ED 266 939

AUTHORTITLE

INSTITUTIONSPONS AGENCY

REPORT NOPUB DATEGRANTNOTEAVAILABLE FROM

PUB TYPE

EDRS PRICEDESCRIPTORS

IDENTIFIERS

DOCUMENT RESUME

SE 046 450

Elk, Catherine Kiorpes; Lignell, Kathleen, Ed.A Teachers' Guide to the Whales of the Gulf ofMaine.Maine Univ., Orono. Sea Grant Program.National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration(DOC), Rockville, Md.E-MSG-85-384NA85-D-SG02074p.; Pages 34-56 are printed on colored paper.Marine Advisory Program Communications Office, 30Coburn Hall, University of Maine, Orono, ME04469-0114 ($5.00).Guides - Classroom Use - Guides (For Teachers) (052)

MF01/PC03 Plus Postage.*Animals; Elementary Secondary Education;Instructional Films; *Learning Activities; *MarineBiology; *Marine Education; *Resource Materials;Science Education; ZoologyMaine; *Whales

ABSTRACTThis guide provides: (1) background information for

teachers on whales; (2) 10 interdisciplinary activities; (3) teacherresources; (4) a bibliography; and (5) "pocket materials." Topicareas addressed in the first section include evolution and adaptationto an aquatic environment, diversity of whales, functional anatomy offeeding and locomotion, diving physiology, and the questions ofintelligence in whales. The 10 whale-oriented activities includeobjectives, list of materials needed, time needed, procedures,additional activities, and recommended grade levels. Since theactivities are meant to serve as suggestions for teachers, they areflexible and allow for teacher input and adaptation. Resourcesprovided include those available through the College of the Atlantic,field activities, films (with separate listings for children's andgeneral audience films), a list of records on whales and whaling, andsuggested books and periodicals for young readers. "Pocket materials"are various worksheets that can be duplicated for students, such asdrawings of whales, fact sheets, and checklists. (JN)

*************************************1********************************** Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be made ** from the original document. *

***********************************************************************

alia DEPAIIIINENT Of EDUCATIONNATIONAL INSTITUTE OF EDUCATION

,t; o EDUCATIONAL RESOURCESINFORMATION 1;

, ,..%. CENTER (ERIC),This doannent has been reproduced as-c' received from the person or organisation'

:.: - originebng nC/ Minor changes have beer made to improve

,

ii:, reproduction quality.

It& ; Points of view or opinions stated in this docu .,.kment do not necessarilywpcsamt officist N%,....

i:1"..1," ,ifitaitbo, of Pokv.

DI 111 M

eZfeMISSION TO REPRODUCE THIS

MATERIAL HAS BEEN GRANTED BY

frt 1i,orp,1

*0THE EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES

g

IFIFCRMATION CENTER

THE GULF OF MAINE

This publication was edited by KathleenLignell. Design, layout, and whale drawings byMaio Keleshian. Figures by Catherine KiorpesElk.

It was made possible by grant #NA85-D-SG020 from the National Oceanic and AtmosphericAdministration to the Maine/New Hampshire SeaGrant College Program.

Photo credits: Naugahyde Whale photo,Mike Meyerheim; Whale Tales photo, PeterStevick. Whale anatomy drawings in the PocketMaterials section are based on working drawingsof Dr. Sentiel Rommel.

Additional copies of this publication at$5.00 per copy are available from the -14arineAdvisory Program Communications Office, 30Coburn Hall, University of Maine, Orono, ME04469-0114. Publication #E-MSG-85-3. 500 3

A TEACHERS' GUIDE TO THE WHALESOF THE GULF OF MAINE

Catherine Kiorpes ElkThe Natural History MuseumCollege of the AtlanticBar Harbor, Maine

1984

Produced by the Communications Office at the Sea Grant Marine Advisory Program at the Uriver-sity of Maine at Orono.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1 Acknowledgments

1 Whales-on-Wheels

2 Foreword

3 Teacher Background Information

4 Introduction5 Evolution and Adaptation to an Aquatic Environment7 The Diversity of Whales

18 The Functional Anatomy of Feeding and Locomotion25 Diving Physiology26 Are Whales Intelligent?

28 Classroom Activities

29 A Slide Show Field Trip30 Whales-on-Wheels30 The Naugahyde Whale31 A Field Guide to Whales33 The Diversity of Whales34 Feeding Mechanisms of Whales and Humans35 Humpback Whale Migration37 Training A Human to Use Dolphin Language39 Whales in Literature40 Music and Whales

42 Teacher Resources

43 Teacher Resources Available Through College of the Atlantic44 Field Activities45 Whale Films47 Records on Whales and Whaling48 Suggestions for Young Readers

49 Bibliography

Pocket Materials

Fact Sheet on WhalesTerms to KnowA Checklist of Whales in the Gulf of MaineParts of a WhaleInternal AnatomyWhale SkeletonWhales Eat:Whale Sighting Form

LIST OF FIGURES

Figures Title Page

1 The Family Tree of Cetacea 6

2 Comparison of a Porpoise and Dolphin Skull 12

3 Skull of a Wolf, Showing Heterodont Dentition 18

4 Comparison of Feeding Between Rorquals and Right Whales 20

5 Comparison of a Land Mammal (Horse) and o Whale Skeleton 22

6 Comparison of the Skull Bones of a Horse, an Archaeocete, and an Odontocete 23

7 Components of a Cetacean Vertebra 24

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSI would like to express my apprecia-

tion for all the support, careful editing, andcriticism from Sentiel Rommel and PeterCorcoran, faculty members at the College ofthe Atlantic, Bar Harbor. Without their in-terest and commitment, this curriculumwould not have been possible. I would alsolike to thank Steve Katona of Allied Whalefor his editing and comments, as well as themembers of the spring, 1982 Whales-on-Wheels workshop whose contributions wereinvaluable.

Contributors to this project includeLisa Baraff, John Long, Vicki Nichols, JeffRothal, and Sara Jane Wendt. Thanks alsoto Jean Day, Ed Lorusso and Debbie Evansfor their help.

WHALES-ON-WHEELS

Whales-on-Wheels (W.O.W.) is aparticipatory Outreo^h Program of theNatural History Museum at College of theAtlantic in Bar Harbor, Maine. This pro-gram combines a natural history presenta-tion on whales with a hands-on assembly ofa Minke whale skeleton.

COA's association with marine mam-mals began in 1972 with the founding ofAllied Whale, a non-profit researchorganization which coordinates the Gulf ofMaine Whale Sighting Network, sponsorsthe Mount Desert Rock Whale Watch, andcooperates in studies to monitor themigratory patterns of Humpback whales.Another important function of this grouphas been to autopsy marine mammals whichare found stranded along the coast. Theautopsies provide valuable experience forstudents who are able to gain first-handknowledge of whale anatomy.

On a trip to perform an autopsy of ababy Humpback whale, the idea of prepar-ing a complete whale collection for amuseum at COA was formulated. Subse-quently, the idea evolved for a paralleltravelling program which could go to area

7

schoo/z. Under the guidance of COA pro-fessor Sentiel Rommel, this idea became areality. A 22-ft. Minke whale which drown-ed off South Harpswell, Maine in the springol 1980 was prepared for exhibit and aneducational program was developed.

This Minke whale skeleton first went0 wheels" in the spring of 1981 as a pilot

program in the State of Maine. Since then,er 15,000 students ranging in age from 4

to 84 have participated in the program. Inaddition to the many public and privet,schools, museums, and nature centers vis-ited in the New England area, Whales-on-Wheels has been presented at several na-tional and regional education conferences,the Smithsonian Institution in Washington,D.C., the Boston Children's Museum, andthe Mariner's Museum in Newport News,Virginia. A pilot program was also estab-lished in the San Francisco Bay area in thespring of 1982.

Due to the success and popularity ofthe Whales -oil- Wheels program, we decidedto develop a whale curriculum packet thatwould prepare schools for the Whales-on-Wheels presentation and provide detailed,up-to-date information and activity sugges-tions about whales. While this curriculum isconsidered an extension of Whales-on-Wheels, it is not limited to se,00ls who askfor the program, and is availai le to anyteacher or organization interested in whales.

FOREWORD

Whales have been a curiosity to peo-ple since the early days of our existence.While they live in the sea along with fishes,whales' unique behavior and distinctivenature have puzzled scientists for centuries.Although interest in whales has been grow-ing, especially in the last thirty years, manyquestions remain unanswered. The informa-tion presented here is based on the most up-to-date resources. Speculation and contro-versy exist in the literature, and any suchinformation will be noted.

As a marine educator it is my desireto introduce and explain these remarkablecreatures to both teachers and students inhopes of a greater understanding and ap-preciation of their importance in our oceans.If whales are going to survive their currentexploitation and harassment by the whalingindustry, in addition to their often fatal in-teraction with the fisheries industry, it willbe as a result of the responsible actions ofinformed citizens.

2

TEACHER BACKGROUND INFORMATION

Yonder is the sea, great and wide, which teems withthings innumerable, living things both small and great.

There go the ships, the Leviathan which thou didstform to sport in it.

Psalm 104:25-26

3 9

Next, how shall we define the whale, by his obvious externals. so as conspicuously to labelhim for all time to come? To be short, then, a whale is a spouting fish with a horizontal tail.There you have him. However contracted, that definition is the result of expanded meditation.

Herman Melville, MOBY DICK

INTRODUCTIONWhales are a group of marine mam-

mals which have successfully adapted to anaquatic existence. "Whales" collectivelyrefer to the order of mammals known as theCetacea, including baleen whales, dolphins,porpoises, and other toothed whales.

There are at least 60 living species ofwhales, which include the largest of allknown living animals. Cetaceans exhibitconsiderable intelligence, distinctive socialbehavior, remarkable swimming ability, andhighly developed communication systems.

Whales share the same general phys-iological characteristics of terrestrial, aerial,and other aquatic mammals. They havelungs with which they breathe air; they havewarm blood; they produce live young andsuckle them with milk from mammaryglands; and they possess a four-chamberedheart. Although whales do have some hairs,these function primarily as tactile organsand are localized near the front of the jaw.

The mammalian nature of these ani-mals has not always been recognized,however. In 400 B.C., Aristotle noted thewhale's distinctive characteristics; but heclassified them as fish since they lived in thesea and possessed fins. In fact, whales werenot considered true mammals until 1693when John Ray first classified them as such.In the 18th century, Linnaeus further di-vided them into toothed and baleen whales.

4 10

EVOLUTIONAND ADAPTATION

TO AN AQUATICENVIRONMENT

It is believed that whales haveevolved from terrestrial mammals. There areboth environmental and anatomical factorsthat support this theory. From an en-vironmental viewpoint, there must havebeen one or more reasons why a land animalwould have entered the aquatic environ-ment. It is suggested that the entrance ofmarine mammals into the water might havebeen related to the need for food resourcesand/or protection from other animals.

In the early Paleocene (125 millionyears ago) and Eocene (45 million years ago)times, fossil evidence indicates a great in-crease in mammalian speciation. This in-crease could have exerted local pressures onboth territorial and feeding areas. In re-sponse to these pressures, certain speciesmay have moved to the sea to exploit aquat-ic niches.

Further concrete evidence supportingthe terrestrial ancestry of whales is based ontheir anatomy. The earliest known cetaceanfossils, called archaeocetes, date back 45million years. They possessed a completepelvic girdle with a distinct ball and socketjoint where the femur articulated with thepelvis. The femur, or thigh bone, was alsowell developed. Perhaps the most interestinganatomical feature is the nasal openings. Inmodern terrestrial mammals, they are foundat the end of the snout, while in modernwhales the nasal passages open at the top ofthe head. In the case of archaeocetes, theposition of these nasal openings was foundto be halfway between the snout and the topof the skull. Like modern cetaceans, theseprimitive whales had forelimbs which werecomposed of corresponding bones found inall land animals, including a scapula,humerus, radius, ulna, carpals and/or meta-carpals and phalanges. In addition, theprimitive forelimb exhibited movement atthe shoulder, elbow, and possibly the wristjoints.

5

The embryology of modern whalesalso offers supporting evidence of a terres-t, ial ancestry. In the early embryo of awhale, the nasal opening is located on thetip of the snout as in all land animals.However, by the time the fetus is approx-imately 22 mm. long, the blowhole hasshifted back to where it occur; in modernwhalesat the top of the head. Remnantsof hind limbs may also be found in 20 mm.long embryos, but they usually disappear bythe time the fetus is 30 mm. long. Manyspecies, particularly Sperm, Fin, and Bluewhales, still have a vestigial pelvis. Thepelvis is not attached to the vertebral col-umn and thus no longer serves a locomotoryfunction. However, these remnants are sig-nificant to whale anatomy because the penisof the male and the clitoris of the female areanchored to them. In the case of baleenwhales, the embryos possess fetal teeth,many of which resemble those of ancestralwhales.

Like the archaeocetes, the forelimbsof modern Cetacea contain correspondingbones present in other mammalian fore-limbs. The number of digits has not in-creased above the basic five-fingered patternof mammals, although extra bones havebeen added to the extremities of these digits.The bones of the forelimb have becomeshortened and flattened, and bound togetherinto a fibrous pad, resulting in a stiff, flat-tened flipper.

Authors disagree on which group ofmammals are most closely related to ceta-ceans. Some believe whales are moat closelyrelated to carnivores, due to canine-liketeeth of toothed whales and their exclusiveanimal diet. Ot;Aers believe that cetaceans'nearest relatives are ungulates, or hoofedmammals; more specifically, that they areclosest to the even-toed ungulates which in-cludes cows, camels, sheep, and deer. Thisrelationship is based on skeletal evidencewhich ;s further supported by similarities inblood protein structures. It is possible thatall mammals, including cetaceans, haveevolved from a group of insect-eating car-nivores that lived over 125 million years ago(see Figure 1).

11

SPERM WI1ALES z pH IPS

6RAY WALES

RORQUALS

PORP015ES

DOLPHINS

ODIPH INS

RIVERDOLPHINS

66i4F--

v'HALEs

PRImiTNE CETMERIIDS

L

PRImnNE SQUALODONZ

CUES MySTIceres

5viogr I

TAILSINSEGNORE

UEoDorrs

oDowocsitS

RECENtr

PLEIsimENE

1. mallow YEARS

PLIOCENE7 MUM YEARS

MIOCENE

MILLION YEARS

OLIeloCENE

30 rvilLuow YEARS

EOCENE45 MILLON YEARS

RETACE.OUS AND

PA LE0CeNE

25 MILLON yEARs

FIGURE 1.7HE FAMILY TREE. OF CE7AcEA

ExTINCT GPECieS

(9mPLJFIED FROM SLAJPER, E I (06q) VitIALES. HuTCHINSoN

+ Co. London

6 12

It is not known whether the size ofthe whale is an adaptation to the marine en-vironment. However, it can be safely as-sumed that the buoyancy provided by thewater has facilitated their massive size. Inwater, the whale is essentially weightlessand is supported on all sides by this densemedium. Due to gravity, terrestrial mam-mals are limited by how much their limbscan support. In the larger land animals,such as the elephant, not only are the limbsmassive, but so are the pectoral and pelvicgirdles which attach them to the rest of thebody.

THE DIVERSITYOF WHALES

Within the order Cetacea there arethree suborders: the archaeocetes (fossilwhales), the odontocetes (toothed whales),and the mysticetes (whalebone or baleenwhales). The archaeocetes are the fossilancestors of living whales which lived be-tween 24-45 million years ago. They serve asa link between modern whales and their ter-restrial ancestry. The teeth of archaeoceteswere heterodontteeth having differentshape and function in different parts of thetooth row. These archaic whales are struc-turally more like terrestrial mammals thanmodern whales,

The emphasis in this section will bewith the two remaining groups of whales,the odontocetes and the mys*. ,,tes.

ODONTOCETES

Odontocetes are characterized by thepresence of teeth. In contrast to their ar-chaic ancestors, the teeth of these whales areof a homodont conditionall the teeth inthe jaw have the same shape and function.All odontocetes have an asymmetrical skulland a single external blowhole. They allpossess a melon, or rounded forehead,which varies in size among species. Withfew exceptions, the toothed whales areusually less than 10 m. (30 ft.) long. Ingeneral, they pursue individual prey, in-

ch:ding fish, squids, and other cephalopods.Killer whales also supplement their diet withmammals, such as seals and dolphins. Also,most odontocetes use echo-location to findfood and have highly developed communica-tion systems.

Because some parts of the ocean areunexplored, some whale species may still re-main to be discovered. According to oneclassification system, there are sevenrecognizable families of toothed whales. Ma-jor characteristics of each of these familieswill be discussed below, emphasizing speciesindigenous to the western North Atlantic.

Family: PhyseteridaeSperm Whales (Physeter catodon)

This family includes three species,the best-known being the Sperm whale. TheSperm is the largest of the toothed whalesand is easily recognizable because of itsenormous head, which makes up one fourthto one third of its total body length and istypically blunt and square. It is filled pri-marily with a wax-like oil called spermaceti,which helps regulate the whale's buoyancyduring deep dives. The lower jaw of Spermwhales is long, narrow, and fused, with upto 30 pairs of large teeth. These teeth wereonce the main source of ivory for the scrim-shaw trade. The upper jaw has no teeth,however.

Male Sperm whales range from 5 to20 m. (up tc 60 ft.) in length and are largerthan females, which only reach 13 m. (39ft.). The single external blowhole is locatedon the left side of the front of the head,resulting in a spout that is tipped forwardand to the side. A distinct dorsal hump isset about two thirds of the way back behindthe snout, and is followed by a series ofknuckles or humps along the tail ridge.

Generally, Sperm whales frequentdeep waters along the edge of the continen-tal shelf. They are thought to dive deeperthan any other whale, reaching depths of upto 1167 m. (3500 ft.). At these depths,Sperm whales feed primarily on the largerspecies of squid, although various fishes and

7 13

other cephalopods are taken in shallowerwaters.

Sperm whales are widely distributedin offshore waters from the equator to highlatitudes. While mature males tend to befound farther north, females and immaturesgenerally remain below the 45° north lat-itude. Both males and females move north-ward in the spring and summer and thensouthward once again in the fall. In thewestern North Atlantic, Sperm whalesmigrate as far north as southern Greenlandand Iceland in summer, and as far south asthe Southern Caribbean in winter. Thesewhales may travel in herds of 10 to 40, al-though single males may be seen outside ofthe breeding season.

The Beluga also has a slight neck and thushas greater head mobility than do mostother whales.

Calves are born in shallow waters atthe mouth of rivers. Then they graduallylighten from brown to gray, becoming com-pletely white by their tenth year. The adultBeluga ranges from 3 to 4 (9-12 ft.) infemales and 3 to 5 m. (9-15 ft.) in males.Belugas have a varied diet of fishes, such ascod and capelin, squid, and benthic crusta-ceans, such as crabs and worms.

Family: MonodontidaeBeluga: White Whale (Delphinapterusleucas)

Belugas are found in shallow orestuarine waters in the Arctic and sub-Arcticseas. The nearest population of Belugas tothe Gulf of Maine is in the St. LawrenceRiver estuary. Their white color is thoughtto be an adaptation to their life among thepolar ice packs, serving to camouflage themfrom potential predators. The Beluga has arounded bulbous head, or melon, no beak,and 8 to 10 pairs of teeth in both the upperand lower jaws. These whales have no dor-sal fin; however, there is a narrow, long,notched ridge behind the midpoint of theback which has a series of small humps.

8

BELUGA WHALE

Narwhal: Unicorn Whale (Monodonmonoceros)

The adult male Narwhal is distin-guished by a long tusk (2-3 m.), which is ac-tually a modified incisor tooth. Narwhalshave only two teeth. In females, these teethrarely erupt, whereas in males, one andrarely both of these teeth emerge. The func-tion of the Narwhal tusk is still unknown.Some sources report it to be a sexual trait,while others suggest it functions as an ice-breaker, a bottom dredge, or an acousticjoust.

The Narwhal has no beak or dorsalfin, however, the melon is particularly well-developed in this species. Adults are a mot-tled gray but are usually lighter on the sidesand belly. They are considered a medium-sized whale, ranging in size from 5 to 5.3 m(15-16 ft.).

14

NAKWHAL

a dorsal fin located about two thirds of theway back from the snout.

Northern Bottlenose whales arefound primarily in Arctic and sub-Arcticwaters. They are a deep water species, rare-ly travelling in shallow areas. These whalesare known for their long dives, which extendover two hours in some cases.

They are also believed to be one ofthe deepest diving cetaceans. Northern Bot-tlenose whales feed on squid, although theyalso eat herring. These animals often travelin groups of 10 or more individuals, andthey are noted for their playful activity nearboats.

Family: ZiphiidaeBeaked Whales

The family of beaked whales, as theirname implies, all possess a beak. Mostbeaked whales have only one or two pairs oferupted teeth in the lower jaw, although onespecies has a full set of teeth. All beakedwhales possess a dorsal fin. Species ofZiphiidae are oceanic, and several are in-digenous to the western North Atlantic.

Northern Bottlenose Whale (Hyperoodonampullatus)

The most familiar beaked whale isthe Northern Bottlenose. This is a robustspecies, distinguished by an extremelybulbous forehead, which is particularlydistinctive in males, and by a dolphin-likebeak. Adult males grow to 7.6 to 10 m.(23-30 ft.) long and females to about 6 to 7m. (18-21 ft.). While their coloring andmarkings change with age, smaller animalsare generally a chocolate brown, whichlightens on the belly and sides in largeranimals. The Northern Bottlenose whale has

NOMEN OcjiriENOSE \AMALE-

Family: DelphinidaeTrue Dolphins

The True Dolphins form the largestfamily of odontocetes and include some ofthe more familiar whales, such as the Killerwhale, the Common Dolphin, and the Pilotwhale. All members of this family have afull set of erupted teeth in both the upperand lower jaws. There may be as many as20 species within the Delphinidae; however,only five species common to the westernNorth Atlantic will be discussed.

Killer Whale (Orcinus orca)

The Killer whale is perhaps the mostmisunderstood of all cetaceans. Many leg-ends and "tall tales" circulate about theseanimals, due to their name. Despite thename "Killer," these animals are no more

9 15

ferocious than any other predator. Killerwhales eat not only fish and squid but alsowarm-blooded animals, such as seabirds andother marine mammals. They tend to huntin groups, or packs, of 4 to 30 individuals,although herds of 140 have been reported.Although dolphins, porpoises, young whales,and seals are occasionally taken, the diet ofKiller whales is still essentially fish andsquid. There have been no documented ac-counts of Killer whales attacking humans atsea.

Killer whales are the largest of thetrue dolphins, with males attaining a lengthof up to 10 m. (30 ft.). The most distinctiveexternal feature is the dorsal fin. The male'sdorsal fin is tall, up to 2 m. (6 ft.), anderect, while the fin of the female is shorterand more rounded. The backs of these ani-mals are black, with a pronounced whiteoval eye patch, and the underside is distinct-ly white. There is also a gray saddle justbehind the dorsal fin.

Killer whales are found in all oceans.These cetaceans seem to be more commonin cooler waters and coastal areas, but theyare frequently observed in bays, estuaries,and river mouths. Migrations of this speciesare thought to coincide with movements oftheir food supply. In some areas, theirmigrations are correlated with the move-ments of baleen whales.

KILLER

Pilot Whales: Pothead, Blackfish, Atlan-tic Pilot Whale (Globicephala melaena)

The Pilot whale is a relatively well-known North Atlantic species because theyfrequently strand along the coast. They area migratory species, apparently breeding inwarmer waters offshore and feeding incooler waters inshore. Pilot whales rangefrom 3.3 to 6.6 m (10-20 fi.) in length andare entirely black except for a white patchat the base of the flipper, extending to thethroat and chest. The name "Pothead"comes from their distinctive melon, orbulbous forehead, which reaches extremedevelopment in males. The dorsal fin is par-ticularly characteristic of this species. It isset far forward on the animal's back and ismuch wider at the base than at the top.

Pilot whales are usually gregariousand may occur in herds of 5 to 2300 individ-uals. They are sometimes seen with White-sided dolphins. These whales feed mainly onsquid, and their distribution often coincideswith this food source. Cod and other fishare also eaten

10

Common Dolphin: Saddleback Dolphin(Delphinus daphis)

The Saddleback dolphin derives itsname from its black "saddle," found oneither side of the dorsal fin. Also character-istic of this species is a crisscross or figureeight pattern of tan and ochre along thesides. The size range is from 2 to 3 m. (6-9ft.).

This species is quite gregarious,schooling in groups of a thousand or moreindividuals. Bowriding and high leaps out of

16

the water are common behaviors. Saddle-backs feed on a variety of schooling fish aswell as squid. Although these dolphins areconsidered common in a global sense, theytend to frequent warm water regions andoffshore waters.

White-sided Dolphin (Lagenorhynchusacutus)

The White-sided dolphin is a NorthAtlantic species, distributed offshore incooler waters. The back, dorsal fin, flippers,and flukes are all black, while its sides havevarious shades of gray, tan, and white. Theprimary mark of identification is a narrowwhite patch extending below the dorsal finand running laterally toward the flukes andalong the sides.

Like the Saddleback dolphins, White-sided dolphins congregate in groups of up toa thousand. These animals are distributedoffshore between the Gulf Stream and theLabrador Current, although sightings in-shore along Cape Cod and the Maine coastdo occur. Like most other odontocetes, theWhite-sided dolphins eat fish and squid.

Bottlenose Dolphin (Tusiops truncatus)

The Bottlenose dolphin is by far themost recognized dolphin in America, since itis the species most commonly seen in captiv-ity. In addition to popular display, thisspecies is most often studied for generalcetacean biology and physiology. Since theyare easily captured and trained, several Bot-tlenose dolphins have been trained by theU.S. Navy for various tasks.

Bottlenose dolphins have no distinctcolor patterns. They are a bluish- orbrownish-gray above and somewhat off-white below. They range in size from 2 to 4m. (6-12 ft.). Their curved dorsal fin islocated in the middle of their back.

Members of this species are avidbowriders and are sometimes seen riding thesurf. Bottlenose dolphins are often distrib-uted close to shore, in bays and lagoons,and in temperate and tropical waters southof Cape Cod. They are social animals, herd-ing into groups of up to several hundred in-dividuals. These whales enjoy a diverse dietof crustaceans, such as shrimp, and varioustypes of fish and squid.

WHITE siDED DoLPHIN

ii 17

BOTTLENosE DoLP1-11/4

SKULL OF A PoRPo15E WITH SpADE-SHAPED *TEEN SKULL. of A COMMON RON WITH SHARP, CONICAL TEETH

FIGURE 2,. ComPARisoN OF A PORPOISE AND DOLPHIN SKILL

Family: PhocoenidaePorpoises

In Europe, the term "porpoise" isapplied to what we in America call "dol-phin." Actually, there are two major distinc-tions which separate porpoises from truedolphins. Porpoises are those cetaceanswhich have spade-shaped teeth and no ex-ternal beak, whereas true dolphins havesharp, conical teeth and a beak (see Figure2).

Within the Porpoise family,Phocoenidae, there are six species.However, only the most familiar will be ex-amined.

Harbor Porpoise (Phocoena phocoena)

The Harbor porpoise is quite com-mon in the coastal waters of North Americaand is the most common cetacean found inthe Gulf of Maine. The Harbor porpoise isthe smallest cetacean in the western NorthAtlantic, with females ranging from 1.5 tc 2m. (4-6 ft.). This species is characterized byits small body, rounded head with no visiblebeak, and small triangular dorsal fin.

This species may travel in schools ofnearly 100 individuals, but is more common-ly seen in smaller groups of several to 10

members. The Harbor Porpoise, as its nameimplies, is frequently found in bays, andother shallow inshore waters. It h.' limited tocolder North Atlantic waters, possibly mi-grating offshore in winter. This species feedson fish and some invertebrates.

The remaining two families of odon-tocetes are the river dolphins, or the Platan-istidae, and the Rough-necked and Hump-back dolphins which comprise the family,Stenidae. The river dolphins are throught tobe the most primitive cetaceans in existencetoday. In contrast to other cetaceans, thesewhales have unfused cervical vertebrae, al-lowing considerable movement in the neck.The skull of these animals is not telescopedto the extent of other whales. Although mostwhales can see to some degree, the eyes ofeiver dolphins are essentially non-functional.Thus, these dolphins rely primarily on echo-location to find their food. No species ofriver dolphins occur in the western NorthAtlantic.

The family Stenidae is similar to theporpoise and the true dolphin. These threefamilies are often grouped together into onesuper-family, the Delphinoidea. Of these,only the Rough-toothed dolphin, Stenobredanensis, is found in North Atlanticwaters. An oceanic species, it is limited totropical and sub-tropical waters. The Atlan-

12 18

tic Humpback dolphin, Sousa tenszii, is alsoa warm water species and is identified by itshump from which the dorsal fin originates.

'"",s-

I4ARf3OR PORPOISE

MYSTICETES

The mysticetes have no teeth, butthey do possess a series of horny platescalled baleen (whalebone) which hang fromthe roof of the mouth and filter their food.They also have two blowholes. Generallythese whales are the largest of the cetaceans,ranging in size from 6.7 m. (20 ft.) inMinke whales to 37 m (110 ft.) in the Bluewhales. There are three separate families ofbaleen whales, all exhibiting differences infeeding habits and feeding adaptations.These cetaceans pursue schooling fishes,plankton, and/or benthic organisms.

There are approximately 10 species ofbaleen whales. However, with the exceptionof the Gray whale which once lived here,only those species native to the westernNorth Atlantic will be discussed.

Family: BalaenopteridaeRorquals (Firmer Whales)

There are six species within the fam-ily Balaenopteridae. The name, rorqual, is aNorwegian word, derived from "rorhval,"

or "grooved whale." This name refers to thethroat grooves, or pleats, found on theanimal's underside and are characteristic ofthis family. All the rorquals have a dorsalfin, narrow flippers, and a long, streamlinedbody. In general, rorquals are dark on theirbacks and lighter on the belly. The baleenof these whales is relatively short andcoarse, with triangular plates. With theseplates, rorquals filter fish, krill, and othercrustaceans.

13LiAE WHALE

The Blue Whale (Balaenoptera musculus)

The Blue whale is the largest livinganimal. Adults range in length from 25 to33 m. (75-100 ft.). This species is blue-gray,mottled with lighter spots on its back, sides,and belly, which may radiate a yellowishtint due to diatoms that often accumulate onthese sea giants. The flippers are also lighteron the underside, while the dorsal fin issmall relative to the whale's total length andis located far back near the flukes. Thebaleen of this mysticete is coarse and black.

Blue whales are distributed in colderwaters, feeding on the krill abundant there.These whales are presumed to migrate tomore temperate waters in winter, but little isknown of their range and migration pat-terns. They have been reported in deep,oceanic waters as well as shallow, inshoreareas.

13 19

This species is relatively solitary com-pared to other cetaceans and is usually seensingly or in pairs. Once near extinction,their numbers now seem to be increasingslowly, due perhaps to their protection fromhunters since 1967. Globally, their numberis estimated at approximately 15,000 in-dividuals.

Finback Whales: Fin, Finner, CommonRorqual (Balaenoptera physalus)

Finback whales are the most com-monly seen baleen whales in the Gulf ofMaine, and in the world. Adults range inlength from 10 to 25 m. (30-75 ft.), and theyare considered to be among the fastestswimming rorquals. These whales are darkon the sides and black and white under-neath. There are two pale-colored linescalled "chevrons," originating behind theblowholes and forming a "V." Finbacks gettheir name from the prominent dorsal fin,which sets two thirds of the way down theback. The uneven coloration of the baleenand lips serves as a field mark. The lowerright jaw and the front third of the baleenand upper lip of the right side is white, butthe remaining upper and lower jaws andbaleen are dark.

Finbacks have a diverse diet ofschooling fish, crustaceans, and squid. Theyseem to prefer offshore waters where upwell-ing occurs, although they will come inshoreif food is available. Some biologists believethe Finback uses the white color to herd fishby swimming on its side. While this speciesis not exceptionally acrobatic, they areknown to breach on rare occasions.

Generally, these rorquals are solitaryanimals, but may be seen in groups of threeto ten in areas of high food concentrations.Fin whales seem to migrate north along theNew England coast in the spring, movingsouth or offshore in the winter. Their specif-ic migratory habits are unknown, however.

Finback whales are F3cond in sizeonly to the Blue whale. As a result of thedecline in Blue whale populations, Finbackshave become the latest target for the whal-ing industry.

14

Sei Whale (Balaenoptera borealis)

Sei (pronounced "say") whales arelarge rorquals, similar in appearance to Fin-backs, but they rarely exceed 20 m. (60 ft.).The dark surfaces of this whale are oftencovered with oblong spots caused by para-shit; copepods. These whales do not archtheir backs when diving, and often they ex-pose only their blowholes to breathe.

Sei whales prefer feeding on smallplanktonic crustaceans (calanoid copepods);however, they may also dive for schoolingfish on occasion. Little is known aboutdistribution and migration of these whales,but they are found in all the oceans of theworld and often enter tropical and temper-ate waters.

20

Minke Whale: Little Piked Whales,Lesser Rorqual, Little Firmer(Balaenoptera acutorostrata)

Minke whales are the smallestrorqual. They attain a maximum length of10 m. (30 ft.). "Minke" is the name of theNorwegian whaler who mistook this whalefor a Blue whale. His comrades ridiculedhim due to the disappointing size of thislesser rorqual. They then called the animal"Minke's whale." One can hardly blame theman, for indeed this whale's shape and col-oration are similar to the Blue, Fin, and Seiwhales. However, it just happens to be onlyone-third the length!

Other than size, the Minke has sev-eral distinctive features in contrast to thelarger rorquals. The most obvious differenceis the broad white band across the flipper.In addition, Minkes have perhk-s the nar-rowest and most pointed rostrum (snout) ofall the rorquals.

Minkes are loners and are often seennear shore, preferring turbulent areas wherefood is plentiful. While Minkes seem toprefer schooling fishes such as capelin, cod,and herring, they also feed where squid andshrimp are abundant. These whales arewidely distributed in all oceans.

Humpback Whale (Megapteranovaeangliae)

In the last ten years, Humpbackwhales have become one of the most popularwhales, known world-wide for their acro-batic stunts and their mysterious songs.Some scientists inhially classified the Hump-back as a separate family; however, it isnow accepted that these whales are rorqualsdue to their similar method of feeding.

Humpbacks are easily recognized bytheir characteristically tong white flippers,the knobs en the top of the head, and thehump under the dorsal fin. They are darkabove and light below. They are also con-sidered the "hairiest" of the cetaceans,because they have hair follicles on eachknob of the snout. The pattern on the flukesallows for identification of individualwhales.

Frequently, Humpbacks will "flukeup" on their terminal dive, exposing theirpatterned flukes. Photographs of fluke pat-terns are used to determine distribution andmigration of individuals in this species.Other common behaviors include breaching,tail-slapping, rolling, flipper-slapping,headstands, and "singing" during themating season.

Humpback whales are found in alloceans and are relatively common in theGulf of Maine. They are a social species, re-maining with certain groups to feed andmigrate. They exhibit a north-south migra-tion, breeding in tropical waters during thewinter and feeding as far north as Icelandand Greenland during the summer.

HLIMPBAGI( WHALE_

215

/

Family: BalaenidaeRight Vina. les

The family of Right whales includesthree species, two of which are found in thewestern North Atlantic. These cetaceans areextremely stout, with an enormous head thattotals 25% of the entire body length. Theupper jaw of these animals has an arch toaccommodate the characteristically longbaleen, which filters the pelagic crustaceanson which these whales feed. Right whaleshave no dorsal fin and no throat grooves.

The whaling industry is responsiblefor the common name of these animals.These slow-moving, surface-feedingcreatures were the "right" whale to killbecause of their ease of capture. theirtremendous yield of oil and whalebone, andbecause they float when dead. Once abun-dant, Right whales are now scarce due toover-hunting.

Right Whale (Eubalaena glacialis orBalaena glacialis)

The body of the Right whale is blackall around with occasional light spots mot-tling the back and flukes. Characteristic ofthis species are white growths c,. led callos-ities localized on the head. This is the onlybaleen whale south of Arctic waters that hasno dorsal fin. The baleen of this whale isblack and may reach 2.3 m. (7 ft.) inlength. Members of this species attain amaximum length of 20 m. (60 ft.).

The Right whale moves slowly,straining copepods from the surface waters.They are often seen alone or in small groupsoff the northeast coast. Their migrationroutes, however, are still in question,although they are distributed between theGulf of St. Lawrence and Florida.

Bowhead Whale: Greenland Right Whale(Balaena mysticetus)

The Bowhead whale is one of theleast known of the baleen whales. It is phys-ically similar to the Right whale, but it isusually longer, has no callosities, and has alarger head. There is, however, a charactee-

Ri GHT. WHALE_

16

130WHEAD WH A LE

istic white patch below the tip of the lowerjaw. The Bowhead's baleen is the longest ofany whale, reaching lengths of 5 m. (15 ft.).

This species is confined to Arctic seasin the Northern Hemisphere with popula-tions in Davis Straits, Baffin Bay, and offeastern Greenland. Migrations are depen-dent on food resources and the location ofice floes.

The Bowhead, like many otherwhales, is an endangered species and hasnot been hunted since 1935, except by theEskimos. There is now political debate con-cerning whale hunting by Eskimos.

22

Family: EschrichtidaeGray Whales

This family has only one species, theGray whale (Eschrichtius robustus), and islocal only to the eastern North Pacific. Theymake the longest migration of any mammal,travelling 4000 miles from the Bering Sea,where they feed in the summer, to BajaCalifornia, where they breed in winter.They are classified as a separate family.Unlike most whales, the Gray whale is abottom feeder, straining muld, silt, andwater for copepods, amphipods, and otherbenth:c crustaceans.

6 RAY WHALE

FOR FURTHER INFORMATION:

Bonner, W.N., Whales. Dorset. U.K.: Bland-fc,.,1 press. 1980.

Ellis, R., The Book of Whales. New York:Alfred A. Knopf, Inc., 1980.

Ellis, R., Dolphins and Porpoises. New York:Alfred A. Knopf, Inc., 1980.

Katona, S., V. Rough, and D. Richardson. AField Guide to the Whales, Porpoises, and Sealsof the Gulf of Maine and Eastern Canada, 3rded. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1983.

Kelly. J.E., S. Mercer, and S. Wolf. The GreatWhale Book. Washington, D.C.: Center for En-vironmental Education, 1981.

Lock ley, R.M., Whales, Dolphins and Por-poises. Sydney: Methuen of Australia, 1979.

Stone, G., S. Katona, and J. Beard. Whales inthe Gulf of Maine: 1979-1981. Bar Harbor,Maine: College of the Atlantic, 1983.

2317

THE FUNCTIONALANATOMY

OF FEEDINGAND LOCOMOTION

Manner of locomotion is nearly always related to feeding habits, and reproductive, defensive,and other behavior are usually correlated with manner of feeding and locomotion.

Milton Hildebrand

According to Milton Hildebrand(Analysis of Vertebrate Structure), "anat-omy is the science of observation and de-scription of structure," and "morphology isthe science of interpretation of observedstructure." In this section, emphasis will beplaced on both the anatomy and the mor-phology of the whale. First, the externalstructures of a whale are described. Then, adiscussion follows on the whale's skeletalanatomy and how it relates to its aquatic ex-istence.

EXTERNAL ANATOMY

Today whales are divided into twomajor groupsodontocetes and mysticetes.The mysticetes can be further divided intotwo groupsthe right whales and the ror-quals. The external appearances are directlyrelated to diet and feeding bellavior. Eachof the three groups will be examined sep-arately, relating anatomy to methods offeeding.

OdontocetesOne important characteristic of the

odontocetes is teeth. Functional (erupted)teeth of odontocetes are uniform, or homo-dont. Such uniformity is atypical of mostmammals, which have several types of teeth,including incisors, canines, premolars, andmolars. In general, incisors are used to slice;canines serve to tear, pierce, or secure; andthe premolars and molars function to shear,crush, or grind. Toothed whales do notchew their food, but instead grasp the foodwith their teeth and swallow it whole or inlarge chunks.

18

F EIURE 3. SKULL of A \NoL,StioWIt.16FIETERoDoNT DENTITON.

The diet of toothed whales can bedivided into three types. Those whales witherupted teeth, such as pelagic dolphins, areprimarily fish eaters. Odontocetes who haveno visible teeth or a reduced dentition, suchas Sperm whales and Beaked whales, areessentially squid eaters. The third group in-cludes only the Killer whales which eatwarm-blooded animals, in addition to fishand squid. These diet groups are notmutually exclusive, because most odonto-cetes are opportunistic feeders and theirpreferences may depend on food availability.

Perhaps the next most significant fea-ture of toothed whales is their streamlinedbodies. Since odontocetes feed on individualprey, they must be fast and agile. Stream-lining facilitates more efficient movementthrough the water by decreasing resistance,or drag, on the body. Streamlining is ac-complished by a smooth, unobstructed con-tourfew external protrusions, little or nohair, a torpedo-shaped body, and a spe-

2 4

cialized surface layer of fat and blubber thatcan alter its shape to reduce turbulence.

The pectoral fins, or flippers, func-tion as balancing planes and serve to steer,turn, and control position in the water. Theflukes provide the propulsive force; theycontain no bones, but consist of a densefibrous tissue. Despite such dense composi-tion, they are extremely elastic and flexible.Unlike fish which have vertical tails, whaleshave horizontal tails which move up anddown,MysticctesGulpers: Rorquals

All rorquals have distinctive throatgrooves on the ventral side of the body. Inaddition, they all have a dorsal fin; a long,slender, streamlined body; and hundreds ofshort, coarse baleen plates.

The throat grooves are related to thefeeding behavior of these animals. Rorqualsare known as "gulpers," because they ac-tually gulp single mouthfuls of water andfood. The grooves expand to accommodate alarge volume of water. The muscles of thepouch then contract, forcing the water outthrough the baleen plates, and leaving thefood to be swallowed by the whale. Thehuge tongue directs the food back towardsthe throat. Gulpers tend to eat larger fishand crustaceans. The coarse baleen platesare sufficient for filtering relatively large ob-jects.

Gulping whales show seasonal migra-tions from upper latitudes of higher foodproductivity to warmer, less productiveareas for breeding. According to somestudies, Blue and Fin whales of theSouthern Hemisphere spend approximately120 days per year feeding in the Antarcticduring which time their body weight mayincrease by as much as 49%.

The presence of a dorsal fin may alsobe related to their feeding behavior. Whenrorquals dive, they arch their backs. Thedorsal fin may serve to stabilize the animal,or possibly it prevents the formation ofeddies at the whale's back while it breaksthe surface of the water.

Skimmers: Right Whale

The Right whales are known for theirextremely long baleen which hangs from anarched upper jaw. To accommodate thisbaleen, the head and mouth are quite large.These whales have no dorsal fin and theirflippers are broad and rounded. They alsohave no throat grooves.

All of their distinctive features relatein some way to the diet and feeding be-havior of the Right whales. They are knownas "skimmers" because they skim the sur-face waters, filtering pelagic crustaceansalmost continuously through their baleen.Since Right whales filter sty it small prey,they tend to feed in areas of dense concen-trations of plankton. The upper jaw isarched in order to accommodate the length(2 to 5 m.) of the baleen. Occasionally, theRight whale will close its mouth and forceexcess water out through the baleen. As inthe case of rorquals, the tongue probablyfacilitates movement of the food backtowards the throat. It has even been sug-gested that the tongue of baleen whales mayserve a secondary function of seasonal fatstorage. Curiously, this may explain whyKiller whales sometimes attack a Rightwhale and feed on its tongue.

All skimmers have broad bodies, un-like most odontocetes and rorquals. It maybe that since these cetaceans do not pursueactive prey, speed is not essential. In fact,Right whales are probably the slowest of allwhales, attaining an average speed of only 5knots. Also, since these whales are surfacefeeders, it is doubtful that they dive deeply.The broad, rounded flippers 4 a skimmersuggest that they may be used to maintaintheir potion in surface waters while theyfeed.

2519

a-- -..LL-

-41011.....

..1.s&irea.

BALEEN

.'"0411105111110v

RORDUAL5 8ULP LARGE MOUTHFULS OF PREY WHILE FEEDING.

RAve. VENTRAL GROOVES WHICH EXPAND To AccoMMoDATE.

THE LARGE VOLUME OF FOOD AND WATER."THE MUSCLES WITHIN

TNF GROOVES THEN CoNIRAOT, FoRCINC-f THE WATER our THRoVill

ThE BALEEN. RORQUALS POSSESS SHOgT COARSE BALEEN

PLATES To FILTER FISH AND CRUSTACEANS.

BALEEN

RIGHT WHALES SKIM THE SURFACE wATERS,FILIERINICI

RELATIVELY SMALL, PELAGIC, CRUSTACEANS. THE UPPER JAW

15 ARCHED To ACUMMoDATE THE LoNG,r-INE. BALEEN.

014

FIGURE+. CoMPAR.I5r, OF FEEDING BETwEEA RoROuALs

AND RIGHT WHALES.

26

SKELETAL ANATOMY

No part of the animal can tell us more about its way of life than the enduring bones and evenwithout the evidence of living and recently dead whales to examine we could tell much oftheir nature from examination of the skeleton alone.

Next to observing whales in theirnatural element, examination of the bones isthe most effective way to learn how theseanimals live. It is satisfying to discover howthe skeletal anatomy of an animal relates toits lifestyle. The following discussion willemphasize the whale skeleton, noting spe-cific comparisons between mysticete andodontocete structure.

The cetacean skeleton has a simplerstructure than other mammals. Al) thebones of the whale lie in nearly the samehorizontal plane, and there are no hindlimbs with which the whale can support'self out of the water. Most other mammalsrequire limbs for support and propulsion,however, whales live in an environmentwhich provides buoyant support (see Figure5).

Compared to other mammals, thewhale has a relatively rigid skeleton. Move-ment is confined to four areas: 1) the headand neck, 2) the base of the tail, 3) thejunction of tail and flukes, and 4) theshoulder. On the other hand, most othermammals exhibit considerable movement ofthe spine, shoulder, pelvis, and associatedlimbs. These movements of the skeleton re-quire a complex structure.

Since the water provides most of thesupport, the bones of whales need not beweight-bearing structures. In adult whales,the rib vertebrae are filled with red marrow,while the remaining skeleton contains yellowmarrow. This yellow marrow includes storesof oil, making up 60% of the animal's netweight. It is estimated that the whale'sbones contain up to one third of its total oilyield, which serves as a source of energystorage, insulation, and possibly buoyancy.

The cetacean skeleton may be exam-ined in three regions: 1) the skull; 2) theribs, sternum, and vertebrae; and 3) theforelimbs.

W. Nigel Bonner

The cetacean skull is unique in itsadaptation to an aquatic existence. Unlikemost other mammals, whales do not have asnout, with its nasal bones toward the frontof the head, nor do they possess an anatom-ical "top of the head."

Figure 6 compares the skull bones ofa horse, archaeocete, and odontocete.You can see that the nasal bonesof the whale have "migrated" to the top ofthe skull, while the maxillae and premax-illae have "telescoped," or lengthened con-siderably, forming the entire rostrum. Thebones that form the back of most mam-malian skulls, the occipital bones, havemigrated forward and to the top of the skullin whales. Thus the major bones, whichusually constitute the top of the head inother mammals, have been significantlyreduced.

An additional feature exhibited bytoothed whales is the asymmetry of theirskulls. The right side of the head is alwayslarger than the left. Although asymmetry isvariable among odontocetes, it is most ex-treme in the Sperm whale. The cause of thiscondition is unknown, but it is possible thatthis asymmetry is related to the odontoceteuse of echo-location.

The vertebrae clearly provide most ofthe whale's structural framework. Mostother mammals have five sections of thespinal column: 1) cervical (neck); 2) thoracic(rib); 3) lumbar (between ribs and tail); 4)sacral (section of fused vertebrae; and 5)caudal (coccyx or tail). Cetaceans have onlyfour sections, and since they have no hindlimbs or pelvis, there is no sacral region.

Each vertebrae has a number ofparts, pictured in Figure 7. The spinousprocess, or neural spine, originates from thetop of the neural arch. The arch is the canalthrough which the spinal cord runs. Thespinous processes always point upward and

#446.8,600.co.0000

FUTURE 5. DMPAR6oN OFA LAND MAMMAL- (HORSE)

AND A WHALE MLE1bN.

serve as a site of muscle attachment. Be-cause of these processes, the whole spinecannot twist.

Compared to most other mammals,the cervical or neck region of the whale isrelatively short and is often fused. Nearly allmammals have seven cervical vertebrae;however, in whales these vertebrae aregreatly compressed and in some species arefused. This is one reason why most whalesexhibit little mobility in this region.

The number of ribs varies amongspecies and often varies among individualswithin a species. For example, a Minkewhale has 10 to 12 pairs of ribs and theWhite-sided dolphin has 14 to 16 pairs. Incomparison, the human skeleton has 12pairs of ribs. Many terrestrial mammalshave ribs that attach to the sternum, orbreast bone, as well. In toothed whales,some of the ribs connect to a sternum. How-ever, in baleen whales, the sternum is re-

HORSE

ARCHAEOCETE

ODONTOGETE.

NASAL BONES I FRONTAL BANES

Cl PREMAxiuAE BONES Ea PARIETAL BONES

IMI MAXILLAE BONES ® OCCIPITAL BoNEs

FIGURE b. C0MPARISoNi OF THE SKutd. BONES oF A HoRsE,

AN ARcHAEocETEIAND AN oDoNToceTE

(SIMPLIFIED FROM: SLIJPER, E J. ( no). \A/HALES. HuTcNiNsoN ct. Co., LOOM)

23 29

EPIPHYSIS

SIDE VIEW

7Y6ePoPHYSIS

..,...- CENTRUM

112ANWERsE.PRocEss

FRoNir VIEW

FIGURE 7. CoMFoNENrs OF A CETACEAN VERTEBRA

duced, and only the first set of the ribs at-taches to it.

The whale has the same kinds ofbones found in all other mammalian fore-limbsscapula, humerus, radius, ulna, car-pals, and phalanges. Unlike other mam-mals, however, movement is confirmed tothe shoulder. The shapes of the bones mayvary somewhat from species to species, butgenerally the humerus of the upper arm andthe radius and ulna of the forearm areshortened and flattened. In most whales, thehwnerus is shorter than either the radius ofthe ulna, and extra bones extend the digits.The entire limb is encased in a pad of con-nective tissue that forms the flipper. Theflipper moves as a whole about the shoulder,acting as an adjustable hydroplane. It canbe extended or flexed in a horizontal plane,abducted and adducted in a vertical plane,or rotated about its axis. Thus, while theflippers of cetaceans do not provide propul-sion, they balance, turn, slow down, andadjust the vertical position of the whale.

REFERENCES

Bonner, W.N., Whales. Dorset, U.K.: Bland-ford Press, 1980.

Gosner, K.L., A Field Guide to the AtlanticSeashore. Boston: Houghton-Mifflin, 1978.

24

Hildebrand, M., Analysis of Vertebrate Struc-tures. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1974.

Norris, K. (ed.), Whales, Dolphins and Por-poises. Berkeley: University of California Press,1966.

Romer, A.S. and T.S. Parsons, The VertebrateBody. Philadelphia: Saunders CollegePublishing, 1977.

Slijper, E.J., Whales. London: Huts;hinson &Co., 1962.

Whales and Dolphins. Ann Arbor:University of Michigan Press, 1976.

30

DIVING PHYSIOLOGYThe need to breathe air and maintain

constant internal body temperature hascaused specific adaptations of the respir-atory and circulatory system in cetaceans.

In whales, certain modifications ofthe mammalian respiratory system makerapid exchange of gases such as oxygen andcarbon dioxide possible. Most noticeable isthe whale's external valve, or blowhole,through which air enters and exits. The airflows through the trachea, reinforced withrelatively heavy cartilagenous rings whichhelp prevent collapse during dives.

The fairly rigid ribcage of terrestrialmammals is modified in cetaceans so thatthe ribcage can "hinge," or rotate, as theanimal dives. This prevents breakage of ribsas the pressure increases with depth.

In most animals, the heart and brainare extremely sensitive to low oxygen levels.Other tissues, however, can functionanaerobically (without oxygen). Whales haveadapted their circulation to accommodatethese needs. These modifications includerestriction of peripheral circulation andslowing of the heart rate. Collectively, this isknown as the mammalian diving reflex andis highly developed in cetaceans, restrictingdelivery of oxygen in the blood to the heartand brain.

Certain characteristics of the bloodhave also been modified. Blood pH affectsoxygen transport. As the blood becomesmore acidic, it has a lower affinity for ox-ygen. Normally, the blood of cetaceans hasa neutral pH (approx. 7.0). After diving, thepH is lowered because carbon dioxide andlactic acid have been released by themuscles. This lowered pH reduces theblood's affinity for oxygen, which thenallows the oxygen to be released and utilizedmore rapidly by the tissues.

Cetacean muscle tissue also contains aprotein known as myoglobin, which is anal-ogous to the hemoglobin found in red bloodcells. Myoglobin has a very strong affinityfor oxygen and serves to store large quanti-ties of oxygen in the muscles during dives.

When the pH of the blood is lowered, as de-scribed above, the myoglobin releases theoxygen to the muscle cells where respirationoccurs. Although terrestrial mammals haven yoglobin in their muscle tissues, it is pres-ent in significantly smaller amounts as com-pared to whales. The presence of the largequantity of myoglobin is responsible for thedark red color of a cetacean's muscles.

Maintenance of constant internalbody termperature is characteristic of allmammals, and they must be able to controlheat loss in order to maintain this condition.In order to thermoregulate, whales havemodified their skin, reduced their relativesurface area, and modified their circulatorysystem.

Unlike mammals having a lot of hair,cetaceans have a tough surface layer of fatand connective tissue, or blubber. In water,fur is usually not au adequate insulatorsince air is no longer trapped between theindividual hairs, but blubber serves as aninsulator because it is thick and incom-pressible.

Cetaceans have reduced their surfacearea by minimizing external protrusions.This reduction decreases the amount of skinsurface available for heat transfer. Periph-eral, or superficial, vasoconstriction alsohelps thermoregulation by controlling theamount of heat that is delivered to the skinby the warm blood.

REFERENCES

Hildebrand, M., Analysis of Vertebrate Struc-ture. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1974.

Kanwisher, J.W. and S.H. Ridgeway, "ThePhysiological Ecology of Whales and Porpoises."Scientific American 248, No. 6, Junepp. 110-120, 1983.

Ridgeway, S.H., Mammals of the Sea: Biologyand Medicine. Springfield, Illinois: C.C.Thomas, 1972.

Schmidt-Nielsen, K., Animal Physiology: Adap-tation and Environment. 2nd ed. CambridgeUniversity Press, 1980.

3125

ARE WHALESINTELLIGENT?

Intelligence defies useful definition even in our own species. It is futile to attempt to applyhuman concepts of intelligence to an animal that inhabits a medium so utterly different fromour terrestrial world. . . .

In educating others about whales, themost commonly asked question is, "Arewhales intelligent?" As Bonner states above,there is no clear answer to this question.

Many experiments have been con-ducted, primarily on dolphins, to evaluatecetacean behavior, language capabilities,and intelligence. The majority of tests arebased on human standards of intelligence.Humans live in a terrestrial world of sun-light, speech, written language, politics, andindustry; whales live in the sea, obtaininginformation about their environment fromorgans on the skin and reverberating soundsin the water.

This section presents an overview ofthe literature on whale intelligence, some ofwhich is controversial.

The behavior of cetacean., has oftenbeen used as an indicator of possibleintelligence. One of the best known ad-vocates of cetacean intelligence is John Lilly.Some of his behavioral experiments confirmthat Bottlenose dolphins are quicker thanmonkeys in learning some tasks. Otherobservations indicate a sophisticated level ofproblem-solving in cetaceans.

One interesting observation at Ma-rineland of the Pacific involved a dolphinwhich exhibited insight, problem-solvingability, and use of a tool. One dolphin choseto play with a moray eel wedged betweentwo rocks. The dolphin used its teeth to pullat the eel's tail, while another dolphin cameto assist and tried to frighten the eel outfrom the other end. The first dolphin killeda poison-spined scorpion fish with a blowfrom its beak in the belly of the scorpionfish. He then took the fish, carrying itcarefully by its belly, and stung the eel's tail

26

W. Nigel Bonner

with the spine from the fish. The dolphinthen dropped the fish and seized the eel as itbolted from its crevice. The dolphin subse-quently played with the eel for a while andthen let it go without harm.

Playing is considered evidence of in-telligent behavior. Some studies describedolphins playing for periods of half an houror more, and dolphins are also known to in-vent their own games.

In addition to behavioral observa-tions, certain features of the cetacean brainhave been used to evaluate their intelligence.These include brain volume and weight,sound production, and various character-istics of the cerebral cortex.

John Lilly believes that the animalwith the largest brain is the most intelligent.Among the cetaceans, this would imply theSperm whale. Basing his conclusion on onlyone perspective however, Lilly forgets tomention that an elephant's brain is fourtimes the size of a human's.

From the perspective of relative brainweight, some scientists conclude that odon-tocetes have the same intelligence level asthe anthropoid apes and that mysticeteshave a somewhat lower level. On this basisof relative brain weights of different brainareas, others feel that odontocetes are on thesame level as humans and mysticetes on alevel with other primates.

There are differences in addition tooverall size between the brains of toothedand baleen whales. Mysticetes have arelatively large cerebellum in comparison toodontocetes. This region of the brain isassociated with hearing ability, soundanalysis, tactile reception, and muscularcoordination. Odontocetes, however, exhibitmore convolutions in the cerebral cortex,

32

which is involved with sound productionand correlates with echo-location.

Some scientists believe that thenumber of convolutions, or folds, in thecerebral cortex of the brain is directly pro-portional to diversity of behavior. If thiswere true, it would support the idea thatcetaceans are as intelligent as humans andother primates. Others claim that whaleshave a greater cortical surface area than anyother animal. However, findings show thatalthough the surface area may be great, it isalso extremely thin.

To summarize, there are many per-spectives on cetacean intelligence; few agreeconclusively. If the entire animal hasadapted to an aquatic existence through itsshape, bones, tissues, and physiologicalsystems, does it not imply that the brainand the intelligence of cetaceans would alsoadapt to a marine world?

Whether or not they are intelligent,whales will not be less attractive to

watch, less stimulating aesthetically, or lesssignificant in the ecology of our oceans. . . .

W. Nigel Bonner

REFERENCES

Bonner, W.N., Whales. Dorset, U.K.: Bland-ford Press, 1980.

Lilly, J.C., Man and Dolphin. Garden City,N.Y.: Doubleday, 1961.

McIntyre, J. (ed.), Mind in the Waters. NewYork: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1974.

Slijper, E.J., Whales. London: Hutchinson &Co., 1962.

2733

Lim

CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES

The activities in the following pages are meant to serve as suggestions for the teacher.They are flexible and allow for teacher input and adaption. Next to each title, a level is sug-gested for the activity. However, all the activities may be modified to suit any age level.These levels are:

Lower=K-3Intermediate=4-6Junior = 7 -9Upper=10-12

S-`

A SLIDE SHOW FIELD TRIP All Levels

Objectives: To view whales in their natural environmentTo learn specific characteristics of some North Atlantic whale speciesTo identify some specie:- of whales

Materials: Slide show projection equipmentTape recorderSample whale sighting form

1 class period (approximately 1 hour)

Procedure: Actual field trips to observe whales in their natural environment are un-realistic for most school groups. However, a slide show or filmstrip onwhales can provide an exciting second hand experience for students of anyage.

This activity will provide a foundation of experience and knowledge fromwhich students and teachers may proceed in their study of whales.

Two slide shows are available through this curriculum packet. The first,"Whales and Porpoises of the Gulf of Maine," produced by Allied Whaleat the College of the Atlantic, is highly technical. Suggested for upper levelstudents of marine biology, anatomy, or other associated disciplines.

The second slide show is a more general presentation, emphasizing thediversity, general characteristics, and behavior of whales. Recommended asan introduction to whales at any level, "A View of Whales" is availablethrough the Natural History Museum, College of the Atlantic.

This activity may be used for a variety of purposes. For example, the classmay be set up to enact a real whale trip on a ship, using a sample whalesighting form. It may be used as a visual introduction to whales, a lessonon characteristic field marks, and/or an introduction to common whalebehaviors.

The result of this activity will be an understanding of whale form andmovement, the difference between whales and fish, the difference betweenwhales and other mammals, and some various field marks for identificationof these animals.

CreativeAlternatives: An identification game

Research project/paper on whale behaviorWrite a short story about whales: feet or &IonA whale collage

References: Katona, S.K., V. Rough and D. Richardson, A Field Guide to the Whales,Porpoises and Seals of the Gulf of Maine and Eastern Canada. New York:Charles Scribner & Sons, 1983.

Kelly, J.E., S. Mercer and S. Wolf, The Great Whale Book. Washington,D.C.: Center for Environmental Education, 1981.

`1'

WHALES-ON-WHEELS (W.O.W.) All Levels

Objectives: To introduce the natural history of whalesTo learn the parts of a whale skeleton and compare to human skeletonTo assemble an actual whale skeletonTo understand how the skeleton of a whale reiii!es tc, its aquatic environsment

Materials: The Whitiss-on-Wheels Travelling Outreach Program

Timing: 1-11/2 hours

Background: Whales-on-Wheels is a 22-ft., disarticulated Minke whale skeleton thattravels to schools, museums and nature centers throughout the academicyear. The program is designed and presented by COA students trained asOutreach teachers.

W.O.W. is adaptable for nearly all audiences, including nursery schoolthrough adult education, senior citizens, and those with mental andphysical disabilities. We do not recommend it for children under four yearsof age.

Procedure: The W.O.W. program includes a presentation on the natural history ofwhales followed by a whale anatomy lesson. The Outreach teachers willprovide the information necessary to assemble the whale skeleton. Theclimax of the program is the assembly of the skeleton by the audience.

Alternatives: The Naugahyde Whale Travelling Outreach Program

For reservations and information, contact:Whales-on-Wheels,The College cf the Atlantic,Bar Harbor, Maine 04609(207) 288-5105

THE NAUGAHYDE WHALE All Levels

Objectives: To introduce the natural history of whales through whale anatomyTo learn the major parts of a whale's body, inside and out, and how they

compare to the human bodyTo learn the location and function of essential muscles, bones, and organsTo assemble the entire body of a whale

Materials: The Naugahyde Whale Travelling Outreach Program

Timing: 1-11/2 hours

Background: The "Naugahyde Whale" refers to a 10-ft. long, foam and fabric replica ofa Pilot whale whose "skin" unzips to reveal removable muscles, bones, and;nternal organs. The replica is particularly accurate with respect to size,

30 36

I.-

shape, and location of the parts and is based on autopsies of stranded Pilotwhales.

The Naugahyde Whale was designed and prepared by a former COA stu-dent under the supervision of faculty member, Sentiel Rommel. This pro-gram began travelling in Fall, 1982. Like Whales-on-Wheels, it travels toschools, museums, and nature centers during the school year. The programis designed and presented by COA students, trained as Outreach teachers.Although this program was originally designed for younger audiences, it isadaptable for all audiences, including nursery school through adult educa-tion.

Procedure: The first half of the program includes a brief presentation on the naturalhistory of whales followed by a discussion of a whale's external physicalcharacteristics and internal anatomy. Emphasis is on the shape, location,and function of essential muscles, bones, and organs of a whale; how theycompare to humans and/or other animals; and how they relate to thewhale's life in the water. The level and amount of information depends onthe audience level.

The second half of the program involves the assembly of the entire animal.Essentially a large puzzle, everyone must work together in a groupproblem-solving atmosphere. Ample time for questions, comments, anddiscussion.

Alternatives: The Whales-on-Wheels Travelling Outreach Program

For reservations and information:The Outreach ProgramNatural History MuseumCollege of the AtlanticBar Harbor, Maine 04609.(207) 288-5015

References: The Naugahyde WhaleTeacher Information PacketNatural History MuseumCollege of the AtlanticBar Harbor, Maine 04609

A FIELD GUIDE TO WHALES Intermediate, Junior, Upper

Objectives: To develop criteria to distinguish various speciesTo learn some major characteristics of whalesTo develop a learning tool with which to teach other students

Materials: Several field guides (i.e., birds, mammals, wildflowers, etc.)Large poster paperColored pens /pencilsPicture books of whalesMaps of the western North Atlantic

Timing: 4-5 class periods

Procedure: Developing a field guide can be set up as a group activity which can beadapted to suit various levels of students. Divide the class into four groups,each of which is responsible for one section of the field guide. The firstgroup will conduct the factual research needed for the guide. The librarianshould be consulted to help locate reference materials on whales. Thereference list at the end of this activity may also be suggested. The secondgroup will draw, or otherwise represent visually, the whale species to be in-cluded in the field guide. Another group will be map makers. By tracingother maps or by designing their own, they will ultimately lay out thedistribution of all included species. The last group will organize, plan, andarrange the layout of the field guide, using other field guides as referencesor creating their own.

The field guide can be constructed on large poster boards that can be hungon the walls of the room and easily seen. Students participating in thi' ac-tivity will then use the finished field guide to teach a lower grade leviabout whales.

CreativeAlternatives: 1. To create models of a whale or whales using one of various mediums,

such as clay, wood, metal, or papier !niche. Strive for accuracy of formand identification marks for the chosen species.

2. Develop a large chart about whales, illustrating shape, size, and othermorphological differences.

References: 1. Bonner, W.N., Whales. Poole, Dorset, U.K.: Blandford Press Ltd.,1980. Discusses the general biology of whales. Somewhat technical, butusable for teachers and older students. Some pictures and diagrams.

2. Ellis, R., The Book of Whales. New York: Alfred Knopf, Inc., 1980.Lots of detailed information, however, not all facts are up-to-date.Illustrations are excellent.

3. Katona, S., V. Rough and D. Richardson, A Field Guide to theWhales, Porpoises and Seals of the Gulf of Maine and Eastern Canada.New York: Charles Scribner et Sons, 1983. A good example of a fieldguide. Up-to-date, clear, useful for general audience. Highly recom-mended, however, specific to Gulf of Maine species.

4. Kelly, J.E., S. Mercer and S. Wolf, The Great Whale Book.Washington, D.C.: Center for Environmental Education, 1981. This isan excellent book about whales, explaining history, biology, and currentissues. Appropriate for student and teachers. Limited to "great whales"(all baleen whales, the Killer whale, and Sperm whale).

3832

THE DIVERSITY OF WHALES

Objectives: To introduce the mathem-::zal skills of numerical comparison andmeasurementTo develop arithmetic problems.To compare various whale species

Materials: StringMeasuring tapeFact sheetPencils

Timing: 2 class periods

Lower

Procedure: Numerical Comparison. Begin the class by writing some numerical factsabout whales on the board:

SPECIES MAX. LENGTH #TEETH/PLATES WEIGHTBlue 33 m. (100 ft.) 350 pairs 127.3 metric tonsFin 25 m. ( 75 ft.) 300 pairs 54.5 metric tonsHumpback 20 m. ( 60 ft.) 300 pairs 36.4 metric tonsMinke 10 m. ( 30 ft.) 300 pairs 9.1 metric tonsRight 20 ra. ( 60 ft.) 350 pairs 90.9 metric tonsPilot 6.6 m. ( 20 ft. ) 8-10 pairs 2.7 metric tonsSperm 20 m. ( 60 ft.) 30 pairs 2.7 metric: tonsBottlenose 4 m. ( 12 ft.) 10-12 pairs 400 kgs. (800 lbs.)Harbor Porpoise 2 m. ( 6 ft.) 11-14 pairs 85 kgs. (165 lbs.)

Display pictures of some whale species mentioned above. For very youngchildren, introduce the concepts of numerical comparison such as: longer,wider, faster, greater, and fewer. With somewhat older children (6-10 yrs.old), compare the whales with numbers: how much longer, etc.

Measurement Activities: This activity is best done outside on a lawn orblacktop. Bring along a roll of string or yarn and a measuring tar...Choose several species given in the table and have students work in pairs,measuring off the length of each whale with their "feet" and some string.Begin all the from a pre-determined point, have one child of each pair re-main holding the string. The second child will count his/her step, stoppingat the correct number of feet for their chosen whale. Compare!

An additional activity that children enjcy is discovering how many kids ittakes to equal the length of one whale. Choose a large whale species, suchas the Blue or Fin whale, marking its length outiide. Then, depending onthe outside temperature or location of the activity, either have the childrenhold hands with arms extended or have children lie down along the stringline head to feet.

Writing Math Problems. Write numerical facts about whales on theboard. Have students make up math problems using this information, andthen have the students exchange problems and complete the answers. Goover the correct answers in class.

3933

CreativeAlternatives: Create a chart on whales, comparing sizes. For example, use silhouettes

and scaled measurements. Make the chart BIG!

FEEDING MECHANISMS OF WHALES AND HUMANS Lower Level

Objectives: To learn what the different types of teeth are and how they are usedTo associate human teeth with toolsTo introduce the mechanisms which whales use to feedTo associate the teeth and baleen of whales with toolsTo compare the feeding mechanisms of whales and humans

Materials: Tools: Strainer, 2 nail punches, wood rasp, small-toothed saw, chisel,blocks of soft woodSampling forts: apple, carrots, yogurt or other soft foodExperimental food: cooked spaghettiBucket of water, plastic cup

Timing: 1 class period

New Terms: Incisor, canine, premolar, molar, baleen

Procedure: Since sharp objects will be used in this activity, caution advised. It wouldbe best to have one or two assistants, depend' g on the size of your class.

First, acquaint the students with the teeth in their own mouths. Peoplehave four kinds of teeth: incisors, canines, premolars, and molars, and theyare used for biting, tearing, and chewing, respectively. Explain the dif-ference between whale and human teeth, noting that some whales haveteeth and some have baleen. Those whales that possess teeth have only onetype of tooth because of their specialized diet. Toothed whales do not chewtheir food, rather, they swallow it whole. The teeth are used only to cap-ture the food. Baleen whales have no teeth but strain their food withbaleen.

After the introduction, set up three learning stations in the classroom. Ifyou have helpers, divide the class evenly between the stations and havethem rotate so everyone gets to each station.

Station I:

Station II:

Teeth as Tools: This station will require the most supervision. Assemblevarious tools mentioned above, except the strainer and one nail punch, ona table. Demonstrate how the tools work, using the wood blocks. If youhave helpers, the children can try the tools. Have the students associate thetools with the different types of teeth in their mouths.

How Whales Feed. On a table, have a strainer, bucket of water, c'ip,cooked spaghettis second nail punch, small-toothed saw, and another blockof wood. Demonstrate how baleen whales feed using the water and the spa-ghetti. Illustrate how the toothed whales feed using the saw and punch onthe wood. Once again, if you have helpers, have the students try the tools.

34

Section III:

.

The Mechanics of Eating. Assemble various food types on a table.Students can sample each type of food and describe what their teeth andtongue are doing each time. Which teeth do they use for what purpose?

It works best to use a worksheet with this activity. In this way, studentscan record their observations and experiences and then discuss them lateras a class.

CreativeAlternatives: Have the students draw the different types of teeth and baleen with

associated drawings of foods they accommodate and how they work. Thenput all the drawings together on a large chart.

HUMPBACK WHALE MIGRATION Intermediate and Junior levels

Objectives: To approximate the North-South migration patterns of the HumpbackwhalesTo learn how whale migration patterns may be determinedTo learn the geography related to the Humpback whale's habitat

Materials: Large poster paperColored pensRulersWorld atlas and other maps of the North Atlantic

Timing: 3-5 class periods

BackgroundInformation: The migratory pattern of Humpback whales is probably the best known

pattern of all cetaceans in the North Atlantic Ocean. In recent years,Humpback fluke pigmentation patterns have been used to distinguish in-dividual whales. Allied Whale, at the College of the Atlantic, has publisheda catalog of over 1000 individual fluke photographs currently being usedfor identification.

The migratory routes of Humpback whales are related to both their feedingand breeding habits. They exhibit a general North-South migration, mov-ing north to the Atlantic and temperate waters in early spring, and return-ing to tropical waters in the late fall.

Humpback whales begin to appear off the New England coast in thespring, remaining there as late as October. The Humpback feeding groundsin the western North Atlantic include the Gulf of Maine, Gulf of St.Lawrence, the eastern coasts of Newfoundland and Labrador, and thewestern coast of Greenland. Their movement along the Newfoundlandcoast is apparently related to the abundance of capelin (a schooling fish).In June, prior to capelin spawning, and in late July-early August, after thecapelin schools have dispersed, more whales tend to migrate.

The breeding areas are localized in the tropics of the western North Atlan-tic: the Lesser Anti les, from Venezuela Northward; the Greater Antilles;Puerto Rico; and the Silver and Navidad Banks, north of the DominicanRepublic.

5

The exact migratory route of Humpback whales is still unknown. However,three separate routes are possible. There may be three separate breeding"substocks," or groups, of whales that remain essentially exclusive. Two orthree feeding substocks are also believed to exist based on analysis of over1000 individual fluke photographs.

Procedure: This activity is useful in introducing students to the geography of theNorth Atlantic Ocean, the Humpback whale feeding and breeding grounds,and current Humpback whale research.

It may be divided into four sections. The first section involves factual re-search on the Humpback whale migration, feedings habits, and breeding.The school librarian can assist in locating information and resources.National Geographic magazines are a good start.

In the next section, students make a large map of the western North Atlan-tic. Include accurate physical boundaries and scaled measurements.

Sketch out some possible Humpback whale migratory routes based on in-formation about breezing and feeding grounds.

The last section is the development of a "whale-tail" match game. Obtain acopy of the Humpback whale fluke catalog and choose several fluke photosand xerox two copies of each. Place two photos of each fluke on the map indifferent locations. Then have a younger group of students match thewhale tails while your students monitor the game.

3,

References: 1. Apollonio, S., The Gulf of Maine. Rockland, Maine: Courier of MaineBooks, 1979. A short paperback providing an excellent introduction tothe Gulf of Maine and marine biology. This may be used as a relatedresource.

2. Katona, S., P. Harcourt, J.S. Perkins and S.D. Kraus (eds.), Hump-back Whales: A Catalogue of Individuals by Fluke Photographs, 2nded. Bar Harbor, Maine: College of the Atlantic, 1980.

3. Scheffer, Victor, "Exploring the Lives of Whales," National Geo-graphic, 150:60, December issue. 1976. This includes a world map of"The Great Whales: Migration and Range," which could be particularlyuseful.

4. Slijper, E.J., Whales and Dolphins. Ann Arbor: The University ofMichigan Press, 1976.

TRAINING A HUMAN TO USE DOLPHIN LANGUAGEIntermediate-Upper Levels

Objectives: To teach a human being an artificial sign language based upon dolphinconditioning techniquesTo develop a useful sign language consisting of nouns, verbs, and sentencesTo introduce the concept of intelligence and how it relates to language andlearning

Materials: 3 balls, 3 sticks, 3 rags or towels; one package of chips, candies, nuts orcrackers

Timing: At least 2 class periods

Procedure: Cetacean intelligence has been a subject of controversy for several decades.Fundamental questions, such as "What is intelligence?," "How do wemeasure intelligence?," and "What anatomical and behavioral character-istics are related to intelligence?," are yet to be answered. This activity isdesigned to introduce students to these questions and why scientists havetried to confront them. It is based on the work of Louis Herman, a pro-fessor of comparative psychology and well-known cetologist.

At least two class periods are needed to conduct this activity. The first classwill be used to develop a sign language, while the second class will be usedfor the experiment itself.

Class I: Separate the class into three groups, so that three experiments may be con-ducted simultaneously. Each group will elect a trainer and two "dolphins."The trainer and remaining group members will develop the language sym-bols and construct the sentences that the trainer will use in the experiment.The "dolphins" should be separated from the group at this time.

The sign language should consist of three nouns, which will correspond tothe three objects used in the experiment, and three verbs. Hand signalsmust be used for each noun and verb. Once the signals are determined, the

37 43

Class II:

group will deviseexample:

WORDBall (noun)Stick (noun)Towel (noun)Fetch (verb)Toss (verb)Cover (verb)

SENTENCECover ballFetch stickToss ballTowel cover ballStick fetch towel

two and three-word sentences using the six signals. For

HAND SIGNALopened hand, palm upopened hand, palm downclosed fistone finger uptwo fingers upthree fingers up

HAND SIGNALthree fingers up; opened hand, palm downone finger up; opened hand, palm downtwo fingers up; opened hand, palm upclosed fist; three fingers up; opened hand, palm downopened hand, palm down; one finger up; closed fist

While the above example may be used, also encourage the students todevelop their own language. The signals they use should not describe theobject or verb, otherwise they will serve as hints instead of a challenge.Since each group has two trainees, or "dolphins," the group should haverespective hand or sound signals to summon each dolphin. For example,two different types of whistles could be used. Be sure the trainer is familiarwith the new language before the next class.

Each group should direct its 'dolphins" into respective "pools" in theroom. The three objects (ball, towel, and stick) should also be put into thepool. No spoken words should be heard once the dolphins have beenplaced in the pool.

The trainers will first condition the dolphins. This involves getting themacquainted with their personal signals (hand or sound) and with the mean-ing of the sign language. For example, the trainer may begin with onewhistle, then immediately point to the dolphin he or she is calling. Repeatthis technique with the other dolphin. Repeat with both to be sure theyknow what the signal means. Next, the trainer must instruct the dolphinsin the language, using the hand signal and immediately showing them whatit means. Now work with each dolphin and test his response to these newsignals.

Positive reinforcement should be given for every correct response. A"treat," such as a candy, chip, nut, etc., can be used for reinforcement.No treat is given if the response was incorrect.

The trainer should now progress to the two- and three-word sentences.Throw in one or two sentences that do not make sense and note the"dolphin's" response.

The remaining group members should act as observers noting the dolphin'sresponses and the trainer's techniques.

When the training session is complete, discuss the activity with the class.Focus on the concepts of intelligence, learning, language, behavior,memory, and conditioning for your discussion.

CreativeAlternatives: Develop another intelligence game

Develop a language using sound and repeat the above experiment or createyour ownConduct a research project on whale intelligence and/or communication

References: Abrahamson, D., "Do Animals Think?," National Wildlife, August-September, 1983.

Bonner, W.N., Whales. Poole, Dorset, U.K.: Blandford Press, LTD,1980.

Herman, L. (ed.), Cetacean Behavior: Mechanisms and Function. NewYork: John Wiley & Sons, 1980.

Parfit, M., "Are dolphins tying to say something, or is it all much adoabout nothing?," Smithsonian, October, 1980.

WHALES IN LITERATURE

Objectives: To associate words with sound through poetryTo recognize several perspectives on whales through literatureTo introduce various types of literatureTo strengthen creative writing skillsTo reinforce the association of science and art

Junior

Materials: See Reference section

Timing: 3-4 class periods (not including reading time)

Procedure: This activity may be approached in several ways: by verbalizing music in ahaiku, reporting alternatives, reaction writing, or creative writing.

The first approach involves listening to whale sounds from a record ortape, and then capturing one;s thoughts in the form os a haiku. A haiku isa form of Japanese, unrhymed verse having only three lines, containing 5,7, and 5 syllables, respectively. Roger Payne has helped to produce twodelightful albums on whale sounds, Songs of the Humpback Whale andDeep Voices, either of which would be appropriate. Have students listen toan entire album and then follow up with writing a haiku. As a creativealternative, have students visually represent images of what they heard.

In the second category, students would report on literature about whales.Ask the librarian if s/he could compile a resource box on whales for yourgrade level. Suggestions for books are included in the reference section.Have each student choose one book from the resource box and write areport, emphasizing how the whale was portrayed. On completion of thereading and reporting, students may share their results and perspectivebwith respect to the date books were written, background of the author, etc.

The third activity utilizes sections of one or several of the books suggested.Here, the teacher chooses what perspectives s/he wants to examine. The

39 45

teacher reads aloud to the class an appropriate section of a book andstudents will then write a reaction paper of one to three pages.

The fourth suggestion is a creative writing activity. Once students havebeen introduced to whales, either through literature, slides, film, biology,or field trips, have them express their knowledge and/or attitudes aboutwhales through prose writing. This may take the form of a short story,children's story, natural history writing, an essay on whales, or a factpaper.

References:Books: Brooks, B., ed., The Whole Whale Catalogue. Waukegan, WI: Great

Lakes Living Press, Ltd., 1978.

Griggs, Tamar, There's a Sound in the Sea. San Francisco: The Scrim-shaw Press, 1975.

Kelly, J.E., S. Mercer and S. Wolf, The Great Whale Book. Washington,D.C.: Center for Environmental Education, 1981.

Lilly, J.E., Lilly on Dolphins. New York: Anchor Press/Doubleday, 1975.

McIntyre, J., Mind in the Waters. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons,1974.

Melville, H., Moby Dick. New York: Random House, 1930.

Mowat, F., A Whale for the Killing. Boston: Little, Brown and Co., 1972.

Scheffer, V., Year of the Whale. New York: Charles Scribner's S0218, 1969.

Records: Payne, R., Songs of the Humpback Whale. Capitol records, SW-620.

, Deep Voices. Capitol Records, ST-11598.

MUSIC AND WHALES

Objectives: To hear one way in which whales communicateTo associate sound with visual imagesTo associate sound with movementTo develop whale sound experiments

Materials: Records of whale soundsLarge paperCrayons or other drawing articlesLarge bucket of waterSpoonsPlastic cupsWhistles (optional)

1-2 class periods

46

Lower

Procedure: This activity will introduce students to whale sounds and the translation ofthese sounds into other non-verbal forms of communications.

Acquire a record of whale sounds. While listening to the record, havechildren illustrate the images that come to their minds on paper withcrayon, finger paints, or water colors. Stress listening skills.

As an alternative to drawing what they hear, have students move aroundthe room to the music. This is meant to be improvisational rather than anorganized "dance." If students are interested, these activities may be ex-panded into a skit or a play about whales.

Using various objects and a tub of water, have students design an experi-ment on whale sounds. This may involve using objects to make sounds,making noises in and out of the water while someone listens, or creatingwhale sounds using their own vocalizations.

References: Payne, R., Songs of the Humpback Whale. Capitol Records, SW-620.

, Deep Voices. Capitol Records, ST-11598.

, "Humpbacks: Their Mysterious Songs," National Geo-graphic, 155:1 January, 1979, p. 18. Record included.

TEACHER RESOURCES

,,,,,..,,,;'

42 487 ,

TEACHER RESOURCES AVAILABLETHROUGH THE COLLEGE OF THE ATLANTIC (COA)

The College of the Atlantic (COA) is an undergraduate institution of Human Ecology.Although whales are not the primary focus of the College or its curriculum, several programswithin the College are actively involved in research and educational programs concerningwhales. COA offers a Marine Mammals course during the summer months. For more infor-mation about this course, contact The College of the Atlantic, Summer Programs, EdenStreet, Bar Harbor, Maine 04609.

The following organizations are affiliates of COA:

ALLIED WHALE, College of the Atlantic, Bar Harbor, Maine 04609 (207) 288-5644Books: Humpback Whales: A Catalogue of Individuals by Fluke Photographs

A Field Guide to the Whales, Porpoises and Seals of the Gulf of Maineand Eastern Canada

Posters: Whales and SealsWhale Sighting FormsMount Desert Rock Whale Watch (see Field Trip Section)

Slide Show: "Whales and Porpoises of the Gulf of Maine"Prices for the above resources are available on request.

THE NATURAL HISTORY MUSEUM, College of the Atlantic, Bar Harbor, Maine 04609(207) 288-5015

Summer Museum: exhibits on marine mammals, birds, land mammals, marine life, etc.;taxidermic and live specimens; participatory interpretive programs offereddaily. Brochure available. Admission fee.

Outreach Program: participatory natural history programs that travel to schools,museums, and nature centers throughout the academic year. Current pro-grams include Whales-on-Wheels, Mobile Moose, and the NaugahydeWhale. Additional program and travel costs to schools.

Teacher Background Information Packets on whales, moose, and owls.

Book: A Teacher's Guide to the Whales in the Gulf of Maine. A whale cur-riculum guide to prepare schools for the Whales -on- Wheels and NaugahydeWhale programs, and .o provide detailed, up-to-date information and ac-tivity suggestions about whales. $3.50 per copy.

49

43

A/

FIELD ACTIVITIES

MOUNT DESERT ROCK WHALE WATCH. c/o Allied Whale, College of the Atlantic,Bar Harbor, Maine 04609 (207) 288-5644

The "Rock" is a three acre island 20 miles South of Mount Desert Island,which serves as a whale watch research station. Sponsored by Allied Whale,volunteers are taken on a weekly and bi-weekly basis during the summermonths to assist in sighting whales and birds. Small groups (2-3), and in-dividuals may take advantage of this unique opportunity. Applicationnecessary.

WHALE AND SEABIRD TRIPS. c/o Allied Whale, College of the Atlantic, Bar Harbor,Maine 04609 (207) 288-5644

Sponsored by Allied Whale, these trips help support the summer whalewatch on Mount Desert Rock. They provide an exciting opportunity forchildren, adults, and groups to see whales in their natural environment.The Whale and Seabird trips are conducted in mid-October and againtowards the end of May, out of Newburyport, Massachusetts in conjunc-tion with New England Whale Watch.

THE NATURAL HISTORY MUSEUM. College of the Atlantic, Bar Harbor, Maine 04609(207) 288-5018

This museum officially opened to the public in the summer of 1982. Itincludes exhibits in marine mammals, birds, mammals, reptiles, inverte-brates, and wildflowers local to the Mount Desert Island area. A par-ticipatory museum, it offers daily programs in assembling variousskeletons, including a Minke whale, a moose, and a human Afternoon lec-tures on natural history topics relating to Mount Desert Island and how touse various field guides.

The Natural History Museum also supports an educational outreach pro-gram throughout the year. Exhibits, including Whales-on-Wheels and theIViobile Moose, travel to schools and benefits, combining a natural historypresebtation of the animal with a "hands-on experience."

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY (MCZ), Peabody Museum, Harvard Universi-ty, Oxford St., Cambridge, MA (617) 495-21...3

An excellent teaching museum for those interested in anatomy, paleon-tology, and ,,vz)lution, the MCZ has several complete whale skeletons, somesmaller t:etaceans, and other marine mammals.

NEW BEDFORD WHALING MUSEUM, 18 Johnnycake Hill, New Bedford, MA (617)997-0046

An excellent museum for those interested in the history of whaling, thismuseum contains a scale model of a whaling ship visitors may walk on. Ithas a complete collection of whaling gear, such as harpoons, as well as shiplogs, scrimshaw, and ship models.

NEW ENGLAND AQUARIUM, Central Wharf, Boston, MA 02110 (617) 742-8830The Aquarium is an excellent introduction to marine life, including dolphinand sea lion shows several times a day. A huge central tank, containingmany forms of sea life, is the main attraction, but the Aquarium also has aRight whale skeleton, silhouettes, and a film on whales.

MYSTIC AQUARIUM, Coogan Blvd., Mystic, CT 06355 (203) 536-3323Similar to the New England Aquarium, this aquarium features a glass tankwhere visitors can observe Beluga whales and Bottlenose dolphins swim-ming.

A more extensive list of New England and Canadian whale-watching excursions is in the ap-pendix of A Field Guide to the Whales, Porpoises and Seals of the Gulf of Maine andEastern Canada, by S. Katona, V. Rough and D. Richardson (New York: Charles Scribner'sSons, 1983).

WHALE FILMS

The following annotated* list of films in-cludes those which are most appropriate tothe classroom, most accurate, and also pro-vide enjoyable viewing. They represent avariety of perspectives, and it is best topreview the film to ensure that it reflectsyour purposes and audience.

A more extensive list of whale films andrelated films is available from:

The Center for Environmental Education1925 K Street, NWWashington, D.C. 20006(202) 466-4996

*Annotations taken from the Center for Environ-mental Education

CHILDREN'S WHALE FILMS

Orca (92 min i 1977. Mr. Harris, hoping topay off the mortgage on his boat by captur-ing a killer whale, manages instead to mor-tally injure a pregnant female of the species.The bereaved male then proceeds to stalkMr. Harris and challenge him to a duel.

Paramount Pictures, Non-theatricalDivision, 5451 Marathan Street, Hollywood,CA 90036.

Portrait of a Whale (12 min) 1976.Children's film it, which whales are seenflippering, lobtailing and breaching waysscientists think right whales communicate.Edited version of the hour-long feature on

45

the right whale.Whale Protection Fund, 1925 K

Street, NW, Suite 206, Washington, D.C.20006.

There's a Sound in the Sea (12 min) 1977.Delightful children's film in which humanvoices are given to the whales so that theycan explain the danger they are in to us.

Defenders of Wildlife, 1244 19thStreet, NW, Washington, D.C. 20036.

We Call Them Killers (16 min) 1972.Beautifully photographed and poetic filmwhich explores the special relationshipestablished between Dr. Paul Spong and acaptive killer whale named Haida. World-renowned musician Paul Horn plays hisflute for Haida who seemingly returns hissong note for note.

University Extension, University ofCalifornia, Extension Media Center,Berkeley, CA 94720.

GENERAL AUDIENCE WHALE FILMS

Desert Whales (23 min) 1970. From theUndersea World of Jacques Cousteau series.A shortened version of Desert Whales(below). Shows California gray whales onthe final leg of their southern migration.Shows how the crew of the Calypso attemptsto aid a young whale stranded on a sandbar.

Whale Protection Fund, 1925 KStreet, NW, Suite 206, Washington, D.C.20006.

51

Desert Whales (52 min) 1970. From theUndersea World of Jacques Cousteau series.Pictures California gray whales on the finalleg of their southern migration to theirbreeding ground. Shows Jacques Cousteauand his crew attempting to aid a young in-jured whale stranded on a sand bar.

Churchill Films, 662 N. RobertsonBlvd., Los Angeles, CA 90069.

Great Whales, The (55 min) 1978. A Na-tional Geographic Society Production. Ex-cellent film which provides detailed informa-tion on many aspects of wha'.es and whaling.Includes clips of research being done on theintelligence of cetaceans and various conser-vation attempts. En---ay award winner.

Whale Protection Fund, 1925 KStreet, NW, Suite 206, Washington, D.C.20006.

Humpback Whale, The SummerA Timefor Feeding (21 min). Exp:req the feedinghabits and behavior of the humpback whalein its summer home in nutrient-rich north-ern waters.

Whale Protection Fund, 1925 KStreet, NW, Suite 206, Washington, D.C.20006.

Humpback Whale, The WinterA Timefor Singing (21 min). Documents thebehavior, appearance, and the songs of thehumpback whale in its winter home in thetropics. Featured are close-up underwaterscenes of caws, calves, and adult whales.

Moonlight Productions, Dr. LeeTepley, 2243 Old Midlefield Way, MountainView, CA 94043.

Hunger Knows No Law (20 min) 1979. Thecurrent bowhead controversy. NativeAlaskans and their traditions.

General Whale, P.O. # Box Whales,Alameda, CA 94501.

Last Whalers, The (20 min) 1973. Views ofthe life of the people of one small Azoresisland. Portrays the work of the whalermenas they prepare their boats and equipmentand employ ancient methods of whale hunt-

ing. Includes scenes of religious festivals.International Film Festival, 475 Fifth

Avenue, Suite 916, New York, NY 10017.

NamuThe Killer Whale (89 min) 1966.Robert Lansing, a biologist in a small westcoast fishing community, finds and trains anorca despite the threats made by fearful andprejudiced fishermen.

United Artists 16, 729 SeventhAvenue, New York, NY 10019.

Moby Dick 16 min) 1956. HermanMelville's symbolic tale about themysterious white whale.

United Artists, 729 Seventh Avenue,New York, NY 10019.

Whale That Became a Star, The (27 min).Shows the search, capture, and housing ofBubbles, the whale at Marine land of thePacific. Depicts the training of this animaland its performance for spectators atMarineland.

Marine land of the Pacific, PalosVerdes Drive, S., Palos Verdes Peninsula,CA 90274.

Whaler Out of New Bedford (24 min) 1963.Uses a 1300-ft.-long panorama painting todepict the story of whaling in all corners ofthe world. The story is told entirely bymusic and songs of the 19th century.

McGraw-Hill Films, 110 15th Street,Del Mar, CA 92014..

Whales (22 min) 1970. From the UnderseaWorld of Jacques Cousteau series. ShowsJacques Cousteau viewing an experimentwith a whale at Marine World in Californiaand conducting a series of studies withwhales in the Indian Ocean.whales in the Indian Ocean.

Whale Protection Fund, 1925 KStreet, NW, Suite 206, Washington, D.C.20006.

Whales, Dolphins, and Men (52 min) 1973.Examines and explains the extraordinary in-telligence and behavior of dolphins, thesmallest and most numerous of the whale

46 52

family.Time-Life Films, Inc., P.O. Box 644,

Paramus, NJ 07652.

Whaling on the Brig 'Viola' (40 min) 1962.Re-enacts a whaling voyage of 1916. Showsthe activities of shipboard routine, sighting awhale, chasing it, and finally capturing it.Details the work of disassembling the bodyof the whale and "trying" the oil.

Whaling Museum, 18 Johnny CakeHill, New Bedford, MA 02740.

RECORDS ON WHALES AND WHALING*

1. Common Ground, Paul Winter Consort, Whale Gifts #5124.

2. avp Voices: The Second Whale Record, Whale Gifts #5130.

3. Leviathan: Ballads and Songs of the Whaling Trade, Topic Records, Ltd., The WhalingMuseum, 18 Johnny Cake Hill, New Bedford, MA 02740.

4. Magical Songs, Malvina Reynolds, Schroeder Music Company, 1957. Available fromdistributor.

5. Songs of the Humpback Whale, Whale Gifts #5123.

6. Songs of Yankee Whaling, American Heritage Records, available from distributor.

7. The Morgans Go to Sea Once More, whaling ballads and sea chanties, Morhan Produc-tions, 72 Stan ly Street, East Hartford, CT 06108.

8. Whale Songs and Whales, Roger S. Payne and humpback songs, Pacific« :ape Library,2217 Shattuck Avenue, Berkeley, CA 94704.

9. Whaler Out of New Bedford, Folkways Records, The Whaling Museum, 18 Johnny CakeHill, New Bedford, MA 02740.

10. Whales and Prightingales, Judy Collins, Elektra Records, available from distributor.

*This list was provided by the Center for Environmental Education in Washington, D.C.

53

47

SUGGESTIONS FOR YOUNG READERS

BOOKSBrooks, Barbara (ed.). (1978). The Whole Whale Catalogue. Great Lakes Living Press,

Waukegan, WICousteau, Jacques, and Phillippe Diol ?. (1972). The Whale: Mighty Monarch of the Sea.

Doubleday, New YorkKelly, J.E., S. Mercer, and S. Wolf. (1981). The Great Whale Book. Center for Environ-

mental Education, Washington, DCMcCloskey, Robert. (1963). Burt Dow, Deep-Water Man. Viking Press, New YorkMelville, Herman. (1930). Moby Dick. Random House. New YorkMowat, Farley. (1972). A Whale for the Killing. Little, Brown & Co., EostonScheffer, Victor. (1969). The Year of the Whale. Chas. Scribner's Sons, New YorkScheffer, Victor. (1976). A Natural History of Marine Mammals. Chas. Scribner's Sons,

New YorkSteig, William. (1977). Amos and Boris. Puffin Books, New YorkYoung, Jim. (1974). When the Whale Came to My Town. Alfred A. Knopf, New York

PERIODICALSNational GeographicPayne, Roger. "Swimming With Patagonia's Right Whales." October 1972, pp. 576-587Payne, Roger. "At Home With Right Whales." March 1976, pp. 322-339"Whales of the World" issue, December 1976, pp. 722-767

I. Graves, William. "The Imperial Giants," pp. 722-751II. Scheffer, Victor. "Exploring the Lives of Whales," pp. 752-767

"Humpback Whales" issue, January 1979, pp. 2-25I. Earle, Sylvia. "The Gentle Giants," pp. 2-18

II. Payne, Roger. "Their Mysterious Songs," pp. 19-25Payne, Roger. "New Light on Singing Whales." April 1982, pp. 463-477

Ranger Rick"Watch for Whales." April 1979, pp. 12-13"I Watch Whales." May 1981, pp, 20-27

4854

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Anderson, H.T. (ed.) (1969). The Biology of Marine Mammals. Academic Press, New YorkApollonio, S. (1979). The Gulf of Maine. Courier-Gazette, Rockport, MEAvry, L. and G. Pilleri. (1977). "The Sternum in Cetacea." In Investigations on Cetacea, VIII, pp.

123-148. Institute of Brain Anatomy, BerneAvry, L. (1977). "Asymmetry in Cetaceans." In Investigations on Cetacea, VIII, pp. 161-212. In-

stitute of Brain Anatomy, BerneAvry, L. (1979). "The Abdominal Bones of Cetaceans." In Investigations on Cetacea, V, ed. G.

Pilleri, pp. 215-227. Institute of Brain Anatomy, BerneBonner, W.N. (1980). Whales. Blandford Press, Dorset, U.K.Brooks, B. (ed.). (1978). The Whole Whale Catalog. Great Lakes Living Press, Waukegan, WIEdel, R.K. and H.E. Winn. (1978). "Observations on Underwater Locomotion and Flipper Movement

of the Humpback Whale Megaptera novaeangliae." Marine Biology 48:279-287Ellis, R. (1980). The Book of Whales. Alfred A. Knopf, New YorkEllis, R. (1982). Dolphins and Porpoises. Alfred A. Knopf, New YorkFelts, W.L. (1966). "Some Functional and Structural Characteristics of Cetacean Flippers and

Flukes," In Whales, Dolphins, and Porpoises, ed. K.S. Norris, pp. 252-276. Universi-ty of California Press, Berkeley

Gaskin, D.E. (1976). "The Evolution, Zoography, and Ecology of Cetacea." Oceanogr. Mar. Bio.44 nn. Rev. 19:247-346

Griggs, Tamar (1975). There's a Sound in the Sea. Scrimshaw Press, San FranciscoHildebrand, M. (1974). Analysis of Vertebrate Stricture. John Wiley & Sons, New YorkKanwisher, J.W. and S.H. Ridgeway. (1983). "The Physiological Ecology of Whales and Porpoises."

Scientific American, 248:110-120, JuneKatona, S.K., V. Rough, and D. Richardson. (1983). A Field Guide to the Whales, Porpoises and

Seals of the Gulf of Maine and Eastern Canada, 3rd ed., Chas. Scribner's Sons, N-3wYork

Katona, S.K., P. Harcourt, J.S. Perkins, and S.D. Kraus (eds.). Humpback Whales: A Catalogue ofIndividuals by Fluke Photographs, 2nd ed., College of the Atlantic, Bar Harbor, ME

Kelly, J.E., S. Mercer, and S. Wolf. (1980). The Great Whale Book. Center for EnvironmentalEducation, Washington, DC

Leatherwood, S., D.K. Caldwell, and H.E.Winn. (1976). "Whales, Dolphins, and Porpoises of theWestern North Atlantic," NOAA Technical Report, NMFS CIRC-396

Leatherwood, S. and R.R. Reeves. (1983). The Sierra Club Handbook of Whales and Dolphins.Sierra Club Books, San Francisco

Lilly, J.C. (1961). Man and Dolphin. Doubleday & Co., Garden City, NYLipps, J.H. and E. Mitchell. (1976). "Trophic Model for the Adaptive Radiations and Extinctions of

Pelagic Marine Mammals." Paleobiology 2:147-155Lock ley, R.M. (1979). Whales, Dolphins, and Porpoises. Methuen of Australia, SydneyLockyer, C. (1978). "A Theoretical Approach to the Balance Between Growth and Food Consumption

in Fin and Sei Whales with Special Reference to the Female Reproductive Cycle."Rep. Int. Whal. Comm. v. 28

Matthews, L.H. (1978). The Natural History of the Whale. Columbia University Press, New YorkMcIntyre, J. (ed.). (1974). Mind in the Waters. Chas. Scribner's Sons, New YorkMelville, H. (1930). Moby Dick. Random House, New YorkMowat. F. (1972). A Whale for the Killing. Little, Brown & Co., Boston

5549

Nemoto, T. (1970). "Feeding Patterns of Baleen Whales in the Ocean." In Marine Food Chains, ed.J.H. Steele, pp. 241-252. Oliver & Boyde, Edinburgh

Norris, K.S. (ed.). (1966). Whales, Dolphins, and Porpoises. Uniersity of California Press, BerkeleyPivorunas, A. (1979). "The Feeding Mechanisms of Baleen Whales." Americcn Scientist 67:432-440Rice, D.W. (1977). "A List of the Marine Mammals of the World," NOAA Technical Report, NMFS

SSRF-711Ridgeway, S.H. (ed.). (1972). Mammals of the Sea: Biology and Medicine. C.C. Thomas, Springfield,

ILReeves, R.R., J.G. Mead, and S.K. Katona. (1978). "The Right Whale, Eubalaena glacialis, in the

Western North Atlantic." Rep. Int. Whal. Comm. 28:303-312Romer, A.S. and T.S. Parsons. (1977). The Vertebrate Body. Saunders College Publishing, Philadel-

phiaScheffer, V. (1969). Year of the Whale. Chas. Scribner's Sons, New YorkScheffer, V. (1976). "Exploring the Lives of Whales." Nat. Geo. 150:752, DecemberSchmidt-Nielsen, K. (1980). Animal Physiology: Adaptation and Environment, 2n? ed., Cambridge

University Press, CambridgeScholander, P.F. (1958). "Counter Current Exchange: A Principle in Biology." Hvalradets skrifter

nr. 44Sergeant, D.E. (1969). "Feeding Rates of Cetacea." Fisk Dir. Skr. Ser. HavUnders 15:246-258Slijper, E.J. (1969). Whales. Hutchinson & Co., LondonSlijper, E.J. (1976). Whales and Dolphins. Univ. of Michigan Press, Ann ArborVaughan, T.A. (1978). Mamma logy, 2nd ed., W.B. Saunders Co., PhiladelphiaWatkins, W A. and W.E. Schevill. (1979). "Aerial Observations of Feeding Behavior in Four Baleen

Whales: Eubalaena glacialis, Balaenoptera borealis, Megaptera novaeangliae, andBalaenoptera physalus. J. Mamm. "60:155 -163

50

56

`411=M=11511111

WRALE S KE.LE:roN

rr ,_1

i 1I

1 II 1

1I 1

I

1I I

I

1

1 1

I

11

5 si

58

This material may be copied without permission.

TE1-14

WHALE GKE.LEMN

CERVICAL VERTEBRAEITIORAcle, VEMORAE LUMBAR. VERTEVAE

II I

EYE SocKETI I

I

I I

I I

I

CAUDAL. VERrft3RAE.

MANDIBLE

GLOWER JAW)

59

RADIUS

60

INP_RNIAL ANATOMY of A WHALE

61

62

This material may be copied without permission.

IvIEWN

BRAIN

Liinl

I NITERNAL ANATOMY of A WHALE

13Lu6F3EK

S1bmAcki#1. EP1AXI4L MUSCLES

ES014A&I.15

TgAG-I EA

63

HEAKr

siompt,0 a

SToMP414 03

UVER

INTESTINES

KIDNEY

64

PARTS OF A WHALE-

TOOTHED WHALE

.01011011111101\Wo..-

BALM WHALE.

66This material may be copied without permission.

TEETH

PARTS OF A WHALE

13°SAL FIN

EAR

TOONED WHALE

DORSAL- FIN

FLUKE.;

omme1111111111111111mignm..

A CHECKLIST FOR THE WHALES IN THE GULF OF MAINE

COMMONNAME LATIN NAME SIZE HABITAT DIET

OCCURRENCEIN G.O.M.

69

This material may be copied without permission.

A CHECKLIST FOR THE WHALES IN THE GULF OF MAINE

COMMONNAME LATIN NAME

(ANSWERS)

SIZE HABITAT DIETOCCURRENCEIN G.O.M.

Finback Whale Balaenoptera physalus 30-70 ft. Equator to Arctic,usually off-shore

Minke 'Whale Balaenoptera acutorostrata 15-30 ft. Subtropical to subarctic,in- and off-shore

Humpback Whale Megaptera novaeangliae 30-60 ft. Caribbean to Arctic, in-and off-shore

Right Whale Eubalaena glacialis

Sei Whale

Blue Whale

Balaenoptera borealis

20-50 ft. Temperate to Arctic waters,in- and off-shore

25-60 ft. Mexico to Arctic, off-shore

Balaenoptera musculus 25-100 ft.

Harbor Porp..ise Phocoena phocoena

Sperm Whale

Beluga Whale

Physeter catodon

Delphinapterus !micas

4-o ft.

colder waters,usually off-shore

colder. shallowin-shore waters

15-60 ft. Equator to subarctic,off-shore

10-15 ft. shallow + estuarine watersof Arctic and subarctic seas

NorthrnBottlenose V. hale Hyperoodon ampullatus up to 29 ft. Arctic+ subarctic, off-shore

V late-sidedDolphin Lagenorhynchus acutus 7-9 ft. cooler. off-shore waters

Killer Whale Orcinus orca

Pilot Whale Globicephala nelaena

20.30 ft. colder waters off-shore andproductive coastal waters

10-25 ft. coastal waters in summer +off-shore in winter

BottlenoseDolphin. Tursiops truncates 8-12 ft. temperate and tropical

coastal waters

Common Dolphin Dolphin us delphLs 6.8 ft. warm-water regions.off-shore

small fish and krill common

schooling fishand squid

krill and fish

copepods and krill

copepods and krill

krill

schooling fish,and bottom fish

squid

fish. squid, andinvertebrates

common

common

occasional

rare

rare

common

rare

rare

squid and some fish rare

fish and squid

fish. squid. sea-birds. marinemammals

squid and somefish

bottom fish andsquid

schooling fish

occasional

occasional

common

rare

occasional

i

TERMS TO KNOW

ADAPTATION

AMBERGRIS

BALEEN

BLOWHOLE

BLUBBER

CALF

CETACEAN

COW

DOLPHIN

DORSAL FIN

ECHO-LOCATION

EVOLUTION

FLIPPER

KRILL

MELON

MYSTICETE

ODONTOCETE

PORPOISESPOUT

VENTRALGROOVES

Physical and behavioral changes that occur slowly over time and help an organism livemore easily in its environment.

A wax-like substance found in the intestines of Sperm whales, used in perfumes.

Rows of horny, triangular plates which hang from the upper jaw of mysticetes. The platesare composed of a protein material, similar to hair and fingernails. The baleen, orwhalebone as it is called, filters the planktonic prey and fish from the water.

The nasal opening of a whale, which is located on top of the head. Mysticetes have twoexternal nasal openings, while odontocetes have only one blowhole.

The layer of skin, comprised of fat and oil, which provides insulation for a whale.

A newborn or young whale that is still dependent on its mother for protection and/ornourishment.

Marine mammals of the order Cetacea which includes the great whales, dolphins and por-poises. Collectively, all members of this order are considered whales.

A mature female whale.

A toothed whale having sharp, conical-shaped teeth and a beak.

A triangular-shaped structure found along the back of many whales, thought to helpstabilize the whale during swimming and diving and possibly aid in maintaining its cons-tant internal body temperature.

The process employed by toothed whales to locate distant or invisible objects by use ofsound waves which are reflected back to the whale from the object.

A process of continuous change and growth over time.

The distinctive structures found on either side of the whale's body, also known as pectoralfins. They are used primarily for steering, turning, and controlling the whale's verticalposition in the water.

The common name for et,, 'iausiid shrimp, which are small crustaceans that many speciesof baleen whales feed upon.

A wax-like organ, located in front of the skull of toothed whales, used for echolocation.

A sub-order of whales which possess baleen instead of teeth. These whales strain theirfood from the water with their baleen. The mysticetes include the largest animals onearth, including the Blue and Finback whales.

A sub-order of whales which have teeth of uniform shape and function. Dolphins, por-poises, and the Sperm whale are all odontocetes. These whales eat primarily fish andsquid.

A toothed whale having rounded, spade-shaped teeth and no beak.

The expired air of a whale that forms steam, often called the "blow."

A series of pleats found along the underside of most mysticetes. These grooves are relatedto the feeding behavior of the whales that possess them and expand to accommodate largevolumes of water and food.

VERTEBRAE The bones that make up the backbone of vertebrate animals.

71This material moy be copied without permission.

FACT SHEET ON WHALES

Whales are mammals that live a totally aquatic life

As mammals, whales share certain characteristics with other marine and land mammals. Thesecharacteristics include:

breathing air with lungsproducing live offspringnourishing offspring with milk from mammary glands

the presence of hair on the skin at some point in the animal's developmenta four-chambered heartan internal skeletonwarm-blooded metabolism

"Whales" collectively refers to the order of mammals known as Cetacea and includes the greatwhales, dolphins, andporpoises

Whales once lived on land, approxmately 50 million years ago

Although whales no longer have legs, some species still possess remnant pelvic bones

Whales have the same hones in their flippers as humans have in their arms and hands

Whales are divided into two groups: the Odontocetes, or toothed whales, and the Mysticetes, orbaleen whales

41

Whales have horizontal tails while fish have vertical tails

Whales inhabit all the oceans of the world

Whales are carnivores. Toothed whales generally eat fish ar4d squid; baleen whales filter planktonicanimals and schooling fish

Several species of whales are endangered, including the Blue, Right, Gray, Humpbazk, andBowhead

The whaling nations of the world include: Japan, Norway, Russia, Iceland, Greenland, Portugal,Spain, Peru, and South Korea

Whales include the two largest animals on earth todaythe Blue Whale and the Finback Whale

72This material may be copied without permission.

WI-1A l.E.6 SAT:

PREFRRED F000 OF RIGHT-m-14E5.

OCCASIONALLY EATEN BY FINBAG: AND

SEI WHALES.

ACTUAL Gra: tip To 88inrn. 11/7., in )

HORNED KRILL

ACTUAL sra MANTLE UP To 23.1 em(q in )

N.AtsirlE.

EXCLUSIVE FOOD OF BLUE WHALES. ALSO

EATEN BY RIGHT WHALES,SEI WHALES AND

WASIoNALLY BY FtN8Aas AND HUMPBACKS.

EXCLUSIVE FOOD of SPERM WHALES AND

PurWHALEs. A PRIMARY Foot) FoR NORTHEW

goTTLENosE WHALES AND, ODER BEAKED WHALES.

Also EfiltN By HARBOR PoRPoISEAmmori Dou,141N,

tall Etta PaPHINS, WHUE -SIDED DolpH)Ns,AND

SELMA WHALES.

BOREAL (SHoZr-FINNED) SQUID

AcruAL SIZE: UP To 43 (i) Cm (r7 in)

//p,

EATEN p A VARIETY OF WHALE sPEcgs iNcLuorN6

MIRE WHALES, FIN84ors, pluMPBAGKS,FIAK8og

PORPOISE, WHITE-SIDED DOLPNINS,AND OUR

WHALES.

ATLAMG HERRINfi

ACTuAL SIZE' TD 23 I Ern ( q in )

CAPELIN

ACTUAL. SIZE: AVERAGES (09.7 Crn (27 in)ATLANTIC COD

73

FAVORED SY MINKE WNALES,FINBAas,

HUMPBACKS, SE! WHALES, AND HARBOR PORPOISE.

EATEN BY MINKE WHALES AND SEVERAL

TooTHED WHALE SPFDEs. PILOT WHALES WILL

EAT 1112A IF sQuip ARE Nor AVAILA4LE.

This material may be copied without permission.

FORMPORT

F76-1

GULF OF MAINE

WHALE SIGHTING NETWORKFold and AWED WHALEmail to

College of the AtlanticBar Harbor, Maine 04609

Your name Addres Phone

[OBSERVATIONS Please fill out as completely as possible _There is room for additional remarks on the back I

Date 19 Time am/pm Weather and sea conditions

Location Coordinates

Type of whale or porpoise sighted Site How many' In a tight school"How far were you from the animals' Which direction were they swimming' How tast"

The whale spouted times with seconds between spouts Then it dived for minutes before spouting again

Describe the animal's behavior (did it lump, make noise, ignore boat, Bee approich. etc )

Describe any fishes, birds, or other marine life seen near the whales or porpoises

IDENTIFICATION Pleasesuck any feature. that you saw Sketch any additional observations at bottom right If you saw a tag. or any unusualyour observations. Photographs of the undersides of humpback whale flukes can

whales. Please notify us if you have such photographsmarkings,scars, colors or deformities, please describe and sketch

help to identify individual

COMMONLY SEEN.finback whale40'- 70'

Vb._

.I-

---ti.,

humpback whale36-55'

"bow. / ....---..iers.a.,of Nun VT.

--..... ....,..-611111110.11191*. ...

14.

m2 ica whale15' -5'

; -,,,,--- -........._:g--..:,;:.:3-

right whale35 - CO' ae...

etY.

ti

411.n..../.....Plmilmounwrwalinow,.._.--

-

harhnr porpoise4"-6 ."

pothe-x/ or pilot whale17-20'

.....8..z.3"-----OCCASIONALLY SEEN: OTHER - DRAW WHAT YOU SAW:wree-sdeddolph n

white -beaxed Ilk

17/tA1443 MVO .11.5.4V AY .0 D Ihie.A

saaereback Or common dolphn

6 8

kilter we

.V"w...... '"...661 fro

t5 - 25

74This material may be copied without permission.