable causes. 1 2
71. if a change in factor A leads to a change in factor B, then 1 2
factor A is a cause of factor B.72. time can be measured. 1 2
73. space does not exist. 1 2
74. the human mind is capable of understanding the events and 1 2
materials of nature.75. some natural things will never be understood. 1 2
76. time is not real. 1 2
77. some problems are too complex ever to be explained. 1 2
78. Classification schemes are a useful means of organizing 1 2
observations.79. Theories and hypotheses are often the result of comparisons. 1 2
80. A hypothesis may be wrong. 1 2
4
Dis-Agree agree
81. All models used in science are somewhat delective. 1 2
82. If a scientist fails to solve a problem, it is probably 1 2
because he did not follow the "scientific method."83. Grouping observations is an important part of scientific 1 2
work.84. The scientist knows that his experiment will be successful 1 2
if he follows the steps of the scientific method.85. A scientific hypothesis is essentially the same thing as a 1 2
scientific fact.
86. One of the aims of science is to work towards more complex 1 2
knowledge.87. A scientist should be skeptical of anything but his own 1 2
work.88. "It's hot in this room," is a more precise observation than 1 2
"It's 84 degrees Fahrenheit in this room."89. Deduction is the process of predicting particular occurrences 1 2
from the general case.90. A scientist should attempt to disprove his own hypotheses. 1 2
91. A measurement expressed as 12 inches is a statement of 1 2
approximation.92. Scientists usually rely on outside authority for their con- 1 2
clusions.93. The use of measurement is more evident in the biological 1 2
sciences than the physical sciences.94. Prediction is an important goal of scientific investigation. 1 2
95. The formulation of a theory is a means of explaining facts. 1 2
96. If a choice is to be made between two theories, the more 1 2
complex is chosen.97. To question the accuracy of Newton's theory of gravity would 1 2
be unscientific.98. A measurement of length expressed as 15 inches is a state- 1 2
ment of exact truth.99. "All swans are white. Penelope is a swan. Therefore, Pene- 1 2
lope is white," is an example of deductive reasoning.100. "All matter consists of molecules," is an example of a 1 2
scientific theory.
101. A scientist prefers simple explanations of phenomena. 1 2
102. Some presently accepted theories were opposed by other 1 2
scientists when first proposed.103. Since a measurement involves the use of numbers, it cannot 1 2
be wrong.104. Scientists assume a real world exists outside of the mind. 1 2
105. A value of a hypothesis is its suggestion of new experiments. 1 2
106. Scientific knowledge is in the process of development. 1 2
107. Scientific investigations must follow definite approved 1 2
procedures.108. A thermometer is an example of a measuring device. 1 2
109. Scientists assume nature is likely to change suddenly. 1 2
11U. A theory with ten supporting and two denying experiments 1 2
is more likely to be accepted than a theory with foursupporting and no denying experiments.
5
Dis-Agree agree
111. The law of conservation of energy is an example of an un- 1 2
changing truth.112. Some scientific discoveries are the result of "luck." 1 2
113. Physics is an exact science because physicists are able to 1 2
make measurements without error.114. When a scientist makes a prediction, he is assuming that 1 2
nature is consistent.115. Hypotheses may arise from imagination. 1 2
116. The statements of science represent the best approximations 1 2
available at the time.117. The basic principle of science is that discoveries and re- 1 2
search should have practical application.118. Knowledge expressed in terms of numbers indicates a lesser 1 2
degree of understanding than that knowledge which is not ex-pressed numerically.
119. A scientist believes that an experiment performed today will 1 2
produce the same results as the same experiment performedlast week.
120. Scientific knowledge is tentative. 1 2
121. There is only one scientific method used by scientists. 1 2
122. When confronted with a new problem, a scientist searches 1 2
the literature to see what similar work has been done.123. A scientist assumes the same cause produces the same 1 2
effect under the same conditions.124. Applying the scientific method to a problem will always 1 2
produce the correct answer.125. Science is essentially statistical in nature and deals 1 2
in terms of probabilities.
126. Scientists assume a force due to gravitation is present on 1 2all bodies of the universe.
127. Scientists believe occurrences in nature are predictable. 1 2
128. Scientists use "trial and error" approaches to problems 1 2
with success.129. The primary objective of science is to develop new and 1 2
improved living conveniences.130. Scientist A used one procedure to solve problem X, and 1 2
scientist B used a different procedure to solve problem X.Both scientists solved the problem. This is impossible.
131. A scientist is more likely to accept a theory on the basis 1 2
of his personal ideas than on the experimental evidenceavailable.
132. It is important to express the "degree of estimate" in the 1 2
findings of science.133. A scientist may be looking for the answer to one problem 1 2
and find the answer to another.134. Experiments should be repeated, if possible. 1 2
135. There are many methods of solving scientific problems. 1 2
6
SCIENCE PROCESS INVENTORY
Scoring Key
1-A 36-A 71-A 106-A2-A 37-D 72-A 107-D3-A 38-A 73-D 108-A4-D 39-A 74-A 109-05-A 40-D 75-D 110-D6-A 41-A 76-D 111-D7-D 42-D 77-D 112 -A8-A 43-A 78-A 113-D9-A 44-D 79-A 114-A
10-A 45-A 80-A 115-A11-D 46-A 81-A 116-A12-A 47-A 82-D 117-D13-A 48-D 83-A 118-D14-D 49-D 84-D 119-A15-D 50-D 85-D 120-A16-D 51-A 86-D 121-D17-A 52-A 87-D 122-A18-A 53-A 88-D 123-A19-A 54-D 89-A 124-D20-A 55-D 90-A 125-A21-A 56-D 91-A 126-A22-D 57-A 92-D 127-A23-D 58-A 93-D 128-A24-D 59-D 94-A 129-D25-A 60-A 95-A 130-D26-A 61-D 96-D 131-D27-D 62-D 97-D 132-A28-D 63-A 98-D 133-A29-A 64-D 99-A 134 -A
30-D 65-D 100-A 135-A31-D 66-D 101-A32-A 67-A 102-A33-D 68-D 103-D34-A 69-D 104-A35-D 70-A 105-A
APPENDIX B
The 13 Hypothesized SPI Subscales
NOTE: The correlations in these tablesis the point biserial correlation.The column titled "Bates" is the corre-lation between the item and the subscale.The column titled "Welch" is the corre-lation between the item and the totalscore on SPI (form B).
ubz:caLr-
#1 - Universe: Orderly and Understandable
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I 1
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on next page
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page 2/2
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.95
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.81
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continue
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:1;ubsczJc.
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.65
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1.93
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1
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.61
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!.93
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!.90
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! Careful observation
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1.94
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.94
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SPI (Form D)
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.92
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theories
1
77/1
97
864
IThe majority of newly suggested
eories are
I.74
.70
.28
.31
iaccepted by the scientific community. OD)
I1
1
24/2
72
979
Theories and hypotheses are often the result of
1 11.89
1.85
.29
.38
comparisons. (A)
39/2
I70
10
94
Prediction is an important goal of scientific
i.83
.77
.39
.14
i
,t
......
I
investigation. (A)
I
______ ,...___
.-
1
..2.--...--1-..--
-It
Continued on next page.
(korm D)
SEARCH
page 2/2 Suscale 11 (continued)
....._
af
VM
....%
.....
...,..
......
...*
......
.'4 Items
Mean
11;.(1Dv
Std error
111
KR
,a
1
r,---
WW..../0
040
.....I
MIO
NIM
..0
1....
......
..17
1s
,clol(cdivar,itam
SPI #
r.ITIlialair'n
IEF!t.c>_sillelcht MeAWelch
,_11_Licultl,
iCorrelation
40/2 1
73.1
11
-75-7 The formulation
of a theory is a means of
T.87 1
.81
.39
.30
I1
explaining facts. (A)
1
;1
i1
---1
45/2 1
98
12
f100
1"All matter consists of molecules", is an example
.80.
.79
1.37
ii
41
!of a scientific theory.(A)
!i
;1
i.
; !i
1 1,.
i
.....F
. e...
-55/2
:99
13
1110
1A theory with ten supporting and two denying
i
0.
i.
.74
1.27 -!
.49
experiments is more likely to be accepted than a
i1
i
1
..._.....
....)..,,................T._4
....%
theory_with four supporting and n, denying,
1
1experiments. (D)
i 1t
I1 i
........._______....
I
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., ,
!
!:
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1I
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I
%___-.1___
i I i
I ik
e
i e
I
.t.Por nt I)) SUBSCi!,LE SFcC
12 -- Models
1
Items
Mean
Std Dev
Std erroi71 KR Rel
- -
1
6.57
1.37
0.969
O503
LaI
NO
MIN
IMIP
Dif,h..culty
CorreiatIon
i
.1-
-.
-.:r.: ....7s-7..?..1.:.e.ra
SPI
IDe-scrptior,
1 Bateich 1
Batesp.el
1I
.-1
!The Bohr model of the
atom is a description of the
-I--
!!
1i
.
tatom similar in form to the solar system.
It has
1
.
ia. central nucleus of krotons and neutrons surrounded
1
-4
1I
by electron orbits.
Statements
31-36
are concerned
;1
1
11
. .
vith this model.
44/1 i100;
1!
31
f The model pictures the atom as we actually know it
I.
.60
t:
i1
to exist. (D)
i !
,1
45/1 ,101
21
32
] The model is a convenient way of representing the
i.97
:
1
11
atom to help us understand it.
(A)
$
'-1-
46/1 '102
333
The model presents an effective way of showing the
;.83
;
.i
different colors of the atomic particles. (D)
47/1 ;103
434
: Scientific models are man-made. (A)
i.90
i
$1.
.
,
48/1 .104
5i
35
The model is a scaled-up picture of what scientists
.67
i
.
iI
have seen in their microscopes. (D)
1
49/1 :105,
61
36
1 The model of the atommay be modified. (A)
'.87
1
,i
i
,
!
74/1 1106
7I
59
Scientific models are exact duplications of
;.92
i1
1.
:1
reality. (D)
I1
1
-.
..--,:---.
---/-
26/2 ;107;
8i
81
iAll models used in science are somewhat defective.
i.81
(A)
--Ii
.44
.60
.94
.17
.85
.47
.93
.36
.58
.64
.83
.48
.
.31
.49
.681
.45
,
;1
_1
L__
;.
,__a.
.
eirr
n+I
1
,tmid
rim
mum
mor
i
FPI (Fortc. ID)
SiZIBSCAL".6 Sc
:.?1::bscal...1,
13 -- Laws
rif Items
NiMeau
1Std Dev
!Std errorFITIT771
4 54
!1.09
i0 944
0 246
SPI 4
Dcscr::.ptiou
Correiation
BatestWelch_latestWiel
II.
26/1
108i
113
,A law of nature, such as Ohm's Law, is a statement r.79
.91
i.46
.20
Ii
I
that describes what has been observed. (A)
!
j
4--
27/1
i 101
214
TAlthough a scientific hypothesis may have to be
.411
.50
f.51
i.22
ii
36/1 )110
3.
23
i
37/1 ;
111i
4:
24
11
i
.
1
58/1 7 112
51
45
i:
62/1 1 113
6!
49
changed on the basis of new data, a physical
1law is permanent. (D)
.9O1-9S
.89
.86
; 1 : , - e
..1 i . 1
INature is not permitted to disobey the laws of
;
science. (D)
i
Once a statement becomes a-law of science, it will
not be changed.
(D)
,
A law of nature is a description of what actually
takes place, not a prescription of what must
.happen. (A)
A law in science describes what nature must do.
(D)
.81
.74
.80
.55
I=
.47
.2 -1-
.42
.22
i i ,
.35
1.33
1 i
.55
1.16
};
t
,...
J-.
....-
.4...
O.-
'
wIl
e..*
...M
.O.
;-
APPENDIX A
Science Process Inventory
Form D (Revised 1966)
Wayne W. WelchUniversity of Wisconsin
SCIENCE PROCESS INVENTORY
Scoring Key
1-A 36-A 71-A 106-A2-A 37-D 72-A 107-D3-A 38-A 73-D 108-A4-D 39-A 74-A 109-D5-A 40-D 75-D 110-D6-A 41-A 76-D 111-D7-D 42-D 77-D 112-A8-A 43-A 78-A 113-D9-A 44-D 79-A 114-A
10-A 45-A 80-A 115-A11-D 46-A 81-A 116-A12-A 47-A 82-D 117-D13-A 48-D 83-A 118-D14-D 49-D 84-D 119-A15-D 50-D 85-D 120-A16-D 51-A 86-D 121-D17-A 52-A 87-D 122-A18-A 53-A 88-D 123-A19-A 54-D 89-A 124-D20-A 55-D 90-A 125-A21-A 56-D 91-A 126-A22-D 57-A 92-D 127-A23-D 58-A 93-D 128-A24-D 59-D 94-A 129-D25-A 60-A 95-A 130-D26-A 61-D 96-D 131-D27-D 62-D 97-D 132-A28-D 63-A 98-D 133-A29-A 64-D 99-A 134-A30-D 65-D 100-A 135-A31-D 66-D 101-A32-A 67-A 102-A33-D 68-D 103-D34-A 69-D 104-A35-D 70-A 105-A
APPENDIX B
The 13 Hypothesized SPI Subscales
NOTE: The correlations in these tablesis the point biserial correlation.The column titled "Bates" is the corre-lation between the item and the subscale.The column titled "Welch" is the corre-lation between the item and the totalscore on SPI (form B).
ca.t.,.-
#1 - Universe: Orderly and Understandable
!1
VI
N,
Mean
iStd Dv 1--t.d
..!..r.:ror
XR !lel
10
1435
6.93 ;
1.66
I1.356
.i_0.333
I. .--
iI
7T i
__-.....--..
IT.':2'FiLlity
..,,,/-m,ra- t,:!liit SPI 3
1rict;crirlti
P. ::.:;11."-'-
'7)n-,.:;!We''::7-1
-25/1
12,
1!
12
; Scientists assume there is order in the universe.
(A) l
.83
;.91
'.32
:.55
i I
1
ii !
. .
I .
.!
I
76/1
13
2!
63
Scientists view events today as clues to events Ln
.78
i.81
1.25
1.32
the past.
(A)
I
19/2
j9
3:
74
'Those people who carry on the practice of science
.75
:.70
.44
:.15
I
!assume that: the human mind is capable of under-
.
:
!
!
..qtaYlcling...th.e.,.evetit.q...4n_4....mte.r...PLAtatur,e,,._..(41....._...____......_...'_____......_,__......___;
_......_
.-
20/2
101
475
Those people who carry on the practice of science
.43
i ,
.78
i.56
i.18
;assume that: some natural things will never be
;
_i .
122/2
11
577
!Those people who carry on the practice of science
.65
!.60
.43
..40
assume that: some problems are too complex ever to
be_explained. OD)
i
52/2
.1.4
6109
;Scientists assume nature is likely to change
.57
1.76
:.32
:.34
suddenly.
(D)
1
59/2
15
7i
64/2
16
114
When a scientist makes a prediction
he is assuming
I.85
.75
.32
I.33
that nature is consistent.
(A)
8119
'A scientist believes that an experiment performed
'.49
1today will produce the same results as the same
_azileringnI_Rerformed last week_ (4)
71/2
Il'V
9i
'1_26
Scientists assume a force due to gravitation is
i ii
1t1 present on all bodies of the universe.
(A)
72/2
;18f
10
j
127
'Scientists believe occurences
...i predictable.
(A)
in nature are
.40
,.46
!.35
.80
.72
.27
.43
i.78
.88
;.36
.45
r
VPT (Form D)
Si:2-41.CH
aT
.-.
1
1 :ubsca.1
8.r
1
2--Assumptions
435
of Science
iMean
1Std Dev F7,1 error
I6.26!
1.15
11.028
KR Rel
.206
Difficulty
1Correlation
I'Jar
.71.
):T
4!-
Description
B1-4t7.2siWcolch j
30/1
!1
17
: Assumptions in science are based on past
r-
.79
;.83
.41
1experience.
(A)
35/1
12
21
22
Scientists do not make assumptions. (D)
.85
I.93
.42
40/1
!3:
14/2
i41
27
!Assumptions are not accepted until they ar
true.
(D)
e proven
.32
J .17
:Those people who carry on the practice of
Iassume that: matter is an idea
not real
17/2
5:
5,
72
;Those people who carry on the practice of
assume that: time can be measured. (A)
18/2
21/2
6.
49/2
181
1
6!
73
±Those people who carry on the practice of
assume that: space does not exist.
(D)
.Those people who carry on the practice of
assume that: time is not real.
(D)
71
76
8'~104
1
r-
science
ity.
(D)
;
.37
.44
.47
.04
.92
i.81
j.35
i.45
r
;4
1
science
!.79
i.81
1.38
i.25
i,
1
,!
,
science
science
Scientists assume a real world exists outside o
the mind.
(A)
.95
1.92
.31
.13
.84
!.88
.42
.05
.
.82
1.78
1.36
i.18
II
IiL..... i i
1, 1
1
I
D)
sEAR-ZE
;2,vbscal
3--Causality
Ctems
II;
Ivlceon
1Scd Dzir
Std error
1KR Rel
17
33/1
I191
1
33/1
(1.-§
11
i i
L435 I
5778.1_1.13
.949
j.2
911
20
$A scientist is often interested in finding
IDifficulty
!Corril:..ttion2
cpT
Docriptoi.1
4"'"-
1).:7.-.!siWz,le,
737!tir,,a--11_1
---._
'
.._
_IL.
120
'',A-gaentiSt is often interested-in finding
(.86
.89
.32
,.63
relationships of the type, "when A occurs, then
I!
1 .
i.
.
1t
,
.t
. _ .
. .__
_.1
.._.._
..-* 1 i
i!
ti t i
cpT
Docriptoi.1
4"'"-
.90
i.85
i.50
I.52
ii
1i
.
.assume that: some mysterious occurrences do not
........
,..-,
.._...
have.c4use.s2...1P.1._
80/1
i21
3!
,
67
!Those people who carry on the practice of science
'.94
:.91
.42
i.47
t
;
assume that: all effects in nature have causes.(A);
i
13/2
i22!
4i
68
; Those people who carry on the practice of science
:.80
!.65
i.43
i.28
-1
.....___ ..................
.._....
.
t:
.i
,assume that: if events A and B occur at the same
i
__time,tbenone_must be...the cause of thegther,ip14______.k.___.
.________
15/2
.23.
570
: Those people who carry on the practice of science
.73
1.83
t.55
!.33
assume that: events in nature are the result of
....
._.
discoverable causes. (;q
..
.......
.._
.
1i
16/2
24'
671
; Those people who carry on the practice of science
1.69
!.76
:.42
!.12
assume that: if a change in factor A leads to a
1
t
change in factor Els_theri factor A is a_ cause_of_2__-
L
!i
1factor B.
(A)
;
;1 ,
1
I
.._-_....
.__-.
68/2
25-
7;
123
A scientist assumes the same cause produces the
i
i
.86 !
.81
.46
'.49
isame effect under the same conditions. (A)
ti
1I
tI
i 14
11
! 1
.1 1
I
1i
I
11
11
17
33/1
I191
1
33/1
(1.-§
11
i i
:1;(1,
;.Forw
..:..):1-;CALE SPARC:A
...Te±11c...n,_
I# Items
NI
t,
4:17i77-7:7
ror
Sr
1KR qol
i
4.---15
14351
12.64
1.47_1_
I
L 0.267
I_
..-,I
mm
t
._23
ItImy 1
ttt
f:l.'Y 4 I
r:f:.:7rin-Ao'o.
1.3,11.-.,21s.V7:_-'1ch 4...,....1t.e31.11.ch
11
1DiZficui t:7
;
Corrliation
7tar
i
16/1
! 54 i
24/1
;56
ff
30/1
;86
41/1
'87 1
68/1
124
32/2
125
!
35/2
130
41/2
134 i
42/2
L27
I1
46/2
).35
i
1t
.---
-----4
11
3
211
325
4!
28
5 T
55
687
790
896
997
10
101
.
!Scientists have differences of opinion about
!.89
.97
.32
.58
iscientific matters.
(A)
.If a researcher accurately reports his experimental 4-.91
.89
.29
procedures, other researchers will accept the
experimental conclusions without question.
(D)
.04
:A theory in science may be modified in light of new
.98
.91
.13.
.64
evidence.
(A)
?(Put in scale 11-Theories)?
I(
.1--
The knowledge of science is final.
(D)
.96
.89
.26
.52
The published results of scientists should be
I-
.95
.85
.29
.63
accepted without question. (D)
A scientist should be skeptical of anything but his
own work. (D)
.21
A scientist should attempt to disprove his own
.77
.74
.43
.22
hypotheses. (A)
If a choice is to be made between two theories, the
.92
.88
.27
?more complex is chosen. (D)
.0o question the accuracy of Newton's theory of
.92
.74
.30
.40
gravity would be unscientific. (D)
ri scientist prefers simple explanations of phenomena.
.57
.51
.36
?
continued -on next page
..L..
D)
page 2/2
st11,:c1-? 4
(continued)
It t_Lems
NPie,an
j
Stcl Dev
Std erro:c
KR Rel
1 4
.:./cva-..,:litej: ilPY. 4
I'. Description
.,---
47/2 1128:r
111
102
Some presently accepted theories were opposed by
!!
iother scientists when first proposed. (A)
I1
:
I1
:4
TAfficulty
;C
orre
iatiD
n
.94
51/2
188i
12i
106
Scientific knowledge is in the process of
.93
.68
idevelopment. (A)
I
56/2
i89;
13
111
The law of conservation of energy is an example of
1.39
.41
!i
:..
;an unchanging truth. (D)
--
61/2
i90!
141
116
The statements of science represent the best
.91
.86
!
i ,!
approximations available at the time. (A)
:
..__________,
...............;_.... ...
......____ ............._
.!
65/2
;
91,
15 ;
120 'Scientificknowledge is tentative. (A)
.76
1.72
..._____.... .:__________._________..............___, -----
.
.21
.51
.33
?
.30
?
.34
?
.43
?
I
;z1P1
(Vorril
SE2iRCEL
13-iq
:subscal.,
5 -- Scientific Knowledge-Public and Objective
1# Items
NIMean
[Std
Dev
1Std error
IKR Rei
11
9435! 7.32
1.22
11.060
L_1222,4248
L7-
----
1Difficul-.7
!Correlation
,--nfrrjvar,iteN,
;API #
IDescription
,1
-.
IT.iIt.7:stWcL)
.:teslyelch,...
19/1
28/1
29/1
i 55
11 119
23
57
3
34/1
,5
54/1 122
7/1
123
73/1
120
,
67/2
I59 y
'1
.,....
1.....
76/2
t21
$
61A scientist should make his findings available
to th
.86
.79
1.42
.39
1scientific community for independent confirmation
1
15
(A)
I
A scientist wishes to make prejudiced observations
.90
.85
1.34
I.51
1
of nature. (D)
16
Scientists should be unwilling to share their
.88
.91
.36
.42
findings with other scientists, (D)
ii
Scientists write articles for professional journals
541
56
!44
760
Scientific conclusions should be based on facts, not 1
.94
1793
$
81 122
has
1 131
describing their research. (A)
Science must start with facts and end with facts
no matter what theoretical structures it builds
in between. (A)
The assumptions in science are based on opinion,
not fact.
(D)
.88
.95
.41
1.22
.49 T-.62
.40
-.22
.62
!.64
.54
.13
t$
opinion. (A)
),
1
.34
.30
1-1When confronted with a new problem,.a scientist
1
.95
1.91
.20
i.51
searches the literature to see what similar work
4
beendone._1A)
scientist is more likely to accept a theory on the
.80
.69
.37
.35
i
ibasis of his personal ideas than on the experimental
11
evidence
(D)
available.
T.
1 1
i4
1
I
SP' (F)rm D) SUBSCALE SEARCH
page 1/2
tubscale 6--Scientific Methods
Items
NMean
Std
s)-v
10.54
I1.31
Std error
KR
12
435
1,046
0.360
.
cLoLled[var
itemi SPI #
qDesc3:intion
BatesiWelch
13atestWelch
I Difficulty
Correlation
r-
14/1
,33
11
iSurprising or unexpected observations have played
.96
.94
.25
.40
an important role in the advance of science. (A)
50/1
181
237
IScientists do not make errors in their conclusions
.94
.91
.37
.41
if they act "scientifically". (D)
i
27/2
;73
382
iIf a scientist fails to solve a problem, it is
.92
.91
'.36
.46
ii
probably because he did not follow the "scientific
-4-
;.,--
_A
_metbod2.,_spi____
29/2 i
74
484
I The scientist knows that his experiment will be
.94
.85
.37
.54
.!
successful if he follows the steps of the
i
'E.-
egientilig _II e t...1191.&--ia)....
---
52/2 !
75
5!
107
,Scientific investigations must follow definite
.57
.56
,51
.13
Iapproved procedures. (D)
57/2
i34.
6112
iSome scientific discoveries are the result of
.84
.83
.36
.31
I;
i"luck". (A)
66/2
i76.
7121
iThere is only one scientific method used by
.83
.91
.41
1,
scientists. (D)
i4
L._
69/2 !
77
8124
Applying the scientific method to a problem will
.95
.94
.37
.80
1I
always produce the correct answer. (D)
:1
73/2
1 :78
9128
Scientists use "trial and error" approaches to
.81
.81
.37
I1
problems with success (A)
.42
,................-.44.4.44.44.4.444.
75/2 I !
791
10
130
I
Scientist A used one procedure to solve problem X,
.89
.29
.87
.48
and scientist B used a different procedure to
------L
4----
---ualm-problAwai
Both..5cientiata_aulmadth_
i...e_
'
iproblem.
This is impossible. (D)
continue
iconext page
1PI OT,Jrm D
SUZSCALE
page 2/2
iSubscF21c
6 (continued)
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IA scientist may be looking for the answer to one
.98
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problem and find the answer to another. (A)
80/2
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There are many methods of solving scientific
problems. (A)
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7--Experimentation
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experimental conclusions without question. Ap)
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procedures, other researchers will accept the
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.97
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observations are made.
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proving the laws of nature.
(D)
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,.94
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of instruments as aids to the senses. (A)
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-11
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the previous answer, then the experiment is
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i.61
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in which the control of variables is greater than
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tit is in the ordinary course of events
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(Forfc. 1)) SUBSCAYJE SEARCH
!Subccale 8--Measurement
# Items
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435
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KR Rel T-
7.91
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0.431
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"It's hot in this room", is a more precise
f.91
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L_ this room". (D)
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1observation than "It's 84 degrees Fahrenheit in
36/2
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.67
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1.96
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1
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a record
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in modern
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science since the development of
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11
18/1
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his past experience. (A)
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41
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of nature. (D)
t
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.81
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answer specific questions. (A)
51/1
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A characteristic of scientific research is
the use
.94 I
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of instruments as aids to the
senses. (A)
1
55/1
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,An accurate description of a scientificobservation
.94 (
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60/1
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cFol-m D) SUBSCALL SEI-,:_n
Subscale 10 -- Hypotheses
,ty Items
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'
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scientific hypothesis.
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.70
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to explain several observations. (A)
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thing as a scientific fact.
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ISPI (Form 10) SUBSCALE SEARCH
page 1/2
Subsciale 11 -- Theories
4: Items
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13
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10.77
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.52
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1.15
in predicting future events. (A)
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Theories suggest new relationships among facts. (A)
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A theory in science may be modified in light of
.98
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I It is the task of science to form theories to
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66/1
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matical relationships. (A)
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67/1
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I 11
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accepted by the scientific community. (D)
11
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1 I.89
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investigation. (A)
Continuedic71;ext
page....
SPI (Yorm D) SULSC.i...1-] SEARCH
page 2/2
Subscale 11 (continued)
# Items
Mean
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1:C11;:;12..Pr
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40/2
71
iii
95
IThe formulation of a theory is a means of
explaining facts.
(A)
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of a scientific theory.(A)
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110
A theory with ten supporting and two denying
.60
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31736
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11
11
ia central nucleus of
and
.
with this model.
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we actually know it
to exist. (D)
The model is a convenient
way of representing the
atom to help us understand it.
(A)
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different
Scientific models are man-made. (A)
The model is a scaled-up picture of what scientists
have seen in their microscopes. (D)
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may be modified. (A)
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13P1 (Fum D) SUBSCALL SEARCE
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a statement fl .79;
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(A)
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.41
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36/i
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.95
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37/1 ; 114
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24
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1
58/1
11
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45
i
A law of nature is a description of what
actually
1
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takes place, not a prescription of what must
i1
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1
62/1 1113i,
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,.74;
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