DOCUMENT RESUME

ED 216 701v

,IR 010'241-\

TITLE1 Development Communication Report. No. 37, March1982. .

rNSTITUTION Agency for International Development (Dept. ofState), Washin;gton, D.C. Clearinghouse on Development

.

Communication. .

PUB DATE Mar 82.

NOTE' 18p:.

JOURNAL, CIT Development Communication Report; n37 Mar 1982

MF01/PC01 Plug Postage.' .

*Communications; *Developing Nations; *EducationalDevelopment; *Educational Radio; Elementary SedondaSyEducation; Farmers;;Higher Education; InformationNeedrr *International Programs; Language Arts;Multimedia InstrUctiong *Public Agencies;TelecommunicationsEgypt; ERIC; Indonesia; Kenya

EDRS PRICEDESCRIPTORS

IDENTIFIERS

ABSTRACT .

This issue of the newsletter of the U.S. Agency forInternational Development (AID) Clearinghouse on Development

- Communication contains: a report from the Acapulco conference of thenew International Program for the Development of Communication; anarticle on the roles of radio and print in national health campaignstin developing countries; a description of Kenya's language arts pilot,prograp, which uses radio to teach primary school children mastery of3.,lisE as a second language.4. an essay on the information community

. a farmers' information needs in developing countries; a descriptivek, report entitled "Educational.Communication Development in Indonesia:

A Multimedia Approach "; a"Colliffin on communication training in LatinAmerica; a 'set of reviews of `recent books on communication and -

educational development; a,,,set of descriptions of recent materials,received by"the Eftcational'Resolaces Information Center (ERIC)

,

pertaining to educational broadcast programs and the production anduse of instructional materials; a description of the DevelopmentCommunication Support Project in Egypt; a description of, the newpublicati"on, International Dateline, a resource for broadcasters inthe developg world; and excerpts from a Commonwealth Committeereport cmopornmunication and the media. (n)

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********************k*********-****************************************** Reproductions Supplied by EDR$ are the best that can be made * .

* 0 from.the original *document. . ,*

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U.S. DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONNATIONAL INSTITUTE OF EDUCATION

EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES INFORMATIONCENTER (ERICI

0 This document has been reproduced asreceived from the perion or organizationonginating it

0 Minor changes have been made to improvereproduction quality r

Points of view or opinions stated in this docu-ment do not necessarily represent

official MEposition or policy

DEVELOPMENT COMMUNICATION REPORT

March 1982 ;

No. 37' '

e

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developmentcommunicationreport

Report from the Acapulb6 Conference:IPDC Off to a Promiting Startby Clifford H. Bibck

the IPDC

. The new International Programfor the Development of Commu-nication, the IPDC, is now a re-ality. The 35-nation Council ofmet in Acapulco, Mexico, in

January 1982 at the invitation of MexicanPresident LtIrez eurtillo and took the organ-ization's first. major actions. Delegatesagreed on a list of candidates for Director, es-tablished criteria for future projfct fundingand-for financing mechdnisRs, and approvedthe'first round of IpDC-funded or endorsedprojects.

The IPDC is an effort by the internationalcommunity to enhance the communicationscapabilities of the developing world. Stem-ming from a U.S. proposal at the 1978Unesco General Conference, the idea hasevolved from a clearinghouse on needs andfunding sourCes to an institution which alsohas its own 'funding. While operations arepartially supported by Unesco, project fundsare developed through voluntary convribu-nous. The largely non - ideological characterof the gathering in Acapulco was.evidence ofthe degree to which the practically orientedprogram of IPDC has engaged the support ofevery political blod., .

In-this issue . . .

Report from AcapulcoRadio and Print in National Health

1

Campaigns 2

Kenya's Radio Language ArtsPrograM for School Children 3

Farmeis' Information NeedsEducation and CommunicatiOns in

Indonesian Program 6

A Communicator's Checklist 8

On File at Eric . 12

Development Support in Egypt 13

International Dateline: Resourcefor Broadcasters 15

"Communication, Society, andDevelopment" 16

Candiylates for Director)3Thd 1PDC ill have a small professional

staff, initially ,a 'rector and Deputy, housedat Unesco, in ParisThe Counul endorsed a ,distinguished list of experienced communica-/tions professionals, put forward by the"Group of , ," developing nations; froniwhich Unesco Director General M'Bow''soOnwill select a Director. The candidates are.

Khorshed Alam, BangladeshSecretary, Mnfister of Informationand Broadcasting

Sarath Amunagama, Sri LankaSecretary, Ministry of State

Go9dwin Alum, GhanaCommunication Consoltant

Albino Alberto Gomez, ArgentinaNewspaper Correspondent

.Jose Antonio Mayobre, VenezuelaDivision of Development ofCommunications System,Unesco

Parayil Unnikrkhnan, IndiaDeputy General Manager,Press Trust of India

T. Nelson Williams, LiberiaDirector, Public Affairs DepartmentLamco Joint Venture.

Financing MechanismsThe issue of multilateral vs. bilateral aid

arose in Acapulco. The debate centered onthe status of Council-approved projectswhiCh might be subsequently funded by bilat-eral mechanisms, rather than by the IPDCSpecial AccoUnt or by Funds-in-Trust. Some

, developing nations initially objected to ttieinclusion of such projects in the IPDC port-folio. Several Western nations argued stronglythat bflateral mechanisi'ns offered an IPDC

1414 22nd Street, N.W.Washington, D.C.

20037 USA

March 1982No. 37

project channels for funding that could notbe ignored, and should even be encouraged,since many donors'operate within constraintswhich discourage Special Account contribu-tions. Since three nations (Austria, The Neth-erlands, and Australia) had offered to fundspecific projects approved by the IPDC, andothers had similar intentions, the issue Mr asvital. In the

rend the Council adopted lan-

guage that did not rule out bilateral funding

ProjectsThe longest discussions of the meeting in-

volved the remew of 24 regional, 3 world-wide, and 27 national projects proposed forfunding or endorsement. In 'spite of lengthydebate on a few projects, consensus wasmaintained. Regional arid worldwide projectswere given funding priority over nationalprojects; among regions, Africa was affordedtop priority as the neediest area in.terms ofpresent communications infrastructure andinstitutions.

The 8-nation Bureau of the IPDC, an ex-ecutive group which represents the Council,subsequently allocated .$741,000 in first-yearfunding to 14 regional projects; bilateraldonors ag ?eed to fund two other region;1 ef-forts and one national project. Several othernational projects were approved, subject tofuture funding availabilities. The fundedprojects:

REGIONAL PROJECTS

AFRICAPan African News Agency(PANA); (also $2 million to benegotiated from the Gulf StatesProgram for United NationsOrganizations) $100,000

Regional Project for Develop-ment of Communication Technol-ogies (Funding to be negotiatedwith the Government of Austria)

ACCE Institute" for Communica-tion Development and Research $10,000

Establishment of a Network forthe Exchange of Economic NewsAmong the Press Agencies of theCEAO Countries $10,000

(continued on page 11)

A publication of the Clearinghouse on Development Communication -

Supported by the Bureau for Science and Technology of the U.S. Agency for International Development

eyond Slogans:A Serious New Role for Radioby William Smith

As recently as 1952, the questionwas first posed, "Why Lan't yousell brotherhood like you sellsoap?" Since then, social mar-

keters in the United States have tried to applythe principles of commercial marketing to thepromotion of social ideas, using slogans like"Only You Can Prevent Forest Fires," . . .

"Don:t Drink and bribe," . . . "BuckleUp," . . . and "Breast is Best." Sloganeeringhas become a standard part of the mass com-munii.ation lexiLon. Gradually, practitionershave ..orne to make a LrittLal distinction be-tween programs of suoal tiLhertisingrely on sIdgans to inform and motivate, andof so.hz1 marketing. which emphasize theinterrelatedness of the following four'elements:

1ProduLt. the LharaLteristics of the4...commodity or idea to be

prOmoted,Pri e. the real cost in money, time,

prestige, and power to theconsumer;

Place: the system for distributingthe idea or commodity whichensures easy access for a sig-nificant percentage of con-sumers;

. Promotion. the knowledge, attitudes,and beliefs which the con-sumer requires to adopt theidea, and the means of de-livering each.

The driving force in .an effective 'socialmarketing strategy is the intensity of -"Zonzsumer needs and wants. Consequently., thedistinction which development plannersoften make between "felt" needs and "real"needs becomes academiL. For the socialmarketer, felt" needs are The only realneeds, To k.oncink.e a rural farmer that familyplanning is import/nt because the wordoverpopulated, or to promote the boiling ofwater because it kills some invisible creaturethat a rural mother doesn't believe really ex-ists, denies the bash. assumption of successfulmarketing. the attitudes, beliefs, and valuesof the consumer are central to the design ofan effective program.- A public. educationprogram built around consumer values ispresently under way in a Latin American anda West African country,

The Ministries of health in both Hondurasand The Gambia have embarktd on separatebut parallel programs to test the effectivenessof soLial marketing applied to the preventionand treatment of acute infant diarrhea.Through-the Mass edia and Health ['Vac-tiv.es Project s nsored by the Office ofHealth E ation within the Bureau for

Science and Technology of AID, the Acade-my' for Educational Development is assistingHonduras and The Gambia in their concertedeffort to reduce diafrheal mortality due tosevere dehydratiqn in small children.

New Oral Therapy

In the eaily stages of dehydration, a childdoes not have to be hospitalized and givenfluids intravenously. The child can be caredfor at home, and rehydrated through oral re-hydration therapy (ORT), a promising newtool for halting the diarrbea-dehydration-death sequence so common among 5outig Lhil-dren in the developing world. But ogT is de-pendent upon mothers and health Lare work-ers who -can reLognize when the remedy isneeded, and,who are able to mix and admin-ester the remedy properly. In esserke, oraltherapy' is a new "Product;" a package ofsimple chemicals (salts and sugar) and a set ofaccompanying skills which offer a praLticalremedy for aserious killer in both countries..

LITROSOL

Abra porel cone.

Echelas sales.

Labels on 1-11,01 packages use words,pictures, and n bers to convey life savingdirections

a AIn Honduras and The Gambia, the chat--

lenge is how" to deliver both the remedy and -the necessary skills to administer, it to eventhe most isolated rural villages, villages withno health care center, no mail or telephonesystem, and no reliable netwdrk Of roads.The reliable communication channels thatdiete two countries du have are radio and aneffective' system of traditional 'interpersonal

....communication.

The Mas,s Media and' Health Practices Proj-ect is creating a public education campaignthat combines. health worker training, spe-cially designed print materials, and wide:spread use of radio tp rea.h isolated villages.Each element of the campaign is designed tointeract with and reinforce the other ele-ments. Slogans such as "Ma rd Que PechoDa es Madre de Verdad" (" e Mother WhoBreastfeeds Is a Mother Indeed") havehelped to standardize the c ntral messages.But, more significantly, c eful sequencing

4

and design have made it possible for radio to.act as 'art effective stimulus and reminderabout the important mixing and administra-tion skills being taught by health workers.

Mixing InstructionsIn The Gambia, for example, mixing in-

struLtions for a simple sugar and salts ORTsolution are being Lolor-coded on an inex-pensive one-page flyer which is distributed

e.)free, and.which also serves as a lottery ticket.A national radib lottery, offering suLh prizesas radios, t-shirts, and liter cups, is beingorganized to stimulate the widespread distri-bution of the flyer. Radio will take advantageof mothers' interest in the lottery to teach themixing instruLtions through reference tocolor-coded sections on the lottery flyer.

. Radio is thus helping to transform an other-wise indecipherable pieLe of paper into a po-tentially powerful learning deviLe in thevillage.

In Honduras, it was obvious that the Min-istry 's normal distribution sLhedule for drugswould be inadequ to to meet the special de-mand for rapid an easy access to large num-bers of ORT packs es. During a 6-month pre-program investigat n, a number of new dis-tribution points ere identified. Radio wascall2d upon not nly to_promote-the prepack-aged ORT pound,' Litrosol, as a newremedy, but to opularize new distributionpoints for the r medy. These included localmayors; selected idwives, and local healthcare workers. The problem was how to en-sure that these selected individuals could beeasily identified by rural 1, illagers. The solu-tion was a simple flag featuring-a large redheart. Flags were distributed along with thestocks of Litrosol packets to mayors, mid-Wives, and healthworkeis., who placed theflag in an easy-to-see place outside theirhouses. Special radio spots then advised thevillages "to find Litrosol, look for the flagwith the red heart."

This simple Message; which could be broad-cast hundreds of times a week, proved an un-complicated and effective way of eituringthe maximum exposiiie to the campaign at aminimum cost to the Ministry.

Consistent Sequence

While the program differs considerably inthe two countries due to organizational andcultural differences, a consistent' sequencehas-been-f011OWed to design the overalkam- S.paign plan. The first step was to develop aseries of theoretical models which defined,not only the medical and bioChernical aspectsof diarrhea and oral rehydration, but careful-ly4described the sotto- cultural consequencesof the prcigram.

. Key issues were then extrapolated fromthese models and used to structure an inten-sive field investigation which included. (a)focus group and individual interviews withseveral hundred mothers, (b) ORT mixing

(continued ori next page)

c(coinued from page 2)

trials in actual rural villages, (c) home obser-vations, and (d) interviews at local phar-macies and medical facilities. The results Ofthis research were then used to define theprecise target audience, develop messagethemes, and finally, produce the draftmaterials. The most important materials,those which affect the largest ai<snce werepretested and significant modifications weremade based upon pretest results. In one Lase,for example, the numbers used to identify asequence of activities on a mixing poster werecontused by the audience and taken to referto the number of packets, glasses of water,etc.. to mix. This obviously critical problemwas subsequently corrected.

The two campaigns were designed in sever-al phases which are consistent with the sea-sonal prevalence of diarrhea (highest duringthe rainy season) in both countries. The tran-sitional phases permit regular monitoring ofprogram effectivness and provide logicalpoints for re-design and re-orientation of themessages as needed. The flexibility to makemid-course adjustments based on reliablefield information is another key element ofthe program.

Other Media Camp aignsThe program in Honduras is now in full

swing. Almost a year of broadcasting is com-pleted and a second broadcast year is soon tobegin. In The Cambia, planning is completed

, and the one-year broadcast cycle is scheduledto begin in early April 1982. Although theproject is being systematically evaluatedthrough a separate contract between AIDand Stanford University's Institute for Com-munication Research, summative results arenot yet available. Anecdotal information,especially from 'Honduras, indicates thatLitrosol is now well recognized by the ruralpopulation. The distribution system for bothpackets and educational messages appears tobe in place and working. We have yet todetermine, however, what the full impact ofthe campaign will be. W*e.do know that theMinistry of Health'in Honduras is currentlybuilding an integrated and mediated (that, is,making use of a range of communicationmedia techniques) public education approachinto two new large-scale tealtfi programs..

In sum, there is growing evidence of jthepositive role which mediated prografms ofpublic education can play. We believe thatsuch programs can do a great deal more thansimply "publicize and sloganize." We areconvinced that under the right conditions,with an appropriate type of probletn and suf-ficient time available, mediated public educa-tion can make a poweffujand unique instructional impact on widespread and isolated au-diences at a highly competitive cost. 111

William Smith is Vice President and AssociateDirector of the Academy's International Division,and presently Project Director of the Mass Mediaand Health Praitices Program.

Using Radio to Teach Language Arts:Pilot' Program in Kenya Addressing Priniary Needs

by Morris Cutler

Can children learn to read andunderstand English from radioinstruction? Answering thisquestion is the purpose of a pilot

project being developed for Kenya primarypublkc schools, Like_ many developing na:-Clops, Kenya infers from an expandingschool populat on and a scarcity of qualifiedteachers, part] -ularly in rural schools. TheRadio langua e Arts Project' is an attemptto provide a I guage program pertinent tothe needs of ch dren outside the urban areasand to improve the quality of the instructionof English as a second language in a cost-ef-fective manner.

The instructional ,design is based uponmethodology successfully applied in the Nic-aragua Radio Mathematics Project imple-mented b e Institute for MathematicalStudies'i the Social Sciences, Stanford Uni-versity, in 973.' This project was a joint ven-ture of the United States Agency for Interna-tional Deveiopment and the Nicaraguan Min-istry of Public Education. An evaluation ofthe project indicated that students in the ex-perimental radio classes scored significantlyhigher on tests than their non-experimentalcounterparts. Becaue of the success and de-sign of the Radio Mathematics Project, itsmethodology was considered applicable tootper.subject areas in other nations.

BackgroundPupils ill Kenyan public primary schools

are taught in their mother tongue for the ini-tial three years. As delineated in the KenyanStatement of Objectives instruction inEng-lish as q second language is phased in, begin-ning in the first school year. By the end of thethird year, "the child should have acquired asufficient command of vocabulary and lan-guage patterns to enable him to use Englishas the medium of learning." Starting instandard 4 (grade A), English becomes thelanguage of instruction and by the end ofstandard 7 (grade 7) pupils are required to'pass the Comprehensive Proficiency Exam-ination to qualify for secondary school:en-rollment.

With the elimination' of primary sizhoolfees in 1973, enrollment soared, straining theeconomic and educational, resources of _thenation's schools. Inttructicmal materials,

schools, faculty fioUsing, and qualifiedteachers were in short supply. To meet the as-pirations of the-people and therowing needsof the nation's children, this Radio LanguageArts pilot project will attempt to increasecomprehension of oral and written English'by using 'radio as the basic instructionalmedium for pupils in standards, I and 3.

.

Curriculum and. MethodologyThe RadioLanguage Arts Project (RLAP)

must follow the official goals and curriculumfor primary pupils of Kenya's Ministry ofBasic Education. While the goals and curri-culum of the RLAP and the conventionalcurriculum are the same, the means by whichthe RLAP achieves these goals and presentsthe curriculum through radio lessons will dif-fer. In Kenya, English is taught as a secondlanguage and parallels the basic Skills of thelanguage program in the mother tongue TheRLAP will use an integrated litriguage artsapproach which will focus on language func-tion, emphasizing .meaning and ,communica-lion activities. Listening ancliipeaking willprecede reading and writin t Readiness ex-

perience,s in both reading d writing will beimplemented from the A rt of the program.Each facet of languag skills will be used to_reinforce and expan the others.''Radio instructio will require active partic-

ipation and rev onse by pupils to enhancelearning. Children will talk, write, and re-spond physically- throughout the. prOgram.Each skill will be carefully developed, pre-sented, and practiced in short, frequentlesson segments, and pupils will receive MI-mediate correctiN or encouragement fromtheir teachers to stimulate learning. _

The lesson content is based upon criteriawhich will assist the student in learning aspecific.skill but will relato, to the learner'sneeds and interests in his rural environment.Materials will be screened by the Kenyanteam members to ensure that they are appro-priate andtreflect, the values of the culture.

Since.c& is a major concern of the proj-ect, efforts will be made to reduce the mater-ialS which will be supplied to each class.Books require not only paper and printingbut also distribution, which is costly and dif-ficult. During the first Year and part of thesecond, char.ts and worksheets will be 'devel-oped, but as children become Proficient in),writing, worksheets will be phased out.Whenever- pPssible, ,materials found in localclassrooms will be utilized. Teachers will beasked to write exercises On the board andafter the pupils earn to write, pupils will beasked to copy materials from the board and,more importantly, toown reading matter,

create some of their

/Lesson Design

Children in standards 1, 2, and 3 willreceive their English instruction via30-minute daily radio broadcasts. Each radiolesson will consist of two parts, the radiobroadcast and post-broadcast activities

(continued on page 12)

3

Is the Information ComthimityServing Farrilers' Information. Needs?by Michael Laflin

As we hear more and mote about the rnfor-mation explosion, we are reminded that it isimportarit for disseminators (or suppliers) torespond to an increasing demand for specificand relevant information. Even though newdata bases and techniques for delivcry aremaking it increasingly possible to anser in-di vidual requests quite specifically, some sup-pliers still want to put their own needs andorganizational priorities ahead of theirclients' needs. This article addresses the issueas it relates to the information needs offarm'ers' H.R.

An "agriculthral informationservice operates in most coun-tries not only on thepremise thatit has a body of knowledge and

practices to disseminate, but also thatfarmers are willing recipients. Farmers are

' tardy considered to be information seekers.While it is true that agricultural extensionistsdo meet farmers prepared to 'buy their corn-modity'I explain the metaphor laterandthat new practices are adopted by farmers,this perspective has limitations and is basedon assumptions that need examination.

Ministries of Agriculture generally take theview that, confronted by the reality of back-ward agricultural practices, it is their func-tion to modernize them. The most efficientuse of a small corps of skilled manpower vin

*research stations with a brief t6 develop newvarieties and techniques. Less skilled peopleare trained as extensionists to dissethinate,thediscoveries to.farmers. Any failure of the sys-temis put down to the stereotype of tradi-_tional.peasant obduracy, or poor extensionstafrrather than to inappropriate informa-tion. The combination 'GI. a single-purposeextension service and ihcentives to farmersisthought to be the solution. The most single--minded example of dissemination is the train-ing and visit system, currently in eavor withinthe World Bank.

Media Supplements Agents' MessageExtension agents' personal contact with

farmers is supplemented by radio broadcasts,print materials, mobile film units, anddemonstration plots, the totalitY'being calledan agricultural information system..All arecentrally conceived, and probably produced,by a national information center,,91thoughseparate systems may be created for agricul-ture and livestock, for example.

At the farmers' level,,it is easy to Jose sightof the fact that goliernmenti also have na-tional needs, such as earning foleign ex-change, and therefore want to promote the

, production of such export crops as coffee,tea, or pyrethrum. Farmers are encouragedto grow these cash crops to supplement sub-

-

sistence crops using techniques that maximizeproduction. Thus there is a need- not merelyto disseminate ..informaticrn, but throughselective dissemination to steer farmers in aparticular direction. This allows only limitedinformation-seeking 6y farmers since the sys-tem is directive (in that it gives out the infor-.mation it wants to) rather than receptive andwilling to tailor .responses to farmers' needs.

While it cannot be chsputi4 that certaindecisions are the prerogative of governments,decisions about crops and techniques ulti-mately rest with the farmer, at least in capi-talist-oriented societies. He takes the risk sohe makes the decisioni.'The farmer's deci-sions will be based tin:

adequate information (not necessarilycomplete, but perceived t'o be sufficient)controLof sufficient resources to allow ac-tionthe influence of others who ,provide asocial environment which encourages ordiscourages a particular decisionthe impulse to act, partly arising out of thefactors above, partly a function of.person-ality.

To ask how far central agencies can infld-ence this process is' to ask the length of apiece of string. It is probably the case thatmany agencies, despite being aware of therole of local leaders and incorporating theminto a system, underestimite the importanceof friends and neighbors as sources of infor-mation and motivation, and feel threatenedby them. However, research has turned thequestion upside down and asked to`what ex-tenfof ficial information sources conflict withthe views of farmers. Singh and Hague sur-veyed farmers' perceptions of the importanceof 12 items of information, and comparedthem with those of Village Level Workers(VLWs) and Block Level PeriOnnel (BLP) inIndia. Of the twelve kerns; the first and lasttwo items were ranked as follows:

Clearinghouse AnnoynceS.New Pub.lidations

The Clearinghouse on Development Com-munication is pleased. to announce that aselection of 45 of its Project Profiles has beentranslated into French, Spanish, and Arabic.

The Project Profiles are series of brief two-and three-page desciiptions of developmentprojects around the world that have° had astrong communicationnomment. In addi-tion to a succinct description of the project,each individual profile in the collection fur-nishes a short bibliography and a list of con-tacts: names and addresses of the people whoworked on the projects. The translated Pro-files are now available for distribution to theDCR network. The English-language Profilesare to be reprinted at a later date, and will beannounced in DCR when available.

Each of the paperbound volumeseontainsa detailed index which identifies the projectsby country, sector (agriculture, health, in-tegrated development, family planning, andeducation' and human resources) and com-munications Media used. Each volume isabout 125 pages long, and is available at acost of US $6.00 each to readers in the devel-oped world. Readers in developing countriesmay request the Project Profiles free ofcharge. .

To obtain copies of the translated ProjectProfiles, 'please write the Clearinglimise.Where appropriate, enclose a check ormoney order for US $6.00 dollars,*payable toAED. Please specify whether you are order-ing the French, Spanish, or Arabic edition.Profiles will be sent by surface mail.

system. But when one Considers that the sys-tem is intended to provide farmers with infor-mation for decisions, that that informationmust be timely, relevant, comprehensible,complete, and frequent, and that farmers donot have time to take in much informationthat is not-immediately useful, then the bur-den on central informationsystems becomeshuge. Is it realistic to suppose that a centrallybased system can work in any butithe smallest

Item of information

Improved seedsStorageSoil testWater test

Farmer s' ranking

1st

2nd11th12th

VL Ws' ranking

, 12th9th2ndlsi

BLP's ranking

9th'1 1 th

sr- 2nd

Who was right is less important in this in-stance than the effect of conflicting prioritieson the extension service's credibility. A simi-lar result was recorded by Knight and Singhwhen they tested fanners, and farm broad-casters from All India Radio for their viewson the effect of broadcast style and contenton information dissemination.

It would be easy and convenient to put thediscrepancy down to poor operation of the

and mast homogeneous country?In addition to the basic ambivalence be-

tween ilitectNn and serving farmers' infOr-mation needs, an agricultural informationservice has its awn internal pressures irudefinmg its audience and its needs. The higherechelons of government may favor commer-cial farmers on the basis that itis they whowill best provide exports, the producers of in-

(continued on next page)

formation and the extension staff will proba-bly identify more clotely with small holderssince ills usually this social background fromwhich they have themselves come. If. an aidagency is involved, it will perhaps promotethe interests, of the poorest farmers.

However the interest struggle transpiresand it may never be resolved, leading to con -tlicting objectivesgroups must be identifiedas targets. These groups will be called homo-geneous according to the criteria selected.Those criteria will be based at worst onresearch convenience or stereotypes, or, atbest, on a. particular perceptiOn of reality.The actual number of groups, and the con-sequent sophistication of the profiles, will bedictated by the resources available to the in-formation service and by compatibility withthe production program.

Certain Groups FavoredThe resulf is that certain groups are fa-

vored by the information service, and thatthe dissemination of information Js necessari-ly generalized to agree with the producers' re-stricted conception of those groups as far ascontent, timing, and presentation are con-cerned.

The effect of producers' needs on the qual-ity of information for farmer deusion-mak-mg can be illustrated-by the following model.

a move from presentation of centralized so-lutions to individualized problem-solving.It might prove beneficial to the quality of

:information if more people viewed informa-tion as a commodity,' subject to the samemarket forces as any other. If agriculturalformation producers were judges on thenumber of 'sales' that they had made, the de-lineation ,of the 'market' would have to bemore realistic, the civil service ethos wouldhave to be replaced by greater dynamism,and information quality would have to rise.The initiative would pass to the informationseeker, the 'consumer.' The implicationswould ripple inwards and upwards. Exten-sion agents given inappropriate informationwould complain to researchers, or in the caseof badly 'packaged' information, to themedia producers.

Information Services ModelFanciful? Perhaps..Yet, the Citizens' Ad-

vice Bureaux in Britain operate on the basisthat their clients are information seekers andthis perspective is reflected in the service theyprovide. They recently ,.arried out an experi-ment in rural North Wales where people arealmost as remote, inffirmation-starved, poor-ly serviced by state agencies, and often asunable to travel as are their counterparts inthe Third World. Certainly they have radio

Area of Consideration

Content:Depth of Examination.

.

Task Relevance:Problerb/SOlutitin

Ratio:Area Specificity:Timing:Control of Information:

Info. the farmer needs

SpecificExplanation, interpreta

tion, understandingHigh, great utility

Examination, of optionsLocalSpecific, immediateBy individual consumer

Info. producedby nat'l agency

GeneralSimple statement of fact.

Low, general interest

Perception of solutionNationilGeneral, delayedBy producer

In drawing up these continua, I originally ap-plied them to radio broadcasts, but they areapplicable to 'other areas. More could be

"*. added. They are simplistic in that they il-lustrate only extremes, but when applyingthem to a system, one can add gradations.

The information needs for the majority ofdecisions fall on the left-hand side; ease ofproducing information is greater and the costless towards, the right-hand side of the con-tinua. Implications of a move from right toleft by informtion producers are consider-Ole. Some of them are:

an increasing need to be aware of the real-ity of consumers if the information is to beuse ful

an acknowledgement of the importance of`individual decisions

the need to improve data storage and re-trieval systems

an increasing scale of, and access to, re-searchthe increasingly individualized access to in-formation systems

and televison, but these channels rarely pro-Oe the kind of information needed for deci-

si&s. Lacking libraries and private tele-phones, residents exist on information avail-able from the local sub-post office, neigh- ,bors, the local school teacher, and the doctorand Fleric who probably visit rather than livethere. The experiment,,which involved mo-bile information vans traveling regularly tooseveral villages, parking, and waiting for cus-tomers, demonstrated 'three features One,that people were often unable to act becausethey simply did not know of the existence ofservices' (the old lady shivering at nightbecause she did not know she was eligible fora heating allowance is akin to the farmer ig-norant of the fact that he can claim a Alb-sidy); two, that although it was not alwayspossible to 'vary all the information re-quested, regular visits enabled the service tofollow-up requests. and identify the need forspecialist advice, requests which they thengave to specialist agencies for action; andthree, that the service was heavily used andcould operate at a cost no greater than per-

. 7

manent establishments in towns The Citi-zens' Advice Bureaux Set out to service infor-mation needs rather than shape actions andevaluated its success partly in term's of cost,per inquiry.

For agricultural informatioservices, thecrux of the matter lies ip co ceding that it. isfarmers who decide whether 6 adopt a prac-tice, not the plapners, researy ers, and infbr-mation producers While go% rnments mustfurther national needs, and their provision ofinformation, incentives, andubsidies mayhasten and influence the direction of farm-ers' decisions, the initiative lies squarely inthe hands of the farmer.

For further information, contact the au-thor at the University of Reading Agricultur-al and Rural Development Centre, 16 Lon-don Road, Reading, Berks., England.

Michael Laflin is editor of'the Reading Rural De-relopment Communications (RRDC) Bulletin. Hehas worked in audiovisual production and ruralsocial development in Kenya, Kuwait, and Eng-land.

Toward Safe DrinkingWater forAll

In this, the International DrinkingWater Supply and Sanitation Decade,we wish to call readers' attention to amost important source of information.IRC, the International Reference Ceptrefor Community Water Supply and Sani-tation, is an independent foundationcreated by the World Health Organiza-tion and-the-NetheTands Gbiternment,"to promote and support the creation ofsafe drinking waterand sanitation facili-ties in the developing world." To carryout these activities, the IRC offers infor-mation services, technology transfer,training, community education, pro-gram planning and evaluation, work-shops, a newsletter, sand a TechnicalPaper series. The technical 'papers,handsome documents of great value tothe community program planner forwater and sanitation, now number 18,and are available, as are the other serv-ices, from IRC, P.O. Box 5500, 2280HM Rijswijk, The Netherlands.

Another information source for read-ers concerned with the problems, ofdrinking water and sanitation is theUnited Nations bevelopment Pro-gramme's Division .of Information.Their list of available InformationMaterial includes briefing' documents,special issues of various UN ptibliea-dons, case histOries, films, and 'otheritems,that deal' with the Decade's topic.Addrqs reqPests to UNDP, Division ofInformation, Room C15-1872, OneUnited Nations Plaia, NeW York, N.Y.10017, USA.

6

Educational Cain- unication Developmen;In Indonesia A Multfmedia Approach .

by Yusufhadi Miarso and John Middleton

Expanded access to educationalopportunity and increased quali-

4ity of eduiation are central goalsfor educational develop-

ment throughout much of the world. In In-donesia, these goals are extremely important.The fifth most populous country in theworld, Indonesia stretches some 3600 milesacross several major and some 3000 smallerislands. Since achieving independence of1945, the nation has demonstrated an ex-.traordmary commitment to education. Be-tween 1950 and 1977, primary enrollmentswere expanded 4000/o, reaching near-univer-sal coverage of the age group. Secondary en-rollments were increased 18-fold, and thenumber of university students increased by.afactor of 57.

As Indonesia entered the -1980S, the lit-eracy rate was about 64%, and even higheramong younger people. The massive expan-sion of the schoOil system had created a firmbase for continued educational development.However, significant challenges remained.Despite rapid expansion, the large majorityof secondary school-age children could notfind places. Access to higher education waseven more limited, creating a serious shortageof trained prsons for national development.Moreover, despite a massive project in cur-riculum development, textbook preparationand distemination, and teacher training atthe primary level; the cinality of educationlagged behind the quantitative growth of thesystem.

The government has taken firm steps todeal with these challenges. High priority hasbeen given to school expansion, textbook de-velopment, and teacher training at the.secon-dary level, and 4o development of highereducation. .

The potential of educational media andtechnology was recognized early,irr the 1970sas an alternative.means of both expanding ac-cess and improving quality.. Beginning with'experimental projects using radio for primaryinstruction and for teacher training, Indone-

Apia has given rapidly ihcreaSing iupport to theuse of educational technology throughout theeducational system.

Today, the Indonegian Center for Commu-nication fechnology in Education and Cul-tune (commonly known as PTKPK) is chargedwith the responsibility for coordination andaction for the application of communicationtechnology' to problems of education. Therole of P'FKIlifis to develop and test technol-

ogylbased alternative solutions to educa-tional probleme, to lead in the developmentof trained' personnel, and to coordinate ac-tivities in the field of communicatio

nology both within and outside the Ministryof Education.

PTKPK Activities

Institutionalized as a Center of the Minis-try of Education in 1978, PTKPK operatesfrom a new facility near Jakarta through.anextensive network of decentralized regionalradio and television production facilities,provincial Learning Resource Centers, and,00perative relationships witj units of theMinistry of Education and Indonesian uni-versities and teacher training institutes.PTKPK has a staff of more than 250 em-ployees, nationwide.

PTKPK is engaged in a complex and exten-sive set of activities. Of chief importance arethe action and demonstration projectsthrough which alternative roles for com-munication technology are tested and dem-onstrated. Currently, PTKPK manages eightmajor projects:?

Open Junior Secondary School: Athree-year pilot project enrollingmore than 2000 students is current-ly nearing completion. Designed toreach students whose access to sec-ondary education is limited by fac-tors of geography and a currentshortage of classroom space, thisproject delivers education to village,learning groups through self-instructional modules, radio, cas-settes and slide/cassette programs.Learning groups are attached to a"mother school," where studentsreceive advanced subject matter in-struction once a week.

Primary Teacher Training byRadio: In operation for more thanfive years,. this project providesbroadcast radio inservice training .to primary school teachers. Radioprograms are supported with sim-pie print materials. The projectcurrently operates in 11 provincesand is designed to reach about70,000 teachers.

Non formal Education: In coopera-tiOn with the Adult and Communi-ty Education Division of the Minis-try of Education, PTKPK providesradio support for rural learninggroups in 20 experimental sites.Programs are written and-producedon a decentralized basis and, likeall PTKPK radio, are broadcast incooperation with the national radionetwork (RRI), primarily throughprovincial and local stations.

4 8

Children's Television: In coopera-tjpn with Unicef, PTKPK iS pro-ducing 17 half-hour programs onthe theme of character develop-ment. Designed for open- broad-- cast, these pro ms use drama tobring the the of characier devel-opment to rural and semi-ruralchildren. Topics include problem-solving, Initiative, acceptance ofresponsibility, and self-image. Cur-rently produced in 3/4-inch video-tape foimat, these programs areproviding an opportunity for ex-tended on-the-job and formal train-ing in educational television designand production.

Public Television: PTKPK is alsoproducing TV series'on environ-mental problems and on basic de-velopment skills for broadcast fromthe TV Republic Indonesia (TVRI)station in Surabaya, East Java.These programs are produced on16mm film. In additipn, PTKPKco-produces with TVRI Surabaya aweekly Ine "development quiz"series,

Higher Education. Support tohigher education development isprovided in several ways, includingassistance with closed-circuitclassroom instruction, in-servicetraining of university lecturers, andplaning for a variety of distancelearning projects, including a pro-posed Open University. PTKPK isalso assisting in the establishmentof educational technology pro-grams at several universities.

Trainingt A major mechanism- forthe diffusion of educational tech-nology concepts and techniques istraining. PTKPK develops andleads training programs in instruc-tional development and media pro-duction and utilization for a widerange of clients both within andoutside the educational setting.

Policy Communication: Furtherdiffusion comes through the de-velopment of media, principallyfilm and slide/cassettes, to spreadknowledge of educational innova-tions among audiences which in-cluceboth professionals and thegeneral public.

The level of activity required by these proj-ects is evident from the production achieve-ments of fiscal year 1980-81. over 1000 radioprograms, 150 slide/cassette programs, adozen films and an equal number of proto-type television prOgrams, more than 400 dif-ferent print modules, and training for morethan 400 persons.

(continued on next page)

Institutional DevelopmentPTKPK faces the need to develop institu-

tional capability while maintaining a highvolume of support to education. In seekingto beLomb a center of excellenceuonal development and media productionfor education, PTKPK, like all new organiza-tions, needs to expand the pool of trainedpersons, upgrade available technology, anderolve patterns of working which enable re-sources to be effectively applied through edu-cational communication projects.

The process of institutional developmentbegan early, and will Lontinue for some time.A significant rihase Lame %,%, ith a USAID-tup-ported project with Syracuse University in1976-78, through which 20 Indonesianedikators,received advanced graduate train-ing in educational technology.

Further impetus has been gained with theEduyational Communication DevelopmentP ject (ECD) which began% in 1980 andmeshes at the end of 1983. This project is be-

/ ing implemented by the Academy for Educa-tional DevelopMent (AED) under contract toUSAID Jakarta, which is co-funding theproject with the Government of Indonesia.

New Media ResourcesThe ECD Project has three major compo-

nents: commodity/equipment purchase,training, and technical assistance... Radio,television, and graphic equipment is beingpurchased and installed in newly constructedfacilities. This new technology will givePTKPK full professional production capabil-ity by early 1983. In addition, the PTKPKbook, journal, and media resource collectionis being greatly expanded: technical book col-lections are being established in PTKPK pro-duction and learning resource centers, andbasir educational technology libraries are be-ing established in some 17 cooperating uni-versities and teacher training-c011eges.

The University. of SoUthern California,under a' sub-cosyract with AED, is providingMA and Ph.D.-level training for 26 studentsin cooperation with the Jakarta Institute ofTeacher Education (IKIP Jakarta). Thiscomponent consists of 17 -graduate coursestaught in Indonesia by USC faculty as part.of-----"the graduate program of the IKIP, whichgrpnts degrees. Included is a summer of ad-vatited study in the U.S. In addition, a varie-ty of short-term non-degree training is beingprovided, including a summer of advancedgraduate study at Indiana University for nineadditional Ph.D. students., The third component is technical assist-

' -ance. An AED field team with expertise inplanning, instructional development, re-search and evaluation, library 'and informa-non science, film and television production,and television engineering works closely withcolleaNses at PTKPK to deveIopand strength-en institutional capabilities. 4Aditionalshort-term consultants are called upon asneeded, and have contributed to educational

television design, formative evaluation, staffdevelopment in higher education, and OpenUniversity planning.

Overall, the ECD Nject rests on fourprinciples of action. First, through mecha-nisms of joint funding, all project compo-nents are integrated into the work of PTKPKand cooperating Indonesian institutionsThis integration requires cooperation amongthe many institutions involved in projectplanning and management. The thrust of alleffort4 is toward institutional:soonoftechnology, of training, and of technical as-sistance., The graduate training Lomponent,for example, is strengthening graduate educa-tion in educational technology in Indonesiathrough joint planning and curriculum devel-opment, teaching materials development,and Involvement of Indonesian (acuity mad-vanced study and co-teaching.

In the end, It is recognized that institu-tional growth is a difficult and time-consum-ing Process, one which must be firmly an-chored in the reality of present constraintsand opportunities, and which emphasizesgradual and steady growth. Thus the fourthprinciple is incremental kt,stems develop-ment, in which procedures for the design, de-velopmeitt, and production of educationalmedia are introduced slowly and carefully,with emphasis on adaptation to fit with In-donesian needs and constraints.

The history of development of PTKPK,like the history of development of Indonesianeducation, is one of rapid advance under dif-ficult constraints. Current "efforts representan important stage in the development ofeducational communication in Indonesia. Itis a stage which rests on a record of earherac-complishment and which, hopefully, will

Contribute in significant ways to more effec-nye use of technology as Indonesia continuesro expand and improve the quality of educa-tional opportunity. 1

Yusufhadi Miarso 4s Director of the IndonesianCenter for Communication Technology in Educa-tion and Culture. John Middleton is currently

'AED Project Director and-thief of Party for theE ucational Communication Development Proj-

"e in Jakarta, Indonesia; .

Development Communication Report. publishedquarterly by the Clearinghouse on DpvelopmentCommunication, has a circulation of over, 4,000Subscriptions are available tree of charge toreaders in the developing Wend.

A center for materials and informalioit on impor-tant applications of communication technology todevelopment problems, the Clearinghouse is opera-ted.9ytife Academy for EducaVonal Development, anonprofit planning organization, and Supported bytnegireau for Science and TechnOloOof the U SAgency for Internallonal Development aspan of itsprogram in educational technology andieveloP-mint coMinunicatIOn.The views expressed in Development Communica-tion. Reedit .are th6se of the authors and notnecessarily thosegf its sponsors. Onginai materialin the Report maybe rdproduced without prior permissiorjprovided lhat full credit Is given and that twocopies of the reprint are sent to the Editor

Readers are invited t'd submit typed manuscriptsof no more than 1000 words, and to send inphotographs.

Latin American Action:Communication Training

Spanish or Portuguese-speaking readers ofDCR looking for training courses in educa-tional communication may wish to checkwith the following organizations.

In 1982, the Instituto Latinoamerkano dela ComunkaLion Edikatiy a (ILCE) will beoffering a series of wurNeN. within three broadprogram areas. Development and Producnon of A-V teaching Materials," "Develop-ment and Production 61-Low-Cost Media,"and "Development and Production of Edu-cational Radio Programs." These courses

, may be taken singly, or as part of a completeprogram. 1LCE may be v.ontay.ted at Apa-rta-do postal 94-328, Nlexko 10, D.C., Mexico.

For the third year, the Ce4o de Serviciosde Pedagogia Audiovisual para la Capacita-ciOn (CESPAC) in Lima, will be giving a fivemonth intensive course in Video for Teachingand Training CESPAC encourages the nom-ination ortwo participants from any inter-ested Latin American inlinution or organiza-tion, so that a tw o-person team will resultfrom the training. Registration closes May1st, 1982, for the course which will begin inJune. Information on the course is availablefrom CESPAC, Apartado 4480, Lima, PerU.

The Catholic University of Peru has a Cen-tro de Teleducacion where students may re-ceive complete training in the planning andproduction of educational television pro-grams. In the past, the training was givenover the period of an academic, year. For fur-ther information cont pt CETU, Apartado12514, Lima 21, Peril.

We have received an announcement fromthe Latin American Center of EducationalTechnology for Health that a catalog will beforthcoming of the 19 week-long courses tobe offered from March through November1982. Subjects to be covered include "Simu-lations in Health Education," "Introductionto Audiovisual Media in Education,'' and"Educational Technology and HumanResources for Primary Health Care " TO re-quest a catalog, write to NUTES,'CLATES,Caixa Postal 80002, ZC24Rio de. Janeiro,Brazil.

Readers with an interest in appropriate-technologies for development may wish toknow about the Centro Andino de Tecnolo-gia Rural (CATER) in Ecuador. In collaboration with the National University of Loja,CATER will offer a four-month postgradu-ate course focusing on strategies of ruraldevelopment, to be given April through July,1982. CATER is afro planning a seminar(5-11 April 1982) on Alternative Technolo-gies for Rural Construction. For informationabout these Activitiespcontact CATER atCasilla 399, Loja, Ecuador.

7

A Communicator's-ChecklistBold ExperimentThe Story of Edu-cational Television in American Sa-moa, by Wilbur Schririmv-tyleNelson, and Mere T. Belham (Stan-

ford, California, Stanford University Press,1981), 244 lip.

America's treatment of its territories hasbeen marked by alternating periods of "be-nign neglect"and infusions of cash and kindto make up for that neglect. The "Bold Ex-.penment" chronicled in this well written andthoroughly researched book was as much aresult of America's neglect as it was a poten-tial solution to that, neglect. The pervasiveand revolutionary use of television as theprimary mode of instruction in AmericanSamoa began in 1964, the brainchild of thethen-Governor Rex Lee. After years of disin-terest in the Pacific territories by official U.S.poky makers, President Kennedy's adminis-tration was marked by attempts to make upfor that neglect on a grand scale. Somethinghad to be done, and educational technologywas an idea whose time had come.

In the eyes of well-meaning American edu-cators, American Samoa's sshool system wassorely- inadequate. Ramshackle buildings,poorly trainekteachers, -dud cast-off text-books were the rule. Because the only textsbooks that could be had were in English, in-struction was provided in English by teacherswho could not speak it. Learning was byrote. Governor Lee proposed a bold solution,which in effect "threw the baby out with thebath water." The entire existing school sys-tem was abandoned, and in the space.of twoyears television became the primary moue ofInstruction.

Originally, the plan called for at least oneyear of advance planning and teacher train-ing, but this never happened. Curriculumwas designed in the summer of 1964 forclasses scheduled to begin that fall. More-over, Samoan classroom teachers and super-visors were almost entirely excluded from theplanning and design process, an oversight.

,that resulted in damaging political infightingv later on. By October of 1964, American

Samoa was transformed from a relativelytechnology-free environment to a %countrythat had in place a full-fledged television sys-tem reaching the remotest corners of the sixIslands of Amencan Samoa and parts ofWestern Samoa. Construction of a televisiontransmitter, a sophisticated studio produc-tion facility with the latest equipment, andfour new school buildings with television re-.ceivers .was completed by 1964. By 1967, 24of the 26 proposed new schools were com-pletely finished and ready to receive tele-vision instruction.

a- .The teaching burden necessitated by this

speed was enormous. Studio teachers wereresponsible for between 10 and 15 programs aweek.

While the experts in charge of producingthis educational innovation intended to in-clude the Samoans in the development, thisnever seemed to happen. Lesson plans werecreated without much knowledge of Samoanculture and values, and Samoan teacherswere InstructecLto follow them to the letterwith no deviation. Samoan teachers used todecades of running their schools with little in- 4

terference were monitored mercilessly in the,early stages of the experiment.

Teachers felt very frustrated. They sawthat some students needed to review materialprovided by the television instruction morecarefully and other srudents were ready to goon to something else. The constfaints of thesystem did not allow them to act on thesejudgements. Any attempts by the classroomteacher to modify the structure were viewedvery critically. The result was that some ofthe most experienced Sanan teachers be-came the biggest critics of the innovation. In-deed, as the authors point out, the innova-tion itselfeduCatiofial televisionwas thebiggest inhibitor of innovation.

Perhaps the most tragic result was that themost significant aspect of any cultureItslanguagewas forced by the innovation oftelevision instruction to assume a secdndaryrole. English was the language of the "ex-perts," and the teaching Materials were avail-able only in English. To keep pate with theexperiment, English became the primarylanguage of instruction'. There didn't seem tobe enough time to develop materials and in-struction in Samoan.

Given the benefit of hindsight, develop-ment communicators today are struck by thelack of apparent consideration of otherequally effective alternatives that might haveproven less costly in terms of cash and d gut-wrenching social upheaval that took place inSamoa. However, the dision to use educa-tional television was not Tade in a vacuum.The expel-maw yielded positive as well asnegative effects, and many demonstrablebenefits to the people.

Without doubt, ETV was responsible for amajor positive turnaround in the quality ofeducation available to children. If it perhapsdid not live up to alYthe hopes, it was Clearlyresponsible for some improvements. The dra-matic increase in per pupil expenditure from$50 in 1961 to $1,041 in 1980, and the totalmodernization of the Samoan educational

'system's physical plant are results of ETV."Bold Experiment" provides excellent dataon teachers' and students' attitudes towardn

television, student performance, costs, ankievaluation of the effects of the program. Theauthors' view is one that balances and doesnot judge:

. . . our impression remains thatthe way to look at the Samoa Bevel-

, opment is not in terms of good andbad, but rather in terms of lessonsto be learned from the experience.In short, what can another country,considering the use of television forinstruction, learn from what tookplace in Samoa?"

This book is a thoughtful' and well-docu-mented account of both the effecfs of tele-vision on learning, and the lessons that canbe learned about the social effects of changein developing countries. It is highly recom-mended.

Reviewed by Arlene Horowitz, a Program Assis-tant at the Clearinghouse on Development Com-munication, and previously the Washington liai-son for the U.S. Territories at the Council of ChiefState Sehool Officers.

Available for US $17.50 prepaid from Stan-ford University Press, Stanford, California94305, USA. ,

Script Models: 4 Handbook for theMedia Writer, by Robert Lee andRobert Misiorowski (NeW York,Communication Arts Books, Has-

tings House, 1978), 96 pp. _

Script-Models: A Handbook for the MassMedia Writer is a script style book. It handles.,its _material in a straight-forward manner,supplying explanatory notes on each mediumand tips for the writer, followed by script ex-cerpts. The 25 script models include actualsamples of film-scripts, non-theatricafclocu-smentaries,technical and instructional motionpictures, television and film screen plays, andradio documentaries. For information be-yond the technical detail of script stylee.g.the format necessary for submission to a pro-ducer, director or agentthe reader will haveto consult other texts. Script Models touches.briefly on questions of copyright registrationand agents, and provides a useful glossary ofmedia vocabulary. The annotated bibliog-raphy of oriodicals is possibly the most use-ful resource heresending the reader to othersources for more detailed information.

Available for US $8,95 clothbound and US$4.95 paperbound from Hastings HousePublishers, 10 East 40th Street, New York,NY 10016, USA.

.

Reviewed by Rosanne $kirble, a producer/ writerfor the Voice of Ainerica in Washington: D.C.

3FP mine for the Media, by MartinMaloney arid Paul Max Rubenstein(Englewood ct ifs, N.J:, Prentice -Ijall, Inc., 1980), 292 pp.

Writing for the Media is addressed to thoseinterested in writing and producing slide-tapeproductions, 8mm or 16mm films for edu-cational and promotional purposes, docu-mentaries, and various kinds of aildio andvideo recordings. The extremely readable textlooks at the world of broadcasting, particu-larly the U.S. market, with helpful hints onthe business of writing and basic "how-to's"-of getting and completing an assignment.Up-to-date script illustrations from, bothcommercial and educational broadcastinggive precise explanations on format, dra-matic structure, conflict and movement, dia-logue, and narration.

Where Script Model.; tends to isolate theformat from the writer, Writing for theMedia orients the writer to the -creative andtechnical process. The resultsa practicalhandbook for the prospective writer as wellas for the experienced producer. A valuableappendix deals with the writer's qualifica-tions, propOsal writing, the television pilotscript, the television documentary script, theinchistrial film script, and includes a glossarypf media terms.

Available for US $16.95 from Prentice-HOU,Inc. Englewood Gliffs, New Jersey 07362,,USA.

Reviewed by Rosanne Skirbli. 'a producer/writerfor the Voice of America in Washington, D.C.

4Education and Social Change: APhotographic Study of Peru, byDeborah Barndt (Dubuque, Iowa,Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company,

1980) 392 pp.

Note: pie December issue of DCR containeda thoughtful review of Education and SocialChange which evaluated the book from theperspective of author Brandt's committhetto Freire's " conscientization" process as an

- educational methodology leading to radicaltransformation of society. This review looksat the book quite differently; it examines die,.dynamics of teaching techniques presented inthe book, and discusses their possible valueto development communicators.

In this book. Deborah Baindt explores thedynamics of the 'conscientization' process.Conscientization is the term used by PauloFreire to describe the emerging critical con-sciousness'which leads to radical transforma-tion of society. He first used the term in theearly 1960s in Northeast Brazil when he washelping illiterate peasants to learn to read andwrite, as well as to analyze and begin tochange their socio-economic situation.

Barndt's focus for exploring the conscien-tization process is a series of interviews withfour Peruvian peasant women who are recentmigrants from their mountain yillagesio San-,to Ana, a shanty-town Outside of Lima. Allof these women are participants in a literacyclass. The year is 1976, a tinte of great socialunrest in Peru. .

As stimulus and guide for her interviews,Barndt uses a 14-page .photo -novel she hasprepared from pictures of Santa Ana andother towns in Pert. The photo-novel tellstwo storiesone of the events in a modernliteracy class and the other of events in atraditional class.

Barndt recreates the interviews for us. Wehear the concerns of these women aboutNrning to read, acquiring title to their land,getting clean water, having medical services,and above all being able to give a better ltfe totheir children. . .

Barndt's analysis takes two forms. One is..in tertiw of reflection and action; the self andsociety. The other is in terms or the stages ofthe Conscientization process: 1) Description;2) Personal association; 3) Social relations;4) Contrasts and contradictions; 5) Analystsof problems; 6) Exploration of alternatives;7) Critical action. .

We see that Rosa is in the earlystages of the process. Speaking meekly andwith little detail, she either describes what ishappening in the pictures or offers some per-sonal association. She rarely moves on tosocial issues or analysis. At the other extremeis Senora Cristina, a self-confident womanwho °speaks volubly to the interviewer andwho begins at the level of social relations andquickly moves on to critical action. Indeed,he focuses on actions she and her neighbors

must undertake to improve their lives. Theother two women are somewhere in between.

This, then, is the essence of the book.However, there is much, much more betweenthe covers: the history of Peru from the Incasthrough the economic and political changesof the 1970s; the Peruvian educationalsystem; literacy institutions and methodolo-gies; uses of the phototnovel; an eth o-grap4c description of Santa Ana; a critiq eof the work of Freire. All are amply illus-trated with photographs of Peruvian life.

Who will want to read this book? Develop-ment communicators will be interested in thepossibilities of the photo-novel for teaching,and for training of workers, teachers of lit-eracy, or agricultural extension agents.

Sociologists will be interested in the

methodology and analysis of the perceptionsof these four women. Literacy specialists will ibe interested in the different approaches andinstitutional conflicts of the literacy profgrams in Peru. Students of Freire will be in- ,terested in Barhdt's application' of histheories.

However, persons wanting to know about'Education ,and Change" in Peru may be

0

,

disappointed. The focus is on the !iv' es of thepeople of Santa Ana. Other events aresketched only to place the people of SantaAna in'their,"socio-economic context," touse R,arndt's words. Thus, the title promisesmore than it delivers.

But others development communicators,sociologists, literacy specialists, students

of Freirewill find the book, both text andphotographs, interesting and appealing

Available for US $19.95 from Aendall,Hunt Publishing 'Co., 2460 Aerper Blvd..Dubuque,,lowa, 52001, USA.

Reviewed by Nadine Dutcher, coordinator of theEnglish Language Program at the World flank andaiPeace Corps V olunteer ur Peru in 1964-1966.

Understanding Pictures in Papua NewGuinea, by Bruce L: Cook (D'Aci C.Cook Foundation, Elgin, Illinois,1981), 113 pp.

Brtice Cook is d researcher with a particu-lhr interest in picture communication. Hismonograph Understanding Pictures in PapuaNew Guinea is the result of an attempt toanswer the question: "What kinds of picturescommunicate most effecti'ely with peoplewho have little or no pictorial experience?"The monograph begins with a description ofthe remote areas that provide context and

.subjects for the study. The research design iscarefully described and practical reasons pre-sented for varying from strict, rigorous meth-odology) All of the pictorial materials usedare pictured in detail, although the coloredversions are reproduced in back and white.The author presents findings about subjects'background and experience, and their reac-tions td specific art styles: stick figure,faceless outline drawing, detailed black-and-white drawing, detailed black-and-whitedrawing with watercolor wash, and black` "-----and-white photographs.

Subjects' reactions to various pictures arefollowed by a listing of some rules-of-thumbderived from the research.

9

1. Sociological and educational dif-ferences have the most effect onpicture understanding. e .

N, 2. Pictures of people should beiisedbecause they are easily under-stood.

3. Picture content affects under-standing more than art style.

4. Art style affects preference.

5. No single art style is best for non-literate people.

6: If an artist had t choose art styleon the basis of tin Ludy, realistic

art (detailed black-and-white linedrawings) would seem best.

(continued on next page) \\_.

'107. Publication and distribut n of

comic Wok pictures can h ,Ipvelop understanding.

8. A single picture shouldn't be usedto show a lapse of time.

9. Viewers may not recognize a causeand effect relationship betweentwo pictures.

Each "rule" is dicuised and explained.'In addition, Cook lists a dozen rules-of-

thumb derived from other studies, and in-chides a section on research and mterviewingtechniques which would be particularly help-ful to inexperienced field personnel. Thestudy concludes with a variety of ;uggestionsfot- future research.

In answer to the question that promptedthis study, "What kinds of pictures commu-nicate most effectively with people who havelittle or no pictorial experience?", the'generalconclusion is thal art style and content domake a difference in picture nndeistanding,but only after one considers the subjects"en-vironmenf,, -sociological b&Ckgibund, per-sonal interest, needs.; and experience. .

While the results of Cook's study are spe-cific to Papua New Guinea, they are of in-terest to anyone, concerned with com-municating ideas to persons in other cultures.One important value of this Monograph is inthe points that are raised which should con-cern all persons developing visual materialsto use in a teaching/learning situation. Tothis writer, the following ideas are of greatestImportance. When attempting to com-

. municate,to an audience of another culturewe should:

1. Clarify out, objectives2. Understand our audience as well

as posSible

3. Be aware of the media variables, that can affect communication

4. Constantly evaluate materials withrepresentative samples of rhe au-dience.

Itas been said that words are only soundsuntil They are invested by people with mean-ing In the same'way, pictures have no mean-ing except.as people interpret them. For thisreason, there can be no inflexible rules for,communicating effectively . . . only in-telligent approaches. This book is one suchintelligent approach.

/°.Awilable for,US $8.95 from the David C.Cook Foundation, Cook_Square, Elgin, Illi-nois 60120, USA. The book is offered to mis-'sion agencies, development communicators,specialists, ant instructors at a special rater1-4 copies, 10% off; 5-9 copies 15% off;10-24 copies, 20% off; 25-49 copies, 25%off; 200 copies and over, 40% off. Prepaidorders include shipping.

Reviewed by Dennis W. Pell, Director of Instruc-tional Servic al the Audio-Visual Center, In-diana University.

Print Communication fromLatin America

In the aftermath of the appearance of theMacBride Report, which itself followed long'months of heated debate on the North-Southinforination flow, healthy signs of alternative,*communication energy are appearing on theLatin American scene.

A most wticome reappearance amongcommunications publications isCHASQU1,a Latin Ameiican journal (in Spanish) ofcommunication. After a long. hiatus, thejoint efforts of the Centro Internacional,deEstudios Superiores de Communicacion paraAmerica Latina. (CIESPAL) and the Fried-rich-Ebert Foundation are producing a quar-terly publication whose aim is to provide aninterchange of information and experiencesin the community of social communicators.

A good deal o1 the first issue.is devoted tothe MacBride Report, and to those issues ofthe press and alternative journal's relativeto the New World Inlormation Ord . Usefulsections are devoted to book and perm icalreviews, a calendar of communicatn events,and pertinent hews of the region. Althoughthis maiden effort deserves strong supportfrom the communications community, wehopet hat subsequent issues will follow stand-ard publication practice, and redit the

sources of-the graphics. Professionals in this-field should know better. -

Subscription information is available fromCIESPAL, Avenida Almagro y AndradeMarin, Quito; Ecuador.

An important segment of the Latin Amen-cart communications community is ILET, theInstuuto Latinoamericano de Estudios political developments worldwide, com-

Transnacionales, located in Mexico City. prising primarily reports of agencies and

They have initiated a new documental n national governments.

service that they call ALTERCOM, to sup- The IDC is involved in a number of activi- 'port their "alternative communication" ties.maddition to the collection and process-

projects. An issue of ALTERCOM ing of document's. A regular accessions list is 4

Spanish) will typically contain a dozen news published and distributed, and during the last

"shorts" in such areas as International lkela- two years an occasional newsletter has been.Is

tions, New Technologies and Development; produced.

Latin 'American Economy, Transnational Requests for information made in person,

Expansion, etc. by telephone, and by letter are received with

For more information about ALTER- increasing frequency from Open University

L'OAf, contact ILET, Apartado Postal , staff, and from other institutions and indi-85-025,.Mexica 10,200, D.F., Mexico.

Distance Learning, - -

Documented at IDC:Resources Available'

The International Doc4mentation Centreopclhas been in existenet since June 1278,but its current title was only..adel on 1April 1981, when Gileat Britaih's pen Uni-versity assumed responsibility for its funding.In April 198,Vthere were approximately 6,000Items in the IDC's stock. The collection com-prises:

Documentation on distance learning proj-. ects worldwide, at all edncatiOnal levels.

The majority of the material in this area ispublished by international agencies, na-tional and regional organizations, goverp-

nent.departments and individual institu-tions, and comprises monographs, journalarticles, research reports, annual reports,course handbooks, etc. There is also asmall section containing worksof a theo-retical nature on distance learning.,

.Course materials produced by institutionswhich teach at a distance. This section in-cludes audio and video cassettes as well asprinted materials.

Documentation op education systems in allcountries, comprising primarily. reportsfrom interndtional agencies and nationalgovernments, journal articles and news-paper cuttings, providing background in-formation on educational provision in thecontext of which distance learning PiOjeCts--2=--have been established.

Documentation on major social and

uals in the United kingdom and overseas.

Costa Rica is the home of-an organization A wide network of contacts has been estab- . .

concerned with equitable access to and lished, and an important function of the tpcallocation of telecojnthunications resources. is the maintenance and extension of these

The Center of Telecommunications for the .contacts.

Third 'World (CETTM) publishes a news- Inquiries about the IDC, its resources and

letter (in English and yanish), maintains an serviCes; are welcomed and should be ad-

information fentec for relevant dOcurrienta- dressed to: 'tion, and formulates pOsitions on telecom- Keith Harry, IDC Documentation Officer,municationi issues tharthey hope will be con- " Room Q229, M Block, The Open University,sistent with the needs of users, ralher than Walton Rail, Milton Keynes, MK7 6AAsuppliers of the technology. U.K, %

For further information, contact CET-i

TEM, Apartado 7981, San Jose, Costa Rica. Excerpted with permission from IBEDOC Information,Liaison Bulletin of the International Network for Educa-.

by Judy Brace :tonal Information (INED), No. 26, Sept. I98I1J1:4#

.3 _-

(continued from page 1)ARAB STATES

Arab PrOject for Communica-tion Planning and Exchange .(ACPE) $56,000

Arab States Regional-Broad-casting Training Center $30,000

ASIA AND PACIFIC

Asia-Pacific News Network $80,000

Pacific Radio News Exchange(Funding to be negotiated withthe Government of Australia)

Regional Bank of Films and Tele-vision Programs in Asia and thePacific' $100,000,

LATIN AMERICA AND CARIBBEAN

Caribbean Regional Project forBroadcasting, Training, andProgram Exchange $45,000

Creation of Latin American 'Spe-cial Information Services Agency(ALASEI) $70,000

Center for CommunicatiOnResearch and Application(Mexico) n $40,000

oCeriter for Automated Publish-ing and Translation $10,000

Training of Technicians for theDevelopment of Communicationat the Community Level $15,000

INTER-REGIONAL PROJECTS

ITU Study of Communicationsin Rural vopment $30,000

Feasibility Sh7idy on Facilitiesfor International Disseminationand Exchange of Information byGlobal Satellite Systems $2Q,000

Center for the Study of Colmu-nication, Energy, and SpaceTechnologies (Unesco to providefunds_for further study.)_

In addition, $125,000 was allo-' cated for determination of

needs, prparation of projects,and training activities.

NATIONAL PROJECT,

Zimbabwe Broadcast TrainingDepartment, Institute for MassCommunication (Funding to be ,

negotiated with the Governmentof The Netherlands.)

array of aparoved projects encom-passes the pressVio and television broad-casting, films, iefihony, and satellite com-munications. Se qal projects will link devel-.oping,nations h.. each other for news ex-Change and' training.` Many have a generalcommunications focus; a few center on rural

v

development. Assistance will go for training,local institutional support, and several otherkinds of aid. In addition, &funds totaling$169,000 f9r the first year were allocated for

'training and project development. In theseinitial grants, tNe development of regionalnews exchange operations were a top priori-ty, a priority wholly agreed upon after assur-ances that the regional operations would hotbe used to exclude national access to the in-teinational news services, but instead to in-crease the news and perspectives available topublic and private media throughout theworkl.

Of special interest,.perhaps, to readers ofDCR are the following funded projects. a re-gional African activity in Kenya designed todevelop low-cost rural radio broadcastingeguipmenk; the continuation of ITU's (Inter-national Telecommunications Union) studiesof the effects of rural communications on de-velopment; a study of the proposed ArthurC. Clarke Center in Sri Lanka to train LDCexperts in appropriate satellite communica-tions technology; and a project for experi-mental worldwide satellite transmission ofnews as early as the fall of 1982, using exist-ing systems such a§ INTELSAT or INTER-SPUTNIK. The several regional training cen-ters and the Asian film and video exchangeare also likely to have important applicationsfor development uses of communications.

Participation and Harmony ,-

The importance of the IPDC was empha-sized: by the participation of key officialsfrOin around the world. The meeting wasopened by President Lopez Portillo andUnesco Director General M'Bow. The Direc-tor General'of INTERSPUTNIK came fromMoscow, and INTELSAT sent two senior of-ficials. The Deputy Director General of theITU was/actively involved-throughout aswere representatives from other key interna-tional organizations.

International press coverage-"Was extensive,with Western ,press coverage includie TheNew York Times, Time Mqgazine, and themajor *re services. The press May havecome in part to see conflict; they instead sawa rather remarkable harmonization of differ-inging national perspectives around the buildingof communications capacities in the develop-ing "world.

FundsContributions both to the IPDC Splal

Account and to specific projects now totalabout $6 million. France and the Arab GulfStates were .the largest contributors, eachwith amulti-year pledge of $2 million. Manydeveloping countries also made pledges, asdid the Soviet Union and China. In additionto Special Account contributions, manycountries are contributing fellowships andconsultancies. The United States made an in-,itial contribution of $100,000, to be acf-

13

11

ministered by USArD. Further U.S. fundingis being sought in part through private sectorcontributions of services and funds.

Going into the Acapulco meetine therewere major' nxieties about the IPDC. Manyin the press, particularly in the West, wereconcerned that the ,IPDC might become aplatform for some programs that could re-duce, rather than expandit.freedoth of infor-mation. The developing world was concernedabout the reluctance of the West to providesufficient support to make viable the new in-stitution. While thtse anxieties have n6t en-tirely disappeared, the experience ofAcapulco was genuinely encouraging. Im-portant practical programs well agteedupon, by consensus, across all political spec-tra. The press w,as greatly reassured. Theshape of the new institution will becomemore clearly defined in coming months, aswill the character of Western support; thenext meeting of the Council will occur lhDecember 1982 in Paris. For now, however,the prospects for the vitality and effectivenessof the IPDC are excellent.

Cliffdrd H. Block is the Associate Director for De-velopment Communications, Bureau for Scienceand Technology, Office of Education, AID,Washington. He wsks a U.S. delegate to the Jan-uary 1982 IPDC Council Meeting.

Rural TrainingThe 'Philippines

The International Institute,of RuralReconstruction -in The Philippines -hasannounced` 17th Inteinatione)_Leadership Tittning (ILT) Institute, tc'oi':be iield'August 25 to Octoberik 1982;in califte. 2.rik

is 'for men and woipenengaged in promoting change at the

Emphasizing',0*-,403v.w,,;-9f integrated rural develoinient;;,:the;-:,,program- encourages .'Partigi?ant

0%0' ski% 8innP-buildinfit44.F.t1ent=01(44:1A,

-v6Aas8e0:s, as a 'done ePtUal ifran86 rk-'for; analyzing rural development issues`

41:7

'4Piliji0:44?99t)40 south -14j&

.cum ltirmg,which

AVX,^075=e- articipanWlwe,

. ancl'wort."w0i-Allagets_e

= "'The'.6.gfittleS4iiltte7c9401'.e'ct 0E4-'llsliv=.andthe,c9st:9f:thetfaining hic

°Phili

pines) §er 0

''Partiall6119*shiPs;is:aitailab`lk.7,7F:or.,-Iurther,--informat19%:contietrzei

Villiamspirecto&for4bititia,:ie'

';

12

On File at ERICThe production, and use of instructional

materials and educational broadcasting pro-. grams, a thesaurus for processing informa-

tion on development, and a deschption ofprogram in educational technology are thefocus of report from the Educational Re-sources Information Center (ERIC) files re-viewed in this column. All are available onmicrofiche from the ERIC Document Repro-duction Service (EDRS), P.O. Box 190, Ar-lington, Virginia 22210, USA. Some are alsoavailable in paper copy.

Loyv-Cost Educational Materials: Howto Make, How to Use, How to Adapt.

Inventory, Volume I. Bangkok, Thailand:Unesco Regional Office for Education inAsia and Oceania, 1980, 157pp. (ED 205 166)

Instructions with line drawings andior patterns are provided for making 85 of the ex- ,

emplar products prepared; in workshopssponsored by the Asian Programme of Edu-cational Innovation for Development( APEID). These workshops wervneld to re-view current _efforts and materials and ex-plore new strategies and directions in the

. utilization of loo cost, -simple, indigenousmaterials to fill the renal need for oauchdvisual.sresOurces. The items described.include hand-made educational charts, maps,models, improvised science apparatus, kits,educational toys, and games for children. In-formation provided for each product in-cludes a brief description, objectives,materials needed, how to wake it, how to useit to meet specific objectives, and suggestionsfor modifications to fit the local situation.Available from EDRS in microfiche for 9Rplus postage.

Production and Utilization of Eduth-tional Broadcasting Programmes. Re-

port of an APEID Technical Working GroupMeeting on Educational Broadcasting (KualaLumpur, Malaysia, November 19-December1, 1979). Bangkok, Thailand: Unesco Re-gional Office for Education in Asia andOceania, 1980. 61pp. (ED 205 164)

Members of the Technical Working Grouprepresenting 14 Unesco member states metto: (1). review and discuss major problems,issues, 'and prospects in the region for edu-cational broadcasting; (2) identify training .

needs for promotion of educational broad-casting; and (3) develop guidelines for theproduction, use, and evaluation of educa- .fiordl radio/television programs for facilitat-ing the programs of universalization of edu-cation. and integrated rural development.This report presents the highlights of eachcountry's experiences in educational broad-casting; discussions of common problems,issues, trends, and training needs; andgpidelines formulated by the participants, to-gether with recommendations and sugges-tions. The appendices include the agenda of

the meeting, a list of the 18 participants, andthe inaugural address by the Deputy Ministerof Education of Malaysia. Available fromEDRS in microfiche for 91e plus postage.

Viet, Jean, Ed. Macrothesaurus for In-formation .Processing in the Field of

Economic and Social Development, NewEnglish Edition. Paris: Organization forEconomic Cooperation and Development,1978. 444pp. (ED 206 276)

This new edition has tile same purpose asits predecessors, i.e., to provide language foruse in processing information relating to allaspects of economic and social development,and, at the same time, give a common dimen-sion to the more specific vocabularies corre-sponding to each of these fields. However, itdiffers from previous editions on five majorcounts: structure, field coverage, choice ofnational languages, numbers and form of de-scriptors, and printing. The structure pro-vides alphabetical, descriptor group, and hi-erarchical displays, and a KWOC (Key WordOut of Context) index including scope notes,broader, narrower, and related terms, andsynonyms. The fields o(study are further de-veloped in such areas as population, health,environment, cultural development, commu-nication, education, and energy conserva-tion. The three languages used are those con-sidered the most significant and widely used,in development literature: English, French,and Spanish. German has been dropped. Thenumber of descriptors has doubled, despiteremoval of obsolete and irrelevant terms.Precoordination is used for precision wherenecessary, plurals are preferred to singularforms, the number of related terms has beenincreased, the hierarchy has been improved,and the scope notes have been revised to re-duce ambiguity. Capital letters are usedthroughout in heavier and lighter print to in-crease readability. Available from EDRS inmicrofiche for 91e plus postage.

Johnson, Jenny K. Masters Curricula inEducational Communications and Tech-

nology: A Descriptive Directory. Syracuse,New York: ERIC Clearinghouse on Informa-tion Resources, 1981. 382pp. (ED 205 168)

This source book provides the name, loca-tion, and breakdown of course offerings andcredit hours needed to complete each of the154 university masters programs in educa-tional technology that responded to a surveyconducted in 1980 by the International Divi-sion of the Association _for EducationalCommunications and Technology (AECT).Information is also provided on degree pre-requisites, credit transfers and program dur.k-tion, areas of evmhasis in urriculum,and instructional evaluation t ques usedin the program. A list of faculty embers foreach institution notes their degrees and re-search interests. Two programs are listed inAustralia and one each in Canada, Colom-bia, Hong Kong, and Nigeria, as well as one

or more in each of Al states and the Districtof ColunNa. A frequency table of ,coursecharac4enstics is provided as a summary at

. the 'end° of the individual program section,and a copy of the questionnaire is attached.Available from Information Resoprces Pub-lications, 130 Huntington Hall, SyracuseUniversity, Syracuse, New York 13210, USA,for $12.00, or from EDRS in microfiche for9R or paper copy for $26.75 plus shipping.

Barbara B. Minor,. Publications Coordinator,ERIC Clearinghouse on Information Resources,School of Education, Syracuse University,'Syracuse, New York 13210, USA.

(continued from page 3)directed by the classroom teacher. There willbe 165 new lessons developed for each of thethree years.

In order to retain interest during the lengthof the broadcast, the

II

Radio MathematicsProject had great suc&ss with segmentedlearning periods requiring active participa-tion by the students. The RLAP will followthis design, planning for as many as four toeight pupil. responses per minute in somesegments. Learning segments will be in-terspersed with change-of-pace activities suchas singing and clapping, choral and motor ac-tivities which will utilize language skills andvocabulary previously taught, and providethe participatory activity so necessary foryoung pupils.

//Role of Classroom TeacherlI Recognizinkthat teachers' education, pro-

fessional training,,and skill in the Englishlanguage will vary greatly, the radio lessonsare designed to provide the major instruc-tion. But teachers will have important func-tions toperform, since their attitude toward,and participatiorin the radio lessons will in- qfluence their pupils' reactions and enhancethe effects of the radio programs.

A teacher's guide will provide classroomteachers with information about each lessonnd suggestions for their participation.

chers will be asked to assist in preparingthe cl4ss'es for each broadcast. During theradiTheison they will be urged to participate

-actively, and directions specifically for teach-ers will be included in the broadcasts. Aftereach broadcast, teachers will direct addition-al language exercises, oral and written. Spe-cific vocabulary and learning exercises will bedisplayed in the teacher's guide, but teacherswill be encouraged to adapt them accordingto the needs of their children.

EvaluationThe projdht research design provides for

two types of evaluation, formative and sum=mative. Curriculum and script writers requirea method for determining the effectiveness oftheir lessons in meeting the intended curricu-lum objectives. A trained team of observerswill visit classrooms during the broadcasts tonote the reactions of pupils and report to the

(continued on page 13)

1

(continued fr'orn page 12)

designers on various aspects_of the lesson.Each lesson will be observed by a minimum

two observers. Observers will be alerted,.bythe writers to comment on particular aspectsof each lesson. Weekly tests will be used todetermine whether the objectives. of thelessons have been achieved.

Evaluation

For the summative evaluation, the impor-tant question which the RLAP must answeris: Can children learn to read and understandEnglish from radio instruction? If they can,then the next question is: Do they learn morefrom radio instruction than from conven-tional classroom instruction? A carefullyplanned summative evaluation will be de-signed to compare achievement of pupilstaught by regular methods. For pilot testing,schools have been randomly selected withinseven linguistic target areas ofKenya. Classesfrom the preceding year in the same schoolwill serve as control groups. Measuring in-struments will be carefully constructed usinga large sampling of items selected at randomfrom the curriculum. Care will be taken to In-sure that results will not be influenced by in-tuitive judgments.5.

ConclusionLanguage instruction by radio offer

unique challenges and advantages. If suc-cessful, the RLAP will provide improved in-struction of English at a lowered cost to agreater number of students, particularly inrural areas. The designof the program willallow for its transfer to other geographicallocations, intas,t or with alterations, to meetlocal needs. For many emerging nationspresently committing large percentages ofresources toward basic education, the resultsof the Radio Language Arts Project mayanswer their critical need for cost-effectivelangtiage education for primary schoolchildren.

Morris Cutler is a language arts specialist with theKenya Radio Language Arts Program. Previouslyhe worked in language arts curriculum develop-ment in Afghanistan.

Notes

I Funded by the Office of Education, Bureau for Scienceand Technology, United States Agency for Interna-tional Development. Implemented by the Acadeiny forEducational Development, Washington, D.C., and theKenya Institute of Education, Nairobi, Kenya

2. Fnend, Jamesme, Searle, Barbara, and Suppes,Patrick Radio Mathematics in Nicaragua. Stanford:Institute for Mathematical Studies in the Social Scien-ces, Stanford University, 1980.

3. Kenya Institute of Education! "Statement of Objec-tives, Primary Education Project." Nairobi: Kenya In-stitute of Education, 1980.

4 Imhoof, Maurice "Reading by Radio: A Position-Paper on the Use of Radio in Teaching Skills for Edu-cational Development.", Washington: Academy forEducational Development, 1981.

5 For further information about this project, writeMaurice Imhoof, Project pirector, Academy for Edu-cational Development, 1414 22nd Street, NW, Wash-ington, DC 20037, USA.'

Development SuppbrtProject in Egyptby Mahmoud Agamia

The Development Support Com-munication (DSC) Project atMariut started in 1976 as a coop-erative venture between the'Gov-

ernment of the Arab Republic of Egypt, theGovernment of the Federal Republic of Ger-many, and international agencies representedby the Food and Agriculture Organization ofUnited Nations.

Development support communicationmakes'modern and traditional communica-tion methodology an integral part of devel-opment programs.

Development planners, whether they beeconomists, scientists, administrators orothers, are too often divorced from the massof society in their approach, language, out-look, and way of life. To bridge This gap,communication specialists must. first considereach development proposal in terms ofhuman feasibility. They must identify themotivation behind a project, the need for theproject, and the objectives and purposes ofthe project. The specialists then seek to estab-lish cultural and psychological avenues ofcommunication, testing the degree of com-munity receptivity to new ideas and change.

Project' Links Planners, Villagers

Another crucial task for develop-ment sup-port communication personnel is to deter-mine a suitable communication strategy for agiven development proposal. The criticalflow-path for communication and the formsof communication to be adopted must linkcommunication inputs with the progressivephases of a development program. This workincludes helping to communicate relevant de-tails of the development program within andbetween agencies involved. By establishinglinks between agencies as well as with theorganized rural recipients, development sup:»port communicators encourage a dialog&between planners, subject matter specialists;disseminators, and idea adopters.

New Settlers Benefit

The main ,objective of the DevelopmentSupport Communication (DSC) at Mariut isto improve the social and economic,.condi-tions of the settlers in the land reclamationareas southwest of Alexandria through con-,

tinuous coordination of development activi-ty, and support of those activities throughsuitable °communication media. The projectalso ensures the training of Egyptian DSCpersonnel, extension staff, and selected keyfarmers in media didactics and technology,evaluation methods, and information man-agement. The Mariut center includes threeexpatriate advisors and an Egyptian staffnumbering 35 people. i

t)

With major activities concentrated at El-Nanda and Mariut, the project has estab-lished 50 village groups based at local cooper-atives. Here farmers not only listen to ruralradio programs, but receive printed materialsand ,other aids, and regularly get special at-tention from agricultural extensionists andother'field personnel. Strategies of approachare decided, and the rural communicationmaterials designed, tested, and produced.Closed-circuit TV, po'sters, booklets, leaflets,and hqs1-outs, may be involved in the pro-cess. Reactions of fanners to the materialsare regularly assessed for evaluation andfeedback.

Farmers Trained in Communications

Extension activities are, in fact, an exam-ple of nonformal education where media, ifproperly used by the, field staff, can play apositive role. Intensive training aimed at Im-proving communication skills and education-al abilities of extension personnel and se-lected farmers is one of the most importantactivities in ,development support communi-cation.

In the meantime, development activities in-volving women, youth, and the community

°itself are subject to increasing attention bythe DSC Project at Mariut.

Activities of the Development Support,"Communication Project at Mariut were eval-

uated by the Ministry of Agriculture, whodecided to integrate the project as a perma-nent, section of the Department of Agricul-turalExtension. Provisions for stabliSh ntof a DSC unit at Sinai have been include incurrent financial plans. It is foreseen that theexisting DSC Project will assist the unit withadvisory anct on-the-job training of new per-sonnel at MaNnt. Similar DSC units will beestablished in Oilier regions at a later date.

For more inforniation contact: MahinoudAgamia, Director,, DSC Centre, Ministry ofAgriculture, P.O. Box 364, Alexandria, ArabRepublic of Egypt.

Note: Distance Teaching for he ThirdWorld, reviewed in DCR 36, is availablefor US $17.50 from Routledge \ andKegan Paul, Ltd., Ayer Buildi g,,Lawrence, Mass 01843, USA; or froRoutledge & Kegan Paul Ltd., 30 Store\St., Lofidon WCIEIDD, England.

Meeting the Basic Needs of the RuralPoor: The Integrated Community-BasedApproach, reviewed in the same issue, isavailable for US $49.50 from PergamonPress, Inc., 'Maxwell House, FairviewPark, Elmsford, New York 10523, USA.

13

14(continued from page 16)

12. Vl, here the communicator's function isrecognized and measurestires are taken to strength-en his or her professionalism, the growth ofcommunication systems that are relevant, vi-brant and effective, will be encouraged, notonly in the exciting and exacting tasks of na-tion building but also in more leisurely pur-suits which are part of the fullness of life.This might seem a difficult objective, but it is-.an objective worth pursuing

14. Communication and media in devel-oping countries, no less than other areas ofactivity, require agent attention of a specialkind. In many Commonwealth developingcountries, the role of communication has tobe defined and established. In many, neeteLhn6logies need to be introduced withoutunduly straining hunian and material re-

sources. In most, the manpower base ofgreat y

corn-,'mUnicatien facilities has to be'

strengthened. Above all, communication a dthe media need to grow in such a way thatthey are appropriate to the social and culturalpatterns of each country.. . * *

Mass Media: 2.1, The mass media pr sentdeveloping countries wit, great oppo tuni-tiesand great challenges. Society can ene-fit from the potentially extensive rear of themedia, not only in the process of cl, velop-

There must be time for joy in societ , no lessment but also in various' other aspect of life.

than for effort, and the_media can bring en-joyment into homes quickly and easily. Theycan serve society in a number of ways, ffomdisseminating news of farm prices throughannouncing weather warnings to exciting the`human mind With words, songs and music.Their role'as entertainers must not be disre-garded. Unless people are helped to listen toor read things they enjoy they will notdiscover the important information theyshould acquire. It is a matter of concern inmany developing countries that too manypeople who could afford to buy newspapersdo not, or listen to a foreign station insteadof their own. -

2.2 The media, like any other institutionin society, do not develop or exist in avacuum. They are a part of society, and mustreflect that society and be responsive to itsneeds and goals, if they are to be relevant anddurable. Excessive dependence on foreignmaterial, whether by way of reading matteror broadcast programmes, can be culturallydisruptive. While, therefore, the media indifferent parts of the Commonwealth cansustain each Other, their characteristiCs will

.. inevitably vary from country to country

2.3 4he mass media in many developingcountries, based primarily on colonial experi-ence, are too heavily urban-oriented, and donot meet the needs of their rural populations.

2.9 By definition, the print media reachonly the literate groups, and these tend to be-

largely urban elites whose position in societycan be reinforced by the additional informa-tion they reUive, This situation is accen-tuated by the fact that English, the commonlanguage of multilingual societies, in theCommonwealth, which is also the languagein which most foreign information is avail-able, is itself limited to the most influentialsector of the literate population.

2.10 The literacy problem is compoundedin many Commonwealth countries by the ex-istence of several language groups, each ofwhich requires sjecific attention. Despitethese difficulties, the newspapers and othercomponents of the print media have an im-portant role in promoting literacy. This canbe advanced if they are adapted to the needsof the bulk of their reading audience andadopt a style and format designed to promotereading interests. ° .

2.11 The small-readership press is ofspecial significance in the Commonwealth,where many countries have small popula-tions, or several linguistic groups. Large,city-based newspapers face firoblems of dis-tribution in countries which are sprawling,have difficult terrain, or have limited trans-port services. In some instances, city-basednewspapers do not serve adequately theneeds economic', social, culturalof smallrural communities, or /particular listicgroups. The growth' of local newspapers,produced with simple and inexpensive tech-nology,.could help to fill these gaps.

*

Human Resources: 5.1 Communicators arecalled upon to carry out a wide range oftasks, each requiring special expertise. In themedia and in public information services, forinstance, practitioners must not only beadept in the techniques of their craft; theymust also have a substantial background ofknowledge in several areas. It follo-ws, there-fore, that building up a corps of appropriate-li'qualified people is a priority for all compo-nents ora national communication system.

5.2 This is a pressing problem in the devel-opment of communications in most countriesof the Commonwealth where practical com-

- munication training is limited, or wheremany recruits entering the 'communicationmedia have not had the benefit of a broadeducation. The Proper development of allcommunication media requires a more con-sistent and comprehensive pattern of trainingthan has so far been possible.

5.3 Training for communicators has totake into account a variety of factors in-cluding different farms of communication,.the general level of.education in a country,the need for training in different aspects ofcommunication, and the fact that for train-ing to be effective it must be a continuingprocess.

5.4 Non-formal communicators (agricul-

tural extension or family planning workers,for instance) should be selected for theirability to empathize with the public, and betrained to communicate specialized informa-tion simply and effectively.

5.5 Media personnel have to learn theircraft at a time when the nature of the craftitself is changing rapidly. New technologieshave made many established training manu-als obsolete. The process of training hastherefore to be continuously reassessed and,wire necessary, revamped. In this context,Waling for trainers' becomes a's importantas 'training for trainees.'

5.6 Media personnel have also to acquire abroad background of relevant knowledge iftheir assessments are to be valid and their ap-proaLh-to issues knowledgeable. Their specialrole in' the deve,17ment process requires thatthey bring a variety of journalistic skills tobear on complex national and international

,questions.

1983: World.Communications Year .

After four years of discussion within theUnited Nations system, the UN ,GeneralAssembly has finally decided that 1983 willbe World Communications Year. The pur-pose of the year is the "development of com-munications infrastructures," particularly"to increase the scope and effectiveness of

-communications as a force for economic dndsocial development." The year's activitieswill focus on national communicationspolicies and activities. The expressed aim is"to seek ways to use the tremendous achieve-ments in communications techtiology to pro-mote the harmonious developmenteco-nomic, social, culturalof mankind as awhole."

The declaration of a World CoMmunica-tions Year has long been sought by severalorganizations, but there were problems overwhich UN agency should take the lead: theITU or Unesco? This question was linked tothe matter of financing. The coordination ofan international year, let alone national ac-tivities, requires fairly substantial,sums. Whoshould pay?

The General Assembly decision confirmsthat the ITU is to be the lead agency, and thatthe year is to be financed by voluntary contri-butions. The scarch for funds will be enor-mously helped by the timing of the fourthWorld Telecommunications Exhibition (fel-com 83) to be held in October/November1983 in Geneva.

The ITU hopes that national coordinationcommittees will be set up in many countries.For more information, write the.WCY 83Secretariat, Places des Nations, CH-1211Geneve, Switzerland.

k,Reprinted by permission from InlerMedia, Jan.'82, Vol. 10, Number 1.

a

International Dateline New Resource forBroadcasters-in the Developing Worldby Mark Magnier

ctsThe idea for a newsletter tailoredspecifically to the needs ofbrdadcasters is der eloping na-tions and concerned with popu-

lation related topics was born in 1978 inMauritius. At that time, the director of thePoPulation Institute's CommunicationCenter was attending the 12th Biennial Gen-eral Conference of the Commonweath Broad-casting AsSoLiation. Of the 33 nations repre-sented at the Conference, Dar id 0: Poindex-ter was able to surrey 25 of them to find outwhat sort of information they were receirmgon population and family planning. Fourteenreplied that they were receiring no informa-tionon population from beyond theirborders, and- more than eight nations re-ported receiving no information from anysource. A common thread running throughthe ?riajority of the responses was that the.broadcasting organizations were under-staffed and or erextended. Vr hat materialthey were receir ing was general in nature and

of tailored to the specific needs of broad-s ters. Consequently, little of the informa-t on was getting onto the air. It was decidedt at an attempt should be made to remedy

at situation. '

International Dateline News of WorldPopulation and Development A Servicefor Mass Media published its first issue inJuly 1980 to fill this vacuum. Now, a littleover a year and a half later, The newsletter issent to 75 countries around the world, and ispresently issued in English and Spanish lan-guage editions with hopes for a French edi-tion in the future. Issued monthly, Interna-tional Dateline is sent free-of-charge tobroadcasters and mass Media professionals indeveloping nations, thanks to partial fundingby the United Nations Fund for PopulationActivities (UNFPA). A $6/year subscriptionfee, which helps defer printing and mailingcosts, is charged to others who wish to re-ceive the publication. The newsletter hasgrown steadily, and, in January 1982 the firstseries of regional Inserts (one for Africa, onefor Asia, and one for _Latin America) ap-peared, highlighting news of population anddevelopment in those regions. These insertswere developed in response to readers' re-quests for more information about their par-ticular areas. The newsletter has receivedwide-ranging and enthusiastic support fromits readers, whose material and suggestionsare incorporated into the newsletter whereverpossible. Scores of letters from recipientsreport that they are using the newsletter'smaterial, and subscribers often attest to thatfact by sending their own videotapes, radioand television scripts, and articles.

'Designed to help the often-understaffednews operations in ,derelopingnations, thenewsletter's material can be lifted verbatimfrom its pages, and read directly over the airif necessary; International Dateline is notunder copyright, and readers are encouragedto use its items in written copy as well as forbroadcasts. It would be a truly mammothtask to try to reach people around the worlddirectly with features and hard news aboutpopulation and development, but by makinguse of existing Communication networks, andby providing communicators with interestingand useful material, The Population Institutehopes to make effective use of availableresources.

Some of the areas that have been coveredin recent issues include refugees in the Hornof Africa, the state of the world's children,the population situation in India and China,and the world firewpod,crisIs.

Although television has come a long wayrecently in many developing nations, it is

radio that enjoys the, largest audience, cutsacross the literacy barrier, and is within thereach of even the poorest people. Thus, In-ternational Dateline is primarily a sources forradio communicators.

In addition to publishing the newsletter,the Communication Center of the Popula-tion Institute exists to provide additionalMaterial or information needed for stories,broadcasts, or workshops concerning popu-lation and population-related topics., TheCenter illustrates how population growthrelates to many facets of life in developingcountries. This is a free service, thanks againto UNFPA. If the Center can not provide theinformation, it will try to put the request inthe hands of someone who can.

If you would like more information aboutthe newsletter or the activities of the Popula-tion Institute, if you are a mass media pro-

.grammer and would like to be put on themailing list for International Dateline, or if ":"4"

you are not from a developing country butwould like to subscribe for $6/year, pleasecontact Mark Magnier, The Population Insti-tute-Communication Center, 777 United Na-tions Plaza, New York, NY 10017, USA.

MASS ME,DIA IN HONG' KONG. In aletter to.the Population Institute here in NewYork, Mrs. Eleanor Cheng, Officer-in-Charge of The Family Planning Associationin Hong Kong, outlines the important rolemass media has played tp promote familyplanning since the early 70s. It's a good ex-ample of what can be accomplished.

"Hong Kong has two radio corporations,one run by the gorernment and the othercommercially owned. There are now fireChinese channels and four English channels.They regularly broadcast our family planningjingles and messages introducing our tievices," Mrs. Cheng says.

"From 1973 through 1980, there were alsofour joint ventures wilh radio, each takingthe form of a' series of 20 to 26 sessions, orbroadcasts. The programs included talks onfamily planning, family life education,phone-in sessions, and prizes for Leers girmg the correct answers to (family planning)questions.

"The interishe use of radii) started since

findings of a slime> in 1970 resealed thatradio was the best nieguini for reaching therural population. One radio' series was; infact, designed.espeLiall4 for the fisherfolkswho'are well-known to hare large families.

"Television, however, has become moreand more popular (and common) toward themid-70s. We hare produced 30-second moti-National films on carious themes and serviceswhich are telecast regularly on all the TVchannels in Hong Kong. They are broadcastfree of charge."

Mrs. Cheng cites many television seriesover the past ten years varying in formatfrom interviews, to slide shows, dramaticplays and youth-oriented discussions. But theAssodiation'ssmns media efforts are not rele-gated only to TV and radio. Other promo-tions include parades, mobile broadcasts,dutdoor drama, and poster alvertising inhigh traffic areas such as mass transit sta-tions, taxis, ferry piers, pedestrian bridges,byses and even outside walls of buildings.

'gignres show that mass media efforts inHbng Kong are working.

Mark Magnier is News and Infornttion Directorat the Population Institute's CommunicationCenter and is the editor of International Dateline.

The following items, reprintedfrom Interna-tional Dateline, are examples of the popula-tion news supplied to subscribers. These par-ticular items also illustrate various uses of de-velopment communication for populationand family planning.

1

* * *

THE COMMONWEALTH BROAD-CASTING Association has also done someInteresting and effective work in.the area ofradio and the population problem: It reportsthat to a great degree, the success ofSingapore's family planning program hasbeen due to the radio's role in promotingawareness of the need for family planning,and in motivating its listeners to accept suchplanning as a way of life. Singapore offeredgood radio programs and sold transistorreceivers at prices well within the reach of theordinary citizen., While Singapore, enjoys ahigh literacy level, radio ha5 been cited as avaluable arm in .helping solve an extremelyurgent problem. International Dateline

July 1981

15

16

"Communication, Society and Development:Committee on Communication and the Medi

DCR 45 pleased to present heresome excerpts from this thought-ful and incisive report publishedin 1980. As Shridath S. Ram-

phal, the Commonwealth Secretary-General,explains to his foreword, ". . . The Reportbegins with a sensitive analysis of the state ofthe media in the Commonwealth and thenproceeds to make several practical recom-mendations. It can be read against the baok-ground of our times and the growing require-ment of developing countries that the flow ofnews should be more reflective of the person-ality and priorities from which it comes. TheReport's conclusions are geared -to helpingsecure recognition of the role that communi-cation and the media can play in agistingsociety by strengthening participatory'democracy and helping to attain nationalgoals. . ." -

The nine-member Commonwealth panelwhich drafted the report was chaired by

'Ernest Corea, now the Sri Lankan Ambassa-dor to the United States.

The report, which includes sections onConimunication Policy, Mass Media (Press,Radio, .and Television), Public InformationServices, News Agencies, and Human Re.-sources, concludes with a list of recommen!`dawns. Throughout, it contains 'many 'in -.sightful observations on.the nature of devel-opment communications.

The Report may be obtained free of chargefrom the Information Division, Common-wealth Secretariat, Marlboro House, PallMall, Lendon SW1, England.

Overview: 1. Communication is so mucha part of our lives that its significance as anaspect of human effort and progress is ofteneither taken for granted or simply ignored.

DevelopmentCommunication Report

Report of &Commonwealth11

The 'communication comp nem' of develop-ment projects is frequent tagged on to abudget as an. afterthought if it is included atall. Interpersonal comp nicators, be theybarefoot midwives or agricultural extensionworkers, are generally given a low rating on anation's social scale. Public informationofficers are shrugged off as doing less sub-Ltantive work than their colleaguei in govern-Tient. Mass communicators become thesubject of great concern only when their ac-tivities are believed to be 'creating' violenceor dissonance in society.

This, indeed, is the true role of the com-municator: to serve as the focal point of'messages' imparting information and ideas;and to ensure that an interchange of informa-tion and ideas takes place. -The interpersonalcommunicator has a shorter, narrower reach;the mass communicator a longer, wider one.BO groups perform similar functions,though in different ways. V6ithout their ac-tive and sustained involvement, an importantcomponent of the development process is lostto,societies maving towards the goals of self-improvement anself-fulfillment.

4. Communication is a dynamic processwhich is more effective if it is participatory.In any society, the communicator who con-siders his audience or readership as a passivegroup, or as a target ,to be hit, is performingonly a part of his or her function. Elicitingreactions to what has been said and written,and providing the means for such reactionsto be made known, are also an essential partof communication. Participator)) communi-cation provides people with an opportunityto be directly associated with policy formula-tion and implementation, giving them a senseof commitment to national issues. For this

Clearinghouse onDevelopment Communication

1414 22nd Street, N.W.Washington, D.C. 20037 USk,Tel. (202) 862-1900Cable: ACADED

Stephen T Martin. DirectorJudy Brace, Assistant Director

and Resource Center Manager

Heddy F Reid, EditorArlene Horowitz, Program Assistant'ISSN 0192.1312

AmpInternational Division

Academy for Educational Development

3'

reason, the concept of participation is crucialto the communication process.

5. How many mistakes in social and eco-nomic development could have been avoidedwith better communication between the plan-ners and the people? Resettlement projectsthat lie withered and empty . . . public healthclinics whose medication is untouched invillage huts . . . semi-mechanised ploughs in

disuse because of faulty maintenance . . .

family plaving kits in garbage heaps . . .

benignly motivated land reform which never-theless evokes peasant anger . . . these are allamong the experiences of the developmentprocess. Both developed and developing soci-eties make mistakes. How many mistakes canpost-colonial societies, working against manydisadvantages including time, afford?

6. The richness of a people's experience;the value of established wisdom; the virtue ofcommonsense, workaday reactions to theo-retical formulation. all this and more must gointo the national meld if development plansand projects are to inspire and excite. Noneof this may occur, unless effective communi-cation facilitates it.

11. The argument that communicators indeyeloping countries are unequal' to this taskonly helps to perpetuate a vicious circle.Communicators will forever remain relativelyuntrained or unskilled, and therefore re-garded as incapable of fulfilling their properfunction, until their role in society is firmlyestablished and resources for enhancing theirskills are provided. In the same spirit, com-municators require a certain latitude withinwhich to function. Skilled professionals de-prived of 'elbow room' remain in place as

*malcontents or opt out.(continued on page 14)

IPDC Conference; Radio for Health, Language Arts;Commonwealth Communication Report; Ag. Info. Needs,