DOCUMENT RESUME ED 106 074 SE 018 255 AUTHOR Halsey, Clifton TITLE Wildlife Habitat Improvement Guide for Minnesota Youth. INSTITUTION Minnesota Univ., St. Paul. Agricultural Exteasion Service. SPONS AGENCY Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C. REPORT NO 4-H-Bull-4 PUB DATE 73 NOTE 37p.; Photographs related to the text may not reproduce clearly EDRS PRICE MF-$0.76 HC-$1.95 PLUS POSTAGF DESCRIPTORS *Conservation Education; Ecology; Elementary Secondary Education; Environment; *Environmental Education; *Natural Resources; *Outdoor Education; Science Education; *Wildlife Management; Zoology ABSTRACT This publication outlines projects to increase wildlife, primarily fowl and liner, and to help rural youth better understand wildlife requireltents. The publication outlines six basic steps that are involved in initiating a wildlife project. These are: (1) Determine the types of wild anivals for which the land is best suited; (2) Study the life requirements of species selected for management; (3) Prepare a habitat map; (4) Make a general inventory of that a_ea's game species; (5) Determine which of the selected species' life requirements are lacking; (6) Design and implement projects that will improve the wildlife habitat and increase the" number of wildlife. The publication devotes a section to each step: the sections include photographs, maps, diagrams, tables, background intormatiou, and suggested resource materials. Such topics as winter cover, winter food, nesting cover, wetland"development projects, and area types are included. The final section pro7ides a closer look at such projects as pheasant projects, sharptailed grouse-prairie chicken projects, water fowl projects, and deer and ruffed grouse projects. A recommended reading list is included. (TM)
Transcript
DOCUMENT RESUME
ED 106 074 SE 018 255
AUTHOR Halsey, CliftonTITLE Wildlife Habitat Improvement Guide for Minnesota
Youth.INSTITUTION Minnesota Univ., St. Paul. Agricultural Exteasion
Service.SPONS AGENCY Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C.REPORT NO 4-H-Bull-4PUB DATE 73NOTE 37p.; Photographs related to the text may not
reproduce clearly
EDRS PRICE MF-$0.76 HC-$1.95 PLUS POSTAGFDESCRIPTORS *Conservation Education; Ecology; Elementary
ABSTRACTThis publication outlines projects to increase
wildlife, primarily fowl and liner, and to help rural youth betterunderstand wildlife requireltents. The publication outlines six basicsteps that are involved in initiating a wildlife project. These are:(1) Determine the types of wild anivals for which the land is bestsuited; (2) Study the life requirements of species selected formanagement; (3) Prepare a habitat map; (4) Make a general inventoryof that a_ea's game species; (5) Determine which of the selectedspecies' life requirements are lacking; (6) Design and implementprojects that will improve the wildlife habitat and increase the"number of wildlife. The publication devotes a section to each step:the sections include photographs, maps, diagrams, tables, backgroundintormatiou, and suggested resource materials. Such topics as wintercover, winter food, nesting cover, wetland"development projects, andarea types are included. The final section pro7ides a closer look atsuch projects as pheasant projects, sharptailed grouse-prairiechicken projects, water fowl projects, and deer and ruffed grouseprojects. A recommended reading list is included. (TM)
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WILDLIFE HABITAT IMPROVEMENT GUIDE FOR MINNESOTA YOUTH
This publication was adapted by Clifton Halsey, extension conserva-tionist-soils from an earlier publication entitled WILDLIFE CONSERVA-TION GUIDE FOR MINNESOTA FFA CHAPTER ADVISERS AND MEM-BERS. The FFA guide was written by James T. Shields and H. KennethNeudahl. Mr. Shields at one time headed the Division of Game and Fish ofthe Minnesota Department of Conservation (now Natural Resources). Mr.Neudahl is editor of FINS AND FEATHERS and was at one time a gamebiologist with the Minnesota Department of Conservation.
The FFA Guide was produced for the Minnesota Department of Edu-cation, Division of Vocational-Technical Education in June 1971.
V. Recommended Reading List of Literature Cited 35
FIGURES
1. Pheasant range in Minnesota 62. Duck range in Minnesota 63. Sharp-tailed grouse-prairie chicken range in Minnesota 74. Ruffed grouse range in Minnesota 7
5. Sample habitat inventory map 15
6. Design for a typical shelterbelt 247. Design for a block wildlife planting 258 Sample game bird raising and release report 279. Sample habitat improvement project report 28
10. Even-age cutting program for aspen 3211. Improvement of lowland deer yarding areas 3312. Improvement of upland deer yarding areas 34
TABLES
1. Classification of some Minnesota plants eaten by deer,based on deer preference 13
2. Clear-cut openings recommended for deer and ruffed grouse 32
4 5
INTRODUCTION
THIS PUBLICATION OUTLINES projects to intent wildlife and to help rural youth better understand wildlife requirements.The projects will benefit both farms and wildlife.
PROCEDURE SIX BASIC STEPS
Wildlife improvement projects should follow six steps:
I . Determine the types of wild animals the land is best suited for.
2. Study the life requirements of species selected for management.
3. Prepare a habitat map.
4. Make a general inventory of that area's game species.
5. Determine which of the selected specie? life requirements are lacking.
6. Design and implement projects that will improve the wildlife habitat and increase the number of wildlife.
For greater results in one area, several people can work together on a variety of projects. These efforts can be coordinatedand assisted by professionals from government agencies and private organizations.
5 6
STEP I
Determine Wildlife Suited To Area
FOUR GAME SPECIES dominate Minnesota's wildlife pheasants, ducks, ruffed grouse, and deer. Two other game birds,prairie chickens and sharp-tailed grouse, are important in limited areas. To learn more and gain greater satisfaction, work withspecies suited to your area.
Figures 1 through 4 show distribution of Minnesota game birds in the 1960's. This distribution should be considered before:electing a species to work with.
For example. raising pheasants and Improving their habitat in "poor" pheasant Lange is frustrating and unproductive. In suchareas, it would be better to work with grouse or ducks.
Duck distributinn is more flexible than shnAa on the map. This is primarily because several species nest in Minnesota. Evenin "low" density zones, projects to helps partiCular species can be productive.
After studying the maps. select one or two species and study their life requirements in as much detail as possible.
Figure 1. Pheasant range in Minnesota Figure 2. Duck range in Minnesota
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The ring-necked pheasant, introducecfrom Asia, has adapted quite well tomany habitats. In Minnesota, its rangemcludes much land which was originalprairie and hardwood forest. Thestate's most desirable habitat is south-central Minnesota. Pheasants areusually found where intensively man-aged agricultural land is interspersedwith marshland, brushy draws, anddense woodlots.
67
When settlers first came to Minnesota,e areas of high duck production were
much more extensive than shown here.An abundance of shallow water areason poorly drained, unbroken prairiesmade much of the state prime water-fowl habitat. Now, with intensivefarming practices, these areas haveshrunk to the present breeding range.
Figure 3. Sharp-tailed grouse-prairie
chicken range in MinnesotaFigure 4. Ruffed grouse range in Minnesota
SHARP-TAILEn GROUSEANDPRAIRIE CHICKENS
Sharptails
Prairie Chickens
Range Limits
Sharptailed grouse habitat occursprimarily in northwestern Minnesotaand in a small area near the Wisconsinborder. Grassy fields with scatteredwillow brush, scattered fields of smallgrains, and young hardwood forestsare places where sharptails are found.
The prairie chicken, once an abun-dant species in Minnesota, is nowscarce. It inhabits a small area alongthe Red River Valley. This grouseprefers an open prairie habitat withfew trees and shrubs. Habitat for boththe prairie chicken and sharptail isdiminishing in northwestern Minnesotabecause of the change to agriculturalland.
7
RUFFED GROUSE
The ruffed grouse ("partridge") favorsnorthern Minnesota's second growthforest areas. In addition, portions ofsoutheastern Minnesota provide goodhabitat. The best habitat is mixed-ageforests with a predominance of hard-woods. Aspen (popple) is a particularlyimportant food source, especially inthe winter. Then the flower buds ofmale trees provide high energy food.
Ruffed grouse habitat also favorsdeer. Thus, much of Minnesota's deerherd is in the northern forest zone.Substantial numbers of deer are also inthe southeastern hardwood forestzone. Deer are less abundant in theremainder of the state, which is theprimary agricultural region. Local con-centrations may occur where wintercover and standing crops are available.
8
STEP 2
Study Life Requirements
ANIMALS HAVE CERTAIN. requirements in order to grow, reproduce, and maintain their health. Domestic Ern animals haveall these requirements provided water, food, shelter, and living space. Wild animals have the same life requin nrents as theirdomestic relatives. But "wild" means these animals must find these requirements without direct and daily care by man. In recentyears, some of these requirements have nearly disappeared because of man's increased competition for land productivity andbecause of more efficient harvesting methods.
Photos from top to bottom are a pheas-ant rooster, a ruffed rouse, a sharp-tailed grouse, and a prairie chickenrooster which is dancing on "boomingground."
(Minn. Dept. of Natural Resources)
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I. UPLAND GAME BIRD HABITATREQUIREMENTS
Figures 1, 3, and 4 indi :ate the gen-eral ranges of four Minnesota uplandgame -pecies. Within these ranges,lanc; ter, and climate impose re-strictions upon each species.
The type and amount of soil nu-trients, such as phosphorous, nitrogen,and calcium, may restrict natural plantcommunities. Therefore, soil nutrients,directly or indirectly, determine distri-bution and abundance of each species.
Yearly rainfall, growing season,and soil productivity limit the generalrange of all upland game birds.
Generally, such factors cannot becontrolled. However, we can improvethree critical factors to increase uplandgame bird populations within theirranges. These are:
1. Nesting cover.
2. Winter food.
3. Winter cover.
All upland bird species are short-lived. Normally, only 10 to 20 percentof those hatched live to reproduce.Consequently, the three factors mustbe met year-round to assure species'continuation.
Also important are brushy orweedy travel lanes between feedingand roosting areas. Loafing cover ofthickets and marshes and also grassybrood cover should be available.
Ideally, to manage the whole statefor maximum carrying capacity ofeach upland bird species, Minnesotawould be developed into a checker-board of small management units.These units would provide nestingcover, food patches, cover plots, andother requirements.
89
Of course this is not practical.Wildlife management must fit withother land uses.
The wildlife management unit,however, is the KEY to increasingwildlife abundance. Basic requirementsfor pheasants, ruffed grouse, and prai-rie grouse are outlined in the followingsections.
A. Pheasants1. Nesting CoverIn general, hen pheasants use nest-ing areas having a moderate den-sity of vegetative cover. Mixturesof grasses and legumes are ideal.These are especially attractive toearly nesting hens if the previousseason's growth remains over thewinter. Most nests are near the"edge" between different habitattypes. Hayfields, mainly alfalfa,and roadsides are most often used.Over 25 percent of pheasant nestsare found in roadsides, even thoughroadsides comprise only 2 percentof land area. Pastures and nonagri-cultural areas, such as fence rowsand marsh edges, are less oftenused.
Hayfields provide ideal coverearly in the season. Unfortunately,many nests and hens are destroyedduring the first mowing. When pos-sible, mowing should be delayeduntil July 15.
Small grain fields and marshedges provided many nesting sitesin the early 1940's, but these areashave become increasingly scarce.
Nesting may occur as early asmid-April. The egg laying peakoccurs in mid-May. A hen takesabout 15 days to lay an average of10 eggs. Hatching occurs about 23days after incubation begins.
2. Winter FoodCorn and soybeans are pheasants'primary winter foods. In manyareas, fall plowing and efficientharvests have made these foods un-available during winter.
If food is limited, a 1- or 2-acrefood patch will sustain an area'spheasants through the winter.3. Winter Cover
In winter, pheasants will use al-most any dense vegetation not cov-ered by snow.
Shelterbelts and woodlots areheavily used if they are thickenough and large enough to stopdrifting snow. Wooded areas areused primarily in late winter whenother areas are covered with snow.Heavy weeds and cattail sloughsalso provide good roosting unlessthey become snow-filled.
Pheasants forced to roost in in-adequate cover are susceptible toexposure and predators. Thosethat survive enter the breedingseason in poor condition. The re-sult is poor reproductive successand high summer mortality, espe-cially among hens.
To avoid excessive winterstress, dense cover sites should belocated less than 1/2 mile fromfood patches.
The exact winter food-to-coverratio is not known. In general, a I-or 2-acre cover site with a 2-acrefood patch can winter 50 pheas-ants.
Suggisted Reading(Refer to list at end of this publication):
7. Rugged Ringneck of Minnesota
18. The Ringnecked Pheasant in Minnesota
-34. The Ringnecked Pheasant
25. Recommendations for a Scattered Wet!lands Program of Pheasant Habitat Pres-ervation in Southeast Wisconsin
B. Ruffed Grouse
I. Nesting Cover
Throughout Minnesota's primaryruffed grouse range, male aspentrees appear essential to year-round grouse survival. Buds of themale aspen provide high energyfood that grouse require to survivewinter and to produce eggs. Thefemale aspen is no more importantthan other trees.
Most male grouse select drum-ming logs within sight of male
aspens. Hens, after mating, seek asuitable group of male aspens as afeeding site near their nests.
Generally, nests are locatedclose to forest openings. They areusually by the bases of trees or oldstumps in areas relatively free ofdense undergrowth. A hen will layan average of 11 eggs which hatchabout 23 days after incubation be-gins. The peak of the hatchingseason occurs about the 2nd weekin June.
2. Winter Food
During most winters and springs,flower buds of male aspens are themost important food source.Hazel, birch, and ironwood catkinsare sometimes used heavily, butthey are got as nutritious. Abun-dance of grouse on each 40 acres isclosely related to the quantity andquality of food on that land. Ex-cess food may exist in one smallarea, but because of territorial be-havior, resident birds will notallow other grouse to use it. Thus,a scattering of food sources isessential.
Most wintertime feeding isdone in aspens over 30 years old.This indicates rotational cutting isneeded for continual renewal ofaspen stands. Clearcutting blocksas small as 5 acres providescontin-uous rotation in areas smallenough to support maximum num-bers of grouse. Such timber man-agement will provide the mostefficient interspersion of newforest openings, dense saplingstands for drumming sites, polestage stands for nesting cover, andmature trees for winter food,
3. Winter Cover
In areas where snow is powderyand at least 1 foot deep most ofthe winter, ruffed grouse will bur-row beneath the snow. Powderysnow provides 'insulation so thatthe birds can conserve energy. Itoften is 30° to 50° F. warmerunder the snow than in the openair. During severe cold spells, thebirds stay under the snow most ofthe time, coming out to feed forless than aq hour once or twice aday.
Mortality sometimes occurswhen crust forms on the snow and
109
birds are either trapped beneaththe snow or cannot penetrate thecrust to find refuge.
Suggested Reading(Refer to list at end of this publication):
12. A Discussion of Ruffed Grouse Manage-ment Problems in Minnesota
17. Recommendations for Management ofRuffed Grouse Habitat in NorthernMinnesota
19. Ruffed Grouse in Minnesota
32.Ruffed Grouse
C. Sharp-tailed Grouse and PrairieChickens
1. Nesting CoverSharp-tailed grouse and prairiechickens are related species withlimited distribution in Minnesota.Both game birds are associated withoriginal prairie and old field plantcommunities such as those onabandoned farmsteads.
Sharptail nesting habitat is onthe prairie's edge where grasses andother nonwoody plants are mixedwith young willows. Nesting areascommonly contain 25 to 50 per-cent brushland.
Prairie chickens use the moreopen areas of the prairie. Theyprefer limited woody cover.
Both species must have exten-sive open areas of sparse vegetationfor dancing and mating.
Hens lay an average of 11 to12 eggs which hatch after 23 daysof incubation. The laying seasonpeak usually occurs about mid-May.
2. Winter FoodDuring winter, both species usuallyfeed on corn and other smallgrains. The sharptail shows greaterpreference for cereal grains. Inboggy areas, the sharptail may alsofeed on buds of the dwarf whitebirch (bog birch).
3. Winter CoverDuring the winter months, prairiegrouse usually concentrate inflocks of 75 to 100 birds. Sharp-tails frequent aspen and birchstands, while prairie chickens seekrefuge in woody cover or densevegetation on the prairie.
Suggested Reading(Refer to list at end of this publication):
8. Pi airie Grouse
20. Sharptailed Grouse in Minnesota
II. WATERFOWL HABITAT REQUIREMENTS
Figure 2 indic2tes the extent and quality of Minnesota's duck breeding range. Over the past century, this range has greatlydiminished. Fertile soil, which provided high yields of aquatic plants and food organisms for ducks, can also provide high cropyields for man.
B, 1930. most wetlands were drained in southern Minnesota counties. It's presently e'imated less than one-third theoriginal waterfowl habitat remains.
It would be impossible to completely restore the prairie pothole region. However, certain habitat requirementscan coincidewith agricultural use.
Since ducks are migratory, Minnesota habitat requirements must be met during the spring, summer, and fall. Therefore, wemust improve two critical factors to increase duck populations. These are:
1. Adequate upland nesting cover.
2. Wetland water areas.
Top left: This mallard drake and henare dabbling ducks. Mallards are themost plentiful ducks both in Minnesotaand the United States. Top right: Thisis a male blue-winged teal. Blue-wingedteal are surface-feeding, dabbling ducksand are common in Minnesota. Secondrow, left: The ring-necked duck issometimes called the bluebill. Suchducks are divers and are common inMinnesota's forest areas. Second row,right: The lesser scaup is also called abluebill. This bird is a diving duck thatmigrates through Minnesota. Lowerleft: The gadwall is a dabbling duckappearing in small numbers in westernMinnesota. Third row, right: Thisshoveller drake and hen are dabblingducks. Shovellers are also called spoon-bills. They prefer shallow prairiemarshes and occur in small nurntnrs inMinnesota. Fourth row, right: Canadageese mate for life and are devotedparents. Under specialized manage-ment, Canada geese are increasing inMinnesota.
A. Dabblin6 Ducks
I. Nesting Cover
During the spring breeding season,Minnesota's two most abundantdabbling ducks (the mallard andthe blue-winged teal) nest on up-lands rear or adjacent to water.
Da oling ducks prefer nestingsites close to water, but they maylocate their nests as far as 1/2 mileaway. Alfalfa-grass mixtures cutafter July 15 are good cover forinitial nests of both species.Lightly grazed pastures adjacent toopen water are -lso used, espe-cially by teal.
Usually, most mallards willnest by the 1st week in May. Ifnests are destroyed, renestingattempts may extend into July.
The best nesting sites are inareas where a mat of dead grass hasbeen formed. Mallards preferclumps of dead vegetation whichremain upright and form a"teepee" over the nest. The firstnesting attempt, the mallard willlay 10 to 11 eggs which requireI day each to lay. An additional26 to 28 days of incubation is re-quired for hatching.
Blue-winged teal arrive andnest later than mallards. Mostinitial nests are completed the 3rdweek in May. The average clutch isII eggs with a 23-day incubationperiod.
Wood ducks nest in hollowtrees, usually hardwoods. Theyalso use artificial nesting boxes.Nest sites may be as far as 1/2 milefrom .ater, but they are usuallylocrted near the edge of a lake orstream. Peak nesting occurs in
11
early May. The usual clutch is 10to 15 eggs with 28 to 31 days' in-cubation.
2. Wetland Water Areas
Dabbling ducks prefer ponds ormarshes in which fertile water hasboth plant and animal food. Theyseek wetlands having fringe ofemergent bulrushes or other plantsto provide cover for young duck-lings.
These ducks "tip up" to feedoff the bottom. Thus they needconsiderable areas of water lessthan 2 feet deep. Submerged waterweeds are food for adults, and theinsects and snails these plants har-bor provide high protein food forducklings.
B. Diving Ducks
In general, diving ducks such as theredhead, ring-necked duck, and ruddyduck breed closer to open water thando dabbling ducks. Frequently, nestsare constructed on floating matsamong cattails or on bulrushes alongponds.
In northern Minnesota's woodedareas, the ring-necked duck is mostlikely to use forest ponds. The golden-eye prefers larger lakes. Goldeneyesnormally nest in hollow trees, but theywill readily accept nesting boxes.Ring-necked ducks nest in emergentvegetation near or over water.
Diving ducks do not need large ex-panses of shallow water since they candive for food. However, they preferlakes fringed with emergent plants forshelter and cover.Suggested Reading
(Refer to list at end of this publication):
33. The Mallard
White-tailed deer are much moreprevalent now in Minnesota than theywere before the forests were harvested.Twin fawns are more likely to be bornif food has been plentiful.
(U.S. Bur. of Sport Fisheries & Wildlife)
HI. DEER HABITAT.REQUIREMENTS
Minnesota's deer range has not alwz, _ Len so extensive Before 1860, deer were extremely rare in dense evergreen forests ofspruce, fir, and pines of the northeastern, counties. At. that time, the most abundant big game in the northeast were moose andwoodland caribou.
Only after mature coniferous forests were logged and the cutover lands burned did white-tailed deer become numerous innorthern Minnesota.
This cutting and burning encouraged a lush growth of shrubs and young, second-growth hardwoods. Both are favorite foodsof the whitetail.
As the northern habitat improved, conditio, became less favorable in southern counties. Because of land clearing,intensified farming, and uncontrolled hunting, whitetails had all but disappeared from southern Minnesota by 1880.
From 1900 to the late 1930's, deer increased in northern Minnesota to such an extent that they were overbrowsing. Theyhad exceeded the land's carrying capacity. The deer consumed not only their present food supply but had eaten into their futuresupply as well.
Minnesota's deer herd reached its peak population in the mid-1930's. Since then, the herd has fluctuated at a somewhatlower level, depending upon wis ter weather and gradual changes in forest. The combination of too many deer in the past,maturing second-growth trees, conifer regeneration, fire control, and reforestation with pines has kept the herd from regainingits former abundance.
Since 1933, game administrators and legislators have recognized that, in heavily forested areas, deer hunting seasons areneeded each year to keep the herd within limits of the land's carrying capacity. More important, however, is the fact thatcarrying capacity can be increased by improved habitat.
Summer and fall are times of food abundance, but winter and early spring are often times of shortage and subsequentmalnutrition. Therefore, habitat management should help supply:
1. Winter food.
2. Winter cover.
Here are white-tailed deer requirements during winter.
1312
A. Northern Forested Area
Since the 1930's, much of the north-ern forest has become more mature. Inmany places, spruce and balsam havereplaced shrubs and deciduous treeswhich provided the best deer food. Insuch regions, availability of nutritiouswinter food is more critical thanwinter cover.
I. Winter Food
Winter food preferences are relatedto the food available. In earlywinter when there is little snow,nonwoody plants such as wildactor and goldenrod are favoredfoods. As snow depths increase,deer turn to the more readily avail-able woody plants.
White cedar is a highly pre-ferred browse plant. It's the onlynative species that deer can feedon exclusively and maintain theirweight for 60 consecutive winterdays. In many Minnesota deer-yards, however, most cedar withinreach of deer has been eaten. Newgrowth and seedlings are consumedas fast as they appear.
Over much of northeasternMinnesota, mountain maple is themost important and nutritiouswinter food. It can withstandheavy browsing and will grow newsprouts to replace those eaten. Redmaple is another favorite food. Itcan withstand heavy browsing, butit's less abundant than mountainmaple.
Table 1. Classificationpreference.
GOOD QUALITYHighly nutritious
foods whichdeer prefer
Red osier dogwood is an excel-lent deer food, but it doesn't with-stand heavy browsing. Heavy usewill soon reduce it to a club-topped plant providing little or nofood.
Black ash is found in centralMinnesota's wet lowlands. Deerregularly use sprouts from old ashstumps, and this is an importantaddition to their winter diet.
Mountain ash is avidly eaten,but it is not plentiful enough to beimportant.
Balsam fir affords excellentwinter cover, but it has limitedfood value.
The American and beakedhazel are common plants in uplandforests. However, they are notreadily available except duringwarm, o'-en winters when deer cantravel easily.
Alder is common in lowlanddeeryards, but it's only browsedin w;ater when e palatablefoods are used up. Alder and blackspruce are probab'y the poorest ofall Minnesota deer foods.
Food plants in or adjacent tomost Minnesota deeryards are ratedaccording to deer preference intable I.
2. Winter Cover
Like most animals, deer avoid l -geareas featuring only one type oftree or shrub. They prefer a scat-
47.
of some Minnesota plants eaten by deer based on doer
MEDIUM QUALITYModerately nutritious
foods which deeroften use
POOR QUALITYLow-value foodsused only whenbetter foods are
unavailable
White cedar Hard maple HoneysuckleRed osier dogwood Black ash White pineMountain maple Mountain ash Balsam firStaghorn sumac Chokecherry Red pineOaks (browse & acorns) Basswood TamarackAlternate-leaved White birch Alder
dogwood Some willows Bog birchRed maple Hue, Black spruceJuneberry Aspen Jack pine
t. ;- 1413
tering of various kinds of coverand openings. In extensive forests,deer frequent the edges of lakes,swamps, streams, and roads. Onlyduring a severe winter or whenheavily hunted do deer remaindeep within an extensive forest.
Both sexes and all ages congre-gate in traditional "deeryards"during the winter. The whitetailusually returns to the same winter-ing area year after year. Most ofthese yards are lowland cedar orspruce swamps offering protectionfrom wind and driving snow. Un-fortunately, many of these areaswere severely overbrowsed in themid-1940's. Many do not containenough nutritious food to last thewinter.
B. Agricultural Area
South and west of the northern forestarea, deer are found in every county,even where woody cover is limited toscattered groves or along streams andrivers. In these regions, deer are morevulnerable to hunting. Hunting seasonsare usually more limited than in thedense northern Minnesota forests. Inthe agricultural region, deer also havedifferent food habits. Large herds arenot uncommon in winter. Damage tostanding corn can be serious. Damageto orchards has caused consternationto fruit growers. A short huntingseason in these areas has sufficientlyreduced the herd and restricted cropdamage.
Deer numbers can be increased(and still be compatible with agri-
culture) if winter food and cover re-quirements are improved.
1. Winter Food
Deer herds in agricultural countiesrely mainly on corn, soybeans, andalfalfa. They also relish tender newgrowth *:id buds of fruit trees.
7. Winter Cover
To escape winter elements in openfarm country, deer seek shelter intree -lined b o ttomlands alongstreams and rivers, field woodlots,shelterbelts, willow thickets, andlarge marshes.
Suggested Reading(Refer to list at end of this publication):
1. Big Game in Minnesota
9. The WhiteTailed Deer
21. The WhiteTailed Deer in Minnesota
STEP 3
Inventory Habitat
Before beginning a habitat improvement program, prepare a habitat inventory map of at least 1 square mile that includesyour farm and adjacent lands. A habitat map will indicate presently available requirements for desired game species.
Materials
Aerial photos: (available on loan from the nearest field office of the Minnesota Department of Natural Resources' Division ofLands and Forestry or the Agricultural Stabilization and Conservation Service).United States Geological Survey 1:24,000 quadrangle map: (available from Denver Distribution Section, U.S. Geological Survey,Denver Federal Center, Building 41, Denver, Cob. 80225, or Hudson Map Company, 1506 Hennepin Avenue, Minneapolis,Minn. Purchase price necessary).Soil Conservation Service soils map: (available on loan from the nearest Soil Conservation Service field office).County map: (available from the nearest county office or Minnesota Department of Highways).
Method
Prepare a map of all land within a 1/2 mile radius of your farm or project area (see figure 5). This map should be as detailedas possible, using quadrangle, soils, and county maps in addition to aerial photos.
Use a scale that permits accurate location of small land tracts. Maps using 1 inch to 200 feet are large and easy to use. Aconservation plan may have been developed for the land by the Soil Conservation Service. This provides an excellent startingpoint.
The following areas should be included on a general habitat map: grassland; brush; second-growth forest; mature forest;grazed woodlot; pasture; cropland; open water; and marsh areas. Also include buildings, fencelines, farm groves, windbreaks,roads, and ditches. Identify crops and, if possible, the sequence of rotation.
Compile a data sheet (see figure 5) including the percentage breakdown of different habitat areas. The map and data sheetwill be used to start a habitat improvement program for the desired game species.
After making this inventory map, study it in relation to desired game species' habitat requirements nesting cover, food,winter cover, and range limitations.
Suggested Reading(Refer to list at end of this publication):
3. Key to Common Aquatic Plants
28, American Wildlife and Plants, A Guideto Wildlife Food Habits
4. Wetlands and Water Areas (marshes, sloughs, farmponds, lakes, etc.)
Acres
IVY
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:
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Soybeans
Percent ofArea
37%
64 13
5. Croplands (corn, soybeans, etc.) 173 33
6. Woodlets (mature or marketable aspen, oak, etc.) 45 9
7. Other (roads, buildings, etc.) 32 6
Total 512 100%
1615
GrazedPasture
LEGEND
41-110--
/10101 AA
00
N
Wire Fence
Farm Building
Woody Brush
Hardwood TreesConifer Trees
Water Area
STEP 4
Inventory Game Species
Several methods have been developed to estimate animal numbers. They include visual sightings, sound data (crowing anddrumming counts), nest counts, brood counts, and hunters' kill reports. A census can provide an estimate within 20 percent(plus or minus) or the actual number.
Through past experience, you may be familiar with the wildlife species and their general abundance on the land surroundingyour farm. To establish habitat management, you will not need to know the exact number of wildlife. However, it will behelpful to estimate whether the desired game species is abundant, scarce, or nonexistent.
Before attempting a census, contact your local, state, or federal game manager. Have him describe the type ar.d abundance ofwildlife on or near your area. Perhaps he is planning a detailed census, and you may be able to help him.
Otherwise, plot census routes on the habitat inventory map. Depending on time, labor, and the amount of heavy cover,distance between the transect (census) routes will vary. For a visual count of the maximum number of a game species, a lateAugust pre-hunting season date could be chosen. A hunting dog will help flush game birds. At this time of the year, upland gamebirds are more dispersed. You must find preferred cover and feeding areas during different times of the day. For example earlyin the morning, pheasants may concentrate for gravel grit near roadsides. They may return to cornfields and brushy cover to feedand loaf during midday. They may fly to roosting trees just before nightfall. Your census survey routes must take the birds'habits into account.
To estimate a deer population within an area, pellet droppings can be counted as in this example.
1. Ten plots, each 1/100th acre in size (20' x 20') are cleared of pellets.
2. One hundred days later, plots are revisited and pellet groups are counted.
3. Assume 13 groups are counted on the 10 plots.
4. Defecation rate is approximately 13 pellet groups/day.
5. Calculations:
Pellet groups per acre (13 pellet groups per 10th acre X 10) = 130
Deer days per acre: 130/13 = 10
daysDeer per acre:
10 deer day=.1 deer/acre100 days
Deer per square mile = 640 acres X .1 deer/acre = 64 deer
1716
How does game abundance on your sample habitat compare with these estimates of pre-hunting season density on Minnesotalands managed intensively for wildlife:
Another census could be run in the spring, using crowing or drumming counts. For cock pheasants, peak crowing occurs inmid-April. The best time to count the number of crowing cocks is shortly after sunrise. Most will have quit after hours.
Station yourself in a central location on good upland courting and nesting areas. Locate the different crowing cock pheasantson your habitat map, and record the number. You may notice that one cock crows more loudly and more frequently thanothers. This is the dominant cock and may suppress other males from crowing. In good weather, the average time between twocrows is about 2 minutes.
If more than one courting and nesting area occurs within a 1/2 mile radius of your farm, survey these areas on differentmornings.
To estimate the total spring breeding population, multiply the number of crowing males by 4 (the normal spring sex ratio isone cock pheasant to three hens).
From mid-April to May, a similar procedure can be used for ruffed grouse. Male grouse will beat their wings on territorialdrumming sites once every 4 minutes she y before and after sunrise and sunset. For an estimate of the spring breedingpopulation, multiply the number of drumming males by 2 (the normal spring sex ratio of ruffed grouse is one male to onefemale).
To best estimate sharptail and prairie chicken numbers, count displaying cocks on their traditional spring dancing grounds.Usually there is a slight excess of males in the spring. For a conservative estimate of the total population, multiply the number ofcocks by 2. Peak "booming" aLtivity occurs shortly after the snow has melted in early spring. Booming may start in lateMarch and gradually taper off until June 1. The display begins about an hour after sunrise and continues 3 to 4 hours.
All spring population estimates should be less than pre-hunting season numbers. This is because of losses from game harvestand natural causes.
Spring is also the best time to inventory waterfowl. Visual counts of breeding pairs on wetland areas will give the bestestimates. Breeding densities can vary widely, but one breeding pair per 10 acres of water is considered good.
1817
Top, left: Sharp-tailed grouse likeintermixed open prairie and brushland.Top, right: This is a Type V wetlandmarsh, an open fresh water marshlocated in a Minnesota prairie area.Lower left: A shoveller hen prefersprairie area: having shallow marshes.Lower middle: This sharptailed grouseis performing his mating dance. Middle.right: White-tailed deer will takeadvantage of a prairie woodlot forfood and shelter. Lower right: Thishalf-grown family of blue-winged tealare feeding on insects and water plants.
18
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(U.S. Sur. of Sport Fished*, & Wildlife)
STEP 5
Determine Habitat Needs
Survey your study area. Look for nesting cover, winter food, and winter cover. Take note of specific food and cover plantspecies. On tracing paper, make a coded overlay of these areas. Tabulate them as percentages of the whole area.
Ideally, the inventory maps and percentage tabulation for nesting cover should be made in early May and again in late June.This is so changes can be noted. If only an autumn survey is possible, estimate spring nesting cover. Be sure to check yourestimates the next spring.
A winter food and cover survey should be taken in late fall or early winter.
Combine all your information and compare it with the sample habitat maps and data sheet. From this and your previous_..,--
study of individual species' habitat requirements, you can determine what is lacking or needs improvement. y.-
The ideal habitat management unit cannot be repeated on every acre, but ask yourself these questions:
1. Is it possible to devote an acre or more of marginal farmland to permanent nesting cover?
2. Can roadside mowing be delayed until July 15?
3. Are gullies barren and unprotected? Is it possible to plant winter cover there for upland game birds or to fence theseareas from grazing so they can grow back to native brushland?
4. Would high (6- to 8-inch) mowing, harvesting hay in mid-July, clearcutting small blocks in the "north 40," or minimumtillage provide better habitat for upland birds, ducks, and other wildlife?
5. Could diverted acres be seeded to establish and maintain a legume-grass cover crop?
6. Could trees, shrubs, or wing- food crops be planted to improve habitat?
7. Can you apply for habitat improvement cost-sharing incentives through the ASCS (Agricultural Stabilization andConservation Service)?
At this point, you will need the advice and perhaps financial assistance of the Soil Conservation Service, AgriculturalStabilization and Conservation Service, State Department of Natural Resources, or Federal Bureau of Sport Fisheries andWildlife.
After the final management scheme has been made, divide the plan into phases. Use tracing paper overlays for each phase.
For example:Phase I Plant shelterbelt around farm, do spring plowing, delay roadside mowing;Phase 11 Blast a small pothole, fence cattle from existing wetlands, improve upland nesting cover;Phase Ill Thin marketable aspens, cut and pile, etc.
Plan long-term restoration. Habitat development is a long-term investment; full benefits may not be seen for several years.
A farm provides livelihood for its owners. Review your habitat plan, and consider the following questions:
1. What is the income on marginal land designated for management changes? Are local sportsmen interested in contributingto these changes? Is there other recreational potential on these areas?
2. What is the cost of changing such practices as fall plowing, early hay mowing, etc.?
3. What is the total cost of the habitat development?
Many habitat conservation practices can be carried out with little or no cost to the landowner.
20 21
)
_J
STEP 6
Implement Wildlife Projects
I. PHEASANT PROJECTS
A. Nesting Cover
1. First YearNesting cover crops may beplanted under land retirement pro-grams. A mixture of legumes(particularly alfalfa and brome-grass plantings) produces earlynesting cover. This is highly attrac-tive to pheasants and to waterfowlsuch as mallards and teal. The nest-ing cover should be established forat least 2 years.
Procedure:
a. Small grains are seeded as anurse crop to establish aperennial cover of alfalfaand bromegrass. If seededearly, oats is an especiallygood nurse crop. It willprovide good nesting coverthe 1st year.
b. The small-grain nurse cropshould be seeded at notless than 11/2 bushels peracre to provide maximumcover for nesting and soilconservation.
c. The small-grain crop vari-ety should be short tomedium height at maturitywith at least medium strawstrength so it will notlodge.
d. For alfalfa, red clover, orsweet clover, minimumseeding of 8 pounds peracre will produce good re-sults. Perennial grassesshould be seeded not lessthan rates recommendedby the U.S. Department ofAgriculture.
Because sweet cloverdoes not perpetuate itselfwell after the.2nd year, it'snot recommended forpheasant nesting cover onplots to be diverted morethan 2 years. Sweet clovercan be used if other leg-umes are planted with it.
e. Seeding the nurse crop andaccompanying legumes andgrasses should be completed by May 10. This isso the nurse crop will growsufficiently by nestingtime.
f. If noxious weeds become aproblem and they are scat-tered in patches, spot clip-ping and cutting may bedone. A clipping height of6 inches or more should beused to prevent killingnesting hens or youngbirds. If herbicide is used,follow the manufacturer'sdirections carefully.
2221
g. The entire nurse cropshould be clipped only ifthe legume and perennialgrasses are endangered byshading or smothering. Toallow game birds to hatch,clipping or removal of thenurse crop should be de-layed until after July 20 onretired land.
2. Second and Subsequent Yearsa. Nesting pheasants prefer
sites having the previousyear's vegetation. There-fore if it's not clipped, per-manent cover will be mostbeneficial.
b. Scattered patches of nox-ious weeds can be con-trolled by clipping orjudicial use of herbicides.Clipping the whole acreageis seldom necessary. If theland will be used for agri-culture the fcllowing year,plow under tl .t. cover cropafter July 30. ilowever,wait as long as possible.
3. Delayed Mowing Practices
So pheasants can complete theirnesting, delay mowing until July20 on retired nesting cover, road-side ditches, and "odd" cornersnot needed for hay.
4. Protection Against GrazingDomestic animals should not over-graze diverted acres. Marginalfarmland should be fenced to pro-hibit grazing animals from destroy-ing nesting cover and hasteniag soilerosion.
B. Winter Food1. Food PlotsGenerally in Minnesota, pheasants'need for food patches increasesfrom south to north. Corn is themost effective winter food whereit can grow to maturity.
One to 2 acre food patches aresufficient for the average farm. Iflarge winter concentrations of deeroccur, larger tracts are needed.Electric fences can discourage deerfrom depleting the winter foodplot early in the season.
Other wildlife foods in orderof their winter food value are: soy-
(Photos are courtesy of Minn. Dept. of Natural Resources)
Top: Most pheasants will hatch in earlyJuly. Nesting may occur as early asmid-April, and the egg laying peakoccurs in mid-May. Middle: Pheasantswill seek cover under the larger treesshown in the back of this shelterbelt.Lower: Cover plantings should be nearfeeding areas.
beans; sorghum; sunflower; flax;buckwheat; and small grains.
Essential requirements of foodplots are:
a. a patch less than 1/2 milefrom good winter cover,and;
b. food throughout the win-ter. Otherwise, desiredgame species will eat less-nutritious food. In a weak-ened condition, they maybe lost from exposure orpredators.
2. Winter Feeding
Where food plots are impractical,miniature cribs can be built wherethe wind will keep them free ofsnow. A hogwire crib 3 feet indiameter and 4 to 5 feet high canbe filled with ear corn. The cornshould be replenished throughoutthe winter. If it isn't, pheasantswill leave the area or be weakened.
C. Winter Cover
In the past, winter protection was pro-vided by sloughs and wetlands, farmwoodlots, groves, shelterbelts, "odd"corners, and fencelines with naturalthickets of brush, shrubs, and trees.Wetland drainage, clean farming, useof herbicides, and maturing and cut-ting of trees have created a loss of win-ter cover.
1. Farmstead Shelterbelts andWoodlots
In addition to providing wintercover, a good shelterbelt or wood-lot will prevent wind and watererosion, reduce heat loss fromfarm buildings, prevent snowbuildup in farmyards, protectdomestic animals in feedlots, andbeautify the farmstead. Rabbits,squirrels, songbirds, and otherwildlife also benefit.
A shelterbelt should contain aminimum of 10 rows of trees andshrubs. The center plantingsshould have at least 4 rows oflow-growing conifers such asspruce and cedar. Shrubs and treesplanted on the outside of the shel-terbelt provide loafing areas forpheasants during all seasons. Theyalso serve as a snow catch in win-ter. A shelterbelt design is shownin figure 6.
2423
Small, decorative groupings ofspruce or other dense evergreens inprotected locations (such as thesouth side of the farmstead) are at-tractive. They can be lifesavers ifsevere storms force birds to movefrom the main windbreak.
2. Woody Cover PlotsBesides providing a critical habitatrequirement for pheasants, wintercover controls soil erosion, pro-tects stream banks, conservessurface water, and beautifies thelandscape.
Plantings should be large.Woody sites should be at least 150feet from north to south, but thereis no need to exceed 300 feet. Thecenter of the plot should be ever-greens such as red cedar (juniper),Black Hills spruce, or white spruce.These provide good shelter fromwind and snow. Of the three ever-greens, red cedar is the hardiestand has the fastest growth. Cedarsand spruce are better than pinewhich grows too tall and open togive pheasants good ground protec-tion.
Use deciduous trees sparingly.They provide perches and nestingsites for hawks and owls whichmay prey on game species.
Wild plum, a small shrubbytree, grows well in the prairieregion. It provides a dense thicketaround the evergreens. Severalrows of honeysuckle around theperimeter form a hedge and serveas a snow catch. Other shrubs,such as ginnala maple, buffalo-berry and Russian olive, can alsobe used.
Cover plantings are most effec-tive when they're near feedingareas and natural cover such as amarsh or grove of trees. South-facing slopes are especially desir-able planting sites. They provideadditional warmth from the sunand protection trom prevailingwinter winds. Pheasants are leastlikely to use cover plots on ex-posed hills or ridges.
A block design is shown infigure 7.
Shrubs are also helpful borderplants for fields. Although they arenot wide enough to give adequateprotection during severe winter
Figure 6. Design for a typical shelterbelt
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Rows 3 & 4 Shrubby Trees American plum, Russian olive, nannyberry, or highbush cranberry. Plant shrubby trees 5.6 feetapart within the row.
Rows 5 & 6 Tall Evergreens or Deciduous Trees Norway (red) pine, ponderosa (western yellow) pine, white pine, hadcberry,or ash. Plant tall evergreens or deciduous trees 8-10 feet apart within the row.
Rows 7, 8, 9, 10 Medium Evergreens Black Hills spruce, white spruce, red cedar, Colorado spruce, or white cedar. Plantmedium evergreens 8 feet apart within the row.
Spacing between rows should be 12 to 14 feet depending upon equipment used to cultivate the planting.Deciduous trees, such as maple, elm, willow, cherry, and poplar, although used extensively, are often damaged by rabbits
during their first years of growth.
2524
Figure 7. Design for a block wildlife planting
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Suggested Reading(Refer to list at end of this publication):
10. Wildlife Habitat Improvement
15. Native Trees and Shrubs of Value forPlanting in Minnesota to Provide Nutiand Fruits for Wildlife
25. Recommendations for a Scattered Wet-lands Program of Pheasant Habitat Pres-ervation in Southeast Wisconsin
D. Pheasant Egg Salvage
When pheasant nests are destroyed bymowing, eggs can be salvaged andartificially incubated. If eggs are notdamaged and it is determined the henwill not return, eggs can be incubatedimmediately. Normal incubation timeis 23 to 24 days at 100° F. and 50 to55 percent relative humidity. Chickenincubators can be used. Instructionsfor use and construction of simple in-cubators can be found in "From Eggto Chick" (reference 13 at the end ofthis publication).
E. Raising and Releasing Chicks
It's interesting to raise and releasepheasant chicks obtained from privateand government sources. When com-bined with habitat improvementprojects, this can be a valuable educa-tional experience.
This type of program has limita-tions, however. From the standpoint
(Minn. Dept. of Natural Resources)
of game management, raising and re-leasing chicks is justified only as:
1. A method to introduce birdsto a newly created habitatmanagement unit to reestablisha local population. After abreeding population has beenestablished, releasing can bediscontinued.
2. A method to supplement adepleted population wheregood habitat exists. This is arare need. It can exist when asevere winter storm has de-pleted wild brood stock.
3. An expensive "put and take"method to provide birds forhunters. Without adequatenesting cover, winter cover,and winter food, releasedpheasants will not survive toreproduce the next year.
Because of these considerations,raising and releasing pheasant chicksshould be accompanied by a habitatimprovement project.
After a habitat plan has beendeveloped, ask the State Departmentof Natural Resources' local Area GameManager to review the plans. Decem-ber or January is a good time.
2726
Delayed mowing reduces damage topheasant and duck nests. If possible,don't mow hay until July 15.
The following procedures areessential to successful pheasant raising:
1. Raising facilities should be in-spected by the Area GameManager before birds are re-ceived. The facilities shouldconform to these specifica-tions:
a. An adequate chick batterybrooder or a 10 x 12 footbrooder house;
b. Outside pens large enoughto provide 20 square feetper bird. One-inch meshpoultry fencing shouldcover and surround the penarea. The side fencingshould be buried 6 inchesinto the ground.
2. At least 26 percent proteinfood must be fed.
3 Begin with no more than 50chicks.
4. Keep complete records of theoperation. Sample recordforms are shown in figures 8and 9.
Suggested Reading(Refer to list at end of this publication):
16. Pheasant Raising and Releasing Instruc-tions
23. Pheasant Release Program of the Minne-sota FFA
Figure 8. Sample game bird raising and releasing report
Date
Name of Member Age
P.O. Address County
1. Number of day-old birds received Total cost
Source (state, or name of private game farm)
2. Number of wild eggs salvard
3. Number of wild eggs hatched (Federal permit required for ducks)
4. Pounds of feed consumed Total Cost
5. Total number of birds released
(Numbers)
6. Major reasons for losses: Shipping
UnknownCarelessnessandPredators
7. Percent protein game bird feed used
8. Swimming water provided (at least 4 square feet for ducks)
9. Pen area provided (at least 20 square feet per pheasant and at least 5 square feet per duckling)
10. Predator proof fencing provided Yes No 0
11. Cooperating agencies and extent of cooperation (percent of cost paid for birds, feed,or habitat improvement.)
Organization Extent of cooperation
12. Release site
13. Posted against hunting Yes No
14. Remarks (include photos of raising facilities if possible)
Date Type of coverNo. of sites Total acres seeded planted
la. Did not mow or plow diverted acres before July 15th.
2. Delayed roadside ditch mowing until July 15th.Acres
Number of sites Acres
No. of sites
3. Spring or fall burning
3a. Reason for burning
Acres Cover type burned
4. Shrubs planted
Conifers planted
Trees plantedNo. of woody cover sites
Species No. Species No. Species No.
Acres
5. Food plot planted for Acres Acres Acres
winter wildlife food Corn Sorghum Other
How improved Acres
6. Improved marsh areas DikeDamBlastingDugoutFenced from grazingPreserved an existing marsh
7. Built wildlife structures (number)
Nesting Nesting Loafingboxes baskets sites Other
8. Forest or woodlot improvement:How improved No. of sites
Clear-cuttingSelective cuttingBrowse cuttingOther
Acres
9. Other habitat projects
10. Remarks (include before and after photos of your project if possible)
2928
Both upland game birds and dabblingducks like to nest in hayfields.
II. SHARP-TAILED GROUSE-PRAIRIE CHICKEN PROJECTS
Plant SUCCESSION is the most im-portant management factor for anyMinnesota upland game bird. To sup-port a specific population in any area,maintain a certain stage of successionin the ever-changing plant commu-nities.
The prairie chicken (which is
extinct in much of its former Minne-sota range) requires open prairie withfew or no woody plants. The sharptailrequires intermixed open prairie andbrushland.
Before settlement and agriculturecame to Minnesota, the sharptailgrouse was the dominant upland gamespecies on the original prairie.
As primitive agriculture replacedportions of original hardwood forestswith crops (and thereby altered thesuccession of natural vegetation), theprairie chicken replaced the sharptail.
Then agriculture became more in-tensified. The prairie chicken's needfor extensive grasslands was no longermet. As a result, the species began todecline in population and distribution.
Land manipulation and plant suc-cession are now at the stage whereMinnesota sharptails and pra,rie chick-ens are limited to small areas. Suchareas still contain remnants of openprairie and border a second-growthhardwood forest.
Thus, sharp-tailed grouseprairiechicken management practices shouldinclude cutting or burning maturingwoodlots. This maintains the properstage in plant succession.
(Minn. Dept. of Natural Resources)
Wildlife authorities say the small-est practical management unit is 2,000acres for sharptails and 5,000 acres forprairie chickens. However where thesebirds still exist, habitat projects can beundertaken in smaller areas.
A...Nesting Cover
1. Diverted AcresEstablish 1st -year nesting cover thesame way as for pheasants exceptfor these changes:
a. For the perennial or bi-ennial legume grass crop,red top or timothy can besubstituted for brome-grass;
b. Legumes other than sweetclover should be used.Sharptails prefer lower,more open cover. Onlygrasses should be plantedfor prairie chicken nestingcover. Mixtures of switch-grass, crested wheatgrass,bluestem, and other prairiegrasses are preferred.
Nesting cover management forsecond and subsequent years is .thesame as for pheasant projects.
2. Delayed Mowing Practices
This procedure is the same as forpheasants.
3. Protection Against Grazing
This procedure is also the same asfor pheasants.
29 30
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i
B. Winter FoodCorn and small grains are eaten byprairie chickens throughout winter. Afood patch left standing during wintermonths can be highly beneficial.Sharp-tails also need supplemental foodswhen deep snow covers standing crops.A portion of the crop, therefore,should be shocked or stacked for food.
C. Winter Cover
Prairie chicken habitat is characterizedby large, open tracts near the prairieedge. Winter cover plantings for thisspecies can be combined with soilerosion control and water retentionpractices. On marginal areas such aseroded gullies or ridges, small shrubbytrees an be planted to provide wintercover.
Winter cover is usually adequate inestablished sharptail range. However tomaintain a desirable stage in plant suc-cession, controlled burning or selectivecutting of overmature, nonmarketabletree species can be implemented. How-ever, consult the local game managerand area forester before doing this.
Suggested Reading(Refer to list at end of this publication):
8. Prairie Grouse
10. Wildlife Habitat Improvemer:N
20. Sharptaded Grouse in Minnesota
`,.
III. WATERFOWL PROJECTS
A. Nesting Cover
1. Ground Nesting Ducks
Under diverted acres and land re-tirement programs, management ofupland nesting cover is the same asfor pheasants.
To provide the greatest benefitto dabbling ducks such as the mal-lard and tea!, legume-grass mix-tures should be less than 1/2 milefrom shallow water areas retainingwater all or most of the summer.
Between nesting cover andopen water and especially alongfence rows, narrow strips of grassescould be seeded and left unhar-vested. Besides providing safe travellanes for the hen and her brood,the strips provide nesting cover andescape routes for other small game.
Because dabbling ducks preferlower and more open nesting coverthan do pheasants, legumes otherthan sweet clover should beseeded.
In central and southern Minne-sota, nesting baskets have been oflittle help to mallards. This is be-cause of crows' egg predation.However in North Dakota, mal-lards have used nesting basketswith high success. Since crows donot normally range into open prai-ries of North Dakota and extremewestern Minnesota, nesting basketsshould increase density of breedingmallards there.
Suggested Reading(Refer to list at end of this publication):
27. New Homes for Prairie Ducks
2. Tree Nesting Ducks
Goldeneyes and wood ducks nestin hollow trees or in nesting boxes.Goldeneyes nest along shores ofthe larger fish lakes in northeasternMinnesota. Wood ducks nestthroughout the state in woodedhabitat near water.
For both species, galvanizedmetal or wooden nesting boxesshould be placed at least 15 feetabove the ground and within 1/4mile from water. The correct de-sign should be followed. Other-wise, the nesting box may admit
predators such as raccoons. Plansand additional reading are includedin the following publications listedat the end of this publication:
14. How to Build a Nest Box
16. Improved Nest Structures forWood Ducks
B. Wetland Development Projects
Shallow water areas provide adultwaterfowl with a place to court andbreed. These areas also provide foodand cover for the adult waterfowl andtheir ducklings. Dabbling ducks preferponds or wetlands with a good fringeof emergent vegetation to providecover for young ducklings. Emergentvegetation is essential for diving ducks'nesting sites.
Minnesota wetlands have beenclassified into the following five types:
Type I seasonally flooded basins orflats
Shallow depressions, usually with-out vegetation, that contain water forshort periods in the spring. Most ofthese areas are cultivated wetlands thatwere once Type H. Typical summervegetation includes foxtails, smart-weed, barnyard grass, and redtop.
Type II fresh meadows
Shallow depressions holding waterup to 12 inches deep after spring run-off, but generally losing surface waterby June. The rest of the season the soilremains saturated within a few inchesof the surface. Vegetation is character.ized by sedges, whitetop grass, andbur-reed.
Type III shallow fresh marshes
Marshy depressions containing upto 12 inches of water until June orearly July, after which they may losemost surface water. However, the soilremains waterlogged the rest of thegrowing season. These areas have insuf-ficient water depth during the growingseason to prevent invasion by emer-gent vegetation. Typical plants are bul-rush, cattail, whitetop grass, andsedges.
Type IV deep fresh marshes
Marsh areas similar to Type HI,but with sufficient depth during the
3130
growing season to have open water.This open water generally supportssubmerged aquatic plants.
Type V open fresh water
Open water area with emergentvegetation restricted to a narrow bor-der.
Ducks prefer Type IV wetlands.Such wetlands provide the best breed-ing and feeding habitat. Ducks useType V areas to brood in midsummerand late summer when less permanentmarshes begin to dry out.
1. Preserving Existing Wetlands
Protect all wetlands from furtherditching and draining. Type IVwetlands, especially, should also beprotected from grazing. This canbe done by fencing the perimeter.Alternate watering sites can beprovided for domestic animals.Fencing can insure light grazing orno grazing on adjacent nestingcover. A marsh or slough shouldnever be burned except whenbrush and shrub have made theshoreline useless for waterfowl.
2. Creating Wetlands
Wetland areas can sometimes becreated or restored by water con-trol structures. Wetland types I, II,and III, that are presently too shal-low or which lack water entirelyduring much of the summer, canbe improved by a structure. Agrass border should be maintainedaround these wetland develop.ments to provide nesting cover andto prevent erosion.
Open water may be created indense marsh vegetation by a drag-line or by blasting. A dragline willdo an excellent job where largeaccessible areas are to be de-veloped. When smaller areas are tobe restored or where the site is notaccessible to a dragline, blasting issuggested. Use of ammoniumnitrate and fuel oil (AN/FO) ex-plosives is an inexpensive methodof improving many marsh areas.however, blasting should never beattempted without the advice andhelp of professionals.
Dugouts must contain at least500 square feet, but 1500 squarefeet is preferred. Dugouts shouldbe built in groups of at least fiveand located near a permaneni
Emergent vegetation along the shore-line offers food and cover forducklings.
waterfowl marsh or lake. Theaverage depth should be 2 .o 3 feetwith a maximum depth of 5 feet.Gradually sloping shorelines arcmost desirable. Deep holes withsteep banks have little value.
A Soil Conservation Servicetechnician will make a feasibilitycheck to determine if a project iseligible for ASCS cost-sharing. TheSCS can also provide engineeringservices. The area game managermust approve the project whenassistance is provided by theMinnesota Department of NaturalResources.
3. Providing Loafing Sites
Ducks use sites such as muskratho uses to loaf, preen theirfeathers, and congregate. In somecases, diving ducks and grebes mayuse these dry areas for nestingsites. On newly created or on old,deficient water areas, floating orstationary loafing sites can be con-structed. Structures may rangefrom elaborate floating rafts tosimple cut logs.
Suggested Reading(Refer to list at end of this publication):
10. Wildlife Habitat Improvement
11. Blasting with Ammonium NitrateFuelOil Mixture for Improving MarshHabitat
24. Pothole Blasting for Wildlife
C. Duck Egg Salvage
This procedure is the same as forpheasants. Days required for incuba-tion depend upon the length of timethe eggs were incubated by the hen.
A federal permit must be obtainedto incubate and hatch wild duck eggs.Contact the local conservation officer(game warden) to obtain the permit.
Suggested Reading
(Refer to list at end of this publication)
13. From Egg to Chick
._;;A44`:,',rut
.70,115.7.1 -3 Akin.
D. Raising and Releasing MallardDucklings
Raising and releasing mallard duckshas been extremely popular. Com-bined with a habitat improvementproject, it can be a valuable educa-tional experience.
However, this type of program haslimitations. From the standpoint ofwaterfowl management, raising and re-leasing ducklings is justified only as:
1. A method to introduce birdsto a newly created habitatmanagement unit to reestablisha local population;
A method to supplement a de-pleted population where goodhabitat exists;
3. An expensive "put and take"method of providing birds forhunters.Without adequate nest-ing cover and wetland areas,ducks cannot maintain rnaturally self-sustaining pop-ulation.
Because of these three considera-tions. raising and releasing mallardducklings should be accompanied by ahabitat improvement project. After ahabitat plan has been developed, con-sult the State Department of NaturalResources' local Area Game Managerto review the plans. December orJanuary is a good time.
The following procedures areessential for successful mallard raisingand releasing:
7,
9*-131 t..)4
1. The raising facilities should beinspected by the Area GameManager before receiving birds.The facilities should conformto these specifications:
a. A 10 x 12 foot brooderhouse should be provided.
b. Outside pens should belarge enough to provide 5square feet per bird. One-inch mesh poultry fencingshould cover and surroundthe pen area. The side fenc-ing should be lied 6inches into the ground.
c. A swimming area at least 4feet square and 6 inchesdeep should be provided.
At least 26 percent proteinfood should be used.
3. Ducklings shguld be released inType III, IV, or V wetlandareas or in other areas ap-proved by the local gamemanager.
4. Each unit should be limited to30 ducklings.
5. Keep complete records.Sample record forms areshown in figures 8 and 9.
Suggested Reading
(Refer to list at end of this publication):
5.A Minnesota Guide to Raising andReleasing Mallards
22. Mallard Release Program of the Minne-sota FFA
7.
IV. DEER AND RUFFED GROUSE PROJECTS
A. Northern Forested Area
Generally, white-tailed deer and ruffedgrouse requirements overlap. A habitatand timber management programgeared to either one will usually ben-efit the other.
I. Timber Harvest -- Even-Ageand Selective Cutting
Owners of small tracts (50- JOacres) can produce the best wild-life habitat by cutting to developeven-age blocks on three-fourthsof their land and by selectively cut-ting the remaining one-fourth.
Even-age management is clear-cutting to establish trees of dif-ferent ages in separate blocks. Inselective cutting management, onlytrees of a certain age (or species)are harvested. This results in amixed stand of large, medium, andsmall trees.
Figure 10 shows an aspeneven-age cutting program to ben-efit ruffed grouse. Each cuttingblock is 5 acres (330 x 660 feet).If larger areas are cut for economicreasons, the blocks should belonger from north to south, butnot wider from east to west. When-ever possible, keep male aspenrather than female trees. Theflower buds of male aspen arealmost exclusively preferred bygrouse as a winter food source.
Clear-cutting aspen stands,together with their understorieswhere balsam fir occurs, also pro-vides much deer browse from re-generating young sprouts. White-tails will not fully use cuttingslarger than 40 acres. The value ofaspen sprouts for deer is highestthe first 3 to 5 years.
Table 2 illustrates initial aspencuttings per square mile to meet
Table 2. Clear-cut openings recommended for deer and ruffed grouse
Population of Deer(per square mile)
11 to 2021 to 3031 to 4041 to 50
Recommended Area to be Cut(per square mile)
20 acres or more40 acres or more
100 acres or more200 acres or more
the needs of the estimated deerpopulation.
In most areas of Minnesota, a20- to 40-acre cut per square mileof forest is adequate once every 3to 5 years. Cut close to known orpotential winter deeryards.
2. Controlled Burning
In r...my cases, controlled burningis better than clear-cutting becausewood ashes add nutrients to thesoil. Burning also removes groundlitter and slash. These are obstaclesto deer and grouse. Burning stimu-lates browse species such as cher-ries, dogwood, blueberries, andmany others.
Controlled burning shouldnever be attempted without super-vision by professional wildlife andforestry personnel.
3. ReforestationThe following practices benefitwildlife and are recommended ifreforestation is planned:
a. Plant several species ofconifers to produce diversecover;
b. Intersperse cover types byreplanting in small blocks.Leave strips between plan-tations. This will benefit
Figure 10. Even-age cutting program for aspenThis is an idealized aspen cutting program to benefit ruffed grouse. Each cutting block is u acres (330 x 660 feet). If larger areasneed to be cut for economic reasons, they should be longer north and south, but not wider east and west. Leave scattered clumpsof birch and/or ironwood. The presence of other tree species within the clear-cut area decreases the value of the habitat for thesebirds and will suppress aspen regeneration. Cutting programs should favor male aspen clones in preference to female clones.
O
O
First tutting - cigar out omenand most other trees.
Cut 10 - years later.
Cut 20 - years later.
Cut 30-years toter and 10years offer this the firstcuttings should be recut.
1/8
660
1/4 rni.
1320 ft.
3332
wildlife and reduce dangerof widespread crown firesin conifer plantations;
c. Create wildlife openings byplanting clover on trailsand firebreaks in the areacleared for reforestation;
d. If openings cannot bemaintained, reserve a
buffer zone so trees cangrow between the plantedarea and the natural stand.
4. Special Practices
For species of wildlife which havea small home range (such as ruffedgrouse), small landowners canoften provide all habitat require-ments. For game with a large homerange (such as deer), a landownermay not be able to supply all re-quirements. But he could stillimprove conditions by the follow-ing practices:
a. Openings On small tractsof land, 5 or 6 openfields of 1/2 to 1 acre canbe legumes. The fields aremixed with 80 acres ofwooded area. This providesan ideal habitat manage-ment unit for grouse. Thiscombination is also idealfor white-tailed deer.
Small fields in standsof large conifers are notrecommended for grouse.Such openings may allowhawks and owls to concealtheir attacks on birds usingthe open areas.
Cutting and burningopenings have already beendescribed. Bulldozing andherbicide spraying are twoother techniques. Herbi-cides should be usedcautiously because of po-tential danger to wildlife.
b. Trails Trails provideanother form of opening.They improve game habi-tat, provide hunter access,and aid in game harvest.
A good place for a trailis across a south-facingslope just above a brushy(alder or willow) lowland.Here it will provide dustingand sunning areas for
Figure 11. Improvement of lowland deer yardingareas
Cut.1. 10 Cur.CD 1S0 S.X.L. sht. is
CULL V1C.. .0 ASK w
ADJACENT AREA
A
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DO 140T CUT BALSAM, PINE, SPRUCE, ALDER, HAZEL, ORCOMMERCIAL TIMBER.
Deeryard improvement through winter browsecutting in lowland yarding areas having white cedaror balsam cover.
grouse, encourage growthof food-producing plants,and provide a place wheresnow will pile deeply for asafe snow burrow roost.Such a trail increases hunt-ers' chances to flush grousecoveys before these birdsmove to the uplands in latefall.
c. Emergency Winter Cr a:. ofDeer If the land containsa traditional wintering"deeryard," cutting naturalbrowse in and ',round theyard is the best method toincrease the deer foodsupply. Cutting will pro-vide food for immediateuse and will stimulatestumps to sprout. Thus,food conditions are im-proved for future years.
Minnesota yardingareas are divided into threetypes: white cedar swamps;other lowland yards; andupland yarding areas.
9/11033
White cedar swampsare traditionally wheredeer concentrate in winter.Some of these swampshave been so heavilybrowsed that they nowprovide little preferreddeer food. Cutting cedartrees which are deformed,crooked, rotted, and whichotherwise are not market-able can help. Cuttingbrush and young hard-woods can also be helpful,but this should be donewithin 100 yards of theyard's upland edge (seefigure 11).
Upland yarding areasare dense stands of balsamfir or other conifers whichprovide winter cover.Enough hardwoods arewithin or along the edgesof the areas to provide win-ter food. Hardwood cut-tings should be made in
Figure 12. Improvement of upland deer yarding areas
COrates Srmaur0
.rw10-1r%4,Cur ..us.
ao tARDS
ADJACENT AREA UPLAND YARD
14 -'11-17tAS1j'NC.4
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DO NOT CUT EVERGREENS, HAZEL, OR COMMERCIAL TIMBER.
Deeryard improvement through winter browse cuttingin uplano yarding areas of balsam, spruce, or pine.
and along the edge of suchconifer stands. The balsamfir is of greater value ascover than as food (seefigure 12).
Other lowland deer-yards are primarily balsamtrees which provide coverand some food. Within andaround such yards' perim-eters, cutting hardwoods,birch, and brush will in-crease the food supply.
When cutting emer-gency browse, use theseprocedures.
White cedar Sincethis species seldom re-generates, only a fewbranches should be prunedfrom commercial-qualitytrees. Crooked, hollow, orrotted trees may be cut.
Brushy plants Formountain maple, red osierdogwood, other dogwoods,willow, elderberry, andsumac, cut all stems having
no usable deer browsefrom ground level to aheight of 5 feet. Thesestems usually 1 inch ormore in diameter shouldbe cut as close as possibleto the ground or snow. Ifthey are still beyond thereach of deer, the topsshould be completelyfelled and trimmed.
Browse trees Heavystands or multiple sk ns ofwhite birch, red maple,sugar maple, _aspen, oak,basswood, or ash can bethinned. Cut unmarketabletrees first.
Do not cut alder, hazel,or evergreens other thanwhite cedar. Alder isstarvation food and hazel isonly rated fair.
B. Agricultural Areas
Where agricultural lands are by mixedstands of basswood, sugar maple, elm,and oak, the woodlots should bemanaged intensively for both woodand wildlife.
3435
I. Timber Harvest
To manage oak for game:a. Insure a continuing supply
of 40- to 80-year-oldvigorous, full-crownedoaks. At least 15 oaks,averaging 14 inches indiameter at breast height,are necessary per acre forhigh acorn production;
b. Allow 10 oaks per acrewithin a mile of deeryards
the total acreage shouldbe equivalent to the num-ber of deer in the yard crt the size of the yard;
c. Lc ! a ratio of three redoaks to one white oak (buroak in Minnesota) neardeeryards and two red oaksto one white oak in sum-mer range;
d, _Leave the oaks at higherelevations. Cut those onlower sites to reducechance of frost damage toacorn production.
2. Winter Food
In intensive agricultural areas, cornis a favored deer food. The samewinter food patches planted forpheasants may be used by deer. Ifthis is the case, larger food plotsshould be used.
3. Winter Cover
Woody cover plots recommendedfor pheasants may be used bywhitetails. Local deer populationscan increase if a diversity of foodand cover exists.
Suggested Reading(Refer to list at end of this publication):
2. Forest Game Habitat Improvement
4. Trees in Minnesota
6. Minnesota Plan for Emergency WinterCare of Deer and for Deer Yard Im-provement
10. Wildlife Habitat Improvement
15. Native Trees and Shrubs of Value forPlanting in Minnesota to Provide Nutsand Fruits for Wildlife
17. Recommendations for Management ofRuffed Grouse Habitat in NorthernMinnesota
27. "New Homes for Prairie Ducks."(Nesting Basket plans.) 1970.Northern Prairie Wildlife ResearchCenter. 6 pp.
G. Publications available from local bookstores or library:
28. "American Wildlife and Plants, AGuide to Wildlife Food Habits."1951. By Alexander C. Martin, Her-bert S.Zim, and Arnold L. Nelson.Dover Publications, New York. 500PP-
29. "Our Wildlife Legacy." 1954. ByDurward L. Allen. Funk and Wag -r.,ils New York.
30. "A Sand County Almanac." 1949.By Aldo Leopold. Oxford UniversityPress, New York. 269 pp.
31. 'Wildlife Management and Conserve.tion." 1964. By James 8. Trefethan.D.C. Heath and Co., Boston. 110 pp.
H. Publications available from:
Conservation DepartmentWinchesterWestem DivisionOlin Mathieson Chemical Corpora-tionEast Alton, Illinois 62024
32. "Ruffed Grouse." 1969. By JohnMadson. Winchester Press. 103 pp.$1.00
33. 'The Mallard." 1963. By John Mad-son. Winchester Press. 80 pp. $1.00
34. "The Ringnecked Pheasant." 1969.By John Madson. Winchester Press.104 pp. $1.00
'Available only fromDivision of Game and FishMinn. Dept. of Natural ResourcesCentennial Building'St. Paul, Minnesota 53155
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Pheasants need more food and better winter cover to increase in Minnesota. This bulletin suggests ways to meet the needs ofpheasants and other wildlife.
4-H Bulletin 4
t tt...1,tm. tnwnt of
55101 JJ offer our
Agricultural Extension Service University of Minnesotau-,,tt we extension work in agriculture and home economics, acts of May 8 and JuCIP 30, 1914, in cooperation with the
Agricuiture )foland Abraham. 13nector Agric.ultural Extension Service, University of M,nnesula, St Paul, Minliesotautograins arid facilities to all people without regard to race, creed, color, sex, or national origin,
