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EC 161 149

Helge, Doris, Ed.Rural Special Education.ERIC Clea?inghouse on Handicapped and Gifted ,

Children, Reston, Va.National Inst. of Education (ED), Washington, DC.84.

400-81-0031.104p.The Council for Exceptional Children, 1920Association Dr., Reston, VA 22091-1589 (55.00 singlecopy).Information Analyses ERIC Information AnalysisProducts (071) -- 43) Collected Works Se.riaExceptional Children; v50 n4 Jan 1984

MF01/PC05 Plus Postage.*Delivery Systems; *Disabilities; Educational Needs;*Educational Technology; Elementary SecondaryEducation; *Gifted; Program Developmenti-"-RegionalPlanning; *Rural Education; *Special Education;Teacher Education; Volunteers

ABSTRACT ,

This special issue of the journal ExceptionalChildren has the theme "Rural Special Education." Nine articles dealwith this thee as follows: (1) "The State of the Art of RuralSpecial Education" (by D. Helge), looks at recent improvements,'remaining challenges, and current functioning; policy recommendationsare offered for national and state policy makers; (2) "GenericProblems or Solutions in Rural Special Education" (by L. Marrs)suggests that though certairt problems are universal in rural areas'there is no agreement regarding generalizable solutions which will

,

work in all rural areas; (3) "Regional Rural Special EducationPrograms--A Case Study of Problems, Practices, and Positive Steps,"(by K. Kirmer et al), uses ,the Central Kansas Cooperative inEducation as an example of how\central beliefs, early structuringdecisions, and operating proced4res have aided in dealing with therural regional special education.delivery problems; (4) "ModelsiforServing Rural Children with Low Incidence Handicapping Conditions"(by D. Helge) stresses that there is no single appropriate ruralservice delivery model and, delineates factors that must be consideredby the rural service delivery/model planner; (5) "Providing forlRuralGifted Children within an AsSortmeMt of Services Model" (by G. Gear)notes the problems of programming for gifted students when numharsare low and stress's tho need for staff to innovate and use existingcommunity. resources; (6-) "A;Band Wagon without Music--Preparing*uralSpecial Educators" (by L. Marrs) notes the irrelevance of many 4

traditional special educatOr preparation programs and identifiescompetencies and curriculuM elements which should be in preserviceprograms; (7) "Technological Tools for Rural Special Education" (byA. Hofmeister) notes the po ential of the new technologies if ruraleducators prepare themselves to capitalize on the advantages andavoid the problems they offer; (8) "Technologies in Rural SpecialEducation Problem Solvers--A Status Report and Successful Strategies"(by D. Helge) discusses appliations or instructional sppport,direct instruction, management;, and staff development. The finalpaper; (9) "Should a Special Educator EntertainVolunteers--Interdependence in Rural Amerjca" (L. Marrs) describesthe National Rural Independent Living Network and suggests strategiesfor designing a volunteer prograni, for recruiting and trainingvolunteers, and for linking volunteers with disabled persons. (DB)

JANUARY 1984.

-RittalT peCig ucation

2

U S DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION, NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF EDUCATIONEDUCATIONAL RESOURCES INFORMATIOU

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Exceptional ChildrenOfficial journal of The Council for Exceptional Children, 1920 Association Drive, Reston, Virginia 22091-1589*

EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN

June B. Jordan, EditorBlume B. Weiner, Assistant EditorJill Winter, Assistant EditorSharon Tracy, Production EditorJean N. Nazzaro, Department Editor, CEC ERIC's

NewsfroutHoward H. Spicker, Department Editor, In BriefFrank H. Wood, Department Editor, Media ReviewsCharles C. Cleland, Department Editor, Research in

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June B jorfigo, Editor in ChiefGale S. AdSnis, Director of Advertising and

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CEC PUBLICATIONS COMMITTEE

huly'Smith-Davis (Chairperson), Counterpoint t:om-munications Company, Reno, Nevada; T. TimothyGrowner, Department of Educational Administra-tion, San Diego State University, California; PamelaGillet, Executive Director, Northwest Suburban Spe-cial Education Organization, Palantine, ll,linois;Stanley A. Perkins, Professor. Department of Educa-tional Psychology and Special Education, Universityof British Columbia, Vancouver;.Mary S. Poplin,Assistant Professor, Faculty of Education, ClaremontGraduate Scimol, California; Joyce Van Tassel-Baska, Director, Northwestern University MidwestTalent Search: Evanston, Illinois': Paul Wehman,Associate Professor,.School of Education, VirginiaComrrionwealth University, Richmond; Frank H.Wood, Professor and Coordinator, Special EducationPrograms. Department of Psychoeducational Stud-ies, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis.

ASSOCIATE EDITORS /Kippy I. Abroms, Nicholas J. Anastasiow, LeonardBaca, Walter B. B'arbe, Jack I. Bardon, Natalie C.Barraga, Frances W. Beck, Ernest NI. Bernal, Linda P.Blanton, Burton Blatt, Boris E. Bogatz, Diane Bricker,Susan Brody-Hasazi, Wesley Brown! Lynda' M. Bull-ock, Leo F. Cain, Carolyn NI. Callahan, Robert L.Carpenter, Walter J. Cegelka, Frances L. Clark, Lau-rence J. Colenikt, Sara E. Conlon, Eugene 13. Cooper,Raymond S. Cottrell, Nancy Creekmore, Walter N.Creekmore, Bruno J. D'Alonzo: John P. DiBacce, JohnM. Dunn, Mary K. Dykes, Ronald C. Eaves, RichardA. Figueroa. Albert H. Fink, William Formaad,Thomas A. Frank, Kenneth D. Gadow, James Gal-lagher, Raymond P. Garris, Robert Gaylord-Ross,Larry Geffen, Ronald Goldman, Herbert Goldstein,Chester E. Gorton, Steve Graham, Stephen Green-span. Judith K. Grosenick, Jerry. C. Gross, Michael J.Guralnick, Thomas G. Haring, Charlotte Hawkins-

290

Shepard, Marne!! L. Hayes, Doris Helge, Harold W.Keller, Robert Henderson, William L. Heward, DavidS. Hill, Alfred Hirshoren, Charles J. Horn, OliverLeon Hurley, Shyla M. Ipsen, Joseph R. Jenkins, RevaJenkins-Friedman, Leon E. Johnson; Marilyn J. John-son, Joseph S. Kersting, Donald Kline, Peter Knob-loch, Charles J. Kokaska:Patricia Kuchon, John Lan-gone, Stephen C. Larsen, Stephen Lilly, Jimmy D.Lindsey, Steven R. Lyon, Sheldon Maron, NI. C.Martinson, Joan C. Maynard, James McCarthy, HiramL. McDade, Phillip J. McLaughlin, Frank J. Menolas-cino, Ted L. Miller. William C. Morse, June B.Mullins, Charles W. Norman. Thomas J. O'Toole,Beverly N. Parke, Edward .Polloway, Mary Poplin,James A. Poteet. Herbe0 Prehm, Joseph S. Renzulli:Maynard C. Reynolds,' Terry L. Rose,. Stefi Rubin,Robert B. Rutherfori, David-A. Sabatino, HildegardSchaer, Jeffrey Schilit, Janice NI. Schnorr, GeraldineT. Scholl, Edward W. Schultz, Dorothy J. Sievers,Paul T. Sindelar, Edmond J. Skinski, David A. Sobel,Donald J. Stedman, Les Sternberg, William W. Swan;Jon D. Swartz, John NI. Taylor, David W. Test, S.Kenneth Thurman, Arthurlene G. Towner, Al Tudy-man, Jacqueline T. Walker, Gerald Wallace, VirginiaWalter, Margaret C. Wang, Gertrude M. Webb, War-ren J. White, Ronald Wiegerink, Judy A. Wilson,Douglas E. Wiseman, James Ysseldyke, Robert H.Zabel, Sydney S. Zentall

EXCEPTIONAL, CHILDREN Vol. 50, fro. 4, January1984. Copyright 1984 by The Council for Exception-al Children. Any signed article. iS the personalexpression of the authorl-likewise, any advertise-ment is the responsibility of-the advertiser. Neithernecessarily carries'Council endorsement unless spe-cifically set forth by adopted resolution. The Councilfor Exceptional Children retains literary propertyrights on copyrighted articles. Up to 100 copies ofthe articles in this jotimal may be reproduced fornonprofit distribution 'without permission from thepublisher. All other forms of reproduction requirepermission from the Publisher.

EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN [ISSN 0014-4029] ispublished 6 times a year in September, October,November, January, February, and April, by TheCouncil for Exceptional Children, 1920 AssociationDrive, Reston, Virginia 22091-1589. Members' duesto The Council fpr Exceptional Children include$11.00 for annual' subscription to EXCEPTIONALCHILDREN and $7.50 for TEACHING EXCEPTION-AL CHILDREN. Subscription to EXCEPTIONALCHILDREN is available without membership; U.S.,$25.00 per year; Canada, PUAS, and all other coun-tries, $29.00; single copy price is $5.00. U.S. secondclass postage is paid at Herndon, Virginia 22070 andadditional mailing offices. Canadian postage is paidat Niagara Falls, Ontario, under second class permitNo. 9332.

Postmaster: Send address changes to CEC, 1920Association Drive, Reston, Virginia 22091-1589,

January 1984

The Council for Exceptional Children

EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE

President: Lyno-il M Bullock (1984); President-Elect: Joseph P. Gaughan (1985); First /Vice Presi-dent: Michael Grimes (1986); Governors at Large:

" Jeanette Misaka (19B4); Arthurlene Towner (1986);US Governors at Large: Lester L. Martisko (1985):David C. Roels (1985); William R. Littlejohn (1986);Gladys Clark-Johnson (1984); Canadian Governor atLarge: Marry Dahl (146).

CANADIAN EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE

Kathryn Ross, President; Ray Meiklejohn, President-Elect; Earl Campbell, Vice President; Carrie Brodie,Past President; Donald Warren, Treasurer and Exec-utive Secretary.

STUDENT CEC

President: Randall Bo.yles; Vice Presidents:Commit-tees, Kar n Jackson; Programs, Christine Valle: Pub-lication.. Laura Stutzman; Communications,\MarieDalle; E ecutive Vice Pr'esident: Thomas Foote.\

CEC DIVISION PRESIDENTS

A. Edward BlaCkhurst, Teacher Education Division;Joyce Choate, Council for Educational DiagnosticServices: Bruno D'Alonzo, Division on Career Devel-opment; Karlene Duke. ,,Divisi'on for PhysicallyHandicapped; Barbara Gay Ford, The Association'for the Gifted; Bea Gold. Division for Early Child-hood; Sister Maria Grant, Division for Learning Dis:abilities; David Greenburg, Council of Administra-tors of Special Education; Steven Ipber, Council forChildren with Behaviorai Disorders; Myrna Olson,Division for ,the Visually Handicapped; Thomas J.O'Toole, Division for Children with CommunicationDisorder's; Stanley H. Zucker, Division on MentalRetardation.

Exceptional Children

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291

CONTENTS ,

VOLUME 50, NUMBER 4, JANUARY, -1984

4

SPECIAL TOPICAL ISSUE: RURAL SPECIA[L EDUCATION

294 The State of the Art of Rural Special EducationDoris Helge

306 Regional Rural Special Education ProgramsKarol Kilmer, Lloyd Lockwood, WO Hick ler, and Patricia Sweeney

313 Models for Serving Rural Students with Low-Incidence HandicappingConditionsDoris Helge I

326 Providing Services for Rural Gifted ChildrenGayle Hay Wood Gear

334 vA Bandwagon Without Music: Preparing Rural Special EducatorsLawrence W. Marrs

344 Technological Tools for Rural Special EducationAlan M. Hofmeister

351 Technologies as Rural-Special Education Problem Solvers',Doris Helge

361 Should a Special Educator Entertain Volunt9ers?4nterdependence in 'RuralAmericaLaWrence W. Marrs

368 Rural Special Education Services, Activities, and Products

374 MEDIA REVIEWS

379 PROFESSIONAL OPPORTUNITIES

380 INDEX TO ADVERTISERS

381 CEC ERIC'S NEMSFRONT

292 January 1904/

4:1

ERIC Rural Special Education

.guest.Editor: Doris Helge

i<4"?'

. .

Providing special education services to rural handicapped and gifted students is the ',focus of this special cssue of Exceptional Children. Dr. Dbris Helge, as Guest Editor, ,"

planned, developed, and also contributed to its content. Dr. Helge is Executive Director,American Council on Rural Special Education and Director. Center for Innovation andDevelopment, College of Human Development and Learning, Murray State Univers

.

Murray, Kentucky. , .

This material on rural special education was developed as a product of thClearinghouse on Handicapped and Gifftd Children pursuant to contract number81-0031 with the National Institute of Education, U.S. Department of Education.

Statement of PurposeExceptional Childrenv'the 'official journal of The Council for aceptionalChildren, publishes manuscripts on professional issues of concern to special.

"&lucators in addition to those directly pertaining to exceptional studenteducation. Articles appropriate for publication fo. us on data-based researchwith implications for exceptional student education; state of the art papers ontrends, issues, practices, programs, and -Aces; position statements on specifictheories; articles outlining public policy and itsimpact on the education of ,handicapped and gifted individuals; and articles addressing futuristic aspects ofspecial education. The journal a,lso reports on official actions taken by thegoverning bodies of CEC.

Selection of manuscripts is made on the basis of importance of topic;accuracy and validity of contents; novelty of tpchniques; contribution to theprofessional literature; adequacy of research; implications for special education;originality; and quality of writing. Author guidelibes are available at theHeadquarters address.


8

293

.

ERIC

The. State of the Art of RuralSpecial EducationDORIS HELGE

Abstract: Rural schools comprise themajority Of the nation's school systemsand are extremely diverse. Althoughtremendous improvements in servicedelivery have occurred since theimplementation of Public Law 94-142,considerable problems remain. Thisarticle provides an overview ofi-iiproveruents, remaining challenges, and

current functioning. Problems withcurrent research trends and the need forquality research regarding rural specialeducation are addressed. Differencesbetween rural and urban service deliverysystems and the roles of rural specialeducation collaboratives are discussed.Policy recommendations are offered fornational and state policy Makers.

.DORIS HELGE is Dicector, National RuralResearch Project. Murray StateUniversity, Murray, Kentucky.

294

THE UNIQUENESS OF THE RURALSPECIAL EDUCATION CONTEXT

II Rural schools have distinct educational en-vironments and unique- strengths and weak-nesses. For example, rural areas have muchhigher proverty levels than.nonrural areas, andrural schools serve greater percentages ofhandicapped children. Even though rural pc p-ulations are increasing, their tax bases are not..Rural schools contribute greater percentages oftheir local resources for education. However,rural services cost more than similar servicesin urban areas because of expensiv94actorsincluding transportation requirements andscarce professional resources. On the positiveside, rural America still has a relatively hightrust factor, close family ties, and a "sense of,community." In fact, rural citizens still evi-

s dence a willingness to volunteer to help thesewith disabilities.

A.

gai

THE DIVERSITY WITHIN _

AMERICA'S RURAL SCHOOLS

Rural subcultures vary tremendously. Theyrange geographically from remote islands.anddeserts to clustered communities, and eco-.nomically from Stable classic farm communi-ties to depress lower socioeconomic settingsand high-growth "boom or bust" communities.The array of rural schools ranges from isolatedschools serving as few as 1 to 10 children in alocation miles from the nearest schooldistridt, to .schools located in small clusteredtowns or surrounded by other small districts.

The problems of gerving a cerebral palsiedr4 child in a remote area with no physical, occu-

pational, or speech therapist, and where 250miles exist between that child and the nextcerebral palsied child, are quite different fromproblems encountered in a' more clustered ru-ral area where the chkef barrier to servicedelivery is administrative apathy. ObvionSly,

January 1984

location haS tremendous implications for prox-imity to resources, espe ially highly special-iZed services such as ph 'cal or occupationaltherapy.

7-rikt LIS e 1 may be he,lpful in conceptualizingthe diversity of rural America's school sys-tems. Each of the variables listed has individ-ual ramifications for service delivery. For ex-ample, the administrative structure has impli-cations for securing extra-school resources. Adistrict that' is part of a cooperative can usuallyobtain the services of an occupational therapistmore easily than can a single isolated district.

High (e.g.. clustered small towns)

POPULATION DENSITY

Low (e.g.. remote locations)

ER COMMUNITY AND DISTRICTIABLES

District administrative structureGeographic barriers to servicesEthnic groups representedMajor religions practicedLanguages spokenSocioeconomic groups representEd;degree of poverty.Average age of residentsPrevalence of various disabilitiesCommunity services and otherresources availableDistances to services that areunavailable locallyClimatic variables that affect travelHistory of community attitudestoward individuals with disabilitiesHistory of special education serviicesCommunity communication andpower structuresDegree to which district collaborateswith other agenciesTransient student populatiOnspresent (e.g., migrant or military)Degree of support from stateeducation agency and other relevantagencidsDegree to which education is valuedAverage daily att6ndance

FIGURE 1. Dimensions of the diversity of ruralschool systems.

Two key variables of service delivery arepopulation density (Are there an adequatenumber of students with a given rliGability sothat a district can "afford" 'to hire a specialist?)arid topography (Does a-mountain with untra-versable roads at certain times of the year.inhibit transportation of services to students?)..Interaction of these two dimensions with thatof "other community and district Variables"further inclividualizes a district. Change of one .

variable in any of the three dimensions furtherdifferentiates a giv.en community from others.Because.this is an open model, the number ofpossible types of rural communities is infinite(... N). In fact, the National Rural. ResearchProject catalogued over 300 combinationswhen conducting on-site visits during 1978-1982`.

THE IMPACT OF INCONSISTENTDEpINITIONS

)6,One of the most significant obstacles to thor-oughly assessing the effectiveness of rural spe-cial education services has been'the absence ofa consistently applied definition' of the termrural among federal agencies, educators, andprofessional organizations. The inadequaciesof data avail ble to compare, rural and urbandistricts ma be partially attributed to theproblem of d fining rural education.

Most feder 1 agencies have no definition OFrequirements for gathering data on rural per-formance ve sus noniural performance. Dataon rural sc ools collected by the National.Center for Education StatistiCs (NOES) havefrequently been surrmnarized with data fromlarge schoOl districts. Furthermore, data havebeer considered unimportant and completelydeleted for districts which enroll under 300students. This has occurred in spite of the factthat 25% of the operating 'public schdol dis-tricts in the United/States enroll fewer than300 students each (Williams & Warf, 1978).The NCES did not initiate processes to reportdata on districts with feirer than 300 studentsuntil March of 1983.

Many data-gathering bodies have definedrural solely by using population figures. Un-fortunately, various data collection agenciesand students have used differentqiefinitions instudying rural school populations, dependingon the types of data being collected, the pur-poses for data collection, and staff and re-

. sources available..

Exceptional Children 295

1 0

A 'rural schbbl district has commonly beendefined as one having fewer than 1,000 stu-dents, although figures as high as 2,500 havefrequently been used. Population-based defini-tions of "rural" may inadvertently includenonruraf districts. For- example, if the localeducation'tgency (LEA) 'being classified islarge county school district, it may have alarger enrollment than 1,000 or even 2 500,Yetstill be very rural because of the spars4rOf itspopulatiOn. In addition; strictly defining aru-ral district as fewer than 1,000-6 even 2,500.students diay inadvertently result in the inclusion of suburban areas: One may readily ascer-tain some of ihe potential problems . whenspecial education cooperatives are being con-sidered. This is particularly true because of thehistorical emphasis on consolidation of ruraldistricts. A population-pet-square mile defini-tion is more functional wen though total geo-graphic square miles may differ.

ONE WORKING DEFINITION OF "RURAL"N

The following definition is based on a modi-fied census definition and consideration of thQtremendous diversity in rural schools andcommunities across the United States. Thisdefinition wets used in 1978-1983 researchprojects funded by the U.S. Office of SpecialEducation Programs (SEP) and conducted bythe INRP. While it is only one of many defini-tions of "rural," it has proven functional.

A,clistrict is considered rural when the number ofinhabitants is fewer than 150 per square mile orwhen located in counties with 60% or more of thepopulation living in communities no larger than5,000 Mhallitants. Districts with more than 10,000students\and those within a Standard Metropoli-tan Statistibal Area (SMSA), as determined by theU.S. Census Bureau, are not considered rural.

Use of this definition by a research projectdbes not exclude larger districts from poten-tially benefiting from project outcomes, Rath-er, it attempts to ensure that research findingswill be relevant for those districts that arewithin the parameters of the definition. Forexample, NRP research in 100 school districtsfrom 1978-1981 identified effective servicedelivery strategies appropriate for specifictypes of rural subcultures. To prevent the auto-matic assumption that a strategy would beviable in a similar subculture just because ithad been ,ffectively used by an LEA/Coopera-tive with arallel characteristics, districts were

296

paired by those that were effectively imple;menting Public, Law 94-142 and those thatwere not. Strategies found to be effective in iii.upper functioning district but which failed inanother district with similar community anddistrict variables were discardedfrom the core.of "pbtentially disseminable. strategies."

RURAL VS. URBANSPECIAL EDUCATIONSERVICE ENVIRONMENTS

For purposes of this discussion, the terns urbanwill be defined as "an area having an incorpo-rated city with at least 2,500 inhabitants or acity within a Standard Metropolitan StatisticalArea" (National Center for Education Statis-tics,,1978). This definition is fairly consistent-ly'u-sed among federal agencies.

There are at least two important caveats incomparing rural and urban communities andschool systems. First, even rural communitieswith the same population numbers, densities,etc., vary tremendously because of the varietyo community subcultures they contain. Sec-:o d, because of the controversies over defini-ti ns, it is useful to think of rural and urbanc aracteristics as being on a continuum: Issuesdifferentiating rural and urban school systems

\they attempt .,toN serve speeial educationpopulations are listed in Table 1.

THE NEED FOR QUALITY RESEARCH

Partially because of definitional lit-tle data collebtion occurred concerning ruraleducation or rural special education until thelate 1670's. Urban service delivery Modelshave historically been recommended an'd 'd un-

sucessfully appliRd to rural \schools. Praifticessuccessful ip one specific type orrural subcul-ture have also been transported,withoutladap-tation, to other rural subcultuies and havefailed. -

Recent studies funded by the U.S. Office ofSpecial Education .Programs (SEP) clarlyshowed that ruralspecial education servicedelivery strategies must be indiVidually de-sinned (Helge; 1981). It is also criticill thatresearch projects have a well structured Idefini-tion of "rural " rather than stating, as havesome recent studies, "you'll know when you'rethere because it ' will feel rural.:' No matterwhat definition is used, it is imperative todifferentiate betWeen rural and nonrural

11

January 1984

;schools. Only when there is a consistent frameof reference can one feel- comfortable notingand confronting "exceptions to the rule.-

The field should be wary of "studies" sam-pling a small population of rural schools andmaking broad-ranging generalizations or,worse yet; futuristic prophesies and policyrecommendations. Competent researchers ex-plain their attempts to.obtain adequate sam-ples, discuss the limitations of their. studiesand outline further research that is needed. Itis wily. then that limited conclusions areof-fered, based on evidence' to (late and with nolegitimate claim for generalizability of theconclusions.

.0 Interest in rural special, education is hur:-geoning. Numerous studies .proclaim discov-ery of the rural model. Others:are investigatingdistricts .and generalizing to cooperatives, 6rvice/versa. Practitioners and/personnel prepa-ration programs will ndt beheld from studiesthat involveinappropridte generalizations. Al-thore-444.rieral level hasyet to be spoken on theldefinition of "rural,-and although. national research with adequatesampling that clearly difThrentiates rural sub-cultures is relatively expensive, it is essential.

STATUS REPORT ON ,SERVICE DELIVERY

A study involving 75 school districts and co-operatives in 17 states was commissioned bythe SEP to compare services to rural handi-capped students before and after the imple-mentation of P.L. 94-142 (Helge, 1980). .

The sampled districts and cooperatives wereselected for' their geographic, cultural, andsocioeconomic representativeness. State edu-Cation agencies (SEA'S) had been requested toselect LEA's/cooperatives with widely variantperformance regarding P.L. 94-142 implemen-tation. Two-day onsite visits in eachdistrictinvolved interviews with persons at all levelsof the organization. Follow-up telephone inter-views gained additional information and de-tected divergent responsesduring ''crisis" androutine periods. Consistencies and discrepan-cies between SEA and LEA responses werealso noted:-

The sampled districts and cooperatives ex-hibited significant improvements in programsand services offered and indhe types and agesof handicapped students served. Achieve-ments included a 92% average increase in the

number of handicapped students identifiedand served since the passage of P.L. 94-142.

Table 2 indicates the percentage of variousservices before and after the implementation ofP.L. 94 -142. Column 3 of Table 'l indicates thepercentage of change in available services be-fore and aft& implementation. Percentages'change in the number of districts providingservices before and after implementationranged up to 1,525%. In a mifjority of the rural-schools sampled, -serviciiS' cactrasli-hysical and

-occupational therapy and programs for severe;ly handicapped students were in place for thefirst time. Procedures-for due proceSs, parentalinvolvement procedures, and individual-ized education programs (IEP's) had beenestablished.

In spite of this' progress, the sampled dis-tncts and cooperatives reported major prob-lems implementing P.L. 94-142. These includ-ed difficulties' recruiting and retainingqualified staff,, resistance to change, the needfor staff development, long distances betweenschools and serviCescultUrai differences, geo-graphic barriers, transportation and.funclirginadequacies; problems providing supportservices, and problems with interpreting P.L.94 -142 regulations in rural areas. These factorsaffeeteddistrict abilities to ensure proceduralsafeguard reqUiiereents, and to dtherwise fullyimplement the law.

AN UPDATE ONSERVICE DELIVERY PROBLEMS

In January, 1983. a telephone survey, fundedby the U.S. Office of Special-placation Pro-grams, was conducted to gather original dataand to update 1978 -1982 NRP studies. A totalof 200 special education administrators from200 rural local school systems and coopers-tives,lin all 50 states (4 from each state) wereinvolved. The.survey was designed to provide.a state-of-the-art synopsis of facets of ruralspecial education service delivery. Respon-dents alsoinclucled representatives of the Bu-reau of Indian Affairs (BIA), rural schools\(Helge, 1983),'

Respondents' were representative of variousrural economies, population densities, andtypes of organizational structures, \The studycovered topics including service deliveryproblems and effective strategies, personnelneeds, certification problems, strengths andweaknesses of rural special education person-

Exceptional Children 29?

12

a

TABLE 1

fpues Differentiating Rural and Urban School Systems as They Serve the Handicapped

Issues ro Rural Urban

Percent f school districts

Personnel turnover

Transportation

CommUnitystructure

Geography

flifficulties in serving specific

disabilities

z

Backlog of children for testing

Crrti

and placement

ACO

Communication

Two-thirds (67%) classified as rural

Commonly 30% to 50% among specialized personnel

such as speecliphysical, and occupational therapis..;

especially serious among itinerant personnel serving low-

incidence populatiohs

Interagency collaboration.hampered by long distances

.High costs

Climatic and geographic barriers to travel

Sense of "community spirit"

Personalized. environment

Problems include social and professional isolation, long

distances from services, and geographic barriers

Lowincidencelondicaps hardest toierve; integration of

mildly/moderately handicapped students more acceptable

than in urban schools

Results from lack of available services'(specialized

personnel, agency programs, funds, etc.) I

Mainly person to person

One-third (33%) classified'as metropolitan

More commonly involves superintendents and special

education directors (i.e., management personnel); teacher

turnover less than in rural schools

Problems primarily associated with desegregation issues

or which agency or bureaucratic structure is to pay for

transportation

Environment depersonalized except within inner-city

pockets of distinctive ethnic groups (several of which

may be incorporated into any one school system) .

Problems posed by logistics of city (e.g., negOtiating

transportation transfers, particularly for wheelchairs)

Adequate numbers of lowincidence handicapped

children typically allow studerits to be clustered for

services or for a specialist to be hired urbanienvironment

frequently not attitudinally as conducive to acceptance of

mainstreamed mildlyIrrioderately hancliCapped students

Results from bureaucratic and organizational barriers

Formal systems (e.g., written memos) frequently used

14

4

N

b.0.

Student body composition Small numbers of handicapped students in diverse ethnic

and linguistic groups pose difficulties for establishing

"programs" for bilingual or multicultural students

Difficulties in serving migrant handicapped students

because of low numbers and few appropriate resources

Qualified bilingual and multicultural personnel difficult

to recruit

Appropriate materials and.other resources typically

unavailable or inappropriate

Religious minorities frequently strong subcultures

Approach of relevant Generalists needed to perform a variety of tasks and teach

educational professionals a variety of ages, handicapping conditions, and subjects

Stude rQble s reported by Poor motivation; lack of educational goals and relatively

teachers lov values for formal education

Availability of technical Advanced technologies less oftercavailable, particularly

resources kill. student utse

Teacher qualifications SChools frequently forced to hire unqualified personnel

,via temporary certifications

More serious for rural than urban schools; related to low

salary levels, social and professional isolation, lack of

career ladders, long distances to travel, and conservatism

of rural communities

Causes of funding and policy Rural "advocates",fewer in number and therefore less

inequities vocal; sparse populations facilitate policies ignoring rural

problems

Personnel recruitment and

retention problems

(ss

Typically has a wide variety of ethnic and racial groups

Open student popti,lations pose challenges and service'

delivery complexities, but comprehensive multicultural

programs are feasible

Specialists needed to serve as experts on one topic area or

with one age group or disability

Discipline problems prevalent

Modern technologies more prevalent than in rural schools

and more available for use by students

Special educatols more likely to have advanced degrees

with an appropriate specialization

Problems regarding some types of teachers, but less than

in rural areas; school discipline, crime, violence,

pollution, impact retention, etc.

Separate but unequal school systems created by

government policies and funding mechanisms facilitating

areas with inadequate tax bases; existence of innercity

minority groups with little political clout facilitates

unequal treatment for urban handicapped children

Source; Helge, 1983

15

TABLE 2Percentage of Changes in Availability of Services Before and After the Implementation of P.L. 94-142 in

Rural School Systems (n = 75 districts and cooperatives)

Service CategoryBefore P.L.

94-142After 4.

94 -14PercentChange

No services for any handicappedstudents 0% ..".100*

No services for severely handicappedstudents 9% 88*

No services for 16 to 21-year-oldhandicapped §tudents 27% 1% 96*

No health services 19% 0% 100Services for 3 to 4-year-olds 7% 63% +743*Services for 19 to 20-yearfo 36% 7.2% +100*Services for multihandicapped 0% 47% **Services fdr physically handicapped 7% 47% +571*Services for visually handicapped 17% 57% +235*Services for emotionally disturbed 9% 52% +478*Qervices for hearing impaired 25% 60% +140*arvices for learning disabled 27% 79% +193*

'\-+*Significant at the .05sievel**Increase infinite: statistic cannot be calculatedSource: Helge, 1980

nel preparation programs, and emerging tech-nologies related to programs for rural handi-capped students. An overview of some of themere significant findings is presented in thesections that follow:

Major Problems Identified

-Table 3 illustrates major problems identifiedby respondents when asked to slate in rankorder the greatest prOblems faced by theirdistricts/cooperatives as they attempted toserve rural students with handicaps. _

Major service delivery probleMS identifiedin this study were relatively consistent withthose found in the National '; ComparativeStudy (Helge, 1980) funded by Pie SEP. The.major noteworthy differences were increasesin the percentages of respondents namingfunding inadequacies (up from) 56% to 74%),transportation inadequacies (14) from 34% to60 %), and difficulties providtng services tolow-incidence handicapped populations. (upfrom .39% to 52%).

Respondents said the following factors wereprimarily responsible for theSe significant in-creases: (a) fiscal inflation; (la) increased -num-bers of handicapped stude9ts identified and

300

served (a 92% increase after implementation ofP.L. 94-142); (c) a sufficient period of timeelapsing since initiation of P.L. 94-142 to de-termine services needed and to experimentwith provisions of the IEP; and (d) tremendousrevenue, shortfalls and other funding problemsexperienced by numerous states and impover-,ished rural communities.

Personnel Needs

Respondents were asked, "What special edu-cation and supportive positions are most need-

"1 ed in your district but are nonexistent, un-filled, or not funded (cut back because fundingfor a position was rescinded)?" Table 4 indi-cates responses to this question.

Respondents generally reported that low:incidence /itinerant positions (including physi-cal, occupational, and speech therapists) weremost often needed but did not exist. Personnelrecruitment and retention problems (noted tobe a major problem by 66% and 64%, respec-tively, of thosesampled) were directly relatedto the descriptions of special education andsupport personnel needed. Only 17% of thedistricts/cooperatives surveyed related thatthey had,an adequate number of special educa-

1 7

januaryi1984

TABLE 3

Major Problems in ServingRural Handicapped Students

n = 200

Problem, Percent.

Funding inadequaciesDifficulties recruiting qualified staffDifficulties retaining qualified staff

Transportation inadequaciesProviding services to low-incidence

handicapped populationsNeed for staff developmentResistance to changeProviding support servicesNegative attitudes of school

personnel and com nities toward

'handicapped studentsLong distances between schools

and servicesInvolving parentsProfessional isolationClimatic problems and mafsginal roadsVq;oblems of geographic terrain

Cultural differencesDifficulties involved in serving

transient populationsPosthigh school servicesInadequate facilitiesFoster care inadequaciesPlanning difficulties because of "boom

or bust" economies and populationsInteragency collaborationHousing inadequacies

74

66

64

60

52

50

46

44

42

42

40

40

32

32

32

28

26

20

18

16

8

8

tion personnel. An increasing concern of theSEP has been that standards for hiring ruralpersonriel have been lower than standards innOnrural areas. The. data from this study cm.--roborated this concern (e.g., 92% of the respon-dents reported that emergency certificationwas "available and frequently used"). Respon-dents also stated that temporarily certifiedpersonnels' were not well qualified for theirpositions.


Effects of Teacher Certification Guidelines

The majority of the respondents (59%) relatedthat certification guidelines were too special-ized for rural programs. For example, moststates mandate that one or more areas of spe-cialization occur in training. The LEA respon-dents felt that such a requirement was inappro-priate for service in rural'Areas, where workingwith a variety of low- incidence handicappingconditions is typically required. In"fact, nu-merous states have initiated certification rt-quirements responsive to rural service deliveryproblems, and many are investigating howthey may be more responsive to rural service_problems.

Inadequacies of Preservice Training

Teacher training institutions generally dd_notconsider special rural needs and circum-stances when designing training programs.The vast majority (97%) of respondents statedth they had not been trained specifically for

rk with rural handicapped students. Only10% described their preservice training as ade-quate for their work in rural communities.Respondents felt particularly strongly aboutthe need for generalizable noncategorical skillsbecause most rural special educators workwith a variety of handicapping conditions andhave few specialists available.

Anticipated Problems

Inadequate funding and problems with recruit-ment and retention of qUalified personnel wereas prominent in future projections (a concernof 80% of the respondents) as they were incurrently identified. problems. Respondents.anticipated that future,political actions wouldprove inequitable for rural special educationand were anxious about the effects of emergingtechnologies. For example, interviewees were-concerned about ethical issues of technology,lack of money to secure equipment, and thespeed of technological developments. Theyalso expressed concern regarding the inequita-ble distribution of advanced technologies.

STATUS REPORT ON RURAL ')

SPECIAL EDUCATION COLLABORATIVES

Collaborative structures facilitating the deliv-ery of special education services have existed

18 301

TABLE 4

Special Education and Support Positions Needed But Nonexistent, Unfilled, or Not Fundedn = 200

(Each entry reports the percentage3 of the total number of respondents with a given response,)

Position Nonexistent Unfilled Not Funded -. Average

Social workerGuidance counselor/

therapistPsychologist

Vocational education'teacher

Vocational rehabilitationstaff

Occupational therapistPhysical therapistSpeech pathologist/language

therapistAudiologistHearing impaired teacherLearning disabilities teacherTeacher of the emotionally

disturbedResource room teacherTeacher of the giftedNurse

Low-incidence/itinerantpersonnel

Teacher of trainablementally retarded

ParaprofessionalsPreschool teachers ---

Adaptive P.E. teacherPersonnel adequate

604

394,

0%

0%

12%

0 /0

0°/0

3%

3%

0%

o%

1.10

0%

6%

9%

7, -.2%

0% 6% 3%

0% 3% 10

10% 17% . 10%27% 23% 19%

23% 17% 15%0% 3% 1%

3% 0% 1%

10% 10%. 11%

6% 6% 5%6% 0% 2%

3% 6% 3%

0% 3% 1%

17% 20% 13%

0% 3% 2%0%, 3% 1%

0% 6% 2%0% 3%. 1%

\ NA NA 17%

for decades. These include: i

1. State-mandated special diOrict syste s andeducation service agencies.

2. Cooperatives formed by local distric initia-,

tion.3. Regional or decentralized state edl cation

agency, systems providing no direct serv-ices.

4. Other interorganizational structures, in-cluding district contracts with private orcommunity agencieZ; cooperative:coopera-tive or cooperative:LE agreements; inter-/

302

state collaboratives; and other uniqtie ar-rangements.

Most of these structures were not specificallydesigned so that students with disabilitiescould be served, although some (such as theeducation service distryi_in Texas) were de-signed with rural and re ional service needs inmind.

Because of the requir ment 'in the federalregulations for P.L. 94-1 2 that districts re--quest a minimum of. $7, 0 in flow-throughmonies from SEA's , special education coopera-tives have mushroomed since 1975. These

1 9 January 1984

structures vary tremendously in governancesystems and in geographic scope, bunnostwere designed to ameliorate the difficulties ofproviding a continuum of services in ruralschools. Of particular concern were problemsserving students with low-incidence

Collaboratitrts of all types 'offer opportuni-ties for cost savings via shared staff, programS,staff.development, and other resources. Colla-boratives offer local rural districts the advan-tage of joining together for services whilemaintaining the benefits of small schools.These benefits include a great deal of autono-my in how services are provided.

Collaboratives also frequently reduce the de-gree of resistance to change in rural districtswhen administrators, teachers, and membersof the community meet together to discussshared problems and Ivhen the public is appro-priately involved in decision-making. Td thisextent, collaborative structures tend to in-crease accountability to students with disabil-ities and their families. In collaboratives whereinteraction with clients and communities isscarce. client accountability is decreased.

Concerns

NIP research has also identified a number ofconcerns about the operation of collaboratives.

Goal displacement occurs when an empha-sis on cost efficiency becomes the overrid-ing goal of an administrative structure, andindividual child needs are placed at a lowerpriority level. A caveat seems to be neces-sary in maintaining focus on the true pur-poses of the collaborative.

2. Cumb'ersome bureaucratic layers and politi-cal structures designed to facilitate servicescan actually isolate students from servicesand unnecessarily involve service provid-ers in political battles. The-involvernent offmultiple\ governing boards (within eachLEA andlcir the collaborative as a whole) isusually cumbersome.

3. The separ'ile fiscal status of LEA's and the'collaborati e can cause instability for thelocal district. This is particularly true whenthe collabo ative requirliii the LEA to pur-chase servi es. The types of services of-.fered, their q ality, or the program empha-sis may be c anged for financial reasonsrather than on a needs basis.

Exceptional Childre

4. Adequate consideration must be given toestablishing effective relationships betweenthe collaborative and each district in regu-lar as well as special education matters.This includes lines of accountability of allpersonnel hired by the collaborative towork with some or all districts involved.For example, it is wise to discuss guidelinesfor dividing service time for collaborativepersonnel among various duties and dis-tricts at an early stage. Sorne collaborativesfind it effective to allocate district costs onthe basis of the amount of time in servicedelivery in that patticular district. Ott*districts prefer that staff payments be equal-ly split, no matter where services weredelivered. Such operational decisions arebest made when the structure is initiated.The abilities of shared personnel to covervast distances effectively are another con-cern. In addition, many special educationsupervisory staff hired by the collaborativesare unable to have impact on special educa-tion staff working with their districts. Theyeither haVe no hiring input or no controlover staff actions, as many special educa-tion personnel were deemed to be account-able to the building principal once theyentered his or her building.

6. District personnel may abrogate their re-sponsibilities by allocating all responsibil-ity for handicapped students to the collabo-rative. Many collaborative stafffEdaffEell------for better education and commitment ofdistrict personnel in understanding theirroles in complying with P.L. 94-142. Theulti'mate source of responsibility for serv-ices is frequently difficult to determine.

.7. Program specialists (such as itinerant teach-ers) find that acceptance is often a problem.District staff frequently do not understandthe specialists' role, their grueling travelschedules, and the problems of operating inless than adequate facilities reserved for"the"part-time staff member." Burnout is fre-quent.

8. Accountability systems are frequently diffi-cult to detect, and informal systems oftendiffer dramatically from those'of the formalorganizational chart.

9. Parent involvement and communication be-comes more and more difficult as servicesare removed further from the local schoolbuilding. Situations requiring child travel

20303

to a centralized service facility inadvertent-ly exclude.many parents from participatingin the child's program.

10. Quality of services is often inconsistentacross units of a collaborative because ofvariations in staff competency and staffdevelopment programs.

11. (Hidden agendas are prolific in collabora-fives because each district feels ultimatelyresponsible to the local community. Truechange across a collaborative is difficult inthe midst of competing local priorities.

As futuristic trends indicate more network-ing and interagency collaboration (Naisbitt,1982), the field can expect the use yf collabora-tives for Eural special education purposes toincrease. Successful strategies will ,include:(a] decentralization of services-wherreeryos=

-sible, real delegation of authority as well asresponsibility, and an emphasis on local own-ership and commitme.Qi (b) creation of staffroles that emphasize networking to accom-plish service delivery; (c) clearly establishedgoals, policies, accountability systems, andstaff job. descriptionS;- (d) responsibility forregular as well as special education aspects of / unique roblem-solvin st ategies.

2. The federal government should mandate,routine data collection at feideral and statelevels on the quality of rural special educa-tion. Such data collection should includeinformation differentiating rural and nonru-ral funding and educational quality.

3. National and state policy makers shouldassess data on differences in the quality ofrural and nonrural special education serv-ices and in funding equitability:.compre-hensive plans should be developed to ame-liorate ideotifi d problems.

4. The' ederal vernment should enhance its° commitme o Public. Law 94-142 and its

implementation in rural America. Adequatefunding levels should be initiated andmaintained for serving rural students with

5. National policy 4ers should ,recognizethe diversity of rt4rel .subcultures. Thisshould culminate in the recognition that the

iimPlementation of P.L. 94-142 (i.e., enact-,

ment of the federal regulations) will bedifferent in rural than in\nonrural areas andthat each rural subcu4re will reqUiflir

service delivery, whenever practical; (e) realis- / 6. Federal and state governme ts should pro-tic perspectives regarding interagency collabo-/ration and district motivations to become in-volved; (f) open agenda setting; (g) creation -oflocal support for change across the..collabora-tion so that local agendas do not conflict ,with efforts between state educarn agencies

_______those_oLthe....collaborative; arid (h) allOwing and universi \es.designed to trmine po-for divergent goals of each unit Of the sitions and types of personnel ne ded, andcollaborative. .

on

vide support for innovative tprograms and address criticshortages in rural speciaredual support should encourage

acher trainingal personnelation. Feder-ollaborative

dhise appropriate personnel pr Oraklprograms. Universities should be encouaged to advise students of career opportun(-ties in areas of critical personnel shortages.

7. National and state policy makers shouldinvestigate the development of careerffad-

, dets designed to recruit and retain q alityrural special education personnel. C reerladders should become part of nation a sys-tems designed to link available positionsand applicants.

8. National and state policy makers shouldaddress certification issues and the prob-lems they pose for rural school systems.They should support assessments of whengeneric vs.. specialized personnel are mosteffective and analyze appropriate uses ofparaprofessionals.

9. Federal and state governments should di- ,'' rectly and indirectly support comprehen1

POLICY RECOMMENDATIONS /The following recommendations are offered tonational policy makers who influence ruralspecial education service delivery systems.They are based on analyses of numerous stud-ies funded by the SEP, including those refer-enced ,above, and a comprehensive; literaturereview. They also draw upon literature andposition papers .of the American Council onRural Special Education (AC S), includingits 1983 response to the Report o the NationalCommission on. Excellence in Edudation.

1. The federal government should adopt and'apply a consistent" definition ,of "rural."This would facilitate accurate and efficientdata collection by federal and) state agen-cies.

304 21 January 1984\

sive inservice training prograins addressingcritical needs of rural service delivery pro-grams. This support should be designed toassist Staff development in inadequately k[lanced rural school systems with extraordi-narily high teacher turnover rates.

10. National and state policy makers shouldsupport investigation and information dis-semination concerning alternate servicedelivery systems that are effective and,when possible, cost-efficient.

11. National and state policy makers shouldcontinuously support the investigation oftechnological alternatives for instructionand instructional support, management,and staff development applications for ru-ral special education. Strategies emphasiz-ing cost savings and alternatives for secur-ing services should be accentuated.

12. National and state policy makers shoulddevelop programs to motivate corporategifts to rural schools of technological had-ware, software, and inservice training.'

REFERENCES

Helge, D. I. National research identifying.pibble {sin implementing comprehensive special a ca-tion programming in rural areas. Exceptio Chil-dren, April, 1981,47 (7), pp. 514-520.

Helge, D. L A national comparative study regardingrurol speciul education service delivery systemsbefore and after passoge of PL 94-142. NationalRural Research Project, Center for Innovation andDelivery, Murray KY, 1980:

Helge, D. I. Images: Issues and trends in rural specialeducationJanuary, 1983. ;National Rural Re-search Project, Center for Innovation and Develop-ment, Murray KY, 1983. (a)

Helge, D. I. The state-of-the-ort of rural special edu-cotion: A Preservice Curriculum Module. NationalRural Research and Persoifnel Preparation Project,Center for Innovation and Development, MurrayKY, 1983. (b)

Naisbitt, J. Megatrends. Ten new directions t1ra8n2s-.forminour lives. New York: Warner Books, 1982.

0 Williams, ). W., & Wart, S. L. Educotion Directory:Public School Systems, 1977-78. U.S. Departmentof Health, Education and Welfare. National Centerfor Education Statistics. Washington DC: U.S. Gov-ernment Printing Office, 1978.

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22.305

ERIC

Regional Rural Special EducationPrograms

KAROL .KIRMERLLOYD LOCKWOODWALT MICKLERPATRICIA SWEENEY

Abstract: This article delineatesenvironmentally embedded problemsinherent in establishing and operatingrural regional special education deliverysysteins, and discusses their interrelatedeffects. Using the example of the CentralKansas Cooperative in Education, it

.pomts out how central beliefs, earlystructuring decisions; and operatingprocedures have aided in dealing withsuch concerns. Also provided are plansof action to deal with more persistentissues. A list of critical considerations indeveloping an effective rural regionaldelivery system is provided.

KAROL KIRMER is Coordinator ofElementary Services, Central Kansas

_Cooperative in Education, Salina,Kansas; LLOYD LOCKWOOD-is Director,_Central Kansas Cooperative in 'Education;WALT MICKLER is Coordinator, AreaEducational Resource Center; and 4

. PATRICIA SWEENEY is Coordinator ofSecondary Services, Central KansasCooperative in Education.

306

Si The typical rural system faces a number ofhurdles to effective service delivery. The ruralprogram is a system superimposed on separatedistricts, each with its own stated and unstatedpriorities, operating procedures, and informalsocial system and norms. To be accepted bythe districts it services, the delivery systemmust secure consensus across districts. This isessential because it must either pursue specifickinds of goals and processes across all dis-tricts, or operate independent programs witheach. Achieving that consensus on commonprograms is not easy. When a regional systemis begun, the independence of rural districtsfrequently forces agreements on goals andprocesses that are somewhat ambiguous innature. While politically necessary, this. cre-ates problems by allowing different agendas tocreate conflict.

PROBLEMS INHERENT IN RURALREGIONAL DELIVERY SYSTEMS

Overall, the mission of the special educationsystem is that of most effective service forexceptional children in the least restrictiveenvironment/Yet the geographic and socialisolation of rural areas frequently makes thelocal school and its leadership more respon-sive to local norms and demands than to deliv-ery system goals. Included among those normsmay be a tendency of some teachers to usespecial education programs as a safety valve toalleviate teacher frustrations with students ex-periencing learning problems. When programambiguity already exists, 'it may well.be used,to circumvent the delivery system mission.

The geographic size of the rural regionalsystem creates' other problems. The frequencyand quality of comrli among dis-persed special education staff is a continuingproblem, and access to instructional, diagnos:tic, and informational materials also becomes

23January 1984

an issue. Support for field personnel is diffi-cult; either the, area stretches cooidinators .orsupervisors thinly, and/or fiscal conservatismmakes such positions scarce.

Time poses difficulties in terms of time con-sumed in travel, timeliness of information andresource flow, and meshing of schedules bothfor delivery of instruction and for systemwideprofessional activities. Sparsity of staff com-bines with scheduling problems and lack ofaccess to resource people to make- organizedstaff development activities difficult.'

At the same' time, the perceived disadvan-tages of living in relative cultural, recreational,and educational isolation in a rural area makeit difficult to attract and hold qualified person-nel. In order to staff programs, ne.w teachersand marginal candidates must frequently behi'redpeople who need considerable techni-cal and affective support in order to becomeeffective special ed-ucators. Yet the conditionsunder which they work are stressful: relativeisolation from other special educators, limitedcommunication and staff development opp'r-tunities, a high degree of role and goal ambigu-ity, problems of acceptance in the local schoolsocial system, and being in the middle of_school and special education program dis-agreements. These conditions and stressorsresult in personnel retention problems and in"burnout" among those that remain, reducingboth staff and program effectiveness.

If not addressed, all these limiting condi-tions interweave to make effective programplanning, implementation, and evaluation dif-ficult. It is not surprising that many ruralsystems seem active captives to events andslow in improving child service.

THE. CENTRAL KANSAS COOPERATIVE

Each educational program is a product of manythings, not the least of which are the zeitgeistand volkgeist (spirit of the times and culture)in which it arises. The Central Kansas Cooper-ative began during a period of rapid change in*Kansas public education. School district con-solidation had been accomplished via legisla-tion. However, the -enrollthent of manydistricts was still too small to provide acomprehensive and diversified program ofservices for handicapped children. Still, thenew laws provided an- opportunity for districtsto work cooperatively to provide those specialeducation services, while maintaining the pos-


itive qualities of relatively small, community-based attendance centers.

Shaping Forces

Enabling legislation for special education serv-'ices was enacted in Kansas in 1949. However,State Department of Education guidelines sug-gested minimum district enrollments to pro-vide effective special education programswhich exceeded that of most Kansas schooldistricts. Consequently, the majority of theschool-aged handicapped population in Kan-sas was unserved. It was 'filso obvious that theKansas tradition of small, community-basedrural districts would not support consolidationto the point of enrollment necessary to imple-ment independent programs in each district.

To meet service needs at a regional level-which could not be provided by small dis-tricts, twelve school districts in a four-countyarea of central Kansas submitted a proposal in

'1966-67 under Public Law 89-10, the Elemen-tary and Secondary Education Act. Primarygoals of the project were:

1. To develop an area-wide program of specialeducational services by providing the spe-cialized administrative, _supervisory, andresource personnel and equipment to sup-port and encourage the growth of programsin local districts.

2. To develop an organizational frameworkallowing a group of relatively small schooldistricts located in a rural area to worktogether to piovide certain education serv-ices which they are unable to proyide sepa-rately.

3. To develop a comprehensive program ofinservice training to support classroomteachers and assist them in develiming andimproving their skills in working with chil-dren.

4. To provide a program of information andeducation to other adults interested in chil-dren with learning problems.

5. To develop a diagn6stic and remedial cen-ter to service0and s Ippon special educationptograms in the c operative district.

The Cooperatiye as approved in July,for three years. Dining that operating span thesuperintendents and boards of_education of

acts had the opportunity toexplore specific district and area-wide needs,as well as to /experiment. with collaborative

307.

efforts in developing program responses. Withthe leadership of key superintendents and theCooperative director, several early decisionsshaped the future of the Cooperative. Amongthose were the f. owing:

The project w.. d be a genuinely coopera-tive effort, committed to the common good. Toemphasize that philosophy and to expresstrust, each district was to be allocated one voteon the governing board, regardless of size.Another philosophical emphasis was the no-tion that: "We are the Cooperative; its pro-grams and personnel are ours."

There would be common operating proce-dures throughout the Cooperative as opposedto independent district programs. .While per-sonnel would be employees of the formalsponSOring district, evaluation of staff wouldbe completed by administrators of buildings inwhich the staff served, with input from theCooperative's administration.

The principal was to function as the instruc-tional leader of all programsregular or spe-cialin his or her building. All special educa-tion staff serving in the building were to beresponsible to and supervised by the principal.This has served to reduce conflict betweenbuilding level staff and to increase ownershipwithin the building. As is the case with inter-locking programs, communication and agendaproblems remain. However, there is an agree-ment that when problems arise, the affectedsuperintendent,' principal, and Cooperative di-rectowill cl.velop joint solutions.

Facilitating Operating Procedures

To pursue the mission of effective child ser-vice, the Cooperative has developed and insti-tutionalized sets of facilitating operating pro-cedures and programs of action. Among thoseare the following:

Inservice education for regular educationteachrs and administrators. Such inserviceactivities include training and informationalpresentations within district-allocated inserv-ice education time; technical assistance to dis-tricts in setting up quality inservice activitiesbased on locally defined nee-ds; and activitiesto orient regular staff to Cooperative functionsand exceptional child characteristics. A con-tinuing- area-wiile "Principals' Inservice Se-ries" addresses regular and special educationleadership .needs defined by the principals.

308

Other activities include specially requestedworkshops for specific audiences; regularlyoffered and specially tailored college classes;board credit classes (credit on the salary sched-ule) taught by Cooperative staff in districtswith such policies; and a month -long intensivetraining program for regular class teachers tohelp them develop the intervention and teach-ing strategies'that allow a mildly handicappedstudent to remain in the regular classroom.Over a six-year span, the latter program hashad a dramatic impact (Mickler, 1981). Coop-erative coordinator staff, all trained and skilledinservice presenters, have taken part in leadingsuch activities, as well as developing newtraining materials and activities of their own.

Building teams. This device was fostered bythe Cooperative to provide an on-line supportsystem to regular staff in (heir own buildings,and to reduce unnecessary special educationreferrals. Teams' vary in composition and oper-ating procedures,. depending on individualbuilding discretion. However, all have thesame goal: to aid teachers in problem-solvingfor students with learning difficulties. Thediagnostic, instructional modification, andmonitoring activities of such groups result ingreater internal ownership of problems and inbetter, data if a special education referral isnecessary. The fact that the building principalis the leader of the team plovides a linking key.

Cooperative program coordinators. Theordinators are given a high degree of responshbility. They act as communication links be-'

\tween Cooperative administration, principals,di `strict administration, and special educationstaff as program managers ensuring effectiveand articulated service; as facilitators of staffgrowth through consultation and supervision;as "troubleshooters" who iron out problems ordisagredments'at a given site; and as inservicetrainers for both regular and special educationstaff. \At the same time, the coordinators andadministrators of the Cooperative constitute a

'management team which meets regularly toreview developments, plan action, and integrate efforts. They are truly support people.

Administrative support. This is expressed inseveral ways, including accessibility of admin-istrators and coordinators to staff; a constantthrust toward growth and improvement pro-vided by the director; planning for staff devel-

January 1984

opulent; credibility of the administrative teamwith regular educators; attention to problemsand concerns in the field; and support for,professional organizations, including parentgroups. When problems in the operation of

_Cooperativki programs emerge, problem-solv-ing task forces are created involving line staff,on released time. This policy ensures accurateinput and promotes among staff the feeling dfbeing a meaningful part of the organization.

Staff development. The concept of staff de-velopment is an inclusive one. Needs are iden-tified by staff themselves, by coordinator ob-servations of teachers and programs, byanalysis of operational problems, and by anal-ysis of skills and information needed to imple-ment adopted changes. Staff development ac-tivities include growth-oriented supervision,participation iripiroblem-solving and decision- .

making task forces, organized training andinformational programs for,itinerant staff on amonthly basis, board credit clas"ses, a volun-tary "brown-bag" session focusing on a varietyof topics, attendance at specific conferencesand workshops, encouragement to conduct re-search on the job, and college classes, amongothers. As interesting outside innovations arenoted ,which ,;appear to be of 'Value to theCooperative and its staff, members are sentoutside for specific training. The whole con-cept emphasizes growth in service effective-ness through growth in staff knowledge, skills,and attitudes. ,

Program articulation. Program goals and de-scriptions are written,- shared, and disseminat-ed across the service area; using the modelillustrated in Figure 1. The regular coordinatormeetings addreis articulation problems andissues. Coordinators themselves act to ensurecontinuity across sites.,In addition, many ofthe problem-solving task forces address articu-lation directly or indirectly through clarifyingprogram goals, procedures, and standards.

Interdisciplinary teams. Child service deci-sion-making is genuinely interdisciplinary innature. By CoOperative board edict, the princi-pal is the formal leader of the team. Diagnosticwork is completed by the psychologist, specialand regular teachers, counselors, and schoolsocial workers. It is evaluated in a team setting.

Should fhechild be eligible for special edu-ction services, the.principal chairs" he meet-


ing in which pregraniating decisions are made,with regular arid special education responsi-bilities allocated, as appropriate, A team re-mains the same as long as the child partici-pates in a program, allowing for continuity indecision-making, service delivery, andmonitoring.

Program Purpose

Overall Learner Goals Overall Staff Goals

Establish Content Areas

Develop Content Goals

Determine Predictors

Recycle y Continue

FIGURE 1. Model for developing program goals.

Remaining Problems arid ConCerns

The prisitive atti .tes of the Cooperativeshould not Inas!. fact that it still facesproblems and c = 1. Some of them arisefrom the rural de.. system context, somefrom chosen soluti,

Problems of program and role ambiguitycontinue to create stress on personnel and'pressures to provide services to children whenthe problem is not inherent in the child, but inthe school. Principals have a, wide range ofinstructional leadership skills and orienta-tions, making consistency of service somewhatuneven. Given the variations in administratorbehavior and the distances between sites,problems still exist in ensuring consistencyand follow-through in the application of ad-ministrative, operational, and instructionalprocedures.

In the building-based programs, the princi-pal has both direct authority and evaluativeresponsibility. This places program coordina-tors in a delicate positionable to recommendchanges, but not in a position to enforce them.Unless the principal takes 'direct action toendorse and uphold those 'recommendations,teachers may evade them.

As a rural area, persennel recruitment and

26309

retention continue to pose problemsnot tothe extent of real difficulty in staffing pro-grams, but sufficient to preVent the desiredselectivity. In a time of fiscal austerity anduncertainty, the rationale for program changesis not always accurately interpreted, adding tostaff anxieties.

Staff development opportunities are not con-sistent. While itinerant staff have monthly ac-tivities, released time would be necessary toprovide the same opportunities for teachers inself-contained and resource programs. The Co-operative board has not provided this, and thegaps in opportunity are readily perceived bystaff.

Future Directions

Single, isolated changes are-unlikely to persistor accomplish _much if interrelated problemsand conditions are not addressed. The Central,Kansas Cooperative has undertaken a three-year project to improve (a) program perform-ance and (b) staff effectiveness -and job satisfac-

-'----tion:-In -planning -and --implementing- thisproject, the Cooperative has reached beyondthe information typically contained in specialeducation and educational administration lit-erature to include concepts from organization-al development, business management, humancapital development, studies of educationalchange, and studies of human performancemotivation.'

As a first step, a statement of mission for theCooperative will be developed in a retreatsetting, with the aid of a process consultant.Specific instructional and support service pro-gram goals will then be derived, and descrip-tions of the programs necessary to attain thosegoals will be developed. Next, job roles neces-sary to implement program processes will bedefined, and tentative statements constructedof,the competencies and characteristics neces-sary to implement the job roles effectively.Taken together, these steps constitute thebuilding blocks for development of the follow-ing interrelated, programs of action: -

A personal recruiting system, to give theCooperative access to a larger pool of qualitycandidates, allowing greater selectivity,Careful personnel selection to screen candi-dates systematically for competencies neces-sary to fulfill job roles, as well as for per-sonality characteristics bearing uponperformance and job satisfaction in specific

310

roles and in a growth-oriented special educa-tion program. The system will also provideinitial personnel data on which to b.4se thedegree and nature of early support neeiled onthe job.A personnel performance appraisal systemto enable facilitative supervision towardgrowth, provide a basis, for, creating person-nel performance support systems (such asorganized staff development), and establishan effective data base for personnel decision-making.Personnel support in the form of technical,emotional systems which minimize perform-ance disincentives and promote the follow-ing elements: (a) growth in individual com-petence and job satisfaction; (b) personnelidentification with the special education or-ganization and its mission; and (c) growth inthe Cooperative's effectiveness in child serv-ice.

CONSIDERATIONS AN EFFECTIVERURAL SYSTEM MUST ADDRESS--

An effective rural special education deliverysystem does not cccur either by chance or bysimple hard work. Rather, "working smart" isimportant. A number of factors must be ad-

/dressed in a systematic manner.Districts must "own" the delivery system.

Separation promotes "we" versus "they"program fragmentation, and conflicts

tIliat are stressful to special education staff.Superintendents of member districts must'make it clear to building principals that theyare to be the instructional leaders of all in-structional programs in their own buildings,including special education programs.

There must be clarity of mission. That mis-sion must be supported explicitly by the state-ments and actions of district and Cooperativechief administrators, and must be clearly andconstantly communicated to special education'staff.

Certain kinds of persistent problems are tobe expected and should receive frequent atten-tion. Transportation issues must be managedin such a way as to minimize cost and childdislocation, while at the same time minimizingthe amount of productive staff time lost intravel. Other problems needing ongoing atten-tion include providing for low incidence pop-ulations; dealing with tendencies toward "con- /venient" rather than necessary child ,/

January 1984

27

programming; identifying and dealing withprogram fragmentation; and preventing thesense of isolation and lack of support amongspecial education staff.

Most problems will not be solved in isola-tion. Systematic planning must be built intothe operation and decision-making of the de-livery system. Such planning must strive forclarity of program goals, processes, and struc-tures, and must try to ensure that the necessaryresources and conditions are in place. Not theleast of these resources is the "human capital"represented by staff. Considerable attentionmust be given to creating the kinds of staffrecruitment and selection systems necessary tocapture skilled staff, as well as to providing thekinds of supportive supervision and staff de-velopment opportunities which promote con-tinued growth in effectiveness. Further, con-sistent action must be taken to create the kindsof technical and emotional support systemsthat facilitate high levels of performance andjob satisfaction in carryineout the mission ofthe rural regional special education deliverysystem.

REFERENCE

Mickler, W. Skill training for regular classroomteachers: A case study of success. The Journal ofStaff Development, 1981, 2, 19-30.

RESOURCES

Djllon- Peterson, B., Ed. Staff development/organiza-tion development. Alexandria VA: Association forSupervision and Curriculum Development, 1981.

Hall, G. E.. Wallace, R. C., & Dossett, W. F. A devel-opmental conceptualization of the adoption process within educational institutions. Austin TX:The Research and Development Center for TeacherEducation, 1973.

Helge, D. Addressing the Report of the Commissionon Excellence in Education ... from the ruralperspective. Position paper submitted to the. U.S.Department of Education. Murray KV-AmericanCouncil on Rural Special Education, 1983.

McLaughlin, M. W., & Marsh, D. D. Staff develop-ment and school change. Teachers College Record,March 1978. -

Pascale, R. T., & Athos, A. G. The art of Japanesemanagement. New York: Warner Books, 1981.

Sarason, S. B. The culture of schools the prob-lem of change. Boston: Allyn & Bacon, 1971.


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January 1984

'ERIC]

Models for Serving Rural Studentswith Low-Incidence HandicappingConditions

DORIS HELGE

Abstract: Traditional models designed toprovide a continuum of services tohandicapped students are inadequate forrural schools attempting to serve studentswith low-incidence disabilities. Becauseof the tremendous diversity in ruralschools and communities there is no"one" rural service delivery model. Thisarticle delineates factors that must beconsidered and variables that must becontrolled by the rural service deliverymodel planner. Samples of successfulstatewide and local district models aredescribed. Each model was designed bymanipulation of variables such asstaffing, transportation, and governancesystems after consizleration of districtand community' characteristics.

DORIS HELCE is Director, National RuralResearch PrOject, Murray StateUniversity. Murray, Kentucky.

Exceptional Children.

Historically, a majority of rural educatorshave not voiced problems concerning servingmildly and moderately handicapped students.Such students were typically not identified ashandicapped in rural areas or were thought tohave unusual learning needs but were servedin the regular classroom. Thus, compared to'their nonrural counterparts, rural mildly/mod-erately handicapped students havejhad mini-mal problems gaining the acceptance Of regularclassroom teachers and students.

This situation partly reflects the rural normof "taking care of one's oWn," as well as thefact that rural Americans inherently dislike thelabeling of individuals. It is also partially at-tributable to the practical nature of rural edu-cators. They tend to "make do" when giveninadequate resources (in this case, lack ofspecial education classes).

However, situations were more problematicwhen teachers were asked to serve studentS"''with severe handicaps and those classified inother low-incidence categories. (In,_ rural

/

school systems, this typically includes stu-dents having hearing impairments, emotional/behavioral disorders, blindness'or other visualimpairments, severe orthopedic disabititjeS orother health impairments, seveije mental retar-dation, and those with multiple or severe handi-caps. However, in very small rural schools, achild with mild or moderate mental retarda-tion may have a "low-incidence handicap.")

Rural schools did not have enough enroll-ments of children with low-incidence disabil-ities to gain funding for segregated specialeducation classrooms or teaching specialists.They typically also had no other availableservices or supportive staff. Thus, mainstream-ing students who needed major adjustments inclassroom curricula, materials, or activities

30 313/

/

was particularly difficult for regular classroomteachers with large numbers of nonhandi-capped students.

Until Public Law 94-142 was in "full imple-Mentation," rural children having low-inci-dence handicaps were typically unserved, or at6est , underserved. A national study comparingrural special education services before andafter' the implementation of P.L. 94-142 indi-cated that tremendous changes occurred inservice's available to rural students with low-incidence h'andicaps (Helge, 1980).

Data gathered for this study via on-site andtelephone interviews indicated dramatic in-creases in the percentages of low-incidencechildren identified and served. (The percent-age of change was 47% from 1975 to 1980.)This was particularly true with severely handi-capped populations. Before the implementa-tion of P.L. 94-142, many rural districts/coop-eratives had few special services for severelyhandicapped students. In fact, a majority Of thedistricts/cooperatives were placing such stu-dents in residential and private schools andagencies. By 1980, most sampled districts weretrying to serve them in their home district/cooperative. In spite of this progress, the over-whelming majority of the rural school systemsinvolved in the 'sample reported that studentswith low-incicience handicaps were the mostdifficult populntipn to serve.

1

INADEQUACIES OF TRADITIONALSERVICE DELIVIERY MODELS

Traditional models of providing a continuumof services forLstudents with handicappingconditions (i.e./ various adaptations of theclassic' Reynolds framework introduced in1962) have been vital to those planning specialeduCation services in nonrural settings. Thesemodels typically include levels of service such

,as those depicted below and recommend child/ placement based on an assessment of the level

of severity of a handicap.

Hospitals and treatment centersHospital schoolResidential schoolSpecial day schoolFull/part-time & special classRegular class/resource-roomRegular class with consultationRegular class (without consultation)

Such models are much less appropriate for

314

rural school systems, especially those locatedin remote geographic areas. For example, adistrict having two students with cerebral pal-sy located 250 miles from each other typicallycannot cluster these students for services.

Many of the levels of the traditional continu-um do not exist in rural areas. For example,many rural school systems historically senttheir students with low-incidence handicapsto residential schools located outside theirstates because they had no in- state option.Likewise, special day schools do not exist inmany rural areas. They are simply not a practi-cal alternative.

Traditional continuum-of-services modelsalso assume the existence of a greater numberof staff than is typical in most rural schools. Anadequate funding base for such staffing hasalso been assumed, although numerous studieshave shown that this is certainly not the rule inthe majority cf rural systems.

Another inclination" Of those proposing spe-cial education service delivery models hasbeen to identify "the" model for rural service.delivery. For example, after the passage of P.L.94-142;special education cooperatives becamewidespread, allowing school districts to com-bine scarce resources so that they could pay forexpensive specialized services and staff.

The predominant special education coopera-tive model involves hiring one or more itiner-ant specialists who travel as needed to isolatedstudents requiring specialized services. Theyprovide services ranging from direct instruc-tion of children to training staff and consultingwith parents. Thi; type of structure has madeservices available to many previously un-served rural students with handicaps.

However, cooperatives and itinerant staffshared among districts within a collaborativestructure have not been a panacea. ven coop-eratives have frequently been unable to affordto hire a full-Itime itinerant staff member to.serve only a few low-incidence handicappedstudents in widely scattered geographic ter -rain.- Itinerant staff tend to be highly stressedprofessionals, and attrition' rates are high.Many itinerant personnel must be self- reinforcers not only when traveling but also whey ;housed in school buildings where their role is"different" and typically misunderstood. Pro-gram continuity is difficult, even under thebest of arrangements, when a person withspecialized training is only able to visit or trainthe local classroom teacher a few times per

January 1984

year. Finally, traditional itinerant service ar-rangements are not always an option. Distancebetween students and services, geographic bar-riers, and/or inclement weather frequently pro-hibit transportation of students or profession-als on a consistent basis.

CONSIDERATIONS FOR SERVICEDELIVERY PLANNING

Just as urban models are not appropriate forrural schools, there is no "one" rural servicedelivery model for the great variety of ruralschool systems and their attendant subcul-tures. It cannot be assumed that a practiceeffective in remote Wyoming ranching territorywill be viable on an isolated island, in part of acluster of New England seacoast towns, or inan agricultural migrant camp. Instead, servicedelivery models 'must be individually de-signed for the rural school system and subcul-ture in which they will be implemented.

Each of the 15 factors discussed in the sec-tions that follow must be considered by thosedesigning a service delivery system for stu-dents with low-incidence handicaps. Most lin:,portantly, the interrelationships betweentheinmust be assessed. For example, districts withequivalent population densities should plan insignificantly different ways if one school sys-tem is surrounded by mountains with relative-ly untraversable roads all winter, while theother is located in a flat agricultural area withmild winters.

Relationship of District Governance. Systemto External Resources \,

A district that is administratively part\ of acooperative or has access to a state's educa-tional service district typically has greater\re-sources available to it than does a districtwhere the majority of external' resources mustcome from a centralized state education agen-Cy (SEA). This is particularly true when theisolated district is located a great distance fromthe SEA or when geographic or climatic barri-ers exist.

Population Sparsity

The population per square mile is significantfor the model planner. Although a rural systemis by definition relatively' sparsely populated,services must be planned in a dramatically


different manner for small clusterea.townshipsthan for schools localed on remote islands,vast rangelands, orin the isolated bush villagesof Alaska. This is important in determiningwhether students with similar Teaming needsare available to be clustered for services and inassessing proximity to services.

Distance From Student to Services Needed

Assuming a service exists, the planner needs toknow the distance from child to service loca-tion or from itinerant staff member to child.Knowledge of the actual travel time will assistin determining whether a service or profes-sional should be transported to the student orvice versa.

\Geographic Barriers T

Absolute distance from potential services to astudent is frequently complicated by geograph-ic barriers suchas mountains, untraversable

__roads, or the_necessity_of_taking-ferries or-smallplanes. In some areas of the Northeast andNorthwest, roads do not exist. Personnel musteither travel t)y light plane or snowmobile, oreven detour through Canada, to reach theirrural district. Because the U.S. government,owns and prohibits travel through large areasof several Western states, school personnel inthese states must frequentlytravel an extra 2 or3 hours to reach their service destinations.

Climatic Barriers

In areas with severe climates or.seasonallems such as heavy spring flooding, it may berelatively unimportant (and highly frustrating)to planners that a qualified professional orprogram -is located only an hour's distancefrom the child. Students with disabilities suf-fer when program continuity is frequently dis-rupted by weather-related problems. Adminis-trators also experience difficulties withplanning or implementing longitudinal goalsfor a child.

Language Spoken, in the Community

Just as primary languages spoken by a handi-capped child must be considered when design-ing an IEP, The primary language of the ruralchild and his or her family also has relevancefor selecting appropriate personnel, especially

315

32

itinerant staff whO visit rural communitieswith lifestyles andcultures different from theirown. It is also extremely important to theadministrator who is considering clusteringstudents for services.

Cultural Diversity

Besides the most readily recognized ethniccultures with which service planners try not tointerfere (knowing that disrupting family lifeinterferes with the effectiveness of services), '-unique rural subcultures must be/ considered.Research has clearly indicated that some IEPrequirements, though well intentioned; werewritten without extensive familiarity with var-ious rural cultures. Implementing the require-ment that written parental permission be ob-tained, for example, is particularly difficult insome rural-based cultures having no writtenlanguage.

Similarly, some rural-based subcultureshave no concept of special education terms(e.g., learning disabilities). Some religious cul-

I

tural minorities also have beliefs and tradi-tions that are at variance with school tradi-tions, such as religious holidays that' conflictwith a school calendar of, services. Plannersmust also be aware of unique community andparent expectations for the success of handi-capped students.

Handicapped students who belong to tran-sient rural subcultures (such as migrant andmilitary populations) also provide uniquechallenges for the rural special education plan-ner. These include tracking children to ensureprogram continuity.

A relatively new phenomenon facing manyrural special education planners is the "boomor bust" yyndrome prevalent in states with apriority of developing energy- resources. Somespecial education adMinistrators, faced with"overnight" doubling of their special educa-tion population because, of temporary' nfluxesof workers, find that by the time they locateresources to provide services; their popula-tions have significantly decreased.

Economic Lifestyles of the Community

Rural communities, particularly those withrelatively nondiversified economies, tend toschedule their lives around the requirementsthey face as they attempt to make a living.Service delivery planners should be aware of

316

total community priorities and events thatmight influence or even interfere with servicedelivery. Examples include handicapped chil-dren who are absent from school during peakperiods of agricultural, fishing, or timber "har-

-vesting" or during seasonal festivals in resortcommunities.

Community Communication and PowerStructures

The special education planner who ignores theexisting communication and power structuresof a rural community will probably not berequired to plan sych services for an extendedperiod of time. Typically, informal systems aremore potent than those thd are formally out-.1.ined. Informal rules often- have significantramifications for -serving students with disabil-ities. For example, they may affect such issuesas who, in reality, assigns duties to the itiner-ant specialist, confidentiality of student dataand the person to whom service deliverers feelaccountable

Ages of Students

The planner should ascertain the ages of chil-dren to be served in the local district and inany adjacent communities or systems in whichcollaborative services are being considered.The United States still has many one-roomschoolhouses in which one teacher is responsi-ble for a wide range of ages.. Studies haveshown that such a situation entails' great dealof stress associated with burnout. (Dickerson,1980; Helge, 1981.) Thus it behooves theadministrator to attempt to group students insimilar age groups if at all possible. Excep-tions, of course, are made when developmentalage is more critical than chronological age.

Types and Severity Levels of Disabilities,

The, level of severity of a disability frequentlydetermines whether or not a student can re-ceive services within the regular classroomsetting. Some types of handicapping condi-tions tend to be more prevalent in some ruralsubcultures than in others. The National RuralProject, in its 1978-1981 studies, for example,found that areas with colder temperatures tendto havemore hearing-impaired children, andthat areas of poverty as well as migrant cul-tures tend to have greater concentrations 9f

January 1984

33

mentally - retarded children because of inade-quate nutrition, health care, and prenatal care.Designing services for such unique groups ofstudents requires specific actions by the plan-ner.

History of Special Education.Services

Past services to handicapped chi en in aparticular service area are clos linked notonly to available funding and a areness of P.L.94-142 regulations, but also to ominunity atti-tudes. In rural communities, key powersources (whether the schoolwealthy farmer who likes chas a janitor during the off-seasive influences on-school ser

Rural citizens are' typically

oard chair or theldren and serveson) have perva-ices.nimpressed by

what they are told they "h ve to do" fordhandicapped students. In co tr st, they arehighly motivated to provide a ropriate serv-ices when the initiative is theirs Adept admin-

---istrators-underst and- and -plan-t such--in-z-herent rural community attribute particularlywhen attempting changes. In rur communi-ties having a unique ethnic he 'cage, it ispossible and important to plan nee services

--that will be palatable to the native he age andas much as possible preserve the com nity'sself-determination and identity. It is no sur-prising that isolated rural communities wh seonly choice in the past has been to send thedisabled students to communities or citiewith dissimilar cultures have resistedchaligeand sometimes, special education as -

concept.

Cost Efficiency

When feasible, the planner should assess costsof alternate systems of providing a given serv-ice. The fiscal realities of rural schools, depart-ments, and classroom budgets must be consid-ered. However, the planner, will typically notbe wit eve monetary trade-offsetween equivalent alternate It is more

likely that heor she will have to presen edanck request-Inn*. froin a supervisor, a cosconki.i's rural .school board, or a communityorganizaton.

The administrator' should be knowledgeableof budgetaryaccountabilitysystems. Data gath-ering and subsequent presentations shouldconsider cost efficiency in light of a cvaryingrange of .potential effectiveness. The pinnershould address not only local per-pupil expen-diture vs. out-ofLdistrict plaCement costs, butfunding alternatives. The planner should alsobe prepared to answer. questions concerningthe percentage of the local school district con-tribution for salaries, transportation, consul-

-tants, and equipment.

Currently Available Resources

While P.L. 94-142 requires that appropriateservices be available to each student in theleast restrictive environment, the law does notstate how such services are to be delivered.Despite their reputation for inflexibility, ruralcitizens have, out of necessity, long tended tobe creative problem-solvers.IThe model plan-ner should assess all existing resources. Theresulting catalog of current resources shouldinclude intra-school and external facilities,equipment, and so forth. The planner shouldthen identify and take advantage of the "hid-den" resources endemic to rural America suchas its sense of volunteerism and communityspirit.


Expertise and Attitudes of AvailablePersonnel

The planner must not only note the gradelevels and types of disabilities that existing

-personnel are prepared to serve, but also theirflexibility in serving as a generalist (i.e., teach-ing several types of disabilities) or as a special-ist. Formal as well as informal training must beconsidered, and attitudes of personnel toward-Ser-ving children with Various disabilities are

qually important. The planner may need toructure staff development opportunities de-

s ned to guarantee that students are served byp rsonnel who respect them and are comfort-a le with their specific disability.

DEALING WITH INTERRELATIONSHIPSAND COMBINATIONS OF FACTORS

The importance of understanding and consid-ering the interrelationships of all 15 of thesefactors, cannot be overemphasized. Combina-tions of factors are critical and should beweighted more heavily than single-factor barri-.ers to service delivery.

It is difficult to design an effective servicedelivery model when a rural district has multi-ple cultures or when, for example, the disabledstudent resides in 'a sparsely populated area

34317

150 miles from essential services. The task iseven more difficult when the student's culturediffers significantly from that of the nearestservice area, when servicedelivery is inhibitedby geographic or climatic barriers, or when thecommunity's power structure has low expecta-tions for the success of such a student.

The planner should identify which of the 15variables are problematic, select those thatappear to be most important, and address thosevariables first. Problems that can be quicklyameliorated (e.g., by linkage with technologi-cal or other resources available through the'state or by gaining the understanding and .

support of the local power structure), shouldbe. Usually, th\ planner can merely ecknowl-edge factors that are unchangeable "givens,"such as spring flooding, when designing theservice delivery plan.

Figure 1 illustrates the fact that planningbecomes a more arduou§ task as the number ofproblematic factors increases. As one factor iscombined with another and the planner spansout to each concentric circle of Figure 1, it isincreasingly difficult to design an appropriateservice model.

MODEL DEVELOPMENT

After considering these factors, the planner isready to develop a workable service deliverymodel. There is no such thing as a pure modelfor rural special education service delivery.Rather, eclectic approaches are the rule, andnumerous variables must be juggled (sutth ascost vs. intensity of need or availability ofalternate services).

Technological advances are'greatly improv-ing thn options of the local rural district. Forexample, it is no longer necessary to choosebetween hiring a specialist or a generalist if ageneralist can use satellite instruction (or someother technology) to supply specialized in-structional content.

Variables of a service delivery Model thatmust be manipulated 'so that the resultingeclectic model has a "fit" are as follows:

EquipmentFacilitiesFinancial systeinStaff development programTransportation systemStaffing for services

Districtadministrativelyisolated fromexternalresources

Climaticbarriers

Geographicbarriers Services

150 milesfrom

Low community./ student.

expectationsfor studentsuccess

. FIGURE 1. Increasing levels of difficulty in designing a service model.

January:1984

G

Givens Thin CanBe Problematic*

Governance Systemre: ExternalResources

Population Sparsity

Distance FromStudent toServices Needed

Geographic Barriers

Languages Spokenin Comunity

Culturak Diversity

Economic Lifestylesof Community

Communication andPower Structures

Ages of Students

Disabilities Served

History of DistrictSpecial Education

Available Resources

Cost Efficiency

Expertise ofAvailable Personnel

Expertise andAttitudes ofExisting Personnel

I

*Items italicized- are illustrative.

V

Variables ThatCan Be Manipulated*

Equipment

Facilities

FinancialSystem

Staff Develop-ment Program.

TransportationSystem

Staffing forServices

ParentInvolvementand Training

CommunityInvolvementand Support

GovernanceSystem

InteragencyCollaboration

Appropriate ServiceDelivery Model

FIGURE 2. Consideration of "givens'! and manipulation of "variables" allows the planner to create anappropriate service model.

Parent involvement and trainingCommunity involvement and supportGovernance systemInteragency collaboration


.1 9

Figure 2 it ustrates the process of designing arural service delivery model. Factors that can.:present planning problemp but cannot be'con-trolled by he model designer are termed "gi-

6

319

yens." Factors that can be manipulated by theplanner are labeled "variables." The plannercan create an appropriate service deliverymodel by recognizing givens and controllingvariables.

SAMPLES OF SUCCESSFUL SERVICEDELIVERY MODELS

The,.- reader is reminded -that low-incidenciedisabilities vary greatly from district to distri .tbecause of population and environmental ifluences. Thus, in one district, a given modelmay be used to serve students who are cerebralpalsied or deaf. In another district, the .nodelmay be adapted. to serve the only moderatelyretarded Student in the district.

Development of each of the successful mod-els described in this section involved the rec-ognition of factors discussed in the section onconsiderations for service delivery planning.Each design highlights the manipulation ofone or more of the ten variables listed, al-though none of the models controlled orchanged all of them.

An adroit planner would not directly "trans-port" any of the sample .models, but wouldconsider them illustrative of the ways in whichfactors.can be recognized and /or "variables ma--niPulated in order. to create-a subculture-spe-cific model. Table .1 illustrates the variety offormats used by the sample models.

State-Funded Intermediate Education Units(IEUs)

This administrative structure uses regionalspecialists who provide technical assistanceand consultation to. local district personnel.Some IEUs are designed specifically to providespecial education services, and some are de-signed to provide all specialized services thatare difficult for small districts to provide (e.g.,comprehensive vocational education). MostIEUs are administratively part of the statedepartment of education, although one state(Nebraska) specifically separates its IEU fromthe state education agency.

IEU personnel generally provide servicesonly to other professionals. This pattern issometimes varied to demonstrate an effectivetechnique or to train a professional to deliverthe service independently in the future."r Although inservic activities. are sometimesheld across regions or on a statewide basis,

320

most are specifically planned for a -district orregion. Some IEUs have centralized media andmaterials centers with extensive options forcheck-out, and some states incorporate mobilematerials centers, Generic specialists (e.g., reLsource room teachers) at the local- level aresometimes supported by specialized regionalconsultants (i.e., those dealing with a specifictype of exceptionality- such as visual impair-ment). This type of model is responsive torural remote districts when consultant respon-sibilities are.aligned by geographic regions vs.an entire state. The planner adapting it for aparticular district would want to design safe-guards so .a generic specialist did not becometoo dependent on a regional specialist. Thiswould prevent inadequate services or a lack ofservices in the absence of the regionalspecialist.

Statewide Networks ofItinerant Specialists

The small rural state of New Hampshire hasimplemented a system to serve students withthe low-incidence handicaps of hearing andvisual 'impairments. This system is operated bycontract with a private firm that hires consul-tants to provideservices to blind and deafstudents in remote rural areas with. no special-ized local personnel. These 'consultants alsotrain local personnel to deliver follow -up serv;ices until they return. Items from an extensivemedia and materials center are taken to ,thelocal district for use when the consultants areabsent, and are varied and updated as needed.

Statewide Model to Provide ConsultingServices for Teachers

The rural state of Vermont was funded by theU.S. Office of Special Education Programs(SEP) to develop a trainer-of-trainers modeladdressing the needs of students with low-incidence handicaps. The model involves col-'abortion between the University of Vermont,the state department of education, and '1Odal,rural districts across the state. Teacher,consulltants, similar to master teachers, were trainedby university faculty to train regular classteachers to mainstream' and effectively workwith 16w-incidence handicapped children. Allteacher consultants became .adjunct faculty ofthe university and teachers who were success-

37January 1984

(1

8. *nm.,$arRa.11M/0!!.

or

Sample Model

ro

TABLE 1

Examples of Models Mich Manipulated "Variables" Mier Considering "Givens" of Serving Students with Low-Incidence Handicaps

4.

0 0

4 P1 0N c

(NJ c:1

no ofi

0, sk

, 04,

q)

,z)to

ono

$44) 4 d'

,

tifio°;

Slatefunded IEUs X X X X\ X X

Statewide networks of consulting itinerants X X X 'X X X

Statewide 'model to provide consultingservices for regular teach- ,

ers of lowincidence handicapped X

Statewide 1team model re severely handicapped X X

Statewide model to provide service to culturally different

students

ZrLocal special education cooperatives

Noncategorical resource rooms

Model identifying and using all potential resources.within an iso

lated district

Models incorporating advanced technologies

Models using paraprofessionals

X X

X X

X X

X

X

X X X X

X X X

X X

1

X X

.

38 39

fully trained received university credits.Teacher consultants did not provide directservices unless it . was necessary to demon-strate effective te6niques. The model provid-ed for consistent availability of consultants tothe regular educators.

Statewide Interdisciplinary Team Model

A contrast to the one-on-oe model for trainingregular educators is vermont's Interdisciplin-ary Team (I-Team) Model, It is organized spe-cifically to enhance services to more severelyhandicapped students. The concept involveslocal I-Teams, a regional educational specialist(ES), and a state I-Team. The levels interfacewith each other. Each I-Tearn\contains severalspecialists, such as special edhcators and spe-cialists in communicatiohs, physical therapy`, \occupational therapy, medicine, engineering, \and carpentry.

.The regional educational specialist is locally

based and coordinates services for multihandi-capped students in a region. A local or state I-Team member may be asked for assislance.The regional ES position reduces travel timerequired to deliver services including assess-ment; staffing to generate recommendations;training to teachers, parents, educational spe-cialists, and others; monitoring the implemen-tation of recommendations; and coordinatingtraining and consultative services.

Local I-Team' members' encourage parentsupport by home visits and by pioviding par-ent training. Parents participating in I-Teamservices also may attend formal class sessionstaught by state I-Team members or universityfaculty. The state I-Team serves districts thatlack a local team, and also provides technicalassistance and training to all local I-Teamsneeding such services.

Statewide Model to Provide Services toCulturally Different Students with Moderateand Severe Handicaps

Sparse populations of Eskimo, Indian, andAleut families scattered across the 586,000square miles of Alaska presented unique chal-lenges to those attempting to upgrade thestate's system for full implementation of. P.L.94-142. The state's previous system placedstudents with severe and other low-incidencehandicaps in urhan residential, schools or fos-ter care. Such a system grossly interfered with

the self-determination of native families andwith perpetuation, of, the cultural identity ofremote Alaska villages. Problems also existedwith continuity of local services because of thehigh personnel attrition rates of newcomersattempting to live and work with bush villagecultures.

A statewide model entitled Alaska Re-sources for the Moderately/Severely Impaired(ARMSI) was designed to provide professionalservices and consultation to students and theirteachers. The primary strength of the model isthat services are offered within the local vil-lages. The thesis of this model _vas that mostlocal schools, with the propertdegree of assist-.ance, can provide an appropriate public educe- ;tion for most students.

ARMSI was initiated in 1981, and central-ized the coordination of all services for thismassive state, although service delivery was

"localized. ARMSI became the umbrella serviceagency and recruited experienced staff whopreviously worked with various fragmentedservice. agencies. The 18 staff members thushave extensive experience working in Alaskabush villages and -knowledge of how to workand communicate with villagers.

,Staff serve as itinerant specialiSts and offerthree basic types of assisance: (a) direct in-struction and other services to children andyouth'; (b) training of and consultation withschool district staff; and (c) dissemination of,instructional materials and information. Thisassistance takes place during on -sited visits tothe villages 3 to 4 times per year. 'Personnelstay at a school or district for about 13 days oneach occasion. The visits are part of technicalassistance agreements designed by ARMSI andeach local district.'ecause the itinerant edu-cators continue to work with the same childrenfor several years;the project has the potentialof bringing greater educational continuity.Longitudinal goals are morelikely to be carried .

out.

Cooperative Administrative Structures at theLocal Level

P.L. 94-142 regulations specify that any-LEA.unable to qualify for a $7,500 allocation (basedOn the number of handicapped childrenserved) will receive no pass - through' funds.This guideline obviously encourages the for-mation of consortium arrangements to prOvidespecial services, and these have typically been

322 January 1984

titled "special education cooperatives."The operation of cooperatives is as varied as

the geographic terrain and climatiG conditionsin which they exist. Pooling funds throughvarious kinds of administrative structures al-lows single districts that are part of a coopera-tive to better meet the needs of rural studentswith low-incidence handicaps. ,Where geo-graphic . distances and climatic variables arenot unwieldy, districts can cooperatively hirea person to serve children who werz_previous-ly unserved or underserved because a singledistrict could not afford a full-time person toserve a few students.

Districts can also cooperatively fund andhost inservice training addressing low-inci-dence needs, and jointly fund relevant equip-ment, media, and materials. Districts locatedin close enough proximity frequently coopera-tively tratisport students and/or centralize di-agnostic dr intervention services.

Noncategorical Resource Room Model

This model is frequently called an interrelatedclassroom or simply, a resource room. It istypically used by local districts having too fewstudents with any particular disability to war-rant establishing a segregated class for childrenwith mental retardation, learning & abilities,etc. The emphasis in variations of this odel ison improving academic, behavioral, or-p cho-motor deficits through individualizin achild's curriculum and other learnexperience

The types\adisabilities served in each class-room vary tremendously from district to dis-trict. Students are typically mainstreamed intoregular classes whenever appropriate. In a co-operative, students are sometimes transportedto a central location for the resource room.More frequently, the noncategorical servicearea is confined to one district or building.This ensures greater access to regular classesand regular classroom teachers as students,armainstreamed. In eact, the_strongeir programsobserved by the author have been those withthe greatest interaction between the noncate-gorical resource teacher and regular educators.

One variable to be manipulated in this mod-el is the percentage of the resource teacher'stime spent providing direct services to stu-dents assigned to the resource room and thepercentage of time sperit consulting with theirregular classroom teachers.

Some resource rooms serve students who arenot classified as special education-students sothat the program will have less stigma andregular class teachers will be more likely to usematerials available through the resource room.The most effective programs totally individual-ize theiniplementation of IEP goals, and manyresource rooms seldom involve students actu-ally working together.

Some resource rooms have aides funded bythe district or by :mother program such as agovernment CETA program; Others involveparents, community volunteers, -or universitypracticum students, and many rural resourceroom teachers function independently.

Model to Identify Scarce Resources

Several districts that were extremely isolatedfrom other districts anif from state resourceshave identified and optimally used every pos-sible resource within their community. Theyhave found that usingcommunity personnel asresources has created a side benefit of addi-tional community support for their schools.

Although the model varies from communityto community, the following basic componentsare consistently present:

1. Completion of a needs assessment at thetotal school and individual classroom level.

2. Completion of a resource survey of allschool personnel, listing skills and compe-tencies that could be shared with others,including children with low-incidence

. handicaps. Data on potential communityand parent resources were an'integral partof the resource base. Community facilitiesand equipment are included in the resourcedata bank'.

3. Use of a manual-Card-sorting or a computer-ized retrieval system to link identified re-sources and needs. This -linkage may in-

,

clude- having one teacher, uncomfortablee-------working with a student with a hearing im-

pairment, view another teacher with skillsin this area. It may also include using highschool students in a child developmentclass as "extra manpower" by having themassist a special education teacher with fol-low -up motor skill activities for studentswith severe physical impairments. Otherschools have used unemployed certifiedteachers, retired teachers, and other com-munity members as volunteers in the class-


41323

room. Isolated resort communities have ac-tively recruited the assistance of long-termvisitors. Volunteers provide services, rang-ing from tutoring students to furnishingtransportation. They reduce staff develop-ment costs by managing a classroom while ateacher engages in inservice, peer observa-tion, or other relevant activities.

The legalities and protocol of each model areindividualized for the particular district inwhich the model was incorporated. However,in all cases, an evolving foundation of schoolresources Was established. Community sup-port for the school was enhanced in eachlocation because citizens became integrallyinvolved in special education' programming.

Models Incorporating AdvancedTechnologies

The use of advanced technology as a tool forserving remotely. located students with low-incidence disabilities is rapidly growing inpopularity. For example, a variety of systemshas been used to send instructions to isolatededucators inadequately trained to teach chil-dren with low-incidence handicaps. Modeldesign ranges from consultant-teacher commu-nication by satellite to mobile inservice vansbearing computers programmed to teach spe-cific subject areas. Less expensive models in-clude exchanges of videotapes and one/two-way television instruction.

Technological approaches will be limitedmore by the imagination of the service plannerthan by the cost of equipment. Alternate typesof advanced technologies are becoming in-creasingly available in agencies external toschools. Many districts have found humanservice agencies willing to collaborate in ser-vice delivery, especially when highly special-ized equipment is not used by the agency on afull-time basis. Likewise, many rural busi-nesses have been willing to share equipment.Adept administrators have been able to borrowequipment by emphasizing advantages to localbusinesses, such as enhancement of their com-munity image and potential tax write-offs.

Models Using Paraprofessionals

Trained paraprofessionals are frequently usedby rural school districts when certified person-nel are unavailable. Paraprofessionals supportspecial and educators conducting

324

classroom or therapy activities with a handi-capped student. Tutoring activities mightrange from academic or psychomotor curricu-lum activities to counseling regarding im-provementuof social skills. Paraprofessionalsmight also conduct follow-through exercisesassigned by a speech, physical, or occupation-al therapisi or assist with adaptive physicaleducation exercises.

An essentiaMngredient in the eff4tive de-sign of a paraprofessional model is appropriatetraining and careful observation of perform-ance. Trained paraprofessionals are frequentlyteamed with parent and community volun-teers. Paraprofessional personnel are usuallypaid staff members, although there have been.'instances in which they functioned on a volun-teer basis. Most 791 paraprofessional prb-grams have assumed that paraprofessionalswill function as generalists. Their specializedtasks are generally limited to supervised fol-low-through activities assigned by speech, oc-cupational, or physical therapists.

SUMMARY

Traditional models designed to provide a con-tinuum of services to handicapped studentsare inadequate for rural schools attempting toserve students with low-incidence handicaps.Because of the tremendous diversity in ruralschool systems, there is no "one" rural servicedelivery model. There are, however, a numberof community and district characteristics thata model designer must consider. The plannermay then appropriately control variables suchas usage Df personnel, transportation systems,and community involvement to design an indi-vidualized model viable for the student, dis-trict, and community.

REFERENCESDickerson, D. Orientation needs of newly hired

teachers in rural Alaska. Doctoral dissertation,University of Oregon, 1980.

Helge, D. I. National research identifying problemsin implementing comprehensive special educa-tion programming in rural areas. Exceptional Chil-dren, 1981, 47(7), 514-520.

Helge, D. I. Anational comparative study regardingrural special education service delivery systemsbefore and after passage of PL 91-142. Murray KY:National Rural Research Project, Center for Inno-vation and Development, 1980.

Reynolds, M. A framework for considering someissues in special education. ExceptIOnal Children,1978, 28(7), 367-370.

42January 1984

'r-73

Street SurvivalSkills QuestioOliaireThe SSSQ provides an objective measure of spe-cific aspects of adaptive behavior. Designed forspecial education students and the mentally re-tarded, the SSSQ is a direct measure of the in-dividual's knowledge of essential skills. Develop-mental norms from 91/2 years to adult are provided.Test results may also be utilized in a criterion-oriented fashion./Curricul um guides published bythe Research and Training Center in Mental Retar-dation-at Texas-T-e.ch University-are now-included.----

Multiple-Choice Pictorial FormatThe multiple-choice pictorial formal of the SSSQpermits a-eampling of several aspects of adaptivebehavior in individuals with multiple physical,mental and developmental disabilities. Since theindividual is simply asked to point to.one of fourpossible correct answers, only minimal readingskills are required.

Leatherette Carrying base Contains:9 volumes covering relevant community adaptiveskillsComprehensive Users ManualCurriculum GuidesScore FormS (50) for profiling scores on eaeh-subte-st

= Master Planning Charts (50) for structuring indi-vidual Program Plans

To enable you to evaluate the. Street Survival Skills Question-naire, McCarron-Dial Systems offers either the completeSSSQ kit or the SSSQ Users Manual on a free 45 day previewbasis. If you are not completely satisfied, simply return thematerials. There is no obligation.


L

McCARRONDIAL SYSTEMSCOMMON MARKET PRESS

P.O. BOX 45628DALLAS, TEXAS 75245

(214) 247.5945

Check One-o Please send SSSO all on free 45 day ensvIele basis

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Name Title

'School

School Address

City State Zip

Phone No. (

X 43325

ERIC

Providing Services for Rural Gifted/Children

C).GAYLE HAYWOOD GEAR

Abstract: Small numbers of gifted---studentslitratirsChailS'

programming by special classes or hiringof additional staff. Inadequate financialresources also frequently impede thedevelopment of comprehensive programs.Because rural schools vary in capacityand commitment to respond, there are nostandard procedures for programming forgifted students.. This article develops afoundation for program efforts whichacknowledges the diversity among ruralschools and respects the capacity of theirstaff to innovate and use existingcommunity resources.

t.c.

GAYLE HAYWOOD GEAR is Director ofthe Interrelated Teacher EducationProject,rit the University of Alabama,Birmingham.

326

NI Rural schools share similar allenges intheir efforts to program for p fted children.Gifted children are often sparsely distributedacross large geographic areas; consequently,enrollment may not be sufficient to justify

clan-es -Ur a-dditiOnar -Staff: 'Financial/and human resources too, may impede the

// development of comprehensive programsthroughout the grades. Moreover, teachers maybe unfamiliar with the extraordinary needs ofthese children /Specialists in the education ofgifted children often are not available, andadvocates Within the community may beequally rare. Finally, competing priorities mayobscure/the instructional needs of this particu-lar group of children who, on the surface, fare

.well/within the educational program. Theseare' familiar challenges for those who seek todevelop and sustain essential provisions forgifted students residing in rural communities.

Educators.- in rural schools once again arecalled upon to negotiate these hurdles, on thisoccasion, for gifted children. The task is com-plex, for Schools vary not only in their capacityto,respond to the needs of gifted children, butalso in their commitment to serve them. Thus,standard procedures simply do'not exist. Nor,perhaps, should standard programs for gifted'children exist. Rather, a foundation for pro-gram efforts must be developed, one whichacknowledges diversity among rural schoolsand which respects the capacity of their staff toinnovate and use existing community re-sources. Factors which enhance program suc-cess in rural communities include com-mitments to community awareness andparticipation, to inservice. training for regularschool personnel,' and to appropriate staffing.These important considerations have been dis-cussed elsewhere (Gear, 1978).

This article seeks to examine broader issuessurrounding educational programming for thegifted, issues involving identification and serv-

44January 1984

ices which have direct relevance to program-ming in rural schools. An underlying premiseis the nature of gifted children who attendrural schools: these children are first children,not vastly different from other gifted children.And, like all other gifted children, their needsare diverse. Thus, a listing of rural giftedcharacteristics is unneqessary. What is neces-sary is an examination of the opportunitieswhich should be made available to encouragethe full development of their intellectual andartistic talents. The intent of this article is tooffer an assortment-of-services model as apractical approach for responding to the di-Verse needs of gifted children within the con-straints often encountered in rural schools.

FROM LABELING TO DEFINING NEEDS

The first issue which must be confronted islabqing. Labeling creates problems for all chit,,dren who may be asked to live up or down U5the expectations associated with the assignedlabel. For many, "gifted" conjures unreason -.able expectations. Children report that it isunfair to expect them to be "smarter" andalways correct. Parents expect them to be orga-nized and responsible, and teachers expectthem to make straight As and to be grateful fortheir increased responsibilities. The issue isnot labeling per se. Certainly labels have beenuseful in organizing advocate groups, securingfunds, and communicating, in general terms,the nature and educational needs of giftedchildren. Beyond this, however, the label haslittle instructional usefulness.

A more insidious problem occurs when indi-viduals attempt to organize a curriculum suit-ed for the "gifted" as a group, or when the labelinterferes with the uniqueness of the child. Forexample, one child is reflective, needing timeto explore, to contemplate, and to collect histhoughts. His current abiding interests are therelated consequences of technological ad-vances in prolonging life. Another child, withcomparable ability in abstract reasoning, is asocial historian. She has already recorded thehistory of her small community and is nowattempting to study the impacT of the adjacentmetropolis upon the hamlet. A third child,once again with comparable_general, ability,simply does not sense any value in attendingschool. Few teachers are satisfied that he canread adequately or communicate his thoughtseffectively. His world is largely full of fantasy


and images of the future. He feels fettered bythis senseless "preparation for life" calledschool. Thus, children with comparable IQsare quite different in their educational needs;

'labeling often obscures this phenomenon.Rural schools must resist the temptation of

expeditiously assigning a program based uponthe label, which is largely derived from an IQscore. While this advice may be valid for allschools, it is especially pertinent for schools inwhich few gifted children may be enrolled andfor those in which .staff and other resourcesmust be carefully 'allpi! ted. In 'rural schools,sorting children into "'gifted" groups is usuallynot feasible. More importantly', sorting chil-dren in this manner is programmatically un-sound; one program will not satisfy the collec-tive needs of all. Provisions for these childrenshould be based on documented needsneeds'which vary greatly among children and whichemerge as these children mature. Thus, theemphasis must shift away from sorting chil-dren and toward defining children's instruc-tional needs. This conceptual shift has signifi-cant implications for program planning withinthe general school curriculnin`1

FROM BROADENED DEFINITIONTO BROADENED ASSESSMENT

Identification procedures in rural schools arenot vastly different from those in other areas.All too often children are tested and labeledaccording to a single criterion: their scores on

LIQ test. Their special abilities, interests, andds are seldom described, even though these

\ ssments would ensure appropriate educa-tion 1 planning. Thus, a critical need exists fora bro dened concept of assessment rather than'the of tn cited need for a broadened concept ofgif tedness.

It se-ems desirable to move toward ,a defini-tion with educational implications, to institutea method to locate children who require spe-cialized instruction and related services. Per-haps educators will, in order to 'provide achallenging and meaningful school experiencefor each child, fully acceprthat these decisionsare, as they should be, judgmental, based on anappraisal of the child's. special learning needs.The intent should be to provide necessaryservices, not to award membership in a groupcalled "gifted," and certainly, not to imply thatthese children will be our nation's leaders,inventors, and statesmen, though they might

45327

- 'be. By using an educational or diagnostic ap-proach, attention is focused on the educationalneeds of the individual child. This is a legiti-mate activity for the gifted child, as it is for allchildren. This emphasis is critical within ruralschools since gifted children may be sparselylocated across great distances. Defining theindividual child's special education require-ments will allow each school to enhance exist-ing services and/or to develop a variety ofservices which may be made available in ac-cordance with individual needs.

FROM A SORTING SERVICE TOAN 'ASSORTMENT OF SERVICES

Conceptually,-the move should be toward anelaborate support system sponsoring talent de-velopment among a variety,of gifted children,from a sorting service to an assortment' ofservices for children who require adjustmentsto the regillar school curricula. Philosophical-ly, these services would not be reserved forchildren who fortuitously exceed the arbitrari-ly selected criterion score of 130 on an individ-ual intelligence test or for a cluster of childrendefined by a Venn diagram intersection oftraits as society's potential contributors. Rath-er, the community and its schools are viewedin this design as a rich storehouse of potentiallearning experiences. The goal of leaders with-in the community and its educational institu-tions must be to tap those resources which maybenefit the cognitive and affective grovh ofindividual children.

For years, educators have made comparisonsamong various administrative designs of pro-gfams for the gifted. The results have beengenerally conflicting. Contradictory findingsmay be explained by the appearance of al;common denominator among successful pro-:grams: the provision of individual endourage-ment and opportunity for sel4aced study in awide variety, of topics. Not surprisingly, thebest program appears to be one suited to thechild's abilities, interests, and needs; onewhich provides curricular challenge, encour-agement, and an opportunity to develop indi-vidual potential. This assumption is based onPressey's earlier findings (1955) regarding thepreponderance of musical talent a century agoin Europe. The Jesting impact of encourage-ment was confirmed repeatedly in biographiesand autobiographies of notable leaders, scien-tists, and artists. Wolfle (1960), who "inven-

328

toried" talent in the 1950s, speculated, 'Theremust be many other eminent men and womenwho could tell similar stories: whose sightswere lifted by a teacher or an olcW friend whotook the trouble to encourage talent" (p. 537).

This nurturant force is elusiire. It cannot bepackaged into curriculum Oils and has noassigned cell in a three-dimynsional model, yethumans thrive on it. The) nurturant force ofencouragement seems to foster a positive self-concept, a frait too powerful to underestimateand one associated with characteristics of suc-cessful students and adults. It is this forcewhich must be the; mainstay for rural pro-grams. Anything less may represent shallowactivities, not lasting experiences to whichmany gifted adults attribute their success.

A successful program, therefore, encom-passes the school and the community coopera-tively devoted to releasing a richness of re-sources, thereby "lifting the sights" of capablechildren and youth; Rural schools must extendtheir, capacity to respond to the individualneeds of children who may benefit from spe-cialized or advanced instruction. Appropriatemodifictions to existing school practices donot necessarily entail a search for new and"differential" methods.

First, existing practices which accommodatethe needs of gifted children.should be identi;fled. Second, existing prograltis, which could,with slight modification, accommodate in-structional needs of gifted children, should bestudied and perceived as options. Third, theschool should explore suggested programs oradministrative procedures which could be de-veloped to extend the capacity of the school to'respond to individual differences.

Using existing resources and developing nu-merous options within the context of the gen-eral education program are realistic objectiveswithin reach of all rural schools. In this man-ner, programming in rural schools will notonly reflect efficacy studies in gifted child-education, but will also demonstrate thatadopting an assortment-of-services approachsuits the unique constraints whiCh often exist.Moreover, numerous provisions' enableschools to respond to the diverse needs, of.individual gifted children as these needsemerge. Most importantly, provisions for gift-ed children will not be viewed as an appen-dage or as "icing on the cake" for a select few,but, rather as a commitment to respond to theeducational needs of children.

January 1904

46

The options within an assortment-of-serv-ices model may incliide any of-the following:-

Advanced Placement Classes

In contrast to traditional honors programs,these offer the provision of college levelcourses, under ths auspices of the CollegeEntrance Exami n ation Board, to able highschool students while those students are stillin high school.,Thus, they allow the studentpossible advanced placement in college on thebasis of a qualifying AP examination. Corre-spondence courses may also'be pursued.

Cooperative Programs With HigherEducation

Junior and senior colleges may make specialprovisions for dual high school and collegeprograms. For children who have exhaustedthe in-grade curriculum, advanced instructionmay be made available for high school orCollege credit.

Early Admission

This requires the administrative provision ofthe option of early admittance of a' precocious

__child_ to first grade, thus circumventing the -strict letter of the law when exceptional abilityrequires exceptional educational responSes.

_.Curricular Compression

This option is preferable to the previous prac-tice of grade skipping. For example, it allowsthe student to accomplish the curricula offeredin a three-year period within a two-year span.Thus, a student might successfully completegrades 1-3, 4-6 or 6-8 in two years.

Work-study Programs

These provide a potential resource for academ-ic and career development of gifted-students.When these programs, have been specificallytailored to meet the needs of gifted students,they have often been "executive internships"within the business world. Nevertheless, aschool system does not have to offer an execu-tive internship program per se in order toexpand vocational work -study programs to en-compass areas of interest to gifted students.Critique of a semester experience during a


teacher-supervised cumulative seminar mightoffer constructive student evaluation- of thework-study program. Cooperative programswith vocational _arid business education alsomay be explored.

Supervised Research Projects

One means of allowing the gifted student todelve into a subject in depth might be offeredby projects of this sort in lieu of regular classcurricula. If the student demonstrates initialmastery of the subject, or if he accomplishesportions unniastered within a few weeks, thiscould be an option. Appropriate guidelinesnecessary to establish relevance to the intellectual abilities of gifted students might includethese criteria: statement of an initial hypothe-sis; design of an investigative technique appro-,priate to the particular discipline; use of avariety of resources, including library sources,available professionals; and material re-sources; and personal evaluation of the experi-ence when complete.

Out-of-level Texts

In lieu of or as supplements to the texts regu-larly provided to grade level students, out-of-

-level texts may be used. Gifted children who-demonstrate mastery of required curricula, ex-press a desire for primary rather than for sec-ondary sources, or require the challenge of areading level more suited to their abilitiesshould be provided with appropriate curricu-lar resources.

Adjustments to Assignmentsand Course Requirements

These are essential to individual educationalplanning for gifted students. If diagnostic test-ing reveals attainment of basic curricular ob-jectives, mastery testing should encompasslevels of cognitive functioning' other than rotememory and comprehension. The design ofquestions which require analysis, application,synthesis, and evaluation necessitates addi-tional, but unavoidable, planning on the partof educational personnel if exceptional abili-ties areto be properly challenged.

Individual and Group Counseling

Counseling experiences must be provided for

329

gifted children and for their parents. As notedearlier, the impact of labeling is a phenomenonwhich may accompany special provisions.Thus, the recognition and encouragement ofexceptional abilities needs to be explored in acandid, yet supportive, atmosphere. Addition-ally, appropriate topics for individual andsmall group counseling with gifted studentsand their parents might include psychologicallearning theory, social-personal relationships,and career guidance.

Special Seminars

Offered by interested school personnel duringthe school day,' these have the potential forextraordinary curricular appeal. Seminars oncontroversial issuesfor example, provide theopportunity for exploration of contemporaryconcerns thiough an interdisciplinary ap-proach. A series of leadership colloquia mightfocus on development of skills and attitudesdeemed essential for effective leadership. Oth-er opportunities of this nature may be provid-ed through cable or public service television.

Accelerated Classes

Specialiied, fast-paced study should be avail-able-for-students-whose specialacademic apti-tudes necessitate curricular modification tooextensive for the regular classroom teacher.Junior and senior colleges may provide thestaffing o may provide assistance to the schoolstaff.

Mentor Arrangements

These may be provided for students who evi-dence a desire for structured experiences witha professional in a field of career interest.Mentors must be carefully selected so that thearrangement is mutually comfortable, provid-ing an appropriate role model for the studentand a satisfying sharing of experience for thementor.

Ultimately, successful orchestration of anassortment of services to benefit individualstudents may be shared by school persoriheland by-the cooperating agencies and individ-uals within the rural community. The numer-ous alternatives described above offer potentialfor responding to the range of differences notedin the variety of needs, abilities, and interestsamong the population of gifted children. More-

over, they enable the involvement of young.sters with special aptitudes and special interests who may not otherwise be eligible forgifted programs. Thus, the regular curriculum,as defined by each school, will have carefullyintegrated numerous opportunities for ad-vanced study, exploratory activities, and op-portunities to shate experiences with individ-uals of similar interests and aptitudes. Theselection of appropriate opportunities will bebased upon an appraisal of the individualchild's educational needs.

TEACHER ROLE CHANGES

These changesmill necessitate rolehangessforboth regular and special education personnel.Limited staffing may require the ,classroomteacher and specialist to accept additionalroles. Both are expected to be excellent.teach-ers, proficient in several academic disciplines,and they must assume greater responsibility.Together they organize vital resources, workwith significant leaders within the communityand its schools to plan for comprehensiveprogram development, and, monitor the prog-ress of gifted children in their academic andsocial development. Finally, these teachers areinvolved in making the curricular adjustmentsrequired within the regular classroom for gift-ed children. Collaboration of all school person-nel on behalf of gifted children will assure acomprehensive program. Community mem-bers and school personnel may share in thesuccess of talent development.

While resources may 'be limited and theteacher is called upon to assume many addi-tional responsibilities, the one' responsibilitywhich should remain foremost is the caringrelationship which he or she establishes withthe child. Teachers in the rural school shouldnever underestimate the importance or thepower of their relationship with children.More than anything else, gifted children inrural areas need excellent role models. Theyneed someone to believe in them and to en-courage them to develop their special skillsand explore their interests. They need guid-ance, not from someone who seeks to "save"them from their rural confinement, but fromsomeone who respects them as weir as thecommunity in which they reside. The mission,then, is to respond to the child's individualneeds within the context of the community.Respect for their abilities, concern for their

330 January 1984

48.

interests, and a desire to respond to their needsare crucial Variables, unaffected by geographyor finances. Teachers should endeavor to de-velop their capacity \ o nurture the talents ofgifted children, mindfu of their role as signifi-cant adults in the lives gifted children.

In rural schools there Mould be a concernfor responding to the educational needs ofchildren. We share this responsibility for'allchildren, and we expect to do no less for thegifted child. It is the duty of the educationalsystem to respond to the rights of the child asappropriately, yet as inconspicuously, as pos-sible. Margaret Mead (1954) eloquently de-scribed the nature of this response for giftedchildren :_..,.. - , , ,,,,,

But most of all, more than protection from activediscouragement, much more than rewards and

'praise, the gifted child needs scope, material onwhich his imagination can feed, and opportunitiesto exercise it. He needs inconspicuous access tobooks, museums, instruments, paints, ideas. achance to feed himself with the accumulated heri-tage from the genius of other ages. (p. 214)

An emphasis upon broadened assessmentand means of providing for gifted children will

\ enable rural schools to respond to the individ-al needs of gifted children. Rather than the

provision of a single "gifted program" reserved

for singly determined "gifted" children, thereshould ce numerous services and resourcesoffered within the community andits schools.Specialized instruction for gifted childrenshould exist within the total school curricula,and those students who participate should doso because it is suited to their unique interestsand abilities. Thus, curricula will be providedbecause the experience is a challenge, not areward for being "gifted." Furthermore, appro-priate curricular experiences are available toall who benefit from participation; conse-quently, the regular curriculum is broadenedand adjusted, and specialized instruction isalso available.

REFERENCES

Gear, G. H, Within the community and its schools. InA. Baldwin, G. Gear, L. Lucito (Eds.), Educationalplanning for the gifted: Overcoming cultural, geo-graphic, and socioeconomic barriers. Reston VA:The Council for Exceptional Children, 1978.

Mead, M. The gifted child in the American culture oftoday. Journal of Teacher Education, 1954, 5(3),211-214.

Pressey, S. L. Concerning the nature and nurture ofgenius. Scientific Monthly, 1955, 81(3), 123-129.

Wolfe, DTDiversity of talent. American Psycholo-gist, 1960, 15(8), 535-545.

Statement of Ownership, Management, and Circulation(Act of August 12, 1970, Section 3685 Title 39, United States Code)

1. Title of Publication: EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN. 2. Date of filing: October 1, 1983 3. Frequency ofissue: Monthly in January, February, April, September, October, and November: $25 annual subscription,domestic; $29 foreign. 4. Location of known office of publication: 1920 Association Dr., Reston, Virginia22091. 5. Location of headquarters or general business offices of the publishers: The, Council forExceptional Children, 1920 Association Dr., Reston, Virginia 22091; 6. Names and addresses of publisherand editor: PublisherThe Council for Exceptional Children. 1920 Association Dr., Reston, Virginia22091; Editorjube Jordan, 1920 Association Dr., Reston, Virginia 22091; and Managing EditorGaleAdams, 1920 Association Dr., Reston. Virginia 22091. 7. Owner: The Council for Exceptional Children,1920 Association Dr., Aliston, Virginia 22091, No stockholders. [8. Not applicable.] 9. For completion bynonprofit organizations authorized to mail at special rates: The purpose, function and nonprofit status ofthis organization and exempt status for Federal Income Tax purposes have not changed during thepreceding 12 months. 10. Extent and nature of circulation:

Average no.copies ea. issue

for past 12 mos.

No. of copiesof issue nearest

filing dateTotal no. copies printed .. 56,404 53,795Paid circulation1. Sales through dealers and carriers, street vendors,

and counter sales 0 02. Mail subscription 53,472 50,503

C. Total paid circulation 53,472 50,503D. Free distribution by mail, carrier, or other means;

samples, complimentary, and other free copies 450 425E. Total distribution 53,922 50,928F. 1. Office use, left-over, unaccounted, spoiled fter

printing 2,482 2,8672. Returns from news agents 0 0

G. Total 56,404 53,795

I certify that the statements made by me above are correct and complete--Jeptlia V. Greer, Executive Director..

49

BLANIll< itGEs

DO NiOT LIYL

ss ko/....1- .or- 4 ....e..,-[ - w.a.,4

Into

Specia1 Education

332 January 1984

BLANK PAPF,D0 FlL1

Introduction to SpecialEducationJames, E.

Ysseldyke, University ofMinnesotaBob

Algozzine, University of FloridaAbout 560 pages Student

Handbook(Instructor's

Resource ManualTest Bank

VideotapeJust publishedThepractice of special

education is the focus of theYsseldyke/Algozzine text. Organized by topics ofpracticalimportance to teachers rather than by

categories ofexceptionality, the text addresses basic questions Rich as

"What isexceptionality? What is

normality? What isspecial

education?" The heart of the text deals withassessment practices and thi

,,.rious teaching methods

used with atypical learndr;Extra features!Complementing the authors'

discussion are firsthandaccounts from

practitioners in the field. A highlymotivational

videotapefree-with text adoptiondramatizes one of these "Windows on Practice" byshowing the typical workday of a speech

pathologist:For adoption-consideration, request an

examination package from your

regional Houghton Mifflin office.

44Houghton Mifflin13400 Midway Rd , Dallas, TX 75234

1900 SoBatavia Ave

, Geneva, IL 60134Pennington-Hopewell Rd , Hopewell,NJ 08525

777 California Ave., Palo Alto, CA 94304


5

ERIC

A Bandwagon Without Music:Preparing Rural Special Educators

LAWRENCE W. MARRS

Abstract: The bandwagon has finallyreached rural America. This articlediscusses important considerations forthose who would boaid this bandwagoncarrying baggage which includespreconceived ideas, about usingtraditional special education programs toprepare special educators for rural areas.Competencies and curriculum elementswhich should be included in preservice.programs are discussed.

LAWRENCE W. MARRS is Professor andChairman of the Department of SpecialEducation at Murray State University,Murray, Kentucky.

334

Ei Universities and colleges are preparingthree kinds of people to teach in rural specialeducation programs. The first type of specialeducator grew up in rural communities, knowsthe cultures and communication systems, andis comfortable in both the social and profes-sional rural milieu. This person is eager tobecome a rural special educator for the .dura-Hon of his or her career and is not likely tomove.

The second type of person who accepts ateaching position in rural areas is place-bound.This person wants or needs to live in a.specificarea and is forced into teaching specialleduca-tion by circumstances. There may be no posi-tions available other than special educ4ion, ora special education position may be all that isoffered. Frequently, this person is not even

certified in special education and musgreceiveeither einergency or temporary certificationfrom the state department of education. Thereare vastly disproportionate numbers of suchtemporarily certified special educatoirs in ruralareas as compared to the number of suchpersonnel in urban areas. Even 'in the mid- .

1980's there are many rural "speCial educa-tors" teaching children because they opted forthat instead of becoming a bus driver, cafeteriaworker, or school custodian (Helge, 1983b).

The third type of special educ,ator acceptingpositions in rural areas knows /nothing aboutruralness, comes from an urban/teacher educa-tion program, and is merely biding time until -ajob becOmes available in an 'urban school sys-tem. Because these teachers have not beenprepared for a rural life (Helge, 1981; Muse,1980; Young, 1981), they exi)erience rural cul-ture shock. This third group primarily consti-tutes the huge turnover repotted among ruralspecial educators,,where dttrition rates of 30%to 50% are the norm (Herge, 1983b).

Difficulties in staff recruitment and retentionrelate directly to defiCiencies in personnel

52

January 19/14

preparation programs, We are simply n t pre-paring a sufficient number of qualified mrson-nel for rural special education progra Moreimportantly, teacher preparation prog ems arenot providing their students or train 'es withappropriate instruction to ensure, the' successand survival as rural special educat rs.

A U.S. Special Education Prop- ms (SEP)Briefing Paper (Sontag &Button, 1 80) statedthat although SEP has invested ti and mon-ey to address shortages of other sp cial educetion

ersonnel, rural personnel ortages aremost ,cute because ."we have of preparedspecial \education personnel w o are able, toadjust to the demands of remo e, isolatedorculturallY distinct rural areas." This statementwas later\ verified by Smith and Burke (inpress), who reported that inte views with stateeducation agency directors f special educe-tion,determined that univers ties were not pre-paring special education p rsonnel in social-ization of work in rural co munities.

ALL ABOARD

Numerous universities and colleges with largespecial education teacher preparation pro-grams, upon hearing of the numbers of teach-ers needed in rural areas, leaped onto the ruralspecial,educatoir preparation bandwagon. Mostof their resultsfwere less than effective. Theydid not develop anything tiarticularly new,and graduates of these programs would feelequally competenr(or more so) to function inurban areas.. Their graduates agreed to spendbrief periods of/time teaching In rural pro-grams while-awaiting more affluent and presti-gious positions' in urban and metroprifitan ar-eas, and these new educators were basidallyuntrained to deal with rural subcultures. Sameeducators at larger institutions began to ana-lyze the rural experience, translate it into cu'r-riculum, arid policy, and write about "ruralspecial -education", in books and grantapplications.

State education agencies are attempting toalleviate personnel shortages and attrition-through such strategies as providing educa-tional incentives to practicing teachers. Oneexample of this is in Kentucky where the statedepartment of education pays the educationalexpenses for practicing teachers to takecourses required for certification in areas ofneed identified by the state. Other states andcommunities offer salary supplements to spe-

cial educators to entice them to accept ruralspecie/ education positions,

On strategy employed by most school sys-tems/ in nearly all states is the issuance ofemergency or temporary certificates. Relative-ly high percentages of the-rural special educa-tion directors and teachers interviewed by theNRP (Helge, 1983a) reported a lack of trainingft.' their positions. For example, 15% of the

/hadspecial education directors and teachers

/had taken few or no courses in special educa-tion. Sixty-six percent of those surveyed re-/ported that emergency certification is typicallyused in their districts. They stated that tempo-rarily certified personnel were not qualified forthe positions they held.

Many small and regional institutions havegotten on, the bandwagon (and rightfully so)since most of their graduates are placed inrural settings. In December 1982, at the projectdireCtors meeting called by" SEP and held inWashington, D.C., a National Consortium ofUniversities PreparingRural Special Educatorswas formed. The Consortium was initiallycomposed of representatives from some 47universities. They agreed to particiiiiate, or beinvolved in some level in the development ofcurriculum designed specifically foro rural pre-service programs.",

Consortium members were invited to join atone of three levels' ranging from being on amailing list to receive newsletters and 'othernews items, to participating in teleconferencesand resource sharing or actually'asiisting inthe development and field testing of curricula.Most 'institutions opted to participate in thecurriculum desigt-Taad implementation aspectof the Consortium. Subsequently, over 20 addi-tional institutions indicated a desire to partici-pate and, are now members of the Consortium.

A subgroup .within the Teacher EducationDivision of CEC, the Small College Caucus,was also forriled to provide a forum for sharingresources and technical skills among members.While not all small colleges prepare specialeducators for rural areas, most special educe-tors going to rural areas are trained in smallcolleges.

Another group of players on the bandwagoncomes from 37 universities and colleges acrossthe country which agreed to field-test preserv-ice curriculum modules developed by the Na-tional Rural Project as a result of 31/2 years ofresearch and prograth design. These participat-ing institutions are modifying the curriculum


53

modules to suit their need t recording themodifications via cassette tape logs. These logswill be reviewed, along with any written mate-rials added to the modules. The final productof these modules will be available from theNational Rural Project at Murray State Univer-sity, for use by institutions across the country.Since a wide diversity of universities andcolleges are using the materials, it is expectedthat modules will be developed to fit mRstsettings, regardless of the constituency base pfthe teacher education program. (The comp&tencies upon Which these instructional mod-ules were developed are discussed later in thisarticle.)

SOME AUDIENCE REQUESTS OF THEBANDWAGON

The 1983 National. Rural Project-survey (Helge,1983b) of 200 rural special education directorsand teachers in all 50 states concluded thatbeing trained in a rural or regional college or

TABLE 1What Additional Training DoYou Wish You Had

Received But Did Not?

Training o Response

Experiential training (includingon-site work, simulations ofproblem-solving, teammanagement. communication.etc.)

Additional knowledge,(coordination of services,regional delivery systems,team management. schoolaw, finance, and itinerant

service strategies)Generic techniques to be able to

work without tie availabilityof specialists for low:incidence handicaps

Knowledge of rural cultures. .

mores, and techniques foracceptance

Recruitment and retentioniechniques

Transportation alternativesServing minority students in

rural areasLearning disabilities

'information

59%

57%

48%

36%

31%24%

3%

1%

336

university site did not guarantee a rural train-ing emphasis. In fact, 100% of those inter-viewed stated that their "rural training" tookplace on the job. In that same study, 32% of therespondents could not state a strength of theirpreservice training as preparation for workingwith rural handicapped children, their paents, and rural communities. In contrast, 6 /0

noted the lack of realistic experiences n arural community as a significant void in theirtraining program.

The 1983 study indicated that preservicepreparation for rural special educato-rs mustbecome more specific, with rural-focused con-tent and experiential training techniques.None of the 200 respondents in the telephonesurvey stated that they were trained specifical-ly for York with rural handicapped students.In fact, only 10% described their preservicetraining as adequate to work in rural communi-ties. Tables 1 and 2 summarize their answers totwo pertinent questions related to preparationfor teaching in a rural setting.

It is clear that rural special education prepa-ration programs need to focus more on "rufflriess" than they have been doing. Few respon-dents to any of the National Rural Projectresearch inquiries indicated a need for moreinstruction in curriculum, methods, or charac-teristics of handicapped children. Rather, forsuccessful survival in rural areas, special edu-cators need to know how to adapt and adjust,-bottfpeficinallkand-Professionally, to the ruralculture in, which they find Themselves em-ployed. More people leave special educationpositions in rural areas because of social andprofessional growth limitations than do sobecause of incompetence (Helge, 1981).

PROBLEMS FOR-MEMBERS OF THE BAND

Most rural or regional universities and collegespreParing their students for special educationpositions use essentially the same curricula asdo their colleagues in urban institutions ofhigher education. Yet they encounter a numberof unique problems.

There are limitations in"' the quantity andquality of role models, materials, and facili-ties in many of/the rural settings in whichpractica and student teaching must be ar-ranged. The need to expose students to quali-ty, innovative, state -of- the -art learning situa-tions is u,mediated by what is usually presentin available practica'and internship locations

January 1684.

TABLE 2, What Do You Wish You Had Known AboutWorking in a Rural Community Before You Began

Doing So?

Knowledge:Coping with remoteness to

services and other resourcesTechriques for generic service'delivery serving childrenwithout the availability ofspecialists

. Coping with remoteness frompergonal enrichment and stressreduction activities

How to work with rural farfiiliesand communities

Informafion regarding ruralsubcultures

Recruitment and retentionstrategies

Transportation constraints(personal and professional)

Dealing with transient populationsRespondent was from the type of

rural area in which he or she -eventually became employed

Response

68%

66%

56%

38%

_38%

21%

21%11%

24%

O

and somewhat by the need to inject realityinio the curricula.Adequate numbers of practicum sites and theability to transport students to them is fre-qu)ently a problem.StuI

dent housing in off-university practicumlocations requires extensive logistics andcommunity/university cooperation?

. The problems of supervision are great, in-' chiding the cost of travel and housing and

the cost effectiveness of supervising one or,

twp students per community.Since practicum, observation, and studentteaching locations are typically spread over awide geographic area, climatic variables en-teriinto the design of curriculum as well.Many smaller institutions offer courses deal:ing with low-incidence handicaps in only acursory manner unless a particular faculty'metnber happens to have such an expertiseand interest.Mot faculty members in smaller universitieshaN)e multiple responsibilities, including 121ho4r teaching loads, supervision, and travel,

Exceptio.nal Children

along with traditional services to the fieldand research requirements. Therefore, thereis typically little time for development ofnew curriculum materials.Many rural and regional institutions use ad-junct instructors to help them meet the tre-mendous needs of rural communities forteacher preparation. Most of these adjunctpersonnel live within the communities inwhich they teach and their courses are rarelysupervised or quality controlled by the par-ent institution.

Faculty in regional universities and collegeswho train rural special educators have a strongcommitment to quality. Quality, however, issometimes difficult to achieve because of

workloads, diverse responsibilities, fundingproblems, and isolated facilities. Additionally,curricula have not been developed specificallyfor thepreparation of rural special educators.Curricula tend to look alike regardless ofwhether the students intend to seek employ-ment in rural or {urban settings:

There is a need for development of a rural. preservice curriculum that is field tested andvalidated. Such a curriculum is in fact being.deVeloped by the National Rural Project undera grant from SEP, one which will be transport-able and usable in most university and collegesettings across the country in which ruralspecial educators are prepared.

SOME MUSIC FOR THE BANDWAGON

Studies conducted by the National Rural Proj-ect over the past four years point to a numberof areas of critical need in relation to ruralteacher preparation. They `include the follow-ing: severely handicapped and other !ow-inci-dence handicaps; rural independent livingskills; technology in rural schools; populationsover 17 years; rural early childhood; ruralspecial education administration; rural sec-ondary special education; related services .inrural schools; rural vocational education; ruralvocational rehabilitation; rural communitymobilization; rural.speech therapists; rural ge-neric special education; and rural special edu-cation teachers for emotionally disturbed,learning disabled, and educable mentallyhandicapped children.--Ten curriculum modules developed by theNational Rural Project are being field-tested in1983-84. They_include:

55337

1. Personal Development Skills and Strate-gies for Effective Survival as a Rural Spe-cial Educator

2. The State-of-the-Art of Rural Special Edu-cation

3. Alternative Instructional Arrangementsand Delivery SystemsJor LoW-IncidenceHandicapped Students in Rural America

4. Involving Citizens and Agencies of RuralCommunities in Cooperative Program-ming for Handicapped Students

5. Working with Parents of HanaicappedStudents

6. Solving Rural Fa rnt- Professional RelatedDilemmas

7. Working with Peer Professionals in RuralEnvironments

8. Creative Resource Identification for Pro-viding Services to Rural Handicapped Stu-dents

9. Solving Educational Dilemmas Related toSchool Administration

10. Warren Springs, Mesa. A Rural PreserviceSimulation for Use With NRP-DevelopedRural Preservice Modules

These modules are based on competencieswhich are designed for infusion into ongoingspecial education programs. They are not in-tended tG replace curricula in methods, char-acteristics of handicapped children, etc. Rath-er, their infusion into ongoing programs andexisting classes will enhance the probability oftheir use without adding extra instructionalburden to already overworked university andcollege faculty. The nine competencies onwhich these curriculum modules are based arelisted below (Helge, 1983a):

1. Students will demonstrate an understand-ing of the context of a rural school and itsenvironment.

2. Students will demonstrate an understand-ing of differences involved in servinghandicapped students in rural and urbanenvironments.

3. Students will demonstrate knowledgeconcerning the state-of-the-art of rural spe-cial education.

4. Student, will demonstrate knowledge ofeffective service delivery models for ruralhandicapped children (including low-in-cidence handicaps such as severely emo-

338

56

tionally disturbed, hearing impaired, andvisually impaired).

5. Students will demonstrate an awareness ofalternate resources to provide services torural handicapped students and skills toidentify alternate resources.

6. Students will demonstrate skills in work-ing with parents of rural handicapped stu-dents.

7. Students will develop skills in workingwith citizens and agencies in rural com-munities to facilitate cooperation amongschools and service agencies to servehandicapped students.

8. Students will demonstrate an understand-ing of personal development skills (a) fortheir own professional gro*th and (b) tobuild a local support system in their ruralenvironmeht.

Q. StudeniS will develop skills in workingwith peer professionals from rural envi-ronments.

SOME BELLS AND WHISTLES

The National Consortium of Universities Pre-paring Rural Special Educators will developpreservice curriculum modules based on cur-riculum elements identified as important with-in the nine identified competencies. Examplesof these curriculum elements are listed belowunder the specific competency category towhich they apply.

The Rural Special Education Context

1. Differences in rural and urban schools andcommunities

2. Ruralness defined3. Inequities of ruralness4. Heterogeneity of,ruralnesstypes of rural

subcultures5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

Historical overview of rural educationAdvantages and disadvantages of ruralschoolsCommunity services in rural America ,Effects of federal mandates for 'rural coin.:munitifs_Current controversiesInternational similarities in problems andstrategies of rural service delivery systemsMisapplication of urban service deliverymodels

January 1984

12. Associated cost problems13. Personnel needs and roles14. Affective factors15. Rural minorities16. Effective .processes of creating change in

rural communities17. Rural community norms18. Communication systems in rural commu:

nities19. Power systems in rural America20. Fiscal realities of rural schools/depart-

ments/class budgets

Differences in Serving Rural Vs. UrbanHandicapped Students

1. Percentages of school population served2. Personnel turnover3. Transportation4. Community structure5. Geography6. Backlogs of children for testing and place-

ment7. Communication8. Student body composition9. Education professionals approach

10. Population density11. Nonenrollment of school-age children12. Cooperation among agencies13. Roles/lack of specialists

The State-of-the-Art of Rural SpecialEducation

1. Problems serving rural handicapped chil-dren

2. Inherent rural attributes' and resources foreffective service delivery systems

3. Perceptions of parents of handicappedchildren about rural services delivered

4. Changes in rural attitudinal factors5. Viewing problems as challenges and rural

attributes as positive vehicles for change

Effective Service Delivery Systems

1. Service delivery variables2. District variables3. Community variables4. Importance of generic skills for special

education personnel


5. Alternate instructional arrangements anddelivery systems

6. Generic effective strategies and promisingpractices for individualizing service deliv-ery strategies for specific rural subcultures

7. Building personal and professional. sup-port systems

8. Understanding federal and state mandatesregarding special rural populations (e.g.,migrant tracking system, health records,federal and state mandates, and linkagesystems)

Creative Resource Identification

1. Funding alternatives2. Rural parents as resources3. Rural communities as resources4. Facilitating interagency cooperation so

services will be provided to rural handi-capped children

5. Advocacy groups-national, regional,state

6. Skills in preparing proposals for princi-pals and school boards to improve services

7. Staff development resources-cassettetapes for traveling, satellite, videotaping

8. Managing noncertified aides assigned toassist in special education classes '5

Working With Parents

1. Understanding rural parhnts2. Establishing rapport3. Effective parent-professional communica-

tion4. Assessing Parent needs and planning in-

tervention programs5. Working with extended families6. Designing parent education systems7. Serving as a parent advocate8. Using parent and community resources in

the schools

Facilitating Interagency Cooperation

1. Establishing rapport2. Understanding issues and processes of in-

teragency cooperation3. Understanding communication and power

57

systems4. Influencing decision makers5. Establishing community education sys-

tems

Personal Coping Skills and ProfessionalDevelopment

1. Laboratory problem-solving skillsim-proved and decision making

2. Effective assertiveness for handicappedchildren

3. Self-reliance vs. referral to specialists4. Knowing the limits of one's own knowl-

edge5. Being able to ask for assistance from super-

visor/department chair/neighboring dis-trict, etc.

6. Learning to find positives in what is differ-ent and challenges, in problems

7. Building support systems and mentors inatypical places for rural special needs chil-dren (e.g., district psychologist, nurse, li-brarian, PTA officer, parents)

8. Prioritizing and finding agencies for selfand professional development to preventburnout

9. Keeping abreast of new developments10. Influencing decision makers11. Recognizing stress12. Stress management and reduction13. Alternate leisUre activities/self-entertain-

ment for isolated areas14. Developing annotated,bibliographies of re-

sources (human, conceptual technical,media, and materials)

15. Comfort with the facilitator-vs.-expert role16. Rural leadership skills17. Maintaining community support18. Accepting the rural community and be-

. coming involved in its affairs19. Prioritizing one's energy for teaching vs.

battles over community norms20. Effecting peaceful progressive relation-

ships among factors21. Socially acceptable behavior in rural cul-

tures/perSonal profiles, to include accept-ance of different cultures, norms, and val-ues

340

22. Being an effective parent advocate23. Developing abilities to teach independent-

ly and maintain classroom disciplinewithout supervision

Consultation with Rural Peer Professionals

1. Understand2. Demonstrat

proceduresproblem-so

ing communication processesng a general understanding ofinvolved in consultation andving

Rural Resources

A multitude of resources are available in ruralareas. Preservice and inservice programs de-signed to provide rural special educatorsshould provide instruction in how to takeadvantage of these resources. Some examplesof those that are accessible include thefollowing:

A positive sense of community means thatrural citizens are quick to come to the aid oftheir neighbors and can be mobilized to assistspecial educators in a variety of ways rangingfrom the contribution of individual skills tofinancial resources.

There are strong accountability networks inrural areas resulting from the basic fact that"everybody knows everybody." Therefore;things usually get done when promised, andnegative situations are not allowed to get out ofhand.

While there is some bureaucraCy in ruralareas, the informal political and communica-tion systems are open to nearly everyone andprovide special educators with vehicles forenhancing system-wide change.

Since most professionals in rural- communi-ties know each. other and generally deal withthe same constituency, rural special educatorshave easier access to a wide range of nonschoolServices.

Rural communities have personalities, atti-tudes, and values. Once the special educatoruses his or her knowledge for discoveringthese basic tenets of a given rural community,procedures for improving or changing specialeducation delivery systems begin to becomeclear.

Since the majority of parents of handicapped-children in rural areas will know each other,they can be mobilized. Through their own

58 jarivary 1984

networks of friends and relatives, they canwield considerable weight in the best interestpf the special education program.

These bells and whistles have been providedto encourage university and college facultywho prepare rural special educators to consid-er adopting a rural focus in their courses.Implementation of these suggestions will pro-vide students with unique knowledge neededto survive successfully in a rural schoolsetting.

THE GRAND FINALE

The thesis of this article is that personnelspecifically trained to work with rural handi-capped populations will have greater personalas well as professional success. The 1980 SEPbriefing paper stressed the importance of de-signing strategies to address critical personnelshortages in rural America. Such strategiesmust use existing facilities and resources, beconsistent with certification guidelines forthose to be trained, and include a substantialamount of training and integration with practi-cum experience.

Curricula developed to prepare rural specialeducators should observe the followingguidelines:

1. Quality preservice models must providefor the training of competent special edu-cators possessing appropriate skills towork with rural handicapped students.

2. Personnel must be trained to work withvarious categories of handicapping condi-tions including low- incidence handicaps.This training must include attention to theconcepts and skills covered in the de-scribed competencies and curriculum ele-ments as well as more traditional cur-ricula.

3. Quality curriculum. content should bedata-based. Research concerning nationaland local cultural needs of rural areasshould be incorporated into the design oftraining competencies and content. Con-tent should include knowledge based oncomprehensive literature reviews, recentsite visits, and other contacts with localdistrict and cooperative programs to'deter-mine effective and ineffective strategies ofserving rural handicapped children.

4. Because -of scarce professiohal resources

.Exceptional Children

in rural America, training programsshould teach students to use existing re-sources. Cost analysis data should be in-corporated into program design wheneverpossible.

5. Lasting change in rural areas cannot beaccomplished unless change models areconsistent with local community cultureand value systems. Training curriculashould teach students about local commu-nity systems and encourage understandingof models of service delivery which areconsistent with local community values.

6. Training curricula must be designed withconsideration for local community, valuesystems. Students must be trained in alter-native ways to adapt teaching techniquesfor specific rural community characteris-tics.

7. Rural special educators must work with avariety of handicapping conditions andplay an assortment of roles in the commu-nity. Training should prepare special edu-cators for a variety of leadership, service,and support roles.

a. Preservice curricula should stress flexibleusage of instructional strategies. This willencourage more flexibility for faculty at-tempting to incorporate rural content intoexisting courses.

9. Training strategies must provide for proce-dures to follow-up classroom training inactual teaching environments. This shouldinclude practica, internships, and jobplacements. Field personnel should be in-volved in analysis of the skills of studentstrained by the curricula.

10. Training models should incorporate inter-disciplinary training and be designed toprepare special educators to work withhandicapped children in the 11,000 ruraldistricts in America.

11. Innovations in technology should be usedwherever feasible for enhancement of cost-effective personnel preparation. Also, theuse of technology as a resource for specialeducators in rural areas should be taughtas part of the preservice curriculum.

12. Research into topics and issues of concernin rural special education by universitygraduate students and faculty should be .

encouraged. Research findings should bedisseminated to practitioners as well aspreservice university faculty.

59341

AN ENCORE

New curricula must be developed and used inthe preparation of rural special educators. Tra-ditional curriculum sequences (characteristicsof handicapped children, methods, curriculumdevelopment, practicum, and student teach-ing) have not provided enough of what is reallyimportant for success in rural special educa-tion settings.

Even though members of the band fromacross the land may differ in harmony, it isimperative that all players use music ("curric-ula")that is needed and desired by those whomust dance to the tune of the bandwagon.

REFERENCES

He lge, D. I. Images: Issues and trends ir: rural specialeducation. Murray KY: National Rural Researchand Personnel Preparation Project, Murray StateUniversity. 1983. (a)

Helge, D. I. Increasing preservice curriculum ac-countability to rural handicapped populations.Teacher Education and Special Education, 1983,6(2), 137-142. (b)

Helge, D. I. Problems in implementing comprehen-sive special education programming in rural areas.Exceptional Children, 1981,47,514-520.

Muse, I. D. The role of higher education in ruraleducation. Manhattan KS: Secand Annual KansasState University Rural and Small School Confer-ence, 1980. (ERIC Document Reproduction ServiceNo. ED 201 464) ti-

Smith, J., & Burke, P. A national survey of manpowersupply and demand in special education. CollegePark MD: University of Maryland Institute for theStudy of Handicapped Children and Youth, inpress.

Sontag, E., & Button, J. Office of Special Educationbriefing paper. February 1980,22 pp.

Young, P. E., Preservice teacher training and ruralschools. In F. Darnell and P. M. Simpson (Eds.),Rural education: In pursuit of excellence.. Ned-lands, Western Australia: National Center for Re-search on Rural Education, 1981.

The landmark program ...

M IO 0 0The Developmental Test of Visual-Motor Integration

is now available exclusively from

Modern Curriculum Press.For questions, comments, and orders, contact

Mt

Modern Curriculum Press13900 Prospect RoadCleveland, Ohio 44136

216/238-2222

342

60January 1984


BLANK PAS :DO NOT

Residential TeachingCommunitiesProgram Developmentand Staff Training forDevelopmentally DisabledPersonsRalph J. Wetzel / Ronald L. Hoschouer/ritten in the field for the field, this

practical text describes a model andprovides guidelines for residential care,rehabilitation, and education of develop-mentally disabled persons. ©1984, 224pages, hardbound.

Perspectives inSpecial EducationPersonal OrientationsBurton Blatt / Richard J. MorrisA collection of autobiographical essaysby ten of the leadihg researchers, writers,and practitioners in the field of specialeducation. ©1984, 352 pages,'hardbound.

Special ChildrenAn Integrative ApproachSecond EditionBernard G. Suran / Joseph V. RizzoA comprehensive introduction to specialeducation, with an integrative approachto the psychological, educational, medical,and social aspects of each major cate-gory of exceptiOnality, ©1983, 608pages, illusiPated, hardbound, withInstructor's Manual.

Learning Disabilitiesin PerspectiveHoward S. Adelman / Linda TaylorThis contemporary treatment of learn-ing disabilities offers new perspectivesand up-to-date references for bothstudents and professionals. ©1983, 376pages, hardbound

61N

343

ERIC

Technological Tools for RuralSpecial Education

ALAN M. HOFMEISTER

Abstract: Many of the problems ofeducation relate to communicationissues. The developing new technologiesoffer considerable promise because oftheir information orientation. Therealizationof these promiseswill dependon the degree to which rural educatorsprepare themselves to capitalize on theadvantages and avoid the problems

'associated Ovith the new technologies.One of the advantages of the newinformation technologies is the potentialto support the concept of "universalexcellence" in instructional deliverysystems.

ALAN M. HOFMEISTER is Dean, Schoolof Graduate Studies, and Associate VicePresident for Research, Utah State'University, Logan.

to The developing technologies associatedwith the information age hold considerablepromise for th-e rural special educator. Thereare two major reasons for this optimism. One isconcerned with the i ormation orientation ofthe new technologies, and the second is con-cerned with the notion of universal excellence.

INFORMATION ORIENTATION

Though it is fashionable to discuss the devel-oping technologies as components of the com-puter age, the reality is that the umbrellaphenomenon is the information age, and thecomputer the major tool of the information age.This information orientation is particularlyimportant in the context of rural education,where information transmission is central tomany of our probldms. The instructional andadministrative practices that we use in educa-tion are based on communication among indi-viduals working in comparatively close con-

tact. Many of these traditional practices aretendered less than effective by the problems oftime and-distance associated with rural educa-tion. The information age offers a set of .com-munication tools that have the potential to._overcome some of these problems.

Videotex

Videotex is the term used to describe anysystem which makes computer-stored informa-tion available via computer screens or a print-ing terminal. Videotex exists in two fOrms:interactive and noninteractive.

Interactive. In interactive videotex, informa-tion usually moves via telephone lines. Theuser may interact through a personal comput-er, a terminal with a screen and keyboard, anadapted television set, or ,a printing terminal.Most interactive videotex systems are designed

344 January1984

62

to allow the individual to conduct in-depthsearches through large amounts of informa-tion. The individual can work in either asearch mode or an interactive mode in whichinformation can be added to the system as well

, as retrieved.One of the most common ways an individual

adds information to a videotex system isthrough- the use of electronic mail. Electronicmail is the term for the electronic distributionof messages. While most forms of telecommu-nications are "real-time" communciations,electronic mail is. not. Messages are sent andstored until the recipient wishes to read them.This facility combines the advantages of regu-lar ma (allowing the individual to choosewhen to read or respond) with the speed ofelectronic communications. Most of the largeelectronic mail systems allow messages to becopied or sent to several individuals at once.When a message is received, the recipient canoften forward it to others with a single copycommand.

Electronic mail systems usually includeelectronic bulletin boards, where messages ofgeneral interest can be posted. A number ofstates have developed statewide videotex sys-tems which include bulletin boards for specialeducators, school administrators, and curricu-lum specialists such as math and language artsteachqrs, as well as general education employ-,ment information.

Computer conferenc ing occurs when severalindividuals use the electronic mail facilities ofa videotex system to communicate on a specif-ic topic over a period of time. For example,several teachers in different parts of a statemight conduct a computer conference over atwo-week period to develop an agenda for astatewide professional meeting.

Nationally, special educators are participat-ing in interactive videotex 'systems of three

-major types. General-purpose systems such asCompuServe and the Source comprise onetype, Aside from offering electronic mail serv-ices, these systems also provide a large .infor-mation base that includes access to such wide-

: ranging information as wire services, stockmarket,'estaurant guides, and transportationschedules, as well as bibliographical searchfacilities that allow the educator to query suchdata bases as ERIC.

A second, more specialized system is Spe-cialNet, which was developed specifically forspecial educators and provides for electronic

Exceptional Children(a tA

mail, bulletin board services, and computerconferencing. A third alternative; just startingto emerge, are state-specific systems developedby state offices of education, designed to serveall public school educators within a particularstate.

Noninteractive. NoninteractiVe videotex isusually transmktted in association with televi-

signals. A .television 'signal that is re-ceived in the home is capable of carrying moreinformation than we are presently using. If amodification is made to the television set,additional information'On be accessed. Oneexample of this capacity, is the captioning

, service available for the deaf, a noninteractivevideotex service.

Noninteractive videotex information basesare usually limited to a few huridred pages ofinformation, and while users can 'select fromamong them, they cannot enter information_into the system. These noninteractive videotexservices often duplicate some of the offeringsof the daily newspaper, and carry informationthat may be updated daily or even morefrequently.

The pages of information offered by thesenoninteractive videotex services are availablefor purchase in a manner similar to that inwhich advertising space is sold on television.Thus, if is possible for schools to obtain com-mand of a number of the available videotexinformation pages in order to keep the commu:nity informed on school events and education-al offerings.

The Electronic Cottage

Alvin Toffler, in The Third Wave (1979), de-scribed the "electronic cottage," where allmembers of the family stay at home and.cwork,learn, and participate in recreation with theaid of computers and electronic communica-tion. The idea of children staying at home andlearning through electronic communication isnot at all new. In the field of special education,there have been numerous examples of pupilslinked to teachers via phone lines. As far backas the 1930s and 1940s, pupils in outbackAustralia interacted with their teachers byshort-wave radio powered by pedal-drivenelectronic generators.

A number of corporations have experiment-ed with allowing employees to work at homeand communicate via computer terminals with

63345

nrC'-f?-c)(1-- mucirgx_,_

To School ,Pd With other --> With principaldistrict pupb teachers in and and curriculumrecords out of the state supervisors

To inforrnaik'nbanks andlibraries

To district" pupil servicesforpsychologistsand counselors

Teacher atterminal

pPupils doinghomeworic

Participationin computerconferencing With large computer

t° "download" CAIsoftware to

computerWith parents

foFIGURE 1. Electronic ill l'Iligt1011 sources for the teacher.

From Microcomputer ApPliegtions in the Classroom by Alan Hofmeister. Copyright © 1984 by CBS CollegePpblishing. Reprinted by Permission of Holt, Rinehart and Winston, CBS College Publishing.

346 6January 1984

4.

work colleagues. While such practices havebeen implemented, their popularity with theworker has been questioned. In a poll conduct-ed by Time magazine (January 3, 1983), some73% of the respondents stated that they be-lieved the computer would enable more peo:,ple to work at home, yet only 31% said thatthey themselves would prefer to do so.

Electronic Information Sources and theTeacher

When we move from direct contact to electron-ic communication, we dramatically reduce theimpact of time and distance as problem varia-bles, When communication takes place elec-tronically, the important variable becomes ter-minal access. Once two individuals wishing tocommunicate have access to a terminal, thedistance between them ceases to be of majorimportance. Figure 1 illustrates some of theelectronic information exchanges that present-ly occur between a classroom teacher andother individuals in .the education system,

Problems and Issues

Participating in the technology. All of theelectronic information exchanges noted in Fig-ure 1 have either been implemented or areplanned for the near future in a number ofschool districts in the United States. The factthat the potential already exists does not meanthat such electronic information exchangesshould or will occur in great numbers. Whileour children appear to be adapting quite readily to the hardware of the information age,many administrators, teachers, and teachertrainers do not share their enthusiasm.

Balance between electronic and personalcontact. Electronic information cannot andshould not replace all other forms of eommuni-catioX. Even if we were to become highlycommitted to electronic information exchange,we would have to. work at determining anappropriate, balance between direct personalcontact and contact via electronic information.

Fiscal resources. Even though the commuiication problems posed by time and distance \are minimized by electronic information ex-change, limited fiscal resources remain as apersistent problem, particularly in relation to


the availability of equipment. If we determine,for example, thek those ,households havingongoing electrenia, communication with theteacher to exchange information on such is-sues as homework.and pupil progress are in abetter position to help their child, then wemust become concerned about those familiesthat do not have the financial resources tocommunicate electronically with the school.

Availability and use. The fact that ancommunication channel exists does not

guarantee its use, For example, even if Wedevelop inexpensive and flexible electroniccommunication systems between teachers andparents, such systems' may be little used if wehave not also devised systematic and produc-tive ways of using them. Although the value pfparent communication, parent involvement,and parent training are constantly discussed,supported, and validated thraush research, thefact is that many educators do not systemat -cally plan for or place a high priority onparent-related initiatives, even though somerelatively low-cast communication channelsare already available, the telephone being aprime example.

UNIVERSAL EXCELLENCE

The notion of universal excellence was a moti-vation driving many of the early researchersusing teaching machines, programmed learn-ing, and computer assisted instruction (CAI).As far back as 1966, in Congressional hearings,advocates of computer assisted instruction dis-cussed the potential of this new tool to "do forevery child what once could be done for only afew" (Hofmeister, 1983).

For some twenty years now, CAI researchers .

have looked to computer assisted instructionas an important vehicle in developing univer -,sal excellence in the delivery of instruction.Unfortunately, the notion at this point in timeis still more vision than substance. In thesprihg of 1977, just as the first microcomputers,with educational potential were being re-leased,-Schoen and Hunt asked,.

What happened? Why has CAI not been adopted ,

Wholesale in our educational institutions? Despite _-fantastic predictions by many people in the 1960's

there seems to be little evidence that theirpredictions will come true in the near future. (p.79)

65347

Although the portability, icost, and flexibilityof the microcomputer have considerably in-creased the availability of CAI, there are stillproblems.

Though much is made of the computer'sability to respond to each individual with text,graphics, and now speech, it is possible thatthese aspects will make a relatively minorcontribution to education (Barringer & Ghol-son, 1979; Rankin & Trepper, 1978). Perhapsthe most important characteristic of CAI tech-

., nology will be the ability to faithfully replicateinstruction. One of the greatest disappoint-ments of. CAI has been the failure of CAIdevelopers to capitalize on the technology'spotential for self-improvement through itsability to collect pupil data and consistentlyreplicate each improved \version. The markethas been deluged with large numbers of frag-mented products, some of 1.khich were nevereven tested in an actual clasi4room before theywere marketed.

An early vision, as expressed by Schwartzand Long (1966), suggested that:

The data collection and quick update capabilitieshave profound implications. ... Once the initialversion of the course has been written and admin-istered to a small group of students, the author caninterrogate the system and obtain a complete rec-ord of each student's performance. From this, hecan then determine where changes are necessary.(p. 15)

This vision of nearly 20 years ago has been lostany CAI program developers:the present time there is_very little evi-

du, ae that existing computer assisted instruc-than programs will make a dramatic addition toour instructional tools (Alderman, Sikinton, &

1.978; Bunderson, 1981; Deaton,1983; Hartley, 1977). While CAI has oftenperformgd acceptably in a supplemental role,its performance as,an alternative to the teacherhas been considerably less than what washoped for by many of the earlier advocates ofcomputer assisted instruction.

The "Omnibus Medium"

Kleibacker (1983), in discussing the communi-cation industry, noted:

Once segmented into separate, distinct entitiesnewspaper, books, magazines, film, radio, televi-sioneach with their own markets, today thetechnologies are merging into one gianteelectroniccircuit-board. Newspapers are going online. Hooks

O

are being converted from handbooks iind paper-backs into floppy disk "softbacks." Flint and rec-ords are being digitized and magazintis are becom-ing videolzed to fill a supermarket' of cable andmicrowave channels. (p.

Of interest to educators is the convergence oftechnologies to form a single device with thecharacteristics of several media. In the Scienceand Technology section of the April, 1983,issue of the Economist, reference was made tothe plans of Matsushita to market a "read-and-write" videodisc system. Such a system hasthe potential to function as a microcomputer,but with a massive increase in speed andstorage, and as a videotape system, but withbetter video and audio characteristics. Theread-and-write videodiscs should make avail-able to the CAI developer /a II jardware devicethat is a complete generatibn aheadcof presentdqices. -

Adeodisc systems that can present videoand respond like a computer are being fieldtested in special education classrooms (Hof-meister & Thorkildsen, 1983). A restriction ofpresent systems is tied to the fact that they are"read-only" systems. The computer code andvideo information stored on the disc cannot bechanged once it is put there. A read-and-writevideodisc allows for the changing of both com-puter and video intormatioN The presence ofthis "omnibus medium" may bring the dreamof universal excellence in instruction a littlecloser to reality. A highly flexible and respon-sive delivery system that can present .highquality "packaged" instruction and still allowfor local adaptations has clear implications forrural special education.

CONCLUSION

The new technological tools offer immediateand more distant promises. The realization ofthese promises will depend on the degree towhich rural educators prepare themselves tocapitalize on the advantages and avoid theproblems associated with the new technolo-gies. Because these new. tools are communica-tion oriented, rural educators have much togain by developing their technological literacy.Unlike their urban peers, the rural educatordoes not have the luxury of falling back onexisting communication practices in educa-tion, many of which have not been well suitedto the needs of rural educators.

348 January 1984

0 66

REFERENCESAlderman, D. Swinton, S. S., & Braswell, J. S.

Assessing basil arithmetic skills (terms curricula.Computer - assisted instruction and compensatoryeducation: The ETA/LAUSD study. Princeton NJ:Educational Testing Service, 1978.

Derringer. C., & Cholson, 13. Effects of type andcombination of feedback upon conceptual learningby children: Implications for research in academiclearning. Review of Educational Research, 1979.49(3), 459-478.

Bunderson, V, Courseware. In H, F. O'Neil, Jr. (Ed.),Camputer-bused instruction: A state-af-the-art as-sessment. New York: Academic Press, 1981.

Deaton, W. J. Computer assisted inNruction: No ef-fects and unexpected relationship. Paper present-ed at the annual meeting of the American Educe:-tional Research Association, MOntreal, April 1983.

Hartley. S.S. Meta-analysis of the effects of individ-ually paced instruction in mathematics (Doctoraldissertation, University of Colorado at Boulder,1977). (University Microfilms No. 77-29, 926)

Hofmeister, A. M. Microcomputer applications inthe classroom. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Win-ston, 1983.

Hofmeister, A. M., & Thorkildsen, R. The applica-tion of videodisc technology to the diagnosis ofmath skills. Paper presented at the annual meetingof the American Educational Research Associa-

tion, Montreal, April 1983.Kleibacker, K. The convergency phenomenon: Micro

Market Examiner, April, 10113.Rankin, R. J., & Trepper, T. Retention and delay of

feedback in a cuinpuier-assisted Instructional task.Journal of Experimental Education, 19711, 64(4),67-70.

Schoen, H., & Hunt. T. The effect of technology oninstruction: The literature of the last 20 years.AEDS Journal, Spring 1977, 68-82.

Schwartz, H. A., & Long, H. S. Instruction by com-puter. IBM Technical,Report 00.1404. Poughkeep-sie NY.: IBM Systems Development Division, Feb-ruary.6, 1966.

Time Magazine, January 3, 1983. p. 23.Miller, A. The third wave. New York: Bantam

Books, 1979.

RESOURCESCompuServeP.O. Box 202125000 Arlington CentreBlvd.Columbus OH 4322.0800/848-8990

The Source1616 Anderson RoadMcLean VA 22102

800/336.3366

SpecialNetNational Association ofState directors of SpecialEducation1201 16th St., N.W.Washington DC 20036202/822-7933

Call for Papers.for possible publication in a new Journal

TECHNIQUESA Journal for Counseling and Remedial Education

A distinguished editorial board will select papers in these areas:

1 Evaluation of Educational andPsychological Programs

2 Strategiei and InterveptionTechniques

3 Practical Approaches in the Field

4 Parent Education

5 Bibliotherapy

6 Whats New in Remedial andCounseling Techniques

Send three copies as soon as possible for the first issue. which will appear in July 1984.

Papers should be prepared In accordance with the APA Publication Manual (3rd ed.) and sent to:

Dr. Gerald B. Fuller. Editor. TEC! I NIQI1'..S.Department of Psychology. Central Michigan University, Mt:. Pleasant, Michigan 48859


67349

vv ivv I I ILIVI

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dedicated, and committed. All of s.,'

the above result in exceptionalresident and client outcome :I

benefits. Rehabilitation, normaliza ,

tion, and least restrictive environment all apply to this residentialtreatment facility. The Woods p"; ,

Schools has a clear purposefulpicture of what it is and where it isgoing."

From the December, 1982 Accredita-tion Report of the Commission OnAccreditation of RehabilitationFacilities (CARF).

THE WOODS SCHOOLSA Residential Treatment Center

for the Developmentally Handicapped

LANGHORNE, PENNSYLVANIA 19047.(215) 757;3731

/7

350 January 1904

ERIC

Technologies as Rural SpecialEducation Problem-Solvers

DORIS HELGE

Abstract. Advanced technologies areemerging in rural school systems. Thisarticle discusses the availability of avariety of new technologies and theirprimary uses for instructional support,instructional applications, management,and staff development. Problems ininitiating new technologies in ruralenvironments and suggestions for usingthem are discussed. Successfultechnological models and projectedfuture uses are described.

DORIS HELGE: is Director, National RuratProject, Murray State University, Murray,Kentucky.

ei Technologies from microcomputers to satel-lites are increasingly being used by schoolsacross America-Their values range from globalinformation dissemination systenis to toolsthat facilitate "seeing" by blind students and"hearing" by deaf students.

Modern technology offers particular benefitsfor rural schools. Many of the most frequentlyidentified rural service delivery problems (e.g.,professional isolation and long distances be-tween services and those needing them) can bepartially ameliorated by increased use of ad-vanced technologies.

Rural schools have had less access to mostforms of educational technology than nonruraischools (McCormick, 1983). The smallest andmost isolated rural schools can potentiallygain the most from the current technologicalflurry,

AVAILABILITY AND USE OFEMERGING TECHNOLOGIES

A 1983 National Rural Project study (Help,1983) of 200 rural districts/cooperatives repre-sentative of the United States showed that apreponderance of rural school systems have atleast one type of electronic technology avail.able to them. Although most rural schools havehad some type of technology (e.g., audio tapes,radio, instructional television, two-way TV,and teletype) for years, this study was primari-

c ly concerned with the emerging electronictechnologies. Microcomputers were most com-mon, as indicated in Table 1.

States with the lowest levels of acr-were in the deep South. In additior .pro-portionate number of Bureau of Inu dairsschool system respondents stated the.. ...nodshad no technology available.

Even though 88% of those interviewed hadat least one microcomputer in their tl.',strict, asurprisingly low percentage, only 18%, were

Exceptional Children 351'A

69

TABLE 1Types of Technology Available to Rural Districts/

Cooperatives Surveyed

Type of Technology Percent

MicrocomputersVideodiscsTelecommunicationsSatellite communicationsOther (voice synthesizer, specialized

phone equipment, etc.)None

881918

2

21

12

linking these computers with telecommunica-tions systems. Interactive applications of vi-deodiscs and microcomputers were just begin-ning to be investigated.

Microcomputers were more popular in ruralschools than were mainframes. Cost factorswere reported to be responsible for this. -Re-spondents said -their rural districts/coopera-tives could afford microcomputers britcouldn't afford mainframe or minicomputers.

They also reported that microcomputers weremere accessible to remote locations. Most ofthe respondents also said that microcomputerswere more compatible with their isolationfrom university and state education agencyMainframes (although some teamed their nricrocomputer with a mainTrame or a minicom-puter via a modem):

Satellites were priniarily used in remoteareas surrounded by vast land areas withsparse populations. One exception was a sys-tem reaching to Appalachia's small clusteredtowns.

The primary uses of technology identifiedwere as follows: instructional support and ap-plications, 72%; managerial applications, 42%;inservice, 8%. Instructional uses ranged fromcomputer-assisted instruction via microcom-puter to satellite-based instruction. Managerialuses by administrators varied from informa-tion retrieval to decision making and reportgeneration. Inservice uses ranged from didac-tic twinteractive.

PROBLEM-SOLVING USES OFTECHNOLOGY

There are four primary uses of technology tosolve rural special education problems: in-

struction al support, instructional applications,management tools, and staff developmentapplications.

Instructional Support

Computer-managed instruction (CMI) offers a,method of administering/evaluating tests,keeping records, and making decisions. CMIsoftware is also designed to support the in-structional system and provide diagnosticfeedback regarding student performance.

Educational technology can improve thequality of education in rural school districts bygiving students access to much more extensivecurricular offerings. Amplified telephone sys-tems allow students to hear lectures or\ holddiscussion sessions with remotely located per-sons. Instructional television, including trans-mission via cable or special satellite, presentssubjects that might otherwise be omitted fromthe small school curriculum.

Availability of learning technologies makesteacher specialization unnecessary and per-mits instructors to spend more of their timeteaching *ic skills or sUPervising individual-ized study. Technology can _also assist in lover-coming' isolation from urban cultural institu-tions; music, plays, and other art forms can betransmitted electronically. Library materialsand searches are also accessible through globalinfOrmation and dissemination syste s suchas the Source or CompuServe.

A great deal of software is app aring fortesting. procedures, including indiv dual "on-line" testing and rapid scoring/int rpretation.Statements of IEP goals and objec ives can bedirectly linked to assessment insyuments ac-cessed through currently available softwaredata bases. Consistent curricu 6 can then bedeveloped.

With microcomputers, srnall schools cannow afford to access mainframe programs formonitoring schedules and f011ow-through as-pects of student IEPs. Programs can also facili-tate the creation of reports f om the centralizeddata base.

Resource and information systems such asSpecialNet and its Rural Bulletin Board, state-wide telecommunications systems, and globalelectronic communication systems are alsoavailable. These provide data bases of media,materials, and other htunan and program re-

iiIrces. Such linkage systems increase knowl-edge regarding service Options for rural Ilan&

35'2 January 1984

0

capped' children; they also allow personalconversations among rural special reduc'atorsregarding daily problems and successfulstrategies.

Many teachers are finding that they cancomputerize routine drill, reinforcement, andrecord keeping, leaving more time for actualteaching. This is of tremendous benefit inunderstaffed rural school systems, particularlythose in which a "generic" special educatorserves students with multiple types of disabil-ities.

Word processing software capabilities arealso a time saver for many generic rural specialeducators and others in systems with inade-quate resources who must prepare their owncurricula.

Modern technologies are facilitating com-munication and collaboration among manyschools and human service agencies. Agenciesare also now electronically exchanging non-confiden tibl diagnostic and _progress reports.This ability to collaborate on service deliveryon an as-needed basis is preferable to ruralschool consolidation.

Unique support systems are also being gen-erated among remote rural families havingchildren with similar disabilities. These fam-ilies are developing the capacity to compareservice delivery effectiveness. home teaching,and availability of resources. As many ranches,farms, and other rural businesses now havemicrocomputers connected with global tele-communications systems, this approach doesnot always require the assistance of schoolpersonnel.:Similarly, communication between service

providers and families is being strengthenedvia technology. This is sometimes as simple aslocating a CB radio at the hub of a "holler"surrounded by geographical barriers. Typical-ly, it means exchanging videotapes among re-motely located families and specialists.

Instructional Applications

Computer-assisted instruction (CAI) has theadvantage of being interactive. The computerassumes a direct instructional role. CAI in -.cludes drill and practice, tutorial, simulationmodeling, problem analysis, and instructionalgame possibilities.

Equipment such as the Kurzweil ReadingMachine or the Optacon print reading aid areof particular importance to rural schools lack-

'Exceptional Children

ing sufficient numbers of specialists to teachthose with low-incidence handicaps.

One- or two-way instructional televisionalso offers more diverse instructional alterna-tives, as do satellite-based delivery systemssuch as the Appalachia Community ServiceNetwork.

Mobile vans with specialized electronicequipment are becoming more frequent as away to reach students in remote locationswhose school systems lack either full-timeteaching specialists or extraordinary equip-ment. The vans may have a diagnostic andprescriptive focus or carry mobile electroniccurricula.

Many disabled students are personally ac-cessing statewide or national telecommunica-tions systems to obtain service or instructionalinformation. Many specialized pupil services,including vocational guidance and academicdiagnostic and prescriptive activities, are nowcomputerized.

Actual student experience with technologiescan develop realistic career alternatives forstudents with disabilities, such as computerprogramming positions that require little phys-ical agility for individuals with physicaldisabilities.

Management Tools

For years, numerous urban school systemshave used expensive mainframe computers togenerate reports for local or state requirements.However, it was not until the 'advent of thesilicon chip that this became a possibility formost rural districts. In fact, Alaska now has asystem of developing interface capabilities forexchanging data and updating student files ateach site of a district/cooperative or across thestate. The northernmost school system of thisrural state links each educator/district by anetwork that enables direct computer-to-com,puter transfer of student-related, budgetary,and other types of information. One frequently'cited advantage of such systems is more accu-rate record-keeping, particularly for single ad-ministrators handling large geographic areas.

Advanced instructional technologies includ-ing two-way television, instructional satellites,and microcomputers have facilitated staff dif-ferentiation. Cooperatives/districts have beenable to retain specialists (such as an itinerantlow-incidence teacher or a teacher of ruralgifted children) by sharing that person with

353

other districts via instructional technology.Personnel retention results from cost savings(i.e., reduced layoffs) and from personal reliefto the specialist (e.g., less time spent traveling).

In fact, some ad_ ministrators reported thatincreased use of instructional technologiespromote staff 'retention (Helge, 1983). Isolatedspecial educators who can frequently commu-nicate with those in similar circumstances feelmuch less professionally isolated: With theadded personal benefits of electronically se-cured cultural, resources, many rural personnelwho might otherwise flee isolated areas do not.

A "capital-intensive man-machine model"was designed by Willett and Swanson (1979)to reduce the labor intensity of rural education.The model reduced the numbers of profession-al personnel and increased the numbers ofstudent workers used, Technological mediaand programmed instruction were heavily re-lied upon.

Staff Development Applications

Satellite inservice sessions allow participantsto benefit from the knowledge and expertise ofconsultants or professors in distant locations.Such sessions benefit rural educators whenthey include demonstrations of techniques forworking with low-incidence handicappingconditions.

While didactic staff development sessionscan be helpful and are often all that is feasible,interactive sessions can frequently be arrangedvia two-way television or satellite transmis-sion. As a valuable follow-up or staff develop-ment activity, videodiscs of an educator's strat-egies with children with disabilities can bemailed to a specialist/consultant for feedback.

Accessing inforrntion systems via telecom-munications is a 'stiff development techniquethat does not need/ to be limited to use for animmediate need. Grouping teachers oradmin-istrators to discuss optimum benefits fromsuch a system is advisable. Formal computer-assisted instruction can, of course, be a-learn-ing technique used by the teacher as well as bystudents. This has been accomplished by mail-ing appropriate software- to teachers and bya mobile inservice van equipped withcomputers.

IMPLEMENTATION PROBLEMS

The problems experienced by those imple-

354

menting advanced technologies in rural envi-ronments may be grouped into four categories.Thes6 include the state of the art of advancedtechnology, fiscal ,inadequacies, staff develop-ment needs, and adverse parent or community.attitudes. /

State of he Art

A primary problem for special educatof is thatfew/technology designers, especially computerprogrammers, have had knowledge/of.specialeducation. Many well-composed programs/have been poorly suited to classroom use forintegration with existing curricula.

Even fewer programmers five understoodrural constraints and issues. Communicationsamong developers and potential users havegenerally been poor. Confudion, and some dif-ferential pricing, have been caused by themyriad of vendors in the/field. Sales organiza-tions have confounded this problem by a lackof follow-up or servicing after installation.

Incompatible microcomputer or videodiscplayer equipment and the inability to copyvideodisc software are frequently problems.Software incompatibility has prohibited shar-ing of data bases. Ownersbip (copyright)guidelines, particularly for satellite receptions,are not yet clear. FCC regulations have notnecessarily been developed to fit the ruralschool situation.

Problems also exist with both direct-accesscomputing systems and mainframe or "servicebureau" systems. Direct access systems arethose used directly by special education per-sonnel via microcomputer or a terminal con-nected to a time-shared computer. These sys-tems are usually less expensive thanmainframe systems, but they require staff train -.ing. Disadvantages include downtime due to"crashes" during peak use, problems over pri-orities of usage, and associated expenses suchas long distance charges.,,

Mainframe systems require teachers to com-plete forms, cards, and so forth. Data are sent tocomputer operators at another location; thecentral computer processes the forms; andprinted reports or IEPs are returned. This sys-tem gives no immediate access to the data base,nor can one readily edit or change it Turn-around time is also a negative factor, especiallyin remote areas.

72 January 1984

Fiscal Inadequacies

The primary monetary problems have beenassociated with the acquisition of hardwareand software. However, rural schools are nowbecoming aware of monetary needs for stafftraining, as well.

Front-end costs associated with capitaliza-tion of instructional technology hardware (andsome software) are the greatest share of totalcosts, and are often underestimated. Rental oftelecommunications lines and long distancecharges also represent major costs and appearto be increasing,

Ongoing costs are difficult to predict, sincemuch of the equipment is new and its actual"useful life" and track record have not yetbeen determined. Some equipment costs soarbecause new and better products are devel-oped daily. Many innovations, such as adapta-tions of laboratory science equipment, may,take years to be acquired by schools because oftheir initial expense.

Initial costs, originally perceived to be highby ,school boards, are later seen as minimalcompared to benefits being received. However,initial costs for developmental time frequentlyare overrun, and there are difficulties in find-ing experts to assist with computer usage andprogramming (Helge, 1983). Rural schoolshave received few company donations of hard-ware, and rural school personnel are frequent-ly less adept at asking for corporate donationsor grants.

Staff Development Needs

Complaints about the use of new technologieshave included the following: staff illiteracyand apprehension about computers; personnelneeded for training others to use new technolo-gies; staff resistance to procedural changes;human error factors; and unrealistic expecta-tions of technologies. Rural schools have lessadequate staff development programs to beginwith, and staff training is particularly difficultin oral America, where personnel attritionrates of 40% are not uncommon.

Parent or Community Attitudes

Rural communities value tradition and directpersonal contact. Technology is often per-ceived as an alien, influence. Gaining parentand community acceptance is essential. This isespecially true with strategies for improve-

Exceptional Children%. b

ment of parent-educator communication orparent involvement via technology. Rural sys-tems which neglect parent/community atti-tudes find that their efficient parent trainingsystems are not used, whether they be viaremote electronic' communication, TV signaltransmissions, or simpler methods such asexchanging training and observation video-tapes.

SUGGESTIONS FOR INITIATING USE OFNEW TECHNOLOGIES

Rural schools are a unique laboratory for de-velOping and testing new ways of providingeducation to handicapped students. Some sug-gestions for initiating successful new effortsare outlined in the sections that follow

Seek external financial aid. Corporate do-nations have been primarily available to urbanschool systems with relatively high visibilityfor the donor industry. It is time to makeknown to corporations, private foundations,and community organizations the inequities inthe availability' of technologies for ruralschools. Approaching corporations that pro-duce rural-focused commodities should be afirst step. Even a small donation can serve as"seed money" for larger grants.

Computer corporations .should understandthat the rural school system values donationsnot only of hardware, but also of software orstaff training time and resources. Potential taxdeductions and visibility for the corporationshould be stressed. Although most foundationsare not rural-focused, they would value thefact that a rural school system had been able toobtain seed money from corporations or localcommunity organizations. Local businesses orcivic organizations may be interested in donat-ing or sharing equipment or staff training ex-pertise. This can gain them positive publicrecognition and potential tax write -offs.

--Consider local rural culture and norms. The"high techhigh touch" approach described byNaisbitt (1983) involves personalizing the 'useof new technologies. It is particularly aproposfor rural America and can be used to generatethe suipport of the rural community. Some ofthe more successful rural technological inno-vations have been designed to use ?xistingrural grapevines or to increase the "hightouch" approach of rural neighbor hetpingneighbor.

7 3N

355

Create community understanding and sup-port. Use of new technologies must bscsold"not only to school personnel but also to thetotal community. Offering concrete, hands-onevidence of technology utilization will usuallyresult in a high degree of student feedback andparent acceptance (e.g., a computer printoutwhich a student can take home to share withparents). School personnel should make spe-cial efforts to educate their rural community onsuch positive implications as potential studentemployment in "information society: jobs andthe concrete results in instructional effective-ness and student change resulting from imple-mentation of advanced technologieS.

Involve teachers in planning processes.Teacher-initiated uses of technologies are bet-ter accepted than when they are initiated byadministrators. The adept rural administratorwill involve teachers in planning and develop-mental processes. Continued local enthusiasmfor implementation is often due to the efforts ofan individual teacher advocate whose supportshould be cultivated. Administrative andschool board advocates are also helpful.

Organizing an interested and enthusiasticstaff group will help determine what cognitiveand affective approaches are needed for ac-ceptance and use. This group will want to seekadvice from othet'rural practitioners using thesame technology before adopting or adapting itfor the school system. The assistance of relatedstate and national agencies dedicated to theuse of technology should also be sought. Tech-nologies selected for implementation shouldbe flexible, use existing equipment capabili-ties, be "user friendly," and permit sharing ofdata bases. 7

It is wise to begin on a small scale andensure that success will be reported' by thehighly efficient rural grapevine. Likewise, flex-

_ibility.in planning, implementation, and main-tenance strategies is essential.

Fragmentary approaches to curriculum de-velopment in introducing technologies shouldbe avoided. Implementation should be aschool- or district-wide effort, and part of theregular learning situation rather than a "pull-out" activity.

Build staff skills. Staff must understand thattechnologies can be used effectively to supple-ment, not supplant, the efforts of rural teach-

356SW,

ers. An important part of any staff trainingsession will include desensitizing rural staff totechnologies. Because most rural .teachers de-rive their job reinforcements from positive .interactions with students, training must em-phasize that technologies do not substitute forteacher-student interaction. Rural schoolsshould also express' their inservice and pre-service training needs to university repara-tion programs.

Ensure student participation. Student par-ticipation will be enhanced if technologies arereadily available in the classroom or associatedwith greater student scheduling flexibility. Ex-tensive efforts should be made to teach stu-dents the immediate and career opportunitiesavailable through technologies.

SUCCESSFUL MODELS

Selected examples of successful uses of tech-nology to solve rural problems are described inthis section. These models were developed in avariety of rural settings and with diversegroups of individuals for such purposes asdirect instruction, instructional support, man-agement, and staff development.

Obtaining Service Delivery Information

The ACRES Rural Bulletin Board is adminis-tered by the American Council on Rural Spe-cial Education (ACRES). This bulletin board ispart of the SpeeialNet telecommunication sys-tem operated, by the National Association ofState Directors of Special Education. Any per-son or agency having access to SpecialNet maypost information on the ACRES Rural BulletinBoard.

The Bulletin Board provides informationabout conferences on rural special education,successful practices in specific types of ruralsubcultures, rural job referral services, federaland state policies that affect rural handicappedindividuals, the ACRES Resource Network,and recent publications on rural special educa-tion. Readers are encouraged- to use its elec-tronic mail capabilities to communicate dire t-ly with other users.

The National RuralIndependent Living Pr j-ect of Murray State University operates com-puterized resource.systems in rural communi-ties across America. The project locates andmakes available resources that enable disabled

January 1984

7 4

persons in rural communities to live indepen-dently (transportation, assistance in the home,etc.). Each community system has a self -con -.tained local resource system plus access to anational resource and information exchangesystem.

Instructional Programming Information

The North Slope Borough School District of.Alaska uses a computer-assisted managementsystem to organize special education program-,ming. The system assists in development of thelIEP and generates required reports. The corn!puter program handles the repetitive paperwork aspects of creating and managing IEPsi

For example, district administrators devel-oped programs that linked many IEP goal/objective statements to assessment instru-ments. This provided a criterion-referencedinventory of performance analysis on morethan 200 key skills in reading and math. Thecomputer program also included content areasranging from study skills to sensory perceptioliskills.

Gathering Data forPrescriptive Programming

A Head Start program in Otsego County, NewYork, uses videotapes in which a child reacts/to a structured sequenc of situations as inputfor prescriptive programming. Children in-volved are located/in remote areas, and thevideotapes are sent' to and viewed by staff at amore centralized rural facility. Their input isused by local personnel for planning prescrip-tive programming for the child and for locatingagencies which can best provide appropriateservices. The tapes become a per*nent part ofthe child's records against which subsequentrecordings are compared. Testing the child in ahome-school situation eliminates clinical as-pects which often affect performance.

Parent Training

In a program in Newfoundland, videotapes arethe primary vehicle for training parents ofchildren with hearing impairments. During afour-day residential workshop for these re-motely located parents and their children, par-ents view teaching videotape-I:Training video-tapes are later sent to the famiTies on a monthlybasis for, use with their loaned videotape play


back units. An auditory trainer is also fur-nished to parents for use at least once per dayin one-to-one language teaching sessions withchildren, as described in the videotapes.

The program has tremendously reduced thenumber of staff needed for home visits. Avisiting teacher went to each home once persemester and conducted weekly telephonecounseling sessions with parents. Consider-able improvement was noted in parenting be-havior and child performance.

Parent Communication

Strategic placement Of CB radios was an inex-pensive approach to communicating with par-ents in rural Appalachian "hollers" that arehard to reach because of their terrain. Theexcellent natural communication system al-lowed relatively quick access to parents andprovided a needed and reliable way to carrymessages. More sophisticated "instant" com-munication systems for service providers andtheir families use telecommunication.

Increasing Curricular Offerings

A high school in Littlefork, Minnesota, facing adecline in quality because of dwindling schoolpopulation, inflation, and fewer resources, de-signed a system offering 178 courses to 78 highschool students. Four outside resources, typi-cally used as supplements to courses, werecombined to make one curriculum package.These included computer courses, correspon-dence courses, audiovisual resources, and vid-eo tape recorders.

The district set aside .a classroom in the highschool for its "one -room schoolhouse" andequipped it with study carrels, computers, andother electronics. A manager uses diagnosticrecords, counseling, contracts, and other stu-dent learning devices. IndividualizedJearning__goals and styles are emphasized. Resourcesused in the center have been reported to becost-effective (e.g., cost per hotir for a comput-er-taught course is $5.49). Discipline problemshave been exceptionally low because of a highlevel of student motivation.

Saving Staff Costs/Labor Intensity

The need to reduce the numbers of profession-al personnel required was the initiative for ashort-staffed remotely located learning center

75 . 357

to rely heavily on the use of technologicalmedia and Qrogrammed instruction. A modeldesigned byVillett and Swanson (1979) usedten learning areas of individualized instruc-tion for 1200 rural students.

Each learning area corresponded to subjectmatter and was supervised by a resource spe-cialist or a special- service teacher. A teacher-senior for diagnosis and curriculum supervi-sion and an administrator completed the pro-fessional staff of 12 for this learning center.Local paraprofessional personnel included 18adults and 22 students. The number of studentworkers and paraprofessional staff made theproject much less professionally laborintensive.

Several types of hardware and softwareavailable at each learning center, and studentsworked individually through prescribed pro-gram materials which had, built-in evaluatorsand reinforcers. Staff reduction paid for a largeportion of necessary technological and othermedia, and the model was judged costefficient.

Instant Communication/Feedback

Telecommunication systems allow administra-tors to participate in case conferences withoutbeing physically present. This is particularlyvaluable when responsible administrators arelocated great distances from the site of IEPmeetings and service providers. Some suchsystems are implemented at the diStrict level.

A state-wide audio teleconferencing net-work interconnects educational providers andreceivers in isolated, rural areas of Montana.The system uses live interactive audio withoccasional computer networking to provideprogramming to small, rural, isolated educa-tional institutions and communities across thestate. Housed at Eastern Montana College, the

systeniserves 47 §ites,including.schools andother community agencies.

Educational offerings are available at all lev-els, including junior-senior high schoolcourses, college courses, and inservicecoursework for K\12 teachers. State-wide edu-cational meetings held using this system elimi-nate expensive andOime-consuming travel.Electronic mail systernS have enabled the agen-cy delivering services and its supportive/moni-toring agency to communicate instantly re-garding problems, potential resources, and soforth.

Allowing Students to Stay in TheirCommunities

For years, the small populations of school-agedchildren in Alaska made it necessary for manycommunities to send their special needs andhigh school students to larger communities forinstruction. Now, satellite instruction to re-mote communities has enabled many Alaskanstudents to stay in their home communitiesinstead of attending residential facilities. Acontinuum of services has been designed rang-ing from totally home-based education withsatellite instruction to short-term or long-termboarding school instruction.

Serving Homebound Students

Homebound students may be served via tele-communications through a telephone hookupin the child's home. This also increases com-munication between the student and teacherabout learning difficulties.

A television placed in the student's home,depending upon the sophistication and re-sources of the geographical area, can be used totransmit educational programs designed/pro-duced by the state or district. Alternatively, theclassroom setting can be broadcast to thehome. Broadcasting may occur via one-wayaudio (didactic) from class to home or two-wayaudio (interactive instruction).

Challenging Gifted Students

The advanced studies of 8 to 12-year-old giftedstudents at Calhoun Cqunty High School inGrantsville, West Virginia, include introduc-tion to computers and programming, telecom-munications systems, and programmed in-struction. Project REACH (Raising EducationalAchievement by. Changing Horizons) includesa supervisor for special elucgion_anla teachL_er/program facilitator'as sources of support.

SUMMARY

Technological equipment, information, experi-ence, and expertise offer tremendous potentialfor rural administrators, educators, and dis-abled students. The use-of modem technologyassists in overcoming serious service deliveryproblems associated with sparse populations,scarce resources, and difficult terrain. Ruralschool and related agency networking has al-

358 January 1984

7 6

ready:rapidly increased, and numerous inter-agency 'agreements to share equipment amongrural areas have`emerged.

Technology can strengthen ties between ru-ral community and school. In fact, it can actu-ally assist rural schools in shattering the ste-reotypes of stagnant rural communities andschool systems. The potential-forapplicationof emerging technologies is limited solely bythe imagination of those planning and imple-menting them.

REFERENCESHelge. D: Images: Issues and trends in rural special

education. Murray KY: Center for Innovation andDevelopment, 1983.

McCormick, F. C. A guide on successful uses oftechnology in rural schools. St. Paul MN: Educa-tional Operations Concepts, 1983.

Naisbitt, J. Megatrends. Ten new directions trans-forming our lives. New York: Warner Books, 1983.

Willett, E. J., Swanson, A. D., RE Nelson, E. A. Mod-ernizing the little red schoolhouse: The economicsof improved education. Englewood Cliffs NJ: Edu-cational Technology Publications, 1979.

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ERIC

Should a Special EducatorEntertain Volunteers?Interdependence in Rural America

LAWRENCE W. MARRS

Abstract: Rural communities have atradition of helping each other and ofshared interdependence. The NationalRural Independent Living Network isdeveloping Community IndependentLiving Service Delivery Systems in over500 communities by 1986. Strategies oreprovided for designing a volunteerprograrri, recruiting and trainingvolunteers, and linking volunteers withdisabled persons.

LAWRENCE W. MARRS is Professor andChairman, Department of SpecialEducation, Murray State University,Murray. Kentucky.


n Rural Americans take pride in helping eachother solve pr6blems; they know each other,are aware of needs and resources, and arewilling to share what they have if their neigh-bors need it. These characteristics can be ob-served every day as neighbors help each otherwith agricultural chores, construction tasks,and care during times of illness.

One-third of the nation's population lives inrural areas. This percentage is increasing as themovement away from cities intensifies (Nais-bitt, 1982). Most states provide regional officesor some other service 'delivery mechanismwith responsibility for meeting the needs ofrural people who have disabilities. However,most rural citizens eithef don't know about theservice for which they.. are eligible or are tooproud to "go on the government dole."

PROBLEMS IN RURAL SERVICE DELIVERY

Since the passage of Public Law 94-142, thenumber of rural public school handicappedchildren identified and served has increasedby 92% (Helge, 1980). However, even thoughthe percentage increase has been substantial,services in rural school systems have beensporadic. ror example, most rural systems be-gan delivering special education services inelementary grades, but neglected to expandthese services in secondary programs. As aconsequence, many handicapped youth haveno services available as they reach high schoolage, and drop out of school. In addition, mostrural communities "cannot afford" early child-hood handicapped programs. Consequently,these services are not usually provided.

Because of cutbacks in federal funding,many states trimmed their special educationbudgets by altering the formulas with which

79361

they Olculated reimbursement to local educa-tion agencies. Thus, hundreds of school sys-tems across the country either reduced thenumber of special educators in their programsor did not add previously planned positions,Concomitant with these retrenchment movesin public schools, social service agencies werealso affected by budgetary cuts and were forcedto reduce services and field personnel.

HOW ABOUT DOING SOMETHINGDIFFERENT?

The National Rural Independent Living Net-work at Murray State University, funded by theNational Institute of Handicapped Research, iscapitalizing on the inherent attributes of ruralcommunities by creating Community Indepen-dent Living Service Delivery Systems staffedby citizen volunteers and professionals. Cur-rently located at 20 sites, they will be housedin over 500 rural settings by early 1986.

The project is developing a network of ruralcommunities and establishing communicationnd sharing systems within and among these

communities. This network is composed ofindividual volunteers, existing service and so-cial clubs, libraries, churches, country stores,volunteer fire departments, and other organi-zations that wish to help their disabled neigh-

Lay CitizenryResource Networks

bors lead relatively independent lives,

THE PROCESS

Twenty rural communities were selected toparticipate in the developmental phase of theproject, Project staff spent time in each com-munity identifying residents with disabilitiesand determining their indepOdent wingneeds. Data regarding community volinteerresources were also assessed..Within each community, a central core

ogroup is identified. Such groups include coun-ty libraries, ministerial associates, rural cornerstores, public schools,, and other sites whichcan be used to link local resources with peoplehaving needs. Staff assist central core membersin the development of the Community Inde-pendent Living Service Delivery System fortheir community,

A computerized resource matching system isinstalled in each central core group to linklocal volunteers and professionals with peoplewho have disabilities and who need services.Additionally, all of the service delivery sys-tems may be- in contact with each other viacomputer for resource sharing purposes.

The following sections describe the develop-ment and implementation of a CommunityIndependent Living Service Delivery System,which takes advantage of all available

PublicSchool

NEEDexpressed by

handicapped individual

Professional_,Resource Networks-

transportationagency

o

Bureau forRehabilitation

Services

RESPONSEwith resources

and services

FIGURE 1. Community Independent Living Service Delivery System.

362

S 0January 1984

teer and professional resources in a particularrural community.

THE MODEL

Figure 1 illustrates the linkage system whichincorporates networking concepts allowing laycitizens and professionals in rural areas toprovide resources needed by disabled persons.This particular service delivery system has thepublic school as its central core. The elementsidentified within The spokes of the wheels forlay citizens and professionals are merely citedas examples, since each community will havemany different elements appropriate to its ownarea.

Most rural areas will have a wide variety ofgroups wishing to participate in the servicedelivery system. The following listof potentialparticipants was drawn from the archives ofpxemplary rural programs maintained by the.National Rural Project at Murray StateUniversity:

4-H clubsadvocacy groupsbookmobilesCB radio clubsChambers of Commercecivic clubs, including-Woodmen-of the World,

Lions, Rotarians, and Jayceescountry storescounty health nursesdisabled and nondisabled veteranselectronic bulletin boardsfoster grandparentsgarden clubs and other social organizationsGirl and Boy Scouts organizationsGolden Age Centersham operatorshome demonstration or county extension

agentsindividuals who own computerslift-equipped school buses, unused while chil-

dilen are at schoollocal businesseslocal TV, radio, newspapermail carriersmeter readersmilk carriersministersnewspaper deliveriespost offices .

private pilotsretired personneltelephone service personnel

unemployed personnelvocational rehabilitation centersvolunteer fire departmentsWelcome Wagon volunteersWranglers Riding Clubs

The examples cited within the spokes of thewheel for professional resource networks (Fig-ure 1) repres/ent human service age cies whichmight be" present in any ruratc mmunity.Clearly' there would be others, and Somewould have different titles for the same func-tion, depending upon local and state activityand regulations.

The central core (in this case, the publicschool) provides the linkage system. It drawsappropriate resources from both the lay citi-zenry and professional resource networks, de-pending upon the availability of resources andthe specific needs of individuals with disabil-ities. The public school shown as the centralcore unit in Figure 1 is one of four modelsdeveloped by the National Rural In ependentLiving Network. Rural public scho s are pow-erful political units held in high egard. Theypromote community integration nd are effec-tive instruments of change. P ents faithfullyattend back-to-school nights, and the schoolbuilding is seen as a valy ble communityresource.

VOLUNTEERISM

Carl Hess (1982) stated:

There's something about volunteerism that is verysubversivein this century at least. It flies directlyin the face ef the two major conventional wisdomsof our timeprofessionalism and corporatism.(p. 86)

Hess argued that early Americans volunteeredto help their ,neighbors on a routine and ex-pected -basis.. However, in the recent era ofmassive social change, society began to expectthat "professionals" could solve serious prob-lems and that volunteers could deal with nec-essary tasks that professionals couldn't justifydoing Or didn't want to do. As a result, profes-sional organizations and their media are decry-ing the infusion of lay citizens into what pro-fessionals have recently considered as theirown domain.

The hard truth is that many tasks undertakenby professionals could easily be handled by laycitizen volunteers, particularly with some di-rection by professionals. Once professionaleducators and other human service providers

Exceptional Children 363-;

Cl I

understand the reality that the golden era ofprofessional human service is over, they willbegin to search for alternatiVe resources tokeep service delivery at prebudget-cut levels.Making use of the volunteer community is theonly way to do this.

Why Use Volunteers?

Most volunteers are already active, busy-indi-viduals participating in extensive communica-tion networks throughout the community. Thegoodwill they can generate for an agency ororganization will be beneficial at budget timeor when attempts are made to curtail services.Because of volunteers' involvement in thisextensive communication network, additionalresources may be offered from community bus-inesses, social and civic clubs, individuals,and so on.

Professionals capable of 'directing a trainedgroup of volunteers will be Able to providemore services to more people than if theyoperated simply as "one-person shows." Vol-unteers can often Iandle routine activities,freeing the professional to provide more so-phisticated or inc1/4th services.

Reasons frequently cited for not involvingvolunteers incl/dde the extensive, time requiredto train them,.concerns about their reliability, 'adesire to keep school and community separate,and confidentiality issues. All of these can beovercome by the development of an appropri-ate recruitment, training, and matchingsystem.

Rural volunteerism -is already a highly re-spected and valued activity. Although mostrural citizens won't call themselves "volun-teers," they will admit that they helped neigh-bors bring in the crops or build a barn, tookthem shopping, or mowed their .yards. All 'ofthese types of assistance are needed by ,somerural disabled citizens. Once rural neighborsare aware of the need, they usually help outwith little expectation for recognition or re-ward. On the other hand, most rural citizenshave not been exposed to many persons withdisabilities, primarily because the most visibleand serious disabilities are low-incidenceconditions.

People volunteer for a variety of reasons,among them the following:

Community recognitionThe chance to do something different orlearn something new

364

The opportunity to meet othersCompanionship and friendshipRecognition that the Community Indepen-dent Living Service Delivery System is doingsomething importantAssociation with a group or organizationwhose mission includes volunteeringThe opportunity to help someone seen asless fortunateThe opportunity to use skills and provideservices in a unique manner

ESTABLISHING A NETWORK

Good volunteer networks do not happen spon-taneously..Planners in rural communities mustbe knowledgeable of the community powerstructure and communication networking sys-tem. Community leaders, including officers ofcivic clubs, social clubs, church groups, andprofessionals in human service agencies,should be briefed on the proposed CommunityIndependent Living Service Delivery System.Suggestions and names of community contactsshould be requested and used.

A second group to be included in the inyial"--planning stage are people with disabilities,their families, and existing suoporrsystems(both volunteer and professional agencies andorganizations). Their advice about their needswith respect to independence within the cern-

,. munity should be sought. The need for humancontact, for example, was most frequentlycited by elderly people to staff of the NationalRural Independent Living Network. From di-rect discussions with disabled people, plan-.

ners can also learn which businesses, state andlocal agencies, churches, etc. are accepting ofdisabled persons and. accessible to them.

Forming a Task Force

Once planners have determined that a Com-munity Independent Living Service DeliverySystem is acceptable to potential volunteersand to local citizens with disabilities, a taskforce should be formed, consisting of, disabledpersons, parents or others who provide dailycare, and representatives of schools, busi-nesses, churches, and civic and social organi-zations., The purpose of the task force is toformulate community-specific policy for theservice delivery system.

, Networks vary from simple'service delivery

82.January 1984

to a handful of disabled individuals to totalcommunity networking systems in which anyperson in the community, disabled or not, canreceive the services of volunteers. By vestingthe task force with decision-making authority,a network involving all elements of the com-munity can be successfully formed. Because ofthe diversity among rural areas, the types oforganizations and agencies included will dif-fer. However, the concept of shared interde-pendence will remain consistent. The Commu-nity Independent Living Service Delivery Sys-tem can become the focal point for totalcommunity interdependence across a wideband of services.

Recruiting Volunteers

Nearly every person in a rural area can contrib-ute something to the service delivery system.Contributions might include services such asyard work, personal care, or home care: use ofskills constructing ramps or teaching cooking

. or gardening; and helping to access other re-sources such as state or federal funds or serv-ices for the disabled.

The key to involving volunteers is personalcontact. Very few volunteers respond solely tomedia appeals. Presentations to civic, profes-sional, and other organizations by task forcemembers,. followed by personal telephonecalls, face-to-face visits, or letters will generatenumerous volunteers. The. National ,Rural In-dependent Living Network uses a total com-munity involvement process, including per-sonal contacts and the distribution andcollection of a Re'source Assessment Instru-ment to a wide Spectrum of the communitythrough churches, schools.. businesses, clubs,and other organizations. Identification withthe local effort is enhanced by distributingstickers for use on cars, businesses, and thewindows of homes of those who return com-pleted Resource Assessment Instruments.,

Cooperation of the local media is also impor-tant. There is great human interest in a com-munity joining together to assist people whohave disabilities. If the focus is on a specificweek or weekend, a series of articles or newsreports can aid the recruitment effort.

Once the Resource Assessment Instrumentsare returned, task force members should inter-view each prospective volunteer., in person orby phone, to clam fy any ambiguities and todetermirimore specifically the types of vol-

unteer service .being offered. This interviewshould also ascertain the degree of training thevolunteer will ne':d to work with people whohave specific kinds of disabilities. The initialrecruitment inte2ir<1.-.,. is particularly ieLpor-tent for Identifying peri::ons who may not besuited to volunteering, or whose meth/es mqbe suspe:a. flo'.irwer, most rural communitycommunicaticos and networking sys:ems areso strong that undesirable individuals arereadily identified and exch:ci,id.

Trahlipg

The primary trainin 'objective is to enable .hevolunteer to over....;...,-ou fears of the disabled.Feeling: of insecurii:,,, discomfort, fear, pity,anxiety, similar stumbling blocks are pres-ent in most would-be volunteers who havenever worked or assobat::!ir, with disabled peo-ple. The desensitization cl the volunteer to-ward disabling conditions is necessary.

Simu3r.tion of a disabling condition. is onekind of For ex-ample., a volunteermight spent. an entire day in a wheeleilair,using a blinold. or with arms and/or legs tiedto prei.'sait.n.Avement. Simulation is followedby a dis;.us.c.i.,..pn of ho.,v the -disabled" individ-ual felt ignored or treated condescend-.ingly by otl..,:rs. Such a process enables avolunteer understand that the disabled per-son is a human being, more like thevolunteer than different.

Another major type of training is based onspecific iiisabilities and needs of disabled resi-;dents. Professionals volunteer their services totrain volunteers in such activities as helping anonamhulatory neighbor in and out of a wheel--chair, guiding a blind person around town,adapting activities to the physical capabilitiesof elderly people, and so forth. SChool person-nel can train volunteers to perforin routinetutoring, behavior reinforcement, and otheractivities that occupy a gfeat deal of the specialeducation teacher's time.

Linking Vok.nteers to People NeedingServices

The linkage system devised by the NationalRural Independent Living Network is a com-puterised resource matching system. UsingApple Ile computers and PFS:File and PFS:Re-port software, the Community IndependentLiving Service Delivery System searches its


83

volunteer skills -bank for one or more volun-teers who "fit" the request for services. Thevolunteer skills-bank includes the inform tion

Com-pleted

by community residents whothe Resource Assessment Instrument.

Additionally, the resource matching systemincludes information about state and federalservices and resources which should be avail-able.

Another function of the resource matchingsystem is to maintain a record of volunteer useand services requested by spe'cific persons.This allows the involvement of many volun-teers rather than a select few, and also providesthe ability to forecast the needs of recipientsbased on previous experience.

Although the National Rural IndependentLiving Networks are computerized, it is entire-ly possible to run the resource matching sys-tem out of a file cabinet or to use a "cards andstylus" type of sorting system.

POTENTIAL PROBLEMS

Recruiting volunteers is not a problem in ruralAmerica. The main problem is keeping thembusy. It; is discouraging for a volunteer tocomplete the Resource Assessment Instru-ment, receive training, and then wait for a callthat never comes. Volunteer coordinatorsshould contact volunteers at least monthlywith a status report of what is being done andinvolve them in some type of activity.

Groups of volunteers. could be coordinatedto provide a community service, even if it isnut at the direct request of a person having adisability. Some communities have created atotal community networking system whereinany citizen can request services of a volunteer.This keeps more volunteers busy and stillmeets the needs of those with disabilities.

Maintaining organizational momentum isanother problem area. Ongoing public rela-tions and media coverage must he provided.News articles about successful volunteer activ-ities; presentations to social, civic, and busi-ness organizations about service delivery func-tions; and other types of communit7 awarenessstrategies should be empl.,yed.

Man; professionals feel thrt itened by hav-ing volunteers interfering- with their business.This problem can usually be alleviated, partic-ularly in rural areas where professional staffsare small and overworked, by involving profes-sionals early in the development of),Ke service.

366

&livery system and soliciting their assistanceas trainers of volunteers. Their advice shouldbe sought on an ongoing basis.

SUMMARY

Rural special educators and others who workwith handicapped persons are in 'a uniqueposition to create a system of interdependencewithin their communities. Rural areas are ex-cellent arenas for the development of interdis-ciplinary activities which cut across pro-fessional and community lines. They havealreadS, established traditions of helping eachother, and they prize personal and communityinterdependence.

REFERENCESBeige, D. I. (A) National comparative study ',regard-

ing rural special education delivery syst4ms be-fore and after passage of PL 94-142. Murray KY:Center for Innovation and Development, MurrayState University, 1980.

Hess, K. Surviving the '80's: An alternative ap-proach. Voluntary Action Leadership, Fall 1982.

Naisbitt, J. Mega trends. New York: Warner Books,1982.

MEDICAL ASPECTS OFDEVELOPMENTAL DISABILITIESIN CHILDREN BIRTH TO THREEA Resource for Special-Service Providersin the Educational Setting

Edited by James A. Blackman, M.D.Assistant Professor of PediatricsThe University of Iowa

This 256-page manualwritten by special-ists in the field of developmental dis-abilities-- provides concise coverage of 39different topics important to the day-to-daycare of very young children with developmen-tal disabilities. Chapter headings include:Autism, CAT scans, Congenital Infections,Failure to Thrive, Genetics, Growth and Nu-trition, Low Birth Weight, M.v :tat Retardation,and Middle Ear 'Disease.

Special funding from Maternal an ChildHealth makes this valuable resource avail-able to you for the cost of, postage and han-dling. To obtain your copy, send your name,address, and a check for $1.25 to CampusStores, GSB 204, The University of Iowa,Iowa City, Iowa 52242.

84 January 1904

BLANK, PAGEN.. vfloyi

n help Nandi` .

Hearn arldr:

Microcomputer Resource Book forSpecial EducationDolores Hagen

An essential resource for reachers and parents!

Requires no knowledge of prograrnmi,AgDescribes hundreds of programs and adap-tive devicesExamines the needs of different disabilitygroupsUses real life cases to illustrate the effective-ness of micros with handicapped childrenShows how micros can be used to motivatelearning

1984 NI.u. 286 $15.95 CEC Price $13.56

Microcomputers in SpecaEducation:Selection and Decision Making ProcessFlorence M. Taber

Must be read by principals and other decisionmakers.

Provides guidelines for software evaluationConsiders hardware optionsDemonstrates the importanceoCinscrviceIntroduces factors related to software selec-tionProvides practice in elementary program-ming

CEC -ERIC 1983 No. 248 $7.95 CEC Price $6.76


Proceedings of The National Conferenceon the Use of Microcomputers in SpecialEducation Hartford, CT March 1983Michael M. Behrmann, Ed. Liz Lahm, Asst. Ed.

Presents state-of-the-art information toeducators and researchers!

Provides full text of keynote presentationsExamines computer assisted managementand computer managed instructionDescribes applications in teacher trainingPresents instructional usesShows how computers are tools

CEC -ERIC 1984 No. 275 $20.00 ' CEC Price $17.00

The Council for Exceptional ChildrenDept. 2085, 1920 Association DriveReston, VA 22091 (703) 620-3660 ,

Please send me the followingpublication(s) on microcomputers:

D No. 286 Microcomputer Resource Book forSc$p15e9i Ec1c5al ($u13.aar

No. 275 Proceedings of The NationalConference on the Use ofMicrocomputers in Special Education$20.00 ($17.00)

No. 248 Microcomputers in Special Edubation$7.95 ($6.76)

Check enclosed 1:3 Charge my bankcard accountCard #

Expiration dateCard #

Bank #Expiration date

Signature TelephoneNameAddressCity State ZipCEC Member ID # required for discount price.CEC Member ION

85

367

ERIC

Rural Special Education Services,Activities, and ProductsRURAL JOB REFERRAL SERVICES

The American Council on Rural .Special Edu-cation (ACRES) has established a nationwidesystem to link educators and administratorsneeding lobs with agencies having vacancies.Rural school job vacancies of all types .arepublished in the ACRES quarterly newsletterand are also stored in a computerized Rural JobData Bank.

A Personnel Exchange Service is also avail;able as part of the job referral service, foreducators interested in temporarily exchang-ing positions with similar professionals in oth-er rural areas. Information is also sent to partic-ipating school districts regarding possiblematches of positions available and applicantsinterested in exchanging positions.

For further information, contact: ACRES Ru-ral Jobs Services, Box 2470, University Station..Murray State University, Murray KY 42071.

ELECTRONIC BULLETIN BOARD

The ACRES "RURAL" Bulletin Board allowsinstarit communication about -riuPi specialeducation issues and promising practiCes.Anyone having access to SpecialNet, the elec-tronic communication system operated by theNational Association of State Directors of Spe-cial Education (NASDSEi, use the ACRES"RURAL" Bulletin Board by checking the btil-letin board named "RURAL." items you willconsistently find displayed include informa-tion on:

Conferences related to rutai special educa-tion.Samples of sur:cessful practices appropriatefor specific types of rural subcultures.Items related to the ACRES Rural Job ReferralServices.Federal and state policies with importancefor rural handicapped individuals.

368

Access to the ACRES Resource Network(linking members with specific needs and

..interests with other members with relatedexpertise).Lists of recent publications concerning ruralspecial education.Challenges to the field.

For futher information, contact: ACRES, Box2470, University Station, Murray State Univer-sity, Murray KY 42071.

INSERVICE TRAINING MODULES

The American Council on Rural Special Edu- /cation (ACRES) has available a series of inserv-ice training modules for rural special educa-tors and administrators. Topics range fromstress reduction to alternate rural service deliv-ery systems. If you would like to receive fur-ther information on these materials,' contact:ACRES, Attn: lnservice Training Mociiules, Box2470, UniVersity Station, Murray KY 42071.

PRESERVICE MODULES

The National Rural Project was funded by theU.S. Office of Special Education Programs todevelop, vali ate, and disseminate rural spe-cial educa n preservice curricula. Nine pre-service Et odules were devP16ped by the NRPand ar "being field tested in universities acrossthe country.

Over 30 universities field tested the follow-ing curriculum modules during the summerand fall of 1983:

.1. The State-of-the-Art of Rural Special Edu-cation

2. Alternate Instructional Arrangements andDelivery Systems for Low-IncidenceHandicapped Students in Rural America

3. Warren Springs, Mesa: A Rural PreserviceSimulation

January 1984

4. Solving Rural Parent-Professional RelatedDilemmas

5.. Working With Parents of Rural Handi-capped Students

6. Involving Citizens and Agencies of RuralCommunities in Cooperative ,Program-ming for Handicapped Students

7. Working With Peer Professionals in RuralEnvironments

8. Creative; ResOurce Identification for Pro-Services to Rural Handicapped Stu-

aunts9. Solving Educational Dilemmas Related to

School Ad inistration10. Perso.nal Dev opment Skills and Strate-

gies for Effectiv Survival as a Rural Spe-cial Educator /

For further information about obtainingthese preservice modules, contact: Director,National Rural Project. Murray State :Universi-ty-, ,Murray KY 42071.

PRESERVICE CONSORTIUM FORMED

Rural school districts experience serious diffi-culties recruiting and retaining qualified per-sonnel. and university training programs can

.make a signit:, It;erence. Representativesof 65 universi 'Ht met in Washington,D.C., in Deceml, 182, and discussed prob-lems faced 5v p vice training institutionsas they prep ol special educators.

Consortia 'embers receive newsletters,participate in teleconferences, and developand react to preservice curricula designed toprepare rural special educators. If you areinterested in discussing innovative solutionsto rural preservice training problems and/or inhaving your institution becoming part of theNational Rural Preservice Training Consor-tium, contact: National Rural Preservice Train-ing Consortium, Special Education Building,Murray State University, Murray KY 42071.

NRP NEWSLETTER

The National Rural Project Newsletter is avail-able on a'subscription basis ($12.00 per year).It follows a journal format and includes up-to-date information on issues facing handicappedstudents in rural America, pfablem-solvingstrategies, pertinent legNation and confer-'ences, and articles on rural preservice andinservice strategies. For specific subscriptioninformation, contact NRP Newsletter, WellsHall, Murray State Univ., Murray KY 42071.

Fourth Annual National RuralSpecial Education Conference

Murray, Kentucky March 28-30; 1984

The Fourth Annual National Rural Special Education Conference, sponsored by theAmerican Council on Rural Special Education (ACRES), will be held Match 28-30,1984, atMurray State University in Kentucky.

The conference theme is "Tne Fut%re for Rural Special Education: A Risin f

OptimiSm." Conference sessions emphasize a positive alternativeTs ,approach (inspite of the current economic: climate). Rural people have a history of "taking care of 'one'sown" and solving their own problems. The conference will capitalize on those inherentrural characteristics as sessions focus on bringing tile future to anal Americo

An Earlybird Session on March 27 will address the use of advanced technolojes in rum!areas. This session will include discussions and demonstrations regarding uses forcomputers, video tapes, video discs, satellite TV, and other technological innovations.

Conference registration is $50.00 for ACRES members and $60.00 for nonmembers. TheEarlybird Session is $25.00 for members and $30.00 for nonmembers. ACRES is a nonprofitnational membership organization established to enhance services to rural handicappedchildren.

For more information, contact National Conference Coordinator, ACRES, Box 2470,Murray State University, Murray KY, 42071, or, call (502) 762-2056.


87 369

BLANK POWDO NO i r:ILM

Order Form forNational Rural Project

ProductsThe following publications are available from the National Rural Project INRP), Murray

- . State University, Murray KY 42071, (502) 762-2056. This form may be xeroxed for moreconvenient use.

TITLE

Check theitems youwish toorder.

National Comparative Study Regarding Rural Special EducationDelivery. Systems Before and After Passage of PL 94-142. NRP80-01. $7.00National. Rural Research and Personnel Preparation Project (NRP).Final Report. NRP79-02.Recruitment and Retention in Rural America. NRP81-03.

$7.00$4 00

A ReportIegarding Interagency Collaboration to Facilitate Servicesfor Rural Handicapped Students, NRP81-04. $5.00Effective Service Delivery Strategies Appropriate for SpeciFc RuralSUbculturesSample Profile Book. NRP80-05. S5 00Rural SerVices Directory. NRP81-06. :40 C,of

Individualizing Staff Development in Rural School DistrLis toEnhance Services for All Children, Including the ILIF.ndfrPped.NRP81-07. 1 .(11

Increasing Preservice Currici.:,in Accountability to Rural riandi-capped Populations. NRP-,6. $4.00Images: Issues. and Trends in rural Special Educa tionJanuary,1983. NRP83-19. $8 00Ensuring Excellence in' Ru:-q NRI182-21. $6 00

Send check or money order,-pdyalA: to: National Rural Account, do:National Rural Project, Mmay State University, Murray KY 42071

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-Address

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88 . January 1984

BLANK PACEDO NOT FILM.

The Lives of 2001000 Handicapped People AreSystematically Taken Or Abbreviated Every Yearin hospitals, nursing homes and' institutions, boarding houses and otherhuman services, and even in their own homes.

These atrocities must be st4oppedi

The TRAINING INSTITUTE in Syracuse, N.Y. is conducting a 3-dayworkshop for those who choose to confront this issue

Friday, March 23 through Sunday, March 25, 1984

Wolf Wolfensberger, advocate and Professor, Special Education, Syracuse. University, and hisassociates will conduct the workshop.

Parents of handicapped people, advocates, service workers and directors, and students in humanservices will find this program especially relevant.

The fee is $125. If there is space available, arrangements can be made for those who can't afford it.

For more information contact: Training Coordinator, TRAINING INSTITUTE, 805 S. CrouseAve., Syracuse, NY 18210 315/423-4264

*Talk Special Education in SpanishTear here ont; mail alont, woh your check

New and for decades to cone special educatois will inevitably have to noney or P 0 to

communicate with handicapped Spanish-speaking children and their /1 THE NATIONAL HISPANIC UNIVFPGITY

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vocabulay is not enough. Interpreters may be able to translate, but 11-;: :vmay not *able to inform or communicate. Name

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The National Hispanic University presents

The Bilingual. Specii,1Education Dictionary

by Richard A. Figueroaand

Nadeen T. Ruiz

English terms with Spanish translationsExplanation of each term using informal,everyday Spanish vocabularyCross-indexed in English and SpanishTranslations of the names of the most commonlyused diagnostic tests:

THE BILINGUAL SPECIALEDUCATION DICTIONARY

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$8.9582505-2. TEACHING READING TO SLOW AND DISABLEDLEARNERS. Kirk. Kliebhanand Lerner. Step-by-step directions forteaching phonics, sound blending. and word analysis. Counts as 2choices. . $20.50

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MPLETE SPECIAL EDUCATION HANDBOOK.eren. Budgeting, transportation, staff organization.

riculum, and more. $14.95

41395. CURRICULUM ANALYSIS AND DESIGN FOR RE-TARDE LEARNERS.Klein. Pasch and Frew. Hardcover. $14.9542078. DEVELOPING AND IMPLEMENTING INDIVIDUAL-IZED EDUCATION PROGRAMS. Thrnbull, Strickland andBran* A complete "how-to" guide. $14.95

42082. DEVELOPMENTAL ART THERAPY. Williams andIrbod. Ideas for fostering emotional and social growth. $17.95

41:186. DEVELOPMENTAL THERAPY FOR YOUNG CHIL-DREN WITH AUTISTIC CHARACTERISTICS. Bachrach et al.A comprehensive curriculum guide based on sequential',develop-mental objectives. $19.95

43490. EDUCATING EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN. Kirk andGallagher. An orientation to special education. $17.95

43515-2. EDUCATIONAL DIAGNOSIS AND PRESCRIPTIVETEACHING: A Practical Approach to Special Education in theLeast Restrictive Environment. Prillaman and Abbott. Counts as 2choices. $21.5046315. EVALUATING EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN. KennethHowell et al. How to use the task analysis apprbach. Hardcover.

$15.95

49348, FUNDAMENTAL SKILLS AND CONCEPTS: LanguageArts Lessons. Ross and Ross. Step-by-step teaching scripts forgrades 1-3. $14.95

52006. GUIDELINES FOR TEACHING CHILDREN WITHLEARNING PROBLEMS. Lillie Pope. Activities to help studentswith learning or behavioral problems. . $15.9552322-2. HANDBOOK OF RESOURCE ROOM TEACHING.Ju-dith II. Cohen. Comprehensive coverage of support programs formildly handicapped youngsters from elementary school throughcollege. Hardcover. Counts as 2 choices. $28.9552542-2. HELP: Handbook of Exercises for Language Processing,Vols.land,2.La=ari and Peters. Activities for auditory discrimina-tion, recePtion. association, memory, and more.For ages 6-Adult.Counts as 2 choices. $34.0053808. HOW TO MOTIVATE ADOLESCENTS. Linda Nielsen.Actual, workable techniques that zero in on specific difficulties andshow how to correct them. $12.9554391. HYPERACTIVE CHILDREN: Diagnosis and Manage-me nt. Safer and Allen. With a Foreword by Leon Eisenberg. A multi-modal approach: $14.95

86951. WHATSTHE HURRY? Developmental Activities for Ableand Handicapped Children. Rogovin and Cataldo. $15.95

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54969. IF WE COULD FIEARTHE GRASS GROW. EleanorCraig.By the author ofP.S. You're Not Listening. One summer in the lives ofa dedicated teacher and 12 troubled children. Hardcciyer. $14.9555236. INFORMAL ASSESSMENT IN EDUCATION. Guerinand Maier. $11.9555262. INDIVIDUALIZED EDUCATIONAL MATERIALS FORSPECIAL CHILDREN IN THE MAINSTREAM. Robert M.Anderson, Ed.D. $19.9557124. KIDS 1V110 HATE SCHOOL. Lawrence!. Greene. How torecognize the symptoms of a learning problem and specific steps totake to help. $12.9557679, LANGUAGE & READING STRATEGIES FOR POVERTYCHILDREN. Anastasiow et al. $16.9557718. LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT FOR REMEDIATION.Miller et al. Reviews a variety ofavailable procedures. $12.6057963. LEARNING ACTIVITIES AND TEACHING IDEAS FORTHE SPECIAL CHILD IN TILE REGULAR CLASSROOM.Peggy Gla=ard Integration strategies for students with varioushandicaps. Hardcover. $14.9558062. THE LEARNING THEORY OF PIAGET & INFIELDER.Gallagher and Reid. With a Foreword by Piaget and Inhelder.$10.9559522-2. MAINSTREAMING TILE LEARNING DISABLEDADOLESCENT. Dolores M. Woodward, Ph.D A practical manualdescribing intervention tech niques. Hardcover. Counts as 2 choices.

$27.9565083. NUTRITION CASEBOOK ON DEVELOPMENTALDISABILITIES. Ninfa Springer The definition and effects of nu-trients, techniques for evaluation, and methods of nutrition inter-vention. $12.9567126. PARENTS ARE TEACHERS. 11isfe, C. Becker. A childmanagement program for parents. teachers, social ' orkers, andguidance counselors. $7.9570012. PREPARING INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES. SecondEdition. MEASURING INSTRUCTIONAL INTENT: or Got aMatch? Robert F Mager. Two widely used (and useful) volumes forachieving teaching success. Counts as 1 choice. $13.9073873-2. REMEDIATING READING DISABILITIES. Cook andEmile): a practical "how-td sourcebook in reading disabilities.Fully illustrated. Hardcover Countsas 2 choices. $27.00

4 Good Reasons to JoinI. 'Fhe Finest Books. Of the hundreds and hundreds of booksiubrintted to us each year, only the very fineseare selected andoffered.2. Big Savillgs. In addition to ge:ting 3 hooks for only 99c eachplus How to Write an LEP FREE when you join, you keep savingsubstantially-up to 30."r and occasionally even more. (For exam-ple. your tofal savings as a trial member-including this introduc-tory"offer-can easily he over 50%. That's like getting every etherhook free!)3. Bonus Books. Also, you will immediately become eligible toparticipate in our Wilms Book Pla n. with savings up to 70%off thepublishers' prices.4. Convenient Service. At 3-4 week mteryals (16 times per year)you will receive the Book Club News. describing the MainSelection and Alternate Selections. together with a dated replycard. lryou want the Main Selection, do nothing and it will besent to s,ou automatically. If you prefer another selection, or nohook at all. simply indicate your choice on the card, and return itby the date specified. You will have at least 10 days to decide. ITbi:eause of late mail delivery of the News, you should receive ahook you do not want, we guarantee return postage.'


73952-2. RESOURCES FOR TEACHING YOUNG CHILDRENWITII SPECIAL NEEDS. Penny Low Deiner. Over 300 activitiescover: reading, science, social studies, mat h , art, and more. Withover 185 photos and drawings. Counts as 2 choices. $20.95

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$19.95nell. Hardcover.MULTIPLE DISABILITIES. Second Edition. Bigge and O'Don-

82497-2.TEACIIING MATHEMATICS TO THE LEARNINGDISABLED. Bley and Thornton,imaginative ideas and activities tobreak through the areas of greatest difficulty for LDstudents. Hard-cover. Counts as 2 choices. - $26 .7588474. YOUR CHILD CAN WIN: strategies, Actiyitiesand Gamesfor Parents of Childrenwith Learning Disabilities. Noyes and Afac.neill.Hardcover. 0 $11.9552584. HELPMENTALLY DISABLED YOUNG PEOPLE COPEWITH THE DEMANDS OF EVERYDAY LIFE. Whelan andSpeake. Preparing basic meals, dressing, personal hygiene, sexualresponsibility, and more. \ .

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59523. MAINSTREAMING WITH LEARNING SEQUENCES.Goperud and Fleming. 13 easy-to-use lesson plans for: the conceptsof less, widest, letter names, consonant sounds, and more. $10.95

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BLAN!11,

DO N61 i'iLMSpecial Education Law: A Guide for Parents,Advocates, and Educators. Steven S. Gold-berg.' New York: Plemun Press, 1982, 225 pp.$24:50. Ilardcover.

In the preface to his book, Goldberg states,This book developed out of the need to pro-

vide nonlegal 'professionals with a. lawyer'sview of the huge body of court cases andfederal laws. and regulations that affect theirpractice as well as their students and clients."In terms of a delineation of basic special edu-cation legal principles and issues, the author'sstated purpose is realized. The reader must,however, 'keep in mind the basic limitation ofall guide or handbooksthe true complexitiesand subtleties of an issue are often masked inan effort to simplify and condense information.However, this book can serve as an adequateiniti-A reference source to flag potential legalissues for the special education advocate.

Special Educational Law is nearly equally. divided between text and appendices. Thelatter supplements the text with federal statu-tory and regulatory provisions of Public Law94-142, The Education for All HandicappedChildren Act of 1975, and Section 504 of theRehabilitation Act of 1973. Chapter one gives abrief history of the generally inferior (or nonex-istent) educational services for handicappedchildren characteristic of the recent past, andthe court cases establishing a .basic' right toeducation for all handicapped children. Chap-ter two discusses the major provisions of theEducation for All Handicapped Children Act,the legislative response to judicial pronounce-ments of handicapped children's educationalrights. These include: the notion of a freeappropriate public education: individualizededucation programs: due process procedures;appeals: evaluations; the least restrictive envi-ronment mandate: and confidentiality of stu-dent records.

Chapter three introduces the reader to Sec-tion 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of, 1973,another major source of rights for handicappedpeople. Section 504 prohibits discriminationagainst handicapped people. Chapter four ex-

plains in a concise and readable manner thespecial education hearing procedures andwhat to expectd you are involved in a hearing,as an advocate, parent, or educator. As a guidefor direct action, this chapter offers the mostpractical, "how to" advice in the entire book.Finally, chapter five provides the reader withinsight into 'ome of the emerging major issuesin special education: law-year-round specialeducation; discipline procedures; educationalneeds and legal problems of non-Englishspeaking children; "educational malpractice"cases; and the rights of gifted and talentedchildren.

Several actual court decisions are reprintedin part. Given the intended audience for thisbook (nonlegal professionals), it would havebeen more useful to provide a non-technicalsummary of the relevant legal principles andimplications for special educational policy andpractice. The inclusion of fedural statutory andregulatory provisions in the appendices was alsc/questionable. It is doubtful that many readerswill make extensive use of this material. /.

In summary, this book serves as an adequatesource of information on basic special educa-tion law. However, practical advocacy adviceis generally lacking for those desiring to takedirect action to resolve special educationdisputes.

DOUGLAS FIELDER is a lawyer and a doctoralcandidate in Special Education, Kansas University,Kansas City.

Due Process in Special Education: On Going toa Hearing. Milton Budoff and Alan Orenstein.Cambridge MA: The Ware Press, 1982, 343 pp.$24.95, Hardcover.

Budoff and Orenstein cifer a well written,timely explanation and evaluation of a trouble-some -issue in special education todaythedue process hearing. This book represents the

374 January 1984

92

results of a comprehensive three-year studyof special education appeals hearings inNIIISSEIC h use t t s.

Due Process in Special Education details; ina highly readable fashion, what parents andschool personnel can expect when they go to ahearing. Personal accounts and anecdotes ofparents, educators, and hearing officers areliberally interspersed throughout, thus raisingthe reader's sensitivity to the issues developedin the book.- The book is divided into five sections. Sec-tion .1 (three chapters) serves as a generalintroduction to due process requirements, es-tablishing the underlying assumption that pro-cedural fairness will yiqlcl fair results. Therealities of many due process hearings, howev-er, leave much doubt as to the validity of thisassumption. Section II (six chapters) describesthe experiences of parents who have partici-pated in due process hearing procedures. Thevast majority of parents in this study weremiddle to upper-middle income parents oflearning disabled children. Section III (twochapters) offers school personnel perspectiVes.on due process hearings and disputes withparents. Section IV (three chapters) incorpo-rates the views of the other major participantin due process hearings, the hearing officer.Section V (five chapters) is a synthesis andmost useful evaluation of the due processhearing structure. Suggestions for due processreform are also presented.

The book should appeal to a broad spectrumof people. Parents of handicapped childr,mwill obtain.a better understanding of the eco-nomic and emotional costs of participation in adue process hearing. Parents will learn thepitfalls of involvement in a due process hear-ing and will receive useful tips to minimizeconflict and frustration in dealing withschools. School personnel can also benefitfrom this book, sensitizing them. to the evolu-tionary aspedts of adversarial conflict vis-a-visparents, as,' well as the attendant destructiveresults. Attorneys and child advocates willunderstand the emotional climate, deficien-cies, ;aiici hidden agendas that often accompa-ny due process hearing's. Finally, special edu-cation policy makt- :rs and administrators maybe the greatest hope fOr improvement in thismuch maligned dispute resolution process. Ifthey are bold enough 'to dev.ise alternativemechanisms for conflict resolution and imple-ment resolution procedures, they could pre-


BLANKPAGE.

o NO FILMvent cq

isptites frfom erupting into requests for

due process hearings,Budoff and Orenstain have proiiided a valu-

able critique of a system that undergirds handi-capped children's legal educational. rights.Their suggestions for due process reform arerealistic and should not go unheeded, Moreimportantly, their emphasis on building a truepartnership between schools and parents inthe education of handicapped children is aneeded step in the right direction.

DOUGLAS FIEDLER is a lawyer and a do ?ma!candidate in Special Education, Kansas Universicy.Kansas City.

Psychoeducational Assessment: IntegratingConcepts and Techniques. George B. 1-fulton,Edward A. Workman, Paula A. Matuszek. NewYork: Grune and Stratton, 1982, 364 pp.$24.50.

Psychoeclucational assessment is a complexactivity responding to the needs of educatorsand families to provide effective programmingfor children. This activity and the currentfactors supporting it are well described by theauthors of this text.

The twelve chapters address a broad array ofissues and concerns that must be considered inpsychoeducational assessment. Some materialin the ext is not found in existing books. Forexample, Chapter 1 and Part I of the textinclude extended coverage of the legal andethical concerns of psychoeducationalassessment.

Part II of the text provides more routinediscussion of assessment in eve domains:health; intellectual; psycho cational proc-essing; academic functioni, I/emotionalfunctioning; adaptive funs, nd envi-ronmental influences. The v. includedin these domains ensures'its iscu. ion will beuseful to a general understan ing of assess-ment, although it will be less useful for aneducator desiring specialized knowledge ofassessment in an one of the domains. The textdoes provide useful references 'for more spe-cialized materials. Part III of the text discussesthree case studies of IEP staffings and otit-.comes, valuable for educators with little expe=rience in such activity.

/ 375

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BLANK PAGEDO NUT Fl? /1/1

The text has a 'lumber of strengths. t is clearand well written. It is supportive of assessmentactivity and provides a constructive rationalefor assessment based on federal legislation,ethics, and the pragmatic value of teachingusing empirical data.

The text has two limitations. Readers willfind little guidance for selecting or developinga psychoeducational measure. Although abranching systeui of assessment is suggestedfor readers, the 3.T\stern appears designed toidentify the sequericof assessing domains,rather than identifying the decision rules thatshould guide instrument selection. The book islikely to be of limited value for educators inselecting or developing a measure. However, itwill be useful in educational areas well sup-ported by psychometrically sound measures.

The second limitation may reflect a prefer-ence for assessment of mildly handicappedstudents vs. moderately or severely handi-capped' children. The authors believe psycho-educational assessment must serve a dual pur-pose of programming and classification.Existing instruments provide a weak basis, atbest, for such a dual purpose for moderatelyand severely handicapped children or childrenwith specific handicapping conditions. Thisassertion is supported by the fact that only twoor three of all measures cited have norms forhandicapped children. Absence of such normsminimally influences the classification abili-ties of a measure, but it seriously limits theability of a measure to guide educational pro -grains for handicapped children.

One could argue that mildly handicappedchildren proceed along the same course ofdevelopment as nonhandicapped children,and thatthe relatively few items contained inmost measures are sufficient for program plan-ning for these children. This argument weak-ens 'as children are classified as more atypical.This limitation may reflect the primitive stateof the art of assessment for program planningfor these children more than it does the au-thors' bias. As the largest percentage of handi-cai:ve.r1 children are mildly handicapped, thetext should still be quite useful for a number ofeducators.

ROBERT SHEEHAN is an Assistant Professor ofChild Development at Purdue University.

376

Severely Handicapped Students: An Instruc-tional Design. Wayne Sailor and Doug Guess.Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1983, 386 pp.$24.95.

It is altogether too rare when a special educa-tion methods text actually leads the field byproviding state of the art information. Thus, itis a pleasure to read the recent effort by Sailorand Guess. Rather than providing a Compila-tion of outdated material, or a folksy "101ways to have fun with egg cartons" approachto education, the authors have presented aprocess by which professionals can generatefunctional, ecologically valid, curriculum con-tent for severely handicapped students.

In Chapters 1 and 2, the authors discuss whoComprises the severely handicapped popula-tion and outline legal developments that haveresulted in the provision of services to thisgroup. Sailor and Guess present a compellingcase for a mandate to provide. educationalservices in integrated, regular school environ-ments, a premise that is reflected throughoutthe book.

Chapters 3 and 4 provide the basic behavior-al, framework for teaching severely handi-capped students. The authors present a wellorganized discussion of antecedent and conse-quent intervention procedures, though the useof Ogden Lindsley's suprascript' and subscriptnotation system may initially confuse thoSefamiliar with the SR' system.

Chapter 5 contains the central text theme:practitioners should inventory a student's cur-rent and realistic future environments in orderto determine ecologically valid curriculargoals and objectives. The authors reject thenotion of using a standard curriculum as theprimary assessment tool. Rather, they advocatecomparing student skill repertoires againstpresent and future environmental demands.This departure from curriculum-based assess-ment holds a tremendous degree of promise fortailoring curricula to meet student needs, asopposed to molding students to potentiallynonfunctional curricula. This chapter is ex-tremely important and well articulated. Thereis, however, a lack of further information re-grading application of the "critical functions"notion in goal selection.

Chapters 6 and 7 give a practical task analyt-ic orientation to instruction and a data rollertion and graphing system that is both manage-able and sensitive to student progress.

94 January 1984

Particularly useful are: the '1' Format" com-bining the content, process, and method as-pects of task analysis. iuto one form; the deci-sion rules for when to use the various chainingstrategies; and guidelines for program modifi-cations on the basis of specified patterns ofperformance.

The. Individualized Curriculum.Sequencing(ICS) Model is presented in Chapter 8, ThisModel involves teaching functional skillswithin a natural context. For example, stu-dents would be taught skillS within an inte-grated sequence., such as walking with a walk-er to the drink area, then pointing to a picturesignifying "drink'' and then drinking from aglass. Teaching skills within a contextuallymeaningful chain should minimize generaliza-tion problems that frequently occur whenskills are taught in isolation. A posSible con -

cern for practitioners is how this approachmight be implemented in group instructionalarrangements. On lengthy chains in particular,enterprising methods will be required in orderto minimize ':downtime" and/or behaviorProblems as students in the group await theirinstructional trials. The potential benefits ofthe ICS model, however, suggest that effortsmight be devoted to developing strategies formaking it work rather than rejecting it asimpractical.

Chapters 9 through 12 describe programmodels for preschool, elementary, secondary,and adult age severely handicapped individ-uals. The authors provide excellent, thought -provoking program suggestions. There is a con-sistent application of previously discussedmaterial (inventory, T-format, data collection,ICS) in the examples provided. Despite thepositive aspects, the reviewers found thesewere less useful than preceeding chapters.While no one tr.xt can address all issues in-volved in establishing exemplary programs,

/readers may havaenefited from a discussionof the processes for attaining the suggestedprogram models, coiamen problems in estab-lishing. for example, community-based train-ing models, and potential solutions.

In summary, these, reviewers thoroughly en-f joyed reading and discussing this innovative

text. It cry!,:allized many ideas, challenged anuinber of previously held notions and fed usto examine methods of incorporOting the nu-merous suggestions into classrooms. We rec-ommend it as must reading for teachers. Thecomplexity of the system presented may make


0.

Btu/ koe

Northis book somewhat cliffrcirritlior undergraduatepreservice trainees. However, it can serve as aprimary text, perhaps augmented by the sec-ond edition of M. E. Snell's book SystematicInstruction of the Moderately and SeverelyHandicapped (Columbus OH: Charles E. Mer-rill, 1983), which would add further -76/itentthe excellent process articulated t,, Siflor andGuess.

DO

__,.......

SUSAN HAMBE-NIE11-OPSEI and JOHN N1ETUPSK1,! .

are Assistant Profess( rs, Deportment of Special Edu-cation, University of Northern Iowa. Cedar Fulls.

The Underserved: 0 r Young Gifted Children.Merle B. Karnes (ed.) Boston VA: The Councilfor Exceptional Chi ldren, 1983, 228 pp.,$15.00. Softcover.

Accompanying the cu rent public interest inexceptionally able tear lers is'a slowly dawn-ing realization that the ifted are not a homoge-neous population, easi y identified and edu-cated. The pioneering work of Merle Karnesand her colleagues at thOiniversity of Illinois'Project RAPYHT locates gifted and 'talentedstudents among the handicapped, economical-ly depressed and the veredited by Karnes (who alsthored five of its nine chabring to public attention tlyoung gifted children (presgrade)'`'and to review and

young. This book,authored or coati-

ters) is designed toe special needs ofhool through thirdintegrate research

-:and expert opinion Ivith4c rrent practices. Itfocuses 'on educator's and t !acher educators,with a stated goal of providi g a springboardfor launching exemplary pro rams (p. v).

The book succeeds in fulifill'ng its promises.It is well conceptualized andlay and professional audiencecurrent literature are quite tho

well written for. Summaries ofough and up to

date, making it an excellent r1 . source for re-searchers, teacher educators and classroomteachers. From identification th ough curricu-lum development, ,teacher train ng and familyinvolvement to program eve uation, eachchapter, is nearly a freestandin monographsurveying the background, thern s and issuesof the topic. The book synthesiz s suggestionsfor practitioners and concludes with guide-lines for adapting or impleme ting sugges-tions. Chapter summaries highlig-it important

i 377

95

Bt_.iit\H<-.. riAdLDO.Nar

points. Samples of lesson plans, behavior rat-ing forIns, teacher-student dialogues and needsassessment instruments provide a bridge fromtheory to practice, often a problem with gener-al books" of this type. Key qualities Of eachchapter highlight the contributions withineach chapter:

The Challenge: Integrated histories of the gift-ed child and early education movements.Rationale for early identification and pro-gramming. Application of 1972 federal defi-nition of giftedness to young and special

'populations. Guidelines for teacher prepara-tion and program develoPnient: Descriptionof problems faced by the ,gifted.

Identification: Presentation of issues. Descrip-tion of models, assessment techniques andinstruments. Sample identification plan in-cluded.

Conceptual Models: Detailed descriptions ofOpen Classroom and structure of the Intel-lect models. Brief overviews of Renzulli'sEnrichment Triad, Bloom's Taxonomy and

.Williams' Cognitive-Affective models. Cau-tions and guidelines for selecting/combiningmodels included.

Teachers: Discussion of qualities needed foreffective teachers of the gifted. Suggestionsfrom Astbr Project helpful for administratorsinvolved/in recruiting and training.

A Differentiated Curriculum: Presents case formaking educational experiences uniquelyappropriate for gifted youngsters. Capsulizesand applies work of Renzulli and associates,Maker, Ward and Passow to cognitive, cre-ativity and affedive skills:needed for younggifted 'students. Addresses the role of Indi-vidual Education Programs in deliveringspecial services. Provides examples of les-son plans and teaching techniques test-ed in Project RAPYHT.

Affective Development: Summary of relevantand current literature, theoretical implica-tions with practical suggestions such as sam-pleteacher-student dialogues, guidelines forjaffective development.

Creativity and Play: Applies principles forencouraging creative growth to sociodrainat-ic play-actilzities of yoUng children. Appro-

/

priate for all teachers of preschool/primarystudents.

\The Role of the Family: Importance of family

support for nurt ring young talent. Usefulfor any educator, Seeking support for a parenteducation program. Thmily needs assess-ment form fot /diagnosing and prescribingfamily'intervention strategies. Staff prepara-tion and options for parent prograths:

Evaluation: Purposes of program eval uation.Options; decision making guidelines forevaluating program components. f Sampleforms add relevance fol' prospectie evalua-tors.

This publication is a general textbook. Add-ing to it books such as A Young ChildExperi-ences (Kaplan, Kaplan, Madsen, & Gould, Pa-cific;- Palisades CA: qoodyear ,Publishing,1975), ,Mcating the PreschoOl/PiimaryCiftedand Talented (Kaplan; ed., Ventura CA: Na-tional/State Leadership Training Institute onthe Gifted and Talented 080), and A ResourceGuide to Preschool/Pprnary Programs for theGifted and Talented'(Jenkins, Mansfield Cen-ter CT: Creative 1,earning Press, 1979) makes .agood library fo/educators with programs foryoung gifted,tudents and for teacher educa-tors working with pre- Or in-service teachers.The first }look focuses on the day-to-day detailsof oped classroom for young children. Thesecond, a collection of program descriptionsand/critical essays on topics from identifica-tion to'research, amplifies the contents of1574rnes' book for the reader' with a specific,concern. The third book portrays a broad spec-

'trum of program practices in an easily under-stood format.

The Underserved: Our Young Gifted Chil-dren is a welcome addition to the small butgrowing number of materials dealing with spe-cial gifted populations. It is a book whosetiming is necessary and vital to the future ofthe gifted child education movement,

REVA JENKINS-FRIEDMAN, is CoordinatorGradu-ate Training for Edticators of the Gifted, Ta/entedand Creative; Assistant Professor, Educational \Psy-chology and Research,' University of Kansas,Lawrence.

378 ;19 a January 1984

BLAB PAGEDO N,, tLM

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Nntices of prnfessional npportunities in special educa-tion are accepted from cnlleges, universities. schohlsystems. organizations. and institutions offering profes-sional pothions. special seminars, study opportunities,and travel-study programs, as well as from individualsseeking empinyment. hulividaals must include nameand address or refer to persofiannx number and postoffice.

Classified advertising notices are published in GEC's,journals, 'TEACHING Exceptional Children (TEC) andExceptional Children (EC). Forward coky to 'classifiedAdvertising. Att'n Jill Winter. Department of Informa-tion Services. CEC. 192(1 Association Drive, R %Mei VA.22091-1589. Ad . cnpy deadlines fnr 1983-8 are as."

follnws:Fall (September) TEC, July 1; September EC, July 10:

October EC. August 1: Nnvember EC, September 7:Winter (December') TEC. October 6; January EC, Novem-ber 7: February EC, December 5: Spring (March) TEC,January 4: April EC. February 6; Summer (May) TEC,March 5.

Rate:. S1.20, per word. Advance payment is requiredon all noninstitutionol orders. Invoicing.is permitted toinstitutions when order is presented on a bona fidepurchase order signed be outhor!zed

AWARD-WINNING PROGRAM Dr: EMOTIONAL DISTUR-BANCE. The American University has openings for Master'sDegree applicants for its 10-month full-time Psychoeduca-tionalk Internship program at Rosh School, a D.C. MentalHealth facility. The total programls one year, June to June.and consists nf 36 academic hour' A $4,000 fellowship isguaranteed for each applicant acc pled. Contact Dr. Nicho-las Long. School of Education. R per Hall, The AmericanUniversity. Washington DC 2001 i. Interested individualsare encouraged to act prnmptly.

JAPAN AND HONG KONG SPECIAL EDUCATION TRAV-EL STUDY. Option for 2 or 3 weeps and 2 or 3 credit hours.July 7-27. 1984. Write for iriforatIon: Dr. T. Hisama.Special Educatinn. Southern Illin ds University at Carbon-dale. Carbondale IL 62901.

UNIVERSITY OF MARYLAND invites applicatiohs to filltwo tenure-track pusitinns at the +k of Assistant Professorin the areas of: (1) Educationally Dandicapped (preschooland primary level): and (2) Learoing Disabilities. Earneddoctorate in special education or related field plus extensivepreparation and experience in tht area of application re-quired. Productivity in the form of sCholarlypublications orgrants is desirable. Applications including vitas, three refer-ences. and credential files ghnuldle forwarded by February10. 1984 to: Dr. Steve Graham. Chair: Search Committee.Department of Special Education. 'University of Maryland.College Park MD 20742:

MIDWEST SYMPOSIUM FOR LEADERSHIP IN BEHAV-IOR DISORDERS, February 23 -25, 1984, Adam's MarkHotel, Kansas City, Missouri. Thrqugh the conperative ef-forts nf prnfessionals in. Kansas, Nilbraska, Iowa, and Mis-souri, the secnnd annual symposiihn will be held at theAdam's Mark llotel located nn 1-70 at the Truman SpnrtsComplex in Kansas City, Missouri. "Reflections on Devi-ance in 1984" is the chnsen theme for this year's syreqin-siunt. Featured topics and speakers include: "An Interviewwith George Orwell: Reflections on Deviance in 1984,"'portrayed by Dr. James. Zabel; "Behavior Disorders: The .

Family in 1984," by Dr. Roger Kroth, University of New 'Mexico: "Values and Ethics: The Persnnal Choices in 1984,"by Dr. James Kauffman, University nf Virginia; "Living in1984 and Bevnnd: The Future of Behavior Disorders," by Dr.Richard Whelan, University of Kansas Medical Center. Thecost of the symposium is S35.00. A workshop on self-injurious behavior will be conducted from 9:00 to 4:00 onThursday, February 23 at a cost nf S5.00. Preregistration andhotel accommndatinn information is available by contact-ing: Midwest Symposium for Leadership in Behavior Disor-ders, Marcus Center, Wichita State University, Wichita KS67208. or call (31(1) 689-3731.

TEACHERS, are you interested in'combining school with,Summer vacation? Intensive two -week courses allow ynu toearn credit fnr recertification' while enjoying the beachesand historic areas of Pensacola, Florida. Cnurses include:Independent Living Skills for the Handicapped. Computersin Special Education, Instructional Materials for SpecialEducation, EffeCtive Discipline in the flome and Schonl, andIndependent Research in Special Education. These may betaken for undergraduate nr graduate credit or on a noncreditcertificate basis. The firs! session Begins June 18 and endsJune 29; the second session from July 9 to July 20. Furtherinformation concerning courses, housing, and child caremay be obtained by writing: Departmdnt of Special Educa-tion, Building 76, The University of West Florida. PensacolaFL 32514, nr call 904474-2893.

)

CLINICAL COORDINATOR OF LEARNING DISABILITIESDEPARTMENT. The lloysTnwn Nationall Institute is seek-ing an individual with clinical and research capabilities inthe area of Learning Disabilities. Job respo'nsibilities includeevaluation of learning di4bled childreh; supervision -ofLearning Disabilities' Spechlilists; participatinn as a memberof a multidisciplinary team in the evaluation of childrenwith communication disotifers; and assisting in the designand implementation of diagnostic and remedial programs.Position responsibilities will 4Iso include the developmentand implementation of rese4c:h projects in the area oflearning disabilities. Requires a Ph.D. in learning disabil--ities, with a minimum of twn years experience beyond thedoctorate. Preference will be gi.en to candidates with astrong background in language development/language disor-ders and supervisory experience in a clinical setting. Excel-lent benefits. Send letter of application, vitae. and refer-ences to: Phyllis Fleharty. Boys Town Natinnal Institute forCommunication Disorders in Children, 555 North 30thStreet. Omaha. Nebraska 68131. An Equal Opportunity,'Affirmative Actinn Employer.


97

LEARNING DISABILITIES .SPECIALIST 11, Bays TownNational Institute is now accepting applications for a Learn-ingDisabilities Specialist. 4 master's degree or doctorate inlearning disabilitieS or a related discipline and a minimumof two years experience in evaluation and teaching oflearning disabled students is required. Preference will begiveo to candidates with a strong background in languagedevelopmentlanguage disorders. lob responSibilities in-cludevarticipation as a member of a multidisciplinary teamevaluating children with lenrning and othercommunicative disorders: and assisting in the design andimplementation of diagnostic and remedial programs. Sala-ry is negotiable depending on experience and qualifications.Excellent benefits. Send letter of application, vitae andreferences to: Phyllis Flehiirty. Boys. Town National Institutefor Communication Disorders in Children, 555 North 30thStreet, Omaha. Nebraska 68131. An Equal Opportunity/Affirmotive Action Employer.

PEDIATRIC PHYSICAL AND OCCUPATIONAL THERAPISTS: Opportunity to join interdisciplinary team providingconsultation services, evaluation, and direct treatment tochildren with multiple disabilities. Vacancies in severalNorth Carolina cities. Pediatric experience desired but notrequired. Alf state benefits. Salary commensurate with h expe-rience. Contact Sue McLaurin, L.P.T.. N.C. Division ofHealth ServiceS, Box 2091, Raleigh NC 27602 (919/733-7437). EE0E.

SPECIAL EDUCATION TEACHERS: All types of specialeducation teachers, especially Profoundly Mentally Retard-ed teachers. Dli teachers, EH teachers, Multihandicappedwith Vision Training teachers. Send a letter of applicationand resume to: Personnel Department. Florence SchoolDistrict One, 319 S. Dorgan Street, Florence SC 29501. FOE.

POSITION. AVAILABLE: EXECUTIVE DIRECTOR. Privateagency providing residential and community-based servicesto emotionally disturbed children 6-14 and their families.Special education cone ponent. -45 employees, annual budgetS1.1 million. Candidate must have graduate degree andsignificant experience in both human service and businessmanagement. Requires a good .adminiStrator with provenleadership skills necessary to guide agency in.new direc

.lions. Must have experience in advocacy and ability tonegotiate with-feinding sources. Re'sunies to Search Commit-tee, .Baird Center for Children and Families, 1110 Pine.Street. Burlington. Vermont 05401 by -February 1, 1984.Equal Opportunity Employer. /

BRAXTON COUNTY SCHOOLS are seeking special educa-tion teachers & BDI./a psychologist, and a speechtherapist to begin workinglanuary 1984. Enjoy living in thebeautiful mountains while contributing to the education ofexceptional children. For additional information, contactDavid McChesney. Director of Special .Ecluation. SuttonWV 26601 (304'765-7101). Equal Opportunity Employer.

380

PERKINS SCHOOL FOR THE BLIND..is seeking staff for itsNew Seyere Impaired Program. Staff will work with severelyto profoundly impaired students ranging in age from 10 to.22. All Staff) will work as members of an interdisciplinaryteam. Positions available include full-time Teachers withDegree & Certification in Ed. of Severe Special Needs orClosely related field. Teacher Aides, I louseparents, Assist-ant llouseparents. full & part-time Child Care Workers 8,e.part-time Adaptive P.E. Teacher. Also hill -time Occupation-al Therapist (OTR) & part-time Physical Therapist (RPT) &PsychologiSt/Behavior Management Specialist with M.A.Excellent benefits including the option to live-in at no cost.

- Please forward resume to Personnel Office, Perkins Schoolfor the Blind, 1.75 N. Beacon St.,,Watertoivn MA 02172. AnEqual Opportunity/Affirmative Action Employer.

BLANK PAGE.DQ NC), fiLIVi

Index to Advertisers

American Guidance Service, 28,9Charles C. Thomas Publisher, 31"2The Council for Exceptional Chijdren. 367

'ULM Teaching Resourcos, Cover 4Elwyn and Vineland. Cover 2Callaudet College, 311 .

Houghton Mifflin, :332, 333The Library of Special Education, 372, 373Love Publishing Company. Cover 3McCarron-Dial SyStems, 325Modern Curriculum Press, 342The National Hispanic University, 371The Pathway School, 359The Ranch Treatment Center, 360Research Press, 359Scott. Forestnan and Company, 343Sensory Aids, 305Syracuse UniversifY, 371Techniques, 349The University of Illinois. 311The University of Iowa, 366The Woods Schools, 350

7

90 January 1984

CEC ERIC's I.NEWSFRONT

152-Yiti gr'

DOJean N. Nazzar t

Department Editdrii

Focus on ERIC/CRESSThe ERIC: system is comprised of 16 clearinghouses each focusing on a different aspect of edUfcation. In keeping with the theme of this issue, the ERIC Clearinghouse on Rural Educationand Small Schools is highlighted. The scope of interest, of this center is on the economic, cul-tural and social factors related to educational programs for American Indians, Mexican Ameri-cans, migrants and rural residents. Of special interest is outdoor education and educational!programs in all small schools.

The following materials have recently been produced by this clearinghouse:

The Preparation and Certification of Teachers for Rural and Small Schools. Clark E. Garden-er and Everett D. Edington. $9.00. A 25-page state-of-the-art review disc,:ggses the rvied forbetter teacher prephration and certification for teachers going into rural or small schools,looks at current preservice and inservice programs and models, and suggeSts ways to up-grade thp status of rural teacher preparation and' certification.Assertion Training with Amprican Indians: Cultural/Behavioral Issues for Trdiners. Teresa'Davis LaFromboise. $11.25. Designed for educators, human development specialists, andmental health professionals in developing assertion training programs with American Indianpeople, this 113-page manual provides an. introduction to assertion training; elements of In-dian cultiare-and Indian thinking; a selected assertion training model composed of instrucdon. modeling, behavior rehearsal, and feedback.Fact Sheets: Parents' 'Roles and Responsibilities in Indian EducationHispanic Culture and Literature: An OverviewERIC: Outdoor Education Resources'Four Day School Week for Small RuraiSchoolsRelationship of State Departments of Education.with Rural SchoolsMigrant Fact Shdet: Utilizing Available Resources at the Local LevelDirectories: Organizations in American Indian EducationOrganizations in Rural EdUcationBooklet: Rural Librarians arid ERIC'

For more information contact the ERIC Clearinghouse on Rural Education and'SmallSchools, Nev Mexico State University, Box 3AP, Las Cruces, NM 88003.

6BLANK PAGE0 N!

I portant TV SeriesYo ir Children My Children, a seven-part series, will be broadcast this spring-on over 200 pub-lic television stations. Two of the parts are especially pertinent for us: Being Normal. and Pun-ishment. Neglect and Abuse. The producers of the series are irwiting agencies such as ours tosunort Outreach activities in connection with the broadcasts. Packets of information, a man-ila il of how-to's for activities, and additional information are available from Peggy Chisholm,Outreach Director, YOUR CHILDREN MY CHILDREN.-KT-CA---1 0 Como Avenue, St. PaulMIN 55103.

!

Professional Standards and Code ofthics

A new ERIC Short Report has been prepared on Professional Standards in Special Education.This report addresses the need for a Professional Code of Ethics and Standards for Practice

ERIC The Newsfront Loltinin is d product of the ERIC ClearinghOuSe on Handicapped and Gifted Children fundedby the ;:itional Institute of Ed ikation.


99381

BLANK PAGEDO N(.

and Preparation of Special Education Personnel. It also highlights the document's themselvesvTilarwere published in the November issue of Exceptional Children. Single copies of theShort Report and the Ethics and Standards documents may he ordered, fiee of charge from theDepartment;of Governmental Relations and Professional Advocacy, The Council for Exception-al children; 1920 Association Drive, Reston, VA 22091. Bulk price on The Ethics and Stand--ards packet is $10.00 for 25 copies. Photocopying of these materials is permitted.

RETOOL ProjectsCEC's National RETOOL Center has two new projects. One, entitled Microcomputer Applica-tions in Special Education, is designed to provide quality training toteacher educators on theuses of microcomputers in special education.. The second-project is called Survival StrategiesTraining: Consultation/Gollaboration Skills for Special Educators and Administrators. As thename implies. the goal of this project is to train teacher educators in the'consultative/collabo-rative process. Both of these are scheduled to last for three years.

During this first year of the microcomputer project, activities center around development oftraining materials and formation of a Computer Using Teacher Education (CUTE) network.During the second and third years, there will be several training sessions held at various sitesthroughout the country.-The first training session will be next summer at Florida Atlantic Uni-versity in Boca Raton. The primary approach td training will be hands-on activities, with somelectines and demonstrations. Training will cover six modules:

1. Selection and decision making process2: Software and hardware evaluation3.} Adapting curriculum materials fOr use on a microcomputer4. Coniputer operation and utilization5. Utilizing Peripherals6. Microcomputer programming for instructional and management purposes

Activities for the first year of the SST project focus on the development of a Survival Strate- .

gies Training manual and the training of four SST teams. The training will help special educa-tors. regular educators, and administrators develop the skills, knowledge, and attitudes neces-sary to collaborate with each other in providing effective services to mainstreamed handi-capped students. To that end, each SST team will consist of three teacher educators: one inIpecial education, one in regular education, andone in administration. Following a multiplier, ,model of training, these team members will,-inturn, become consultant trainers. Activities forthe-second and third years of this project will center around the training of more SST teams.

The National RETOOL Center is hoUsed at CEC headquarters in Reston. For more informa-tion about the RETOOL projects, contact Elizabeth McClellan, Project Coordinator.

Focus on Special Net: EMPLOYMENT BoardOne of the most exciting uses of Special Net has become the placement capacity of the EM-PLOYNIENT Board. State offices, local school systems, and colleges and universities post messages on the EMPLOYMENT board daily. The board's automatic purge of 90 days means thereare ustially150 or more current messages on it. Recent vacancy announcements included:

a science teacher in Floridaa college instructor. in South Dakotaan editor for a national journalan education columnist for a computer magazinea school psychologist in Wyominga speech therapist in Alaskaa special education teacher in Pennsylvania

382January 1984

100

SpecialNet subscribers are encouraged to post job announcements on the EMPLOYMENTboard. To assist you in formating your messaget'a special "script" is available fatyou to com-plete. Simply type C JOB and you will be asked for information,about the position you wish toannOunce..The -inforination you type will be sent automatically to the EMPLOYMENT. board.

This year, SpecialNet will increase activities to help assure these announcements are seen .

by prospective applicants, Access to.-EMPLOYMENT-Board listings will he-offered at majorNational Education meetings.

GEC's convention in Washington, DC is one of the sites where Special Net's EmploymentBoard and CEC's.,Personnel Recwitnlent Service will be working together.

BLANK PA0100New. ERIC Acquisition

The following documents may be ordered from Center for Law and Education, Inc., GutmanLibrary, 6 Appian Way, Cambridge MA 02138. $25.00 for two-volume se02.50 postage. Theyare also available in microfiche or paper copy from ERIC Document Reproduction Servibe(EDRS), P.O. (x 190, Arlington VA 22210..

ED 227 626, 227 627Special Education: A Manual for Advocates, Vols. I, II. Diana Pullin.

Volume I. The manual is designed to help attorneys, paralegals, and others act as advocatesfor handicapped children. The first chapter provides an overview of federal laws concerningthe education of the handicapped (including provisions in the Constitution). Chapter 2 listscharacteristics and needs of mental retardation, hearing impairments, speech impairments,specific learning disabilities, visual impairment, emotional disturbances, handicapping condi-tions, and developmental disabilities. Chapter 3 focuses on educational evaluation, includingsections on procedural protections, student information, specific type,: ofitests, and bias inevaluation. Placement and programming aspects, such as individualizedieducatio Rgrams,least restrictive environment, and related services are conbidered in Chapt -A final chapterdetails administrative hearings and appeals. Case summaries on such topics as tiamages/im-munity, residence, priorities, and timelines for service are included in the extensive appcAdix-es eland with fedeial statutes and regulations concerning handicapped children.

Volume II contains an appendix to a larger document on child advocacy for handicappedstudents needing special education. Appended material includes regulations for. Section 504of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973, the Buckley Amendment, and the Developmental Disabil-ities Act. Also found in .this volume are policy-interpretations by the U.S. Departments of Edu-cation and of Health, Education and Welfare of individualized education programs, clean in-_termittent catheterization,use of insurance proceeds, program accessibility, participation incontact sports. and school board members as hearing officers. Guidelines from the U.S. Officefor Civil Rights are appended for eliminating discrimination and denial of services on the ba-sis of handicap.

Updated Directory Lists Facilities andServices for the Learning DisabledThe tenth edition (1983-84) of the Directory of Facilities and Services for the Learning Dis-abled is a comprehensive reference source of LD facilities in North America. Published by Ac-ademic Therapy Publications, the directory lists almost 500 private centers, day and residen-tial schools, counseling and diagnostic centers, remedial therapists, vision specialists andother medical and educational facilities throughout the United States and Canada. Each listingprovides information such as age and grade level of students. types of services, length ofschool year, and fee structure. The directory has information on current testing materials, anda list of sources that offer free catalogs of materials for the learning disabled. Academic Thera-py Publications, Dept. CPR, 20 Commercial Blvd., Novato CA 94947. Single copies: free ($1.


1 0 .1.4.

0-3LAIklic PAGE'DO NOT FILM.

postage/handling). Mtiltiple copies: 2-4, $1.50; 5-19, $2; 20-49, $3.50; 50 or more, $6.50.Postage and handling charges extra for all multiple quantities'.

Computer Search ReprintsYou can save on popular computer search topics if a reprint is available (especially if you're.a CEC member entitled to the a5'% discount on reprints).

computer search reprints are bibliographies with abstracts from both the Exceptional Child

Education Resources (ECER) and ERIC databases. Topics that continue to be popular areupdated twice a year.

Order from: CEC Publication Sales. 1920 Association Drive, Reston VA 22091-1589.Orders from individuals must 'be prepaid. CEC members should indicate member LD.number to qualify for discount. Credit orders accepted only when accompanied by a validpurchase order or voucher number. Prices: $10.00 each; $8.50 to GEC. members (except

No. 516).

501 Programs for Pres Chool-Giftecl.Children (90 abstracts)(__ ..__.__ .

502 Gifted pementary School Students: Programs and Curriculum Guides (100 abstracts)503 Gifted Adolescents: .Programs. and Curriculum Guides (100 abstracts)503 Educating Emotionally Disturbed Children and Adolescents in Public Schools (90

abstracts)506 CompUter Assisted Instruction for Handicapped Children and Youth (100abstracts)507 Learning Disabled Adolescents: Programs. Curriculum, Teaching Methods (100.

abstracts)508 Training Regular Class Teachers for Mainstreaming: Inservice Education and Workshops

(l00 abstracts) .

509 Use of Computers in Regular and Special Education Teacher ;Education (100 abstracts)516 EdUcation of Exceptional- Bilingual Students (170 abstracts) $15.00; CEC Member Price:

$12.75 I

517 Education of Exceptional Black Students (50 abstradis)518 Learning Disabled College Students (50 abstracts)

,51.9 CiftedHandicapped Students (60 abstracts)52IIerifted Underachievers (60 abstracts) .

521 Research on the Effectiveness of Mainstreaming (100 abstracts)522 Research on the Effectiveness of Early Childhood Education for Handicapped Children

(60 abstracts)523 Considerations in the Effective Use of Resource Teachers and Resource RoomPrograms

(60. abstracts) .. .

524 Administration of Special Education Programs in Public Schools (70 abstracts)525 Learning Disabled Elementary School Studentt: Programs, Curriculum Guides, Teaching

Method (100 abstracts)526 Educating Homebound and Hospitalized Children (60 abstracts) - --

527 Severely Handicapped Students: Curriculum Guides and Teaching Methods (80

abstracts) .

528 Computers and Gifted Students (50 abstracts).- 529 Evaluation of Special Education Programs (50 abstracts)

530 Developing Social Skills in Mildly Handicapped.Students (50 abstracts)531' Gifted Minority Students: Identification and Programs (50 abstracts)532 Computer Managed Instruction for Handicapped Students (50 abstracts)

384 10', January 1984

Samuel A. Kirk and James C. ChalfantUniversity ofArizonaThis brightly written and readablebook brings together academic anddevelopmental learning disabilitiesin a way that engages the readerand appeals to students. It coversthe developmental learning dis=abilities of attention, memory,perception, thinking, and oralLanguage. And it addresses theacademic learning disabilities ofreading, handwriting, spelling andwritten expression, and arithmetic.

Each chapter includes informaldiagnosis and procedures for re-

mediation. Readers will appreciatethe emphasis placed on observationand informal assessment withoutreliance solely on formal testing.

Kirk and Chalfant have unparal-.leled experience in the field. NoOther combination is as veeil qual-ified to create a book of this nature.This timely new text has personalityand will be a classic in learningdisabilities.

No. 8401Ihardbound

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